FEEDBACK AND CONTROL SYSTEMS LAPLACE TRANSFORM

- Definition of Laplace transform

Grading System - Derivation of Laplace transforms of simple functions
- Laplace transform theorem
Lecture grade: 80% - Application of the Laplace transform to differential equations
40% quiz average - Inverse Laplace transform
25% midterm exam - Heaviside partial fraction expansion theorems
25% final exam - Solution of state equation
10% class standing SYSTEM REPRESENTATION
5% assignments + seatworks a. Block diagrams
5% lecture compilations b. Determination of the overall transfer function
Laboratory grade: 20% c. Standard block diagram terminology
70% lab experiment average d. Position control system
30% lab project e. Simulation diagrams
f. Signal flow graph
Final grade: Lecture grade + Laboratory grade
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
Passing grade: 75% - Electric circuit and component
- Mechanical transition systems
- Analogous circuits
Textbooks and references: - Mechanical relation system
- Applications
Norman Nise: “Control Systems Engineering”, 6th Edition, John Wiley & - Thermal system
Sons, Inc., 2011 - Hydraulic linear actuator
Richard C. Dorf, Robert H. Bishop: “Modern Control Systems”, 12th Edition, - Liquid level system
Pearson Education Inc., 2011 - Rotating power amplifiers
- Dc servomotors
I.J. Nagrath, M. Gopal: “ Control Systems Engineering”, 4th Edition, New - Ac servomotors
Age International Publishers, 2006 CLASS POLICIES:

ONLINE RESOURCES: 1. No student is exempted to take the final examination.

ebook: 2. Any student caught cheating in any manner or form during quizzes/exam
Derek P. Atherton: “Control Engineering: An introduction with the use of will receive a zero grade in that exam/quiz.
Matlab”, 2nd Edition, bookboon.com, 2013 3. Absence without valid reason during quiz/exam schedule is not entitled to
any special exam for the missed quiz/exam.
LEARNING EPISODES:
4. Returned exam/quizzes corrections will be entertained only until after an
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEM hour the exam was conducted.
1. Introduction 5. Other policies included in the student handbook are strictly implemented.
2. Control Systems Terminologies
3. History of Control Systems
4. Classification of Control System
5. Control Systems Configurations
Definitions The following pictures presented here are few of the millions examples of control
system.
A control system consists of subsystems and processes assembled for the purpose
of obtaining a desired output with desired performance. For the first figure, analyze the given speed control system (Watt’s speed governor)
as to how it works and later identify the input and output parameter of the system.
A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system
configuration that will provide a desired system response.

A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related

in such a manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system.

The basis for analysis of a system is the foundation provided by linear system theory,
which assumes a cause-effect relationship for the components of a system. Therefore
a component or process to be controlled can be represented by a block.

In modern usage the word system has many meanings. Below are the two most
common idea of a system:
1. A system is an arrangement, set, or collection of things connected or related
in such a manner as to form an entirety or whole.
2. A system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in
such a manner as to form and/or act as an entire unit.
The word control is usually taken to mean regulate, direct, or command.
In the most abstract sense it is possible to consider every physical object a control
system. Everything alters its environment in some manner, if not actively then
passively.
Examples of Control System
Control systems abound in our environment. But before exemplifying this, we define
two terms: input and output, which help in identifying, delineating, or defining a
control system.
The input is the stimulus, excitation or command applied to a control system,
typically from an external energy source, usually in order to produce a specified
response from the control system.
The figure above shows the basic principle of Watt’s speed governor for an engine.
The amount of fuel admitted to the engine is adjusted according to the difference
between the desired and the actual engine speeds.
The sequence of actions may be stated as follows: the speed governor is adjusted
such that, at the desired speed, no pressured oil will flow into either side of the power
cylinder. If the actual speed drops below the desired value due to disturbance, then
the decrease in the centrifugal force of the speed governor causes the control valve
to move downward, supplying more fuel, and the speed of the engine increases until
the desired value is reached. On the other hand, if the speed of the engine increases
above the desired value, then the increase in the centrifugal force of the governor
causes the control valve to move upward. This decreases the supply fuel, and the
speed of the engine decreases until the desired value is reached.
In this speed control system, the plant (controlled system) is the engine and the
controlled variable is the speed of the engine. The difference between the desired
speed and the actual speed is the error signal. The control signal (the amount of fuel)
to be applied to the plant (engine) is the actuating signal. The external input to
disturb the controlled variable is disturbance. An unexpected change in the load is a
disturbance.

