Earthquake
is the shaking of the surface of the earth,
resulting from sudden release of energy in the
earth’s lithosphere that creates Seimic Waves.
Types of Earthquakes
A volcano tectonic earthquake is
an earthquake induced by the movement
(injection or withdrawal) of magma. The
movement results in pressure changes in the
rock around where the magma has experienced
stress.
Explosion earthquakes are produced by the
detonation of chemicals or nuclear devices.
Tectonic earthquakes its happen when the
large, thin plates of the Earth's crust and upper
mantle become stuck as they move past one
another.
A collapse earthquake are small earthquakes in
underground caverns and mines that are caused
byseismic waves produced from the explosion
of rock on the surface.
How to determine the Epicenter
It is the point surface vertically above focus.
Different types of waves travel at different
speeds.
Scientist use a Seismograph to measure the
duration and intensity of the waves.
Seismic waves
When an earthquake happens deep
underground a crack will start to open on a pre-
existing line of weakness in the Earth's brittle
crust. This crack will then grow larger and
larger, relieving built-up stress as it goes.
3 types of Seismic Waves
Primary Waves (P – Waves)
 Travel in a forward and
backward motion.
 Primary compressing and
decompressing.
Secondary Waves (S – Waves)
 Travel at a right angle
to direction the in traveling.
Surface Waves
 Moves rock in rolling motion.
 Similar to an ocean wave.
 Most destructive.
Two different types of
Surface Waves
 Love waves have a particle motion,
which, like the S-wave, is transverse to
the direction of propagation but with
no vertical motion.
 Rayleigh waves create a rolling, up and
down motion with an elliptical and
retrograde particle motion confined to
the vertical plane in the direction of
propagation.
 The solid Earth

The Earth can be divided into two main parts. This can be divided into the:

 Atmosphere: measured from the  Biosphere (water, organic substances

surface of the Earth upwards to 150 km
(anything above this is called space)
 Solid Earth: measured from the surface
of the Earth downwards to the core
 Hydrosphere (fresh and salt water,
The atmosphere
 makes up less than one millionth of the
total mass of the Earth, and contains
mainly nitrogen and oxygen (99% of the
total) as gases. Other important
components of the atmosphere are
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and inert
gases such as argon and helium.
The atmosphere is divided (measured from the
surface of the Earth) into:
 Internal structure of the Earth, which
 Troposphere (0 km - 13 km)
 Ozone Layer (13 km - 25 km)
 Stratosphere (25 km - 50 km)
 Mesosphere (50 km - 75 km)
 Thermosphere (75 km - 150 km)
and skeletal matter) - solid and liquid -
and includes all forms of life (e.g. plants
and animals) and their products (e.g.
skeletons) both on land and in the sea
snow and ice) - mainly liquid, some solid
- includes all forms of water.
includes:
 Crust (normal silicate rocks such
as granite and basalt)
 Mantle (ferromagnesium-rich
silicate rocks)
 Core (iron-nickel alloy)
CRUST
- an outermost solid layer
- mostly made of the lighter elements, silicon,
oxygen, aluminum , it is also known as SIAL
(silicon + aluminum) or felsic.
- a cold, thin brittle outer shell made of rock.
 Two types:
OCEANIC CRUST – is composed of magma
that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava
flows or cools deeper down to create the
intrusive igneous rock gabbro.
CONTINENTAL – is made up of many different
types of igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks. Average composition is
granite, which is much less dense than the
magic igneous rocks of the oceanic crust.
 LITHOSPHERE – outermost mechanical layer,
which behaves as a brittle, rigid solid ( since it is
rigid brittle, when stresses act on it, it breaks.
This is what we experience as an earthquake ).
MANTLE
– it is made of solid rock, and it is hot .
– properties fit the ultramafic rock peridotite,
which is made of the iron–and magnesium–rich
silicate minerals.
– made of mostly oxygen, silicon and the
heavier element magnesium.
– known as SIMA (silicon + magnesium) or
mafic.
* it has upper most part (solid) , made of heavy
rock peridotite and then the lower part is more
solid than the upper mantle. It has a lot of that
Olivine rock, iron, magnesium, and many silicate
compounds (those are ones with SiO2).
CORE
– made of solid iron and nickel
– inner core(Solid) of iron has radius of about
760 miles (1220km) according to NASA.
– surrounded by a liquid, outer core composed
of a nickel–iron alloy , about 1355 miles(2180
km) thick .
Alfred Lothar Wegener was a German polar
researcher, geophysicist and meteorologist
Born: 1 November 1880, Berlin, Germany
Died: November 1930, Clarinetania, Greenland
Full name: Alfred Lothar Wegener
Known for: Continental drift
Education: Humboldt University of Berlin (1905)
Books: The Origin of Continents and Oceans
PLATE TECTONICS
 Scientist in 50’s and 60’s discover the
Magma rises up in oceanic crust called
“Dikes”. That creating new forms of
rocks and land.
 Scientists star to plot the location of all
the fault line and volcanoes around the
world.
MODERN PLATE TECTONICS
Lithospheric plates is moving all different ways,
and when the two plates interact to each other
can have a huge impact to the Earth.
Bounderies-Where the two plates meet.
3 types of Bounderies
 Convergent Bounderies- Two plates
moving towards one another.
 Transform Bounderies-Two plates
sliding pass one another.
 Divergent Bounderies-Two plates
moving Away from one another.
Subduction zone-Biggest crush scene on Earth.
Seafloor Spreading-process that occurs mid-
ocean ridges where new oceanic crust is formed
through volcanic activity
EARTH
PROCESSES
Earth processes or Geological
processes are dynamic processes or
phenomena at work in the earth's landforms
and surfaces.
Cliff erosion, a volcanic eruption, or
sedimentation at a mouth of a river,
weathering, erosion, plate tectonics and
combined processes, that are in some respects
destructive and in others constructive, are
examples of these geological processes.
THE CAUSE
Geological agents
Despite our tendency to consider Earth
as static, it is actually a dynamic and ever-
changing planet and is proven on the geologic
features of the crust. There are natural systems
or forces that shape or modify the Earth’s
surface and are called geological agents.
It includes wind and water that are
driven by the Sun’s energy and are dynamic.
Living beings such as animals, humans ang
microorganims are also dynamic geological
agents. Gravity on the other hand is static and is
always present in all the processes carried by
the dynamic agents.
Glaciers, rivers, groundwaters, and the
seas are also considered agents.
Overlapping Spheres
But we are also aware that the Earth
system is characterized by numerous
overlapping cycles in which matter is recycled
over and over again. Cycles involve multiple
spheres and systems interactions. Such
overlapping made the events and phenomena
occur and change the Earth.
TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Internal geological processes are drived
by the heat that is stored in the Earth's interior.
They usually occur far from the surface. The
main internal geological agent is the movement
of the lithospheric plates.
Major Internal Processes
Convection and Plate Tectonics
• Rock Deformation
• Crystallization
• Metamorphism
External geological processes affect the Earth's
surface. They are powered by solar energy and
gravity. External processes shape the relief
created by internal processes. External agents
carry out this process: water, ice, wind,
atmosphere and human beings.
Major External Processes
• Hydrologic cycle (also known as Water
Cycle)
• Weathering and erosion
• Deposition and Soil Formation
• Glaciers, Rivers and Streams
• Mass Movement (landslides, rock falls)
• Land-Sea Interactions/Coastal Erosion
The Earth has it’s own way of surviving. It is its
nature to cater events such as the said
processes and phenomena to keep the
homeostasis. Without humans, the nature is
just natural. But because it is dangerous for us
we treat such events as life-threats.
WEATHERING
Break down of rocks at the Earth’s
surface, by the action of rainwater,extreme
of temperature, and biological activity. It
does not involve the removal of rock
material.
Types of Weathering
Physical Weathering
caused by the effects of changing
temperature on rocks, causing the rock to
break apart. The process is sometimes
assisted by water.
Two main types of physical weathering:
Freeze Thaw
Occurs when water continually seeps into
cracks, freezes and expands, eventually
breaking the rock apart.
Exfoliation
Occurs as cracks develop parallel to the
land surface a consequence of the
reduction in pressure during uplift and
erosion
Chemical Weathering
caused by rain water reacting with the
mineral grains in rocks to form new minerals
(clays) and soluble salts. These reactions
occur particularly when the water is slightly
acidic.
Types of Chemical Weathering
Solution
- removal of rock in solution by acidic
rainwater. In particular, limestone is
weathered by rainwater containing
dissolved CO2, (this process is sometimes
called carbonation).
CARBONATION
Carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in
rainwater and becomes weakly acidic.
This weak “carbonic acid” is able to dissolve
limestone as it seeps into cracks and
cavities. Over many years, solution of the
rock can form spectacular cave systems.
CHEDDAR CAVE SOMERSET
Note: Stalagmites and stalactites form in
caves as water drips from
the roof, depositing some of its dissolved
calcium carbonate, as carbon
dioxide is released into the air.
Acid Rain- Polluting gases, like sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxide dissolve in
rainwater to make stronger acids. When this
rainwater falls, we get acid rain. This acid
attacks many rock types, both by solution
and hydrolysis, seriously damaging effects of hydrolysis
buildings and monuments.
Hydrolysis takes place when acid rain
reacts with rock-forming minerals such as
feldspar to produce clay and salts that are
removed in solution.
The only common rock-forming mineral that
is not affected is quartz, which is a
chemically resistant mineral. This is why
quartz and clay are the two of the most
common minerals in sedimentary rocks.
Spheroidal weathering
The weird shapes form as water attacks the
rock along joints and cracks, leaving
rounded lumps of un-weathered rock.
The iron-rich minerals in the rock have also
oxidised to a brown “rusty” colour
Work of Wind, Sea and Soil and their
Engineering Importance
Spheroidal weathering Wind
The weird shapes form as water attacks the
rock along joints and cracks, leaving -Is a natural movement of air of any velocity.
rounded lumps of un-weathered rock. The wind also have and erosive power
which can transport small particles from one
Spheroidal weathering by place to another.
hydrolysis, Holy Island, Anglesey.
Soil
-Is an upper part of the earth that can be
Church carving showing
dug of plowed in.
-Firm land
Sea
-Is a large body of saline water that
occupies a great part of world surface.
Importance of Wind in Engineering
-The wind is a crucial part in making a
structure because strong winds,
tornados and any other natural
calamities can cause damage in the said
project.
Impotance of Soil in Engineering
-The consolidation properties of the soil
indicates the seattlement of the project
This is when we can check the stability
of the structures foundation below the
earth.
Importance of Sea in Engineering
-Marine Engineering is what enables us
to build oil rigs, pumping oil out of the
ground underneath our oceans. The Sea
is also and important factor in
determining whether our project is in the
right area or not. We should always
consider the tide, waves and current.
Origin of Earthquakes
Earthquake
 is the shaking of the
surface of the earth,
resulting from sudden
release of energy in the
earth’s lithosphere that
creates Seimic Waves.
Types of Earthquakes
A volcano tectonic earthquake is
an earthquake induced by the movement
(injection or withdrawal) of magma. The
movement results in pressure changes
in the rock around where the magma has
experienced stress.
Explosion earthquakes are produced by
the detonation of chemicals or nuclear
devices.
Tectonic earthquakes its happen when
the large, thin plates of the Earth's crust
and upper mantle become stuck as they
move past one another.
A collapse earthquake are
small earthquakes in underground
caverns and mines that are caused
byseismic waves produced from the
explosion of rock on the surface.
How to determine the Epicenter
 Different types of waves
travel at different speeds.
 Scientist use a
Seismograph to measure
the duration and intensity
of the waves.
Seismic waves
 When an earthquake happens
deep underground a crack will
start to open on a pre-existing line
of weakness in the Earth's brittle
crust. This crack will then grow
larger and larger, relieving built-
up stress as it goes.
3 types of Seismic Waves
Primary Waves (P – Waves)
 Travel in a forward and
backward motion.
 Primary compressing and
decompressing.
Secondary Waves (S – Waves)
 Travel at a right
angle to direction the in
traveling.
Surface Waves
  Moves rock in rolling
motion.
 Similar to an ocean wave.
 Most destructive.
Two different types of
Surface Waves
 Love waves have a particle
motion, which, like the S-wave, is
transverse to the direction of
propagation but with no vertical
motion.
 Rayleigh waves create a rolling,
up and down motion with an
elliptical and retrograde particle
motion confined to the vertical
plane in the direction of
propagation.
`MODE OF OCCURRENCES
Ores
 - Mineral is generally found
in (ores) which is actually
an accumulation of any
mineral mixed with other
element.
 - Mineral generally occurs
in many forms, they are:
 Reflects the environment
of a mineral's formation
Igneous rock
 Igneous rock is formed
through the cooling and
solidification of magma or
lava
Veins and lodes
 Mineral generally occur in
the crack, crevices, faults
and joints of the igneous
and metamorphic rock.
Smaller occurrence of such
type is called a vein and
larger occurrence is called
lode
Lode
 Gold being extracted from
a vein. Mineral like tin,
copper, zinc, and lead etc.
Are found in veins and
lodes
BEDS OR LAYERS
 The minerals which are
formed as a result of
deposition, accumulation
and concentration
generally occur in
horizontal layers.
 Mineral deposit in layers
coal deposits
 Minerals such as coal,
gypsum, potash, salt and
sodium salts are formed in
such modes.
Residual mass of weathered
particles
 When the decomposed
rocks are washed away by
water, the soluble
constituents are removed
leaving a mass containing
ores. Such occurrence are
called residual mass.
Bauxite occurs in such a
mode.
 Bauxite deposits left out
after being washed out