Definition - What does USENET mean?

Usenet is a worldwide system for Internet discussion that consists of a set of

newsgroups that are organized by subject. Users post articles or messages to these
newsgroups. The articles are then broadcast to other computer systems, most of
which now connect via the Internet. Usenet was conceived in 1979, making it one
of the oldest network communications systems still in use today. It is also the
predecessor of many of the forums online today.

Definition - What does Hypertext mean?

Hypertext refers to a word, phrase or chunk of text that can be linked to another
document or text. Hypertext covers both textual hyperlinks and graphical ones. The
term was coined by Ted Nelson in the 1960s and is one of the key concepts that
makes the Internet work. Without hypertext, following a link on a topic to a related
article on that topic – one of the primary means of navigating the Web – would be
impossible.

An intranet is a computer network for sharing corporate information, collaboration

tools, operational systems, and other computing services only within an
organization, and to the exclusion of access by outsiders to the organization. The
term is used in contrast to public networks, such as the Internet, but uses most of
the same technology based on the Internet Protocol Suite.[1]

An intranet is a private network contained within an enterprise that is used to

securely share company information and computing resources among employees.
An intranet can also be used to facilitate working in groups and teleconferences.

Uses of the intranet

Potential uses of an intranet include:

 Streamlining everyday activities by making repeated tasks more feasible.

 Centralizing and managing important information and company data in a
single database.
  Making collaboration easier since information can be shared across the
entire network.
 Providing personalized content to employees based on their role within the
company.
 Improving internal communication by making employee directories,
company news and organization charts readily available.
 Providing fast and easy access to information about company policies,
benefits and updates.

How the intranet works

A secure and reliable intranet requires a web server that is responsible for managing
all requests for files hosted on the server, finding the requested file and delivering it
to the appropriate computer. A content management system (CMS) should also be
set up to control the creation, publication and management of content on the intranet.

An intranet may also consist of many interlinked local area networks (LANs) as well
as leased lines in the wide area network (WAN). It uses TCP/IP, HTTP, and other
Internet protocols (IP). Typically, an intranet includes connections through one or
more gateway computers to the outside Internet.

An employee who wants to access the intranet must have a special network password
and be connected to the LAN. However, an employee working remotely can gain
access to the intranet through a virtual private network (VPN). The VPN allows users
who are not actually connected to the required LAN to sign into the intranet and
access all the same information and functions that would be available had they been
connected to the LAN.

Firewall software is essential to the security of an organization's intranet; it stands

between the outside Internet and the private intranet. The firewall will monitor all
incoming and outgoing data packets to confirm they do not contain unauthorized or
suspicious requests, ensuring malware and other malicious attacks do not leak into
the intranet. When a segment of an intranet is made accessible to customers, partners,
suppliers, or others outside the company, that segment becomes part of an extranet.
The firewall is especially important for intranet networks that include extranet
extensions.

The intranet generally looks like a private version of the Internet. With tunneling,
companies can send private messages through the public network while using special
encryption/decryption and other security safeguards to connect one part of their
intranet to another.

Benefits and challenges of the intranet

Some potential benefits of using an intranet include:

 Improved communication, information sharing and collaboration within a

business.
 An increased return on investment (ROI) due to the low implementation and
operating costs.
 The ability for human resources to manage employee records and for
customer service representatives to track help requests.
 The use of the intranet as a testing environment for new ideas before they
are implemented on the company's Internet webpage.
 An improved corporate culture within a business through the use of a social
intranet that is built around people and focused on enabling widespread
participation and interaction.

Some challenges faced when using an intranet include:

 A lack of intranet users and therefore a lack of the content, communications

and documents that are necessary to make the intranet beneficial.
 A loss of interest amongst users after the initial excitement and novelty of
the intranet has worn off, also resulting in a lack of content.
 Limited user support due to the high cost of adding a support team to the
payroll. As a result, when the inevitable software bugs or other issues arise,
there is no one to resolve the problems.
 Continuous examinations and maintenance checks are required to ensure
the network is running properly and does not become outdated with old and
irrelevant content.
 A lack of proper ownership or ownership being distributed amongst various
departments. This complicates the network and makes it difficult to place
responsibility in one place.