The output is the actual response obtained from a control system. It may or may not
be equal to the specified response implied by the input.
The figure above is a control system designed to fill a container with water after it is
emptied through a stopcock at the bottom. The system must automatically shut off An elevator (hoist)
the water when the container is filled. The ball floats on the water. As the ball gets
closer to the top of the container, the stopper decreases the flow of water. When the
container becomes full, the stopper shuts off the flow of water.

The picture above is NASA’s Opportunity. A rover built to rove around the planet
Mars and take huge photos of the planet’s surface.
The following pictures are just few of the many examples of a control system built
by humans. Electronic Cigarette
 A deep dish Satellite Antenna
Onager’s sling
Advantages of Control Systems

We build control systems for four primary reasons:

1. Power amplification
2. Remote control
3. Convenience of input form
4. Compensation for disturbances

Control System Classification

1. According to structure:
a. Open loop control
b. Closed loop control
c. Composition control
2. According to reference input:
a. Constant value control

- the reference input (expected value) is a constant value

- the controller works to keep the output around the constant value
e.g. constant-temperature control, liquid level control and constant-
pressure control.
b. Servo/tracking control
A Manual Sealing Machine
- the reference input may be unknown or varying
- the controller works to make the output track the varying reference
e.g. automatic navigation systems on boats and planes, satellite-tracking
antennas
c. Programming control
 Two outstanding features of open-loop control systems are:
- the input changes according to a program
- the controller works according to predefined command 1. Their ability to perform accurately is determined by their calibration. To calibrate
e.g. numerical control machines means to establish or reestablish the input-output relation to obtain a desired system
accuracy.
3. According to System characteristic:
a. linear control system 2. They are not usually troubled with problems of instability.
b. non-linear control system
Closed-loop control systems are more commonly called feedback control systems,
4. According to signal form: and are considered in more detail beginning in the next section. To classify a control
a. continuous control system system as open-loop or closed-loop, we must distinguish clearly the components of
b. discrete control system the system from components that interact with but are not part of the system.

5. According to parameters: A generic open-loop system is shown in Figure1.

a. time invariant parameters It starts with a subsystem called an input transducer, which converts the form of the
b. time variant parameters input to that used by the controller.
The controller drives a process or a plant. The input is sometimes called the
Control System Configurations reference, while the output can be called the controlled variable. Other signals, such
as disturbances, are shown added to the controller and process outputs via summing
1. Open Loop Control System junctions, which yield the algebraic sum of their input signals using associated signs.
2. Closed-Loop Control System

An open-loop control system is one in which the control action is independent of the
output.

A closed-loop control system is one in which the control action is somehow

dependent on the output.

The disadvantages of open-loop systems, namely sensitivity to disturbances and

inability to correct for these disturbances, may be overcome in closed-loop systems.
Examples of Open Loop System: Closed-loop control systems - are often referred to as feedback control systems.

 The idea of feedback:

- Compare the actual output with the expected value.
- Take actions based on the difference (error).

Note : The disadvantages of open-loop systems, namely sensitivity to disturbances

and inability to correct for these disturbances, may be overcome in closed-loop
systems.

Potential drawbacks of feedback:

 cause instability if not used properly
 couple noise from sensors into the dynamics of a system
 increase the overall complexity of a system

Example of Closed loop control systems:

Car and Driver

 Objective: To control direction and speed of car

 Outputs: Actual direction and speed of car
 Control inputs: Road markings and speed signs
 Disturbances: Road surface and grade, wind, obstacles
 Possible subsystems: The car alone, power steering system, breaking
system
The Design Process of Feedback Control System 2. Identify the input and output (at least one basic scenario) for an automatic
washing machine.
1. Transform Requirements Into a Physical System
2. Draw a Functional Block Diagram
3. Create a Schematic input
4. Develop a Mathematical Model (Block Diagram)
5. Reduce the Block Diagram
output
6. Analyze and Design

Notes:

A control system has an input, a process, and an output. Control systems can be open
loop or closed loop. Open-loop systems do not monitor or correct the output for
disturbances; however, they are simpler and less expensive than closed-loop
3. Identify the organ-system components, and the input and output, and
systems.
describe the operation of the biological control system consisting of a
Closed-loop systems monitor the output and compare it to the input. If an error is
human being reaching for an object.
detected, the system corrects the output and hence corrects the effects of
disturbances.

Control systems analysis and design focuses on three primary objectives:

1. Producing the desired transient response
2. Reducing steady-state errors
3. Achieving stability

Sample Problems: Defining the Input and Output for any control systems & identify
if the system is an open loop or closed loop control system.

1. Identify the input and output for the pivoted, adjustable mirror input

output

4. Identify the input and output of the simple electric switch system shown
below.

The input is the angle of inclination of the mirror θ, varied by turning the screw.
The output is the angular position of the reflected beam θ+α from the reference
surface.
 (b) Write an equation for 𝑣2 , in closed-loop form, that is, 𝑣2 as a function of
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑅1 , and 𝑅2 .

(a)

(b)

7. A simple control system that automatically turns on a room lamp at dusk,

input and turns it off in daylight.

output

5. The automobile steering control system shown below:

input

output
input

output
8. Identify the input and output signals for the Segway personal transporter
system.
6. Consider the voltage divider network shown below, the output is the
voltage across the R2 resistor, 𝑣2 , and the input is 𝑣1 .

(a) Write an equation for 𝑣2 as a function of 𝑣1 , 𝑅1 , and 𝑅2 . That is, write

an equation for 𝑣2 which yields an open-loop system.
 input

output

9. Radar antenna positioning system

Input

Output
MODELLING IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN 𝑠
6 Cosh bt
𝑠2 − 𝑏2
𝑠
Course objective: to develop mathematical models from schematics of physical 7 Sinh at
systems using transfer function method. 𝑠 − 𝑎2
2

Laplace Transform Review

Some Properties of Laplace Transforms
Laplace transforms is a mathematical operation that is used to “transform” a variable
Property 1. Constant Multiple
(such as x, or y, or z, or t) to a parameter (s). Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
If α is a constant and 𝑓(𝑡) is a function of 𝑡, then

𝐿{𝑎 . 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑎. 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)}

where F(s) = expression of Laplace transform of function f(t) involving parameter s

In a layman’s term, Laplace transform is used to “transform” a variable in a function Example:

into a parameter. So, after the transformation that variable is no longer a variable 1. Determine the Laplace Transform of L{3 sin(𝑡)}
anymore, but should be treated as a “parameter”, i.e, a “constant under a specific Soln:
condition”
This “specific condition” for Laplace transform stipulates that: The L(sin t) is:
Laplace transform can only be used to transform variables that cover a range from 1
“zero (0)” to infinity, (∞), that is: 0 < t < ∞ 𝑠2 + 1
The constant value is 3 so the Laplace transform of L{3 sin(𝑡)} = 3* L(sin t):
Any variable that does not vary within this range cannot be transformed using
3
Laplace transform. Laplace transform is a valuable “tool” in solving:
𝑠2 + 1
● Differential equations for example: electronic circuit equations, and
2. Determine the L(f) if f(t) = 2𝑡 3
● in “feedback control” systems for example, in stability and control of aircraft
systems
3. The L(f) for f(t) = 3𝑒 2𝑡
The table below list some Common Laplace Transform Pairs

Some Elementary Functions f(t) and Their Equivalent

Property 2. Linearity Property
Laplace Transforms L(f)
f(t) L(f) If a and b are constants and f(t) and g(t) are functions of t, then 𝐿{𝑎. 𝑓(𝑡) +
1
1 1
𝑠 𝑏. 𝑔(𝑡)} = 𝑎. 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} + 𝑏. 𝐿{𝑔(𝑡)}
𝑛 𝑛!
2 𝑡
𝑠 𝑛+1 Examples: Determine the Laplace transform of the following functions:
1
3 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
𝑠−𝑎 1. f(t) = 3t + 1
𝑏
4 Sin bt
𝑠2 + 𝑏2 2. f(t) = 𝑡 2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡
𝑠
5 Cos bt
𝑠 + 𝑏2
2
3. f(t) = 𝑒 2𝑡 + 2𝑡 2
Property 3. Change of Scale Property 4. f(t) = 4 sin t – 2 𝑒 −2𝑡

1 𝑠
If 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠), then 𝐿{𝑓(𝑎𝑡)} = 𝐹( )
𝑎 𝑎
5. f(t) = 2𝑡 2 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡
Examples: Determine the Laplace transform of the following:

1. 𝐿{𝑓(3𝑡)} Property 5. Multiplication by power of t:

𝑑𝑛
If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐹(𝑠), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿[𝑡 𝑛 𝐹(𝑡)] = (−1)𝑛 𝑓(𝑠)
𝑑𝑠 𝑛
2. f(t) = cos 2t
= (−1)𝑛 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑠) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2, 3 … ..

sin 𝑡 1 sin 2𝑡 Find the Laplace Transform of the following functions:

3. given that 𝐿 [ ] = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿 [ ]
𝑡 𝑡
1. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝑠2 −𝑠+1
4. If the 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿[𝑓(2𝑡)]
(2𝑠+1)2 (𝑠−1)
2. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 cos 4𝑡
−1
𝑒 𝑠
5. If 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿[𝑓(3𝑡)]
𝑠

3. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡(3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 − 2 cos 𝑡)

Property 4. Shifting Property (Shift Theorem)

The 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠 − 𝑎) THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

Definition: If the Laplace Transform of a function f(t) = F(s), i.e., if

Examples: Determine the Laplace Transform of the following: L[f(t)] = F(s), the value of f(t) is called the inverse Laplace transform of F(s) and can
be written symbolically as 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [𝐹(𝑠)].
1. f(t) = 𝑒 −3𝑡 cos 5𝑡
For simple functions, the inverse Laplace transform operation can be carried out
simply by referring to the Laplace transform table (see Table 1). For complex
functions, the inverse Laplace transform can be carried out by first performing the
2. f(t) = 𝑡 3 𝑒 2𝑡
partial-fraction expansion on F(s) and then using the transform table.

Notes: to find the inverse transforms, first express the given function of s into partial
3. f(t) = 2𝑡 2 𝑒 −𝑡
fractions which will, then, be recognizable as one of the following standard forms:
 1 1 1 Notes on Partial Fractions
𝐿−1 ( )
𝑠 Partial fractions is a name given to the algebraic technique of writing a quotient of
2 1 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 polynomials in “simple” form.
𝐿−1 ( )
𝑠−𝑎 To resolve a given fraction into partial fractions, first factorize the denominator into
3 1 𝑡 𝑛−1 real factors. These will be either linear or quadratic, and some factors repeated. From
𝐿−1 ( 𝑛 )
𝑠 (𝑛 − 1)! Algebra, it is known that a proper rational fraction can be resolved into a sum of
4 1 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 𝑛−1 partial fractions such that
𝐿−1 ( )
(𝑠 − 𝑎)𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)!
5 1 1 1. To a non-repeated or distinct linear factor (s – a) in the denominator
𝐿−1 ( 2 ) sin 𝑎𝑡 corresponds a partial fraction of the form
𝑠 + 𝑎2 𝑎
6 𝑠 cost 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
𝐿−1 ( 2 )
𝑠 + 𝑎2 (𝑠 − 𝑎)
7 1 1
𝐿−1 ( 2 ) sinh 𝑎𝑡
𝑠 − 𝑎2 𝑎 2. To repeated linear factor (𝑠 − 𝑎)𝑟 in the denominator, corresponds the sum
8 𝑠 cosh 𝑎𝑡
𝐿−1 ( 2 ) of r partial fractions of the form
𝑠 − 𝑎2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
9 1 1 𝑎𝑡 + + +⋯+
𝐿−1 ( ) 𝑒 sin 𝑏𝑡 (𝑠 − 𝑎) (𝑠 − 𝑎) 2 (𝑠 − 𝑎) 3 (𝑠 − 𝑎)𝑟
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑏 2