Differences between the Internet and intranet

The biggest difference between the Internet and intranet is that the Internet can be
accessed by anyone from anywhere, whereas the intranet can only be accessed by a
specific group of people who possess an authenticated login and are connected to
the required LAN or VPN. Beyond that, there are several more simple distinctions,
such as:

 The Internet works on a public network while the intranet works on a private
network.
 The public Internet is not as safe as the private intranet.
 The Internet can have unlimited users while the intranet has a limited amount.
 Information on the Internet is unlimited and available to anyone while
information on an intranet is limited and only available to users with
authorized access to the intranet network.

An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technology and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of a business's information or
operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses. An
extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users
outside the company. It has also been described as a "state of mind" in which the
Internet is perceived as a way to do business with other companies as well as to sell
products to customers.

An extranet requires security and privacy. These can include firewall server
management, the issuance and use of digital certificates or similar means of user
authentication, encryption of messages, and the use of virtual private networks
(VPNs) that tunnel through the public network.

Companies can use an extranet to:

 Exchange large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

 Share product catalogs exclusively with wholesalers or those "in the trade"
 Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts
 Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies
 Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of other
companies, such as an online banking application managed by one company
on behalf of affiliated banks
 Share news of common interest exclusively with partner companies

Define ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for
simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services
over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network.
ISDN is the abbreviation of Integrated Services Digital Network which is a set of
communications standard for instantaneous digital transmission of data, audio,
video, and other services related to network, in excess of the conventional circuits
of the community switched telephone network. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network) was introduced by CCITT in 1988. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network) is a method to transfer voice data with some particular services accessible
for data. The major feature of ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is that it
put together speech and information on the same line which were not presented in
classic telephone system.

The main element of ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) services are ability
to deliver maximum data within the combination of voice, data, video, fax, over a
single line while it provides at least two instantaneous connections. User can attach
several devices to the line according to their need instead of purchasing many analog
phone lines.

There are two types of ISDN:

 Basic Rate Interface (BRI) -- consists of two 64-Kbps B-channels and one D-
channel for transmitting control information.
 Primary Rate Interface (PRI) -- consists of 23 B-channels and one D-channel
(U.S.) or 30 B-channels and one D-channel (Europe).

The original version of ISDN employs baseband transmission. Another version,

called B-ISDN, uses broadband transmission and is able to support transmission
rates of 1.5 Mbps. B-ISDN requires fiber optic cables and is not widely available.

ISDN Advantages

 The basic advantage of ISDN is to facilitate the user with multiple digital
channels. These channels can operate concurrently through the same one
copper wire pair.
 The digital signals broadcasting transversely the telephone
 ISDN provides high data rate because of digital scheme which is 56kbps.
 ISDN network lines are able to switch manifold devices on the single line such
as faxes, computers, cash registers credit cards readers, and many other
devices. These all devices can work together and directly be connected to a
single line.
  ISDN takes only 2 seconds to launch a connection while other modems take
30 to 60 second for establishment.

ISDN Disadvantages

 The disadvantage of ISDN lines is that it is very costly than the other typical
telephone system.
 ISDN requires specialized digital devices just like Telephone Company.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is an application layer protocol that facilitates

communication in the form of text. The chat process works on a client/server
networking model. IRC clients are computer programs that users can install
on their system or web based applications running either locally in the browser
or on a 3rd party server. These clients communicate with chat servers to
transfer messages to other clients.[1] IRC is mainly designed for group
communication in discussion forums, called channels,[2] but also allows one-
on-one communication via private messages[3] as well as chat and data
transfer,[4] including file sharing.[5]

Stands for "Internet Relay Chat." IRC is a service that allows people to chat with
each other online. It operates on a client/server model where individuals use a client
program to connect to an IRC server. Popular IRC clients include mIRC for
Windows and Textual for OS X. Several web-based clients are also available,
including KiwiIRC and Mibbit.

In order to join an IRC conversation, you must choose a username and a channel.
Your username, also called a handle, can be whatever you want. It may include
letters and numbers, but not spaces. A channel is a specific chat group within an IRC
network where users can talk to each other. Some networks publish lists of available
channels, while others require you to manually enter channel names in order to join
them. Channels always begin with a hashtag followed by a name that represents their
intended chat topic, such as "#teenchat," "#politics," or "#sports". Some IRC
channels require a password while others are open to the public.
When you join a channel, the chat window will begin displayig messages people are
typing. You can join the conversation by typing your own messages. While channel
members can type whatever they want, popular channels are often moderated. That
means human operators or automated bots may kick people out of the channel and
even ban users who post offensive remarks or spam the channel with repeated
messages.

While IRC was designed as a public chat service, it supports other features such as
private messaging and file transfers. For example, you can use an IRC command
(which typically begins with a forward slash "/") to request a private chat session
with another user. Then you can use another IRC command to send the user a file
from your local system.

NOTE: IRC was a popular way for users to connect online before social media
became prevalent in the early 2000s. Today, many people still use IRC, but social
media sites and apps are much more popular.

Definition Data Transmission: When we enter data into the computer via
keyboard, each keyed element is encoded by the electronics within the
keyboard into an equivalent binary coded pattern, using one of the standard
coding schemes that are used for the interchange of information. To
represent all characters of the keyboard, a unique pattern of 7 or 8 bits in
size is used. The use of 7 bits means that 128 different elements can be
represented, while 8 bits can represent 256 elements. A similar procedure is
followed at the receiver that decodes every received binary pattern into the
corresponding character.

The most widely used codes that have been adopted for this function are the
Extended Binary Coded Decimal (EBCDIC) and the American Standard
Code for Information Interchange codes (ASCII). Both coding schemes cater
to all the normal alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation characters,
collectively referred to as printable characters and a range of additional
control characters, known as non-printable characters.
Data transmission refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two
or more digital devices.

This transfer of data takes place via some form of transmission media (for
example, coaxial cable, fiber optics etc.)

Types of Data Transmission

Parallel transmission

Defination: Within a computing or communication device, the distances

between different subunits are too short. Thus, it is normal practice to
transfer data between subunits using a separate wire to carry each bit of
data. There are multiple wires connecting each sub-unit and data is
exchanged using a parallel transfer mode. This mode of operation results in
minimal delays in transferring each word.

• In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously

on separate communication lines.

• In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its
own line.

• All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device
to another i.e. multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.

• Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.

• As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are used to transmit 8 bit data
from sender to receiver.
Advantage of parallel transmission

It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted

simultaneously with a single clock pulse.

Disadvantage of parallel transmission

It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits

at the same time.

Serial Transmission

Defination: When transferring data between two physically separate

devices, especially if the separation is more than a few kilometers, for
reasons of cost, it is more economical to use a single pair of lines. Data is
transmitted as a single bit at a time using a fixed time interval for each bit.
This mode of transmission is known as bit-serial transmission.

• In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one
after the other.

• It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data
from sender to receiver.

• Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.

• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.

• As shown in fig., suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source

to destination. Then least significant bit (LSB) i,e. 0 will be transmitted first
followed by other bits. The most significant bit (MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted
in the end via single communication line.

• The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in

order to change this parallel data into serial data, conversion devices are
used.

• These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the
sender side so that it can be transmitted over single line.

• On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so

that the interval circuitry of computer can accept it

• Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.

Advantage of Serial transmission

Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the
factor of n as compared to parallel transmission.

Disadvantages of Serial transmission

1. Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to

increase in overall transmission cost.

2. This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are

transmitted serially one after the other.
Types of Serial Transmission

There are two types of serial transmission-synchronous and asynchronous

both these transmissions use 'Bit synchronization'

Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the

beginning and end of the data transmission occurs.

Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when data begin
and end during a transmission. Therefore bit synchronization provides timing
control.

Asynchronous Transmission

• Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time where a

character is either a letter of the alphabet or number or control character i.e.
it sends one byte of data at a time.

• Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit
and stop bit.

• Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the arrival
of new group of bits. A start bit usually 0 is added to the beginning of each
byte.

• Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is
finished, one or more additional bits are appended to the end of the byte.
These bits, usually 1s are called stop bits.

• Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more
bandwidth is consumed in asynchronous transmission.

• There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This
idle time is also known as Gap
• The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This mechanism is called
Asynchronous, because at byte level sender and receiver need not to be
synchronized. But within each byte, receiver must be synchronized with the
incoming bit stream.

Application of Asynchronous Transmission

1. Asynchronous transmission is well suited for keyboard type-terminals and

paper tape devices. The advantage of this method is that it does not require
any local storage at the terminal or the computer as transmission takes place
character by character.

2. Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which

information is transmitted in short bursts. This type of transmission is used
by modems.

Advantages of Asynchronous transmission

1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to

synchronous e.g. If lines are short, asynchronous transmission is better,
because line cost would be low and idle time will not be expensive.

2. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if

character is corrupted during transmission, its successor and predecessor
character will not be affected.

3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.

4. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted

becomes available.

5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.

Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission

1. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission

due to the overhead of extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.

2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start

bits. These bits can be missed or corrupted.

Synchronous Transmission

• Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.

• In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain
multiple bytes.

• There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.

• In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established

between sender & receiver by 'timing' the transmission of each bit.

• Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the
responsibility of receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes so as to
reconstruct the original information.

• In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at
the same clock frequency.

Application of Synchronous transmission

• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between

computers.
Advantage of Synchronous transmission

1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra

bits (start bit & stop bit) and also there is no gap between the individual data
bytes.

Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission

1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer

storage at the two ends of line to assemble blocks and it also requires
accurately synchronized clocks at both ends. This lead to increase in the
cost.

2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency.
This requires proper synchronization which makes the system complicated.

Comparison between Serial and Parallel transmission

Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous.

Definition - What does Data Transmission mean?

Data transmission is the process of sending digital or analog data over a

communication medium to one or more computing, network, communication or
electronic devices. It enables the transfer and communication of devices in a point-
to-point, point-to-multipoint and multipoint-to-multipoint environment.

Data transmission is also known as digital transmission or digital

Techopedia explains Data Transmission

Data transmission can be analog and digital but is mainly reserved for sending and
receiving digital data. It works when a device or piece of equipment, such as a
computer, intends to send a data object or file to one or multiple recipient devices,
like a computer or server. The digital data originates from the source device in the
form of discrete signals or digital bit streams. These data streams/signals are placed
over a communication medium, such as physical copper wires, wireless carriers
and optical fiber, for delivery to the destination/recipient device. Moreover, each
outward signal can be baseband or passband.

In addition to external communication, data transmission also may be internally

carried to a device. For example, the random access memory (RAM) or hard disk
that sends data to a processor is also a form of data transmission.

What Exactly Is Email?

Electronic mail (abbreviated as e-mail, email, E-Mail, etc.) is a very old form of
computer-based communication. A long time ago – in technological, not human,
terms – computers were giant machines. People used dial-up terminals to access
them, and each machine held storage for multiple users. As is the case with any
community, people found useful and unique ways to communicate with one
another, and a messaging system evolved. The caveat was that you could only send
messages to other users on the same system, at least up until 1971. As the story
goes, along came Ray Tomlinson who sent the first email by addressing a user on
another system using the ‘@’ symbol. Obviously, both the underlying dynamics
and far-reaching consequences weren’t so simple, but it was that notion that brings
us to where we are today.

Email was born in 1971 when a computer engineer began using the @ symbol to
designate which computer a message should go to. At its core, an email is simply a
text message from one user to another. Advancing technology has added extra
features along the way, of course—like image and file attachments, links and
embedded maps.

When you send and receive email, you use an email client which allows you to
create and interact with emails from other computer users. Your email client can be
web-based, meaning you check it through your web browser (examples include
Hotmail, Gmail, or Yahoo Mail) or it can be an application on your computer (like
Outlook, Thunderbird or Mail).

Here’s a basic explanation of how email works:

1. The sender composes a message using the email client on their computer.
2. When the user sends the message, the email text and attachments are
uploaded to the SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) server as outgoing
mail.
3. All outgoing messages wait in the outgoing mail queue while the SMTP
server communicates with the DNS (Domain Name Server–like a phone
book for domain names and server IP addresses) to find out where the
recipient’s email server is located. If the SMTP server finds the recipient’s
email server, it will transfer the message and attachments. If the
recipient’s server can’t be found, the sender will get a “Mail Failure”
notification in their inbox.
4. The next time the recipient clicks “Send & Receive,” their email client will
download all new messages from their own email server. You’ve got mail!
Introduction to E-business

E-business stands for electronic business. Electronic business is also known as

online business. Online business is a business where the transaction takes place
online. Here, the buyer and the seller don’t meet personally. The term “e-business”
was coined by IBM’s marketing and Internet team in 1996. E-business is a part of
e-commerce. E-commerce means electronic commerce.

Advantages of e-business

There are actually innumerable advantages of e-Business, the most obvious one
being the ease of doing business. Some of the major advantages of e-business are
as follows :

 Easy to Set Up: It is easy to set up an electronic business. You can set up an
online business even by sitting at home if you have the required software, a
device, and the internet.
 Cheaper than Traditional Business: Electronic business is much cheaper
than traditional business. The cost taken to set up an e-business is much
higher than the cost required to set up a traditional business. Also, the
transaction cost is effectively less.
 No Geographical Boundaries: There are no geographical boundaries for e-
business. Anyone can order anything from anywhere at any time. This is
one of the benefits of e-business.
 Government Subsidies: Online businesses get benefits from the
government as the government is trying to promote digitalization.
 Flexible Business Hours: Since the internet is always available. E-business
breaks down the time barriers that location-based businesses encounter.
As long as someone has an Internet connection, you may be able to reach
and sell your product or service to these visitors to your business website.
Limitations of e-Business

But it isn’t all good news. E-business does have certain disadvantages when
compared to the traditional way of doing business. Some of the limitations of e-
business are as follows:

 Lack of Personal Touch: E-business lacks the personal touch. One cannot
touch or feel the product. So it is difficult for the consumers to check the
quality of a product. Also, the human touch is missing as well. In the
traditional model, we have contact with the salesperson. This lends it a
touch of humanity and credibility. It also builds trust with the customer. An
e-Business model will always miss out on such attributes.
 Delivery Time: The delivery of the products takes time. In traditional
business, you get the product as soon as you buy it. But that doesn’t
happen in online business. This lag time often discourages customers.
However, e-businesses are trying to resolve such issues by promising very
limited delivery times. For example, Amazon now assures one-day delivery.
This is an improvement but does not resolve the issue completely
 Security Issues: There are a lot of people who scam through online
business. Also, it is easier for hackers to get your financial details. It has a
few security and integrity issues. This also causes distrust among potential
customers.

There are two types of paths: absolute and relative paths. An absolute path always
contains the root elements and the complete list of directories to locate the specific
file or folder. All the information required to locate the file or folder is available in
the absolute path. This is different from a relative path, which is often combined
with other paths to access the file. When it comes to websites, the absolute paths
always contain the domain name of the website. However, in the case of a relative
path, it only points to a relative link.

It is for these reasons that relative paths are used when linking within pages or files
within a site, whereas absolute paths can be used anywhere and are needed when
linking to an external file/folder on a different website. In the case of operating
systems, the absolute path can be determined by right-clicking on the file/folder
and then selecting the “properties” option.
 Relative path is defined as the path related to the present working
directly(pwd). It starts at your current directory and never starts with a / .

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a style sheet language used for describing the
presentation of a document written in a markup language like HTML.[1] CSS is a
cornerstone technology of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and
JavaScript.[2]

CSS is designed to enable the separation of presentation and content, including

layout, colors, and fonts.[3] This separation can improve content accessibility,
provide more flexibility and control in the specification of presentation
characteristics, enable multiple web pages to share formatting by specifying the
relevant CSS in a separate .css file, and reduce complexity and repetition in the
structural content.

Separation of formatting and content also makes it feasible to present the same
markup page in different styles for different rendering methods, such as on-screen,
in print, by voice (via speech-based browser or screen reader), and on Braille-
based tactile devices. CSS also has rules for alternate formatting if the content is
accessed on a mobile device.[4]

The name cascading comes from the specified priority scheme to determine which
style rule applies if more than one rule matches a particular element. This
cascading priority scheme is predictable.

The CSS specifications are maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C). Internet media type (MIME type) text/css is registered for use with
CSS by RFC 2318 (March 1998). The W3C operates a free CSS validation service
for CSS documents.[5]

In addition to HTML, other markup languages support the use of CSS including
XHTML, plain XML, SVG, and XUL.

What is CSS? And How Does It Relate to HMTL?

CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets with an emphasis placed on “Style.” While
HTML is used to structure a web document (defining things like headlines and
paragraphs, and allowing you to embed images, video, and other media), CSS
comes through and specifies your document’s style—page layouts, colors, and
fonts are all determined with CSS. Think of HTML as the foundation (every house
has one), and CSS as the aesthetic choices (there’s a big difference between a
Victorian mansion and a mid-century modern home).

How Does CSS Work?

CSS brings style to your web pages by interacting with HTML elements. Elements
are the individual HTML components of a web page—for instance a paragraph—
which in HTML might look like this:

<p>This is my paragraph!</p>

If you wanted to make this paragraph appear pink and bold to people viewing your
web page through a web browser, you’d use CSS code that looks like this:

p { color:pink; font-weight:bold; }

In this case, “p” (the paragraph) is called the “selector”—it’s the part of CSS code
specifying which HTML element the CSS styling will effect. In CSS, the selector
is written to the left of the first curly bracket. The information between curly
brackets is called a declaration, and it contains properties and values that are
applied to the selector. Properties are things like font size, color, and margins,
while values are the settings for those properties. In the example above, “color”
and “font-weight” are both properties, and “pink” and “bold” are values. The full
bracketed set of

{ color:pink; font-weight:bold; }

is the declaration, and again, “p” (meaning the HTML paragraph) is the selector.
These same basic principles can be applied to change font sizes, background
colors, margin indentations, and more. For instance. . .

body { background-color:lightblue; }

. . .would make your page’s background light blue, or. . .

p { font-size:20px; color:red; }

. . .will create a 20 point font paragraph with red letters.

External, Internal, or Inline CSS?

You might be wondering how this CSS code is actually applied to HTML content,
though. Much like HTML, CSS is written in simple, plain text through a text editor
or word processor on your computer, and there are three main ways to add that
CSS code to your HTML pages. CSS code (or Style Sheets) can be external,
internal, or inline. External style sheets are saved as .css files and can be used to
determine the appearance of an entire website through one file (rather than adding
individual instances of CSS code to every HTML element you want to adjust). In
order to use an external style sheet, your .html files need to include a header
section that links to the external style sheet and looks something like this:

<head>
<link
rel=”stylesheet” type=”text/css” href=mysitestyle.css
”>
</head>

This will link the .html file to your external style sheet (in this case,
mysitestyle.css), and all of the CSS instructions in that file will then apply to your
linked .html pages.

Internal style sheets are CSS instructions written directly into the header of a
specific .html page. (This is especially useful if you have a single page on a site
that has a unique look.) An internal style sheet looks something like this. . .

<head>
<style>
Body { background-color:thistle; }
P { font-size:20px; color:mediumblue; }
</style>
</head>

. . . a thistle background color and paragraphs with 20 point, medium blue font will
now be applied to this single .html page.

Finally, inline styles are snippets of CSS written directly into HTML code, and
applicable only to a single coding instance. For example:

<h1 style=”font-size:40px;color:violet;”>Check out

this headline!</h1>
would cause one specific headline on a single .html page to appear in violet, 40
point font.

Generally speaking, external style sheets are the most efficient method for
implementing CSS on a website (it’s easier to keep track of and implement a site’s
style from a dedicated CSS file), while internal style sheets and inline style can be
used on a case by case basis when individual style changes need to be made.

So if HTML is the foundation, frames, walls, and girders supporting your website,
consider CSS the paint color, window styles, and landscaping that comes on
afterward. You can’t get anywhere without putting that foundation up first, but—
once you do—you’ll want to follow up with some style, and CSS is the ticket to
unleashing your inner decorator.

Types of CSS (Cascading Style Sheet)

Cascading Style Sheet(CSS) is used to set the style in web pages which contain
HTML elements. It sets the background color, font-size, font-family, color, … etc
property of elements in a web pages.
There are three types of CSS which are given below:

 Inline CSS
 Internal or Embedded CSS
 External CSS

Definition - What does Cascading Style Sheet (CSS) mean?

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a standard (or language) that describes the
formatting of markup language pages. CSS defines formatting for the following
document types:

 HyperText Markup Language (HTML)

 Extensible HyperText Markup Language (XHTML)
 Extensible Markup Language (XML)
 Scalable Vector Graphic (SVG)
 XML User Interface Language (XUL)
CSS enables developers to separate content and visual elements for greater page
control and flexibility. A CSS file is normally attached to an HTML file by means
of a link in the HTML file.

In December 1998, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) published the first
CSS specification (CSS1). This was followed by CSS Level 2 (CSS2), and CSS
Level 2, Revision 1 (CSS2.1)

Definition - What does Domain Name System (DNS) mean?

Domain name system (DNS) is a hierarchical naming system built on a distributed

database. This system transforms domain names to IP addresses and makes it
possible to assign domain names to groups of Internet resources and users,
regardless of the entities' physical location.

The domain name system includes a tree of domain names. Every leaf, or node, in
the tree has zero or more resource records, which include information associated
with the domain name. The tree further subdivides into zones, starting at the root
zone. DNS zones may have one domain, or many domains and subdomains
depending on the administrative authority delegated to managers. The client side of
DNS, the DNS resolver, is responsible for initiating and sequencing queries that
lead to full resolution of the resources sought. These queries are either recursive or
nonrecursive.

DNS assigns domain names and maps the names to IP addresses by designating an
authoritative name server for each domain. These servers are responsible for
particular domains and can assign the authoritative name servers to subdomains.
As a result of this process, DNS is both distributed and fault tolerant.

Definition - What does Hub (Networking) mean?

A hub, in the context of networking, is a hardware device that relays

communication data. A hub sends data packets (frames) to all devices on a
network, regardless of any MAC addresses contained in the data packet.

Hub Definition and Meaning

A hub in computer network is used for connecting multiple computers or
segments of a LAN. Normally, it is used for Peer to Peer small Home
Network. LAN Hub receive data packets (frames) through one port and
broadcasts them through all other ports, so that all other computers or other
network devices can see all packets.

That is, a LAN configures with ethernet hub physically falls under the
category of a star type topology. In the star topology hub work as a central
controller. However, logically, it falls under the category of a bus type
topology. Commercially available network hub normally have eight or
sixteen ports. Networking hub operate at the physical layer of the OSI
model. Traditional Networking hubs support 10 Mbps rated speeds (data
rate or bandwidth) only, but Newer technology Dual-speed hub support 100
Mbps. There is no routing table in hub, as you find in router or switch.

Difference between hub and switch

Main difference between network hubs and switches is that hub in

lan broadcast all data packets (frames) to all active ports. but on the other
side switches send incoming data packets (frames) to a specific port over a
network. Switch keeps a record of all MAC addresses of all port connected
devices. When switch receive a frame they know which port to send it.

Types of Hubs used in Networking

Active hubs

Active hubs is a central connecting device in a networking that strengthen

the signal, prior to sending them to the destination devices. It is also known
as "multi-port repeater". Generally, Active hubs are used to create
connections in a physical star topology. It can extend maximum media
distance over a network.
Passive hubs

Passive hubs do not amplify the signal before broadcasting them over a
network.They simply maintaining physical connection and received the
frames, then rebroadcast them across all over the network. it is just a
connector or connects the wires coming from different branches.The Passive
hub is the collision point where the signals are come from different stations
and collide.

Switching hubs or intelligent hub

Intelligent hubs has many advantages over active hubs and passive hubs.
Switching hubs read the frames of each unit of data and then forwarded on
behalf of MAC address to the intended port. It is a Layer2 device. Switching
hubs support 10, 16 and 100Mbps bandwidth using standard topologies such
as Ethernet, Token Ring.

Definition - What does Switch mean?

A switch, in the context of networking is a high-speed device that receives

incoming data packets and redirects them to their destination on a local area
network (LAN). A LAN switch operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) or the
network layer of the OSI Model and, as such it can support all types of packet
protocols.

A switch in an Ethernet-based LAN reads incoming TCP/IP data packets/frames

containing destination information as they pass into one or more input ports. The
destination information in the packets is used to determine which output ports will
be used to send the data on to its intended destination.

Switches are similar to hubs, only smarter. A hub simply connects all the nodes on
the network -- communication is essentially in a haphazard manner with any
device trying to communicate at any time, resulting in many collisions. A switch,
on the other hand, creates an electronic tunnel between source and destination ports
for a split second that no other traffic can enter. This results in communication
without collisions.

A router is a physical or virtual appliance that passes information between two or

more packet-switched computer networks. A router inspects a given data packet's
destination Internet Protocol address (IP address), calculates the best way for it to
reach its destination and then forwards it accordingly.
A router is a common type of gateway. It is positioned where two or more
networks meet at each point of presence on the internet. Hundreds of routers might
forward a single packet as it moves from one network to the next on the way to its
final destination. In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, routers are
associated with the network layer (Layer 3).

Traditional routers are stand-alone devices that use proprietary software. In

contrast, a virtual router is a software instance that performs the same functions as
a physical router. Virtual routers typically run on commodity servers, either alone
or packaged with other virtual network functions, like firewall packet filtering,
load balancing and wide area network (WAN) optimization capabilities.

Other network devices, such as wireless access points and switches may include
built-in router functionality.

How a router works

A router examines a packet header's destination IP address and compares it against

a routing table to determine the packet's best next hop. Routing tables list
directions for forwarding data to particular network destinations, sometimes in the
context of other variables, like cost. They amount to an algorithmic set of rules that
calculate the best way to transmit traffic toward any given IP address.

Back to basics: What's a computer networking router?

This video explains.

A routing table often specifies a default route, which the router uses whenever it
fails to find a better forwarding option for a given packet. For example, the typical
home office router directs all outbound traffic along a single default route to its
internet service provider (ISP).

Routing tables can be static -- i.e., manually configured -- or dynamic. Dynamic

routers automatically update their routing tables based on network activity,
exchanging information with other devices via routing protocols.

Many routers also perform network address translation (NAT), shielding the
private IP addresses of a local area network (LAN) by readdressing all outgoing
traffic with a single shared public IP address. NAT helps both conserve globally
valid IP addresses and improve network security.
Types of routers

Core routers used by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) are the fastest and most
powerful, sitting at the center of the internet and forwarding information along the
main fiber optic backbone. Enterprise routers connect large organizations'
networks to these core routers.

An edge router, also known as an access router, is a lower-capacity device that

resides at the boundary of a LAN and connects it to a the public internet or a
private wide area network (WAN) and/or external local area network (LAN).
Home and small office routers are considered subscriber edge routers.

Branch routers link an organization's remote office locations to its WAN,

connecting to the primary campus network's edge routers. Branch routers often
provide additional features, like time-division multiplexing, wireless LAN
management capabilities and WAN application acceleration.

A logical router is a configured partition of a traditional network hardware, or

physical, router. It replicates the hardware's functionality, creating multiple routing
domains within a single router. Logical routers perform a subset of the tasks that
can be handled by the physical router, and each can contain multiple routing
instances and routing tables.

A wireless router works in the same way as the router in a hard-wired home or
business local area network (LAN), but allows greater mobility for notebook or
portable computers. Wireless routers use the 802.11g specification, a standard that
offers transmission over short distances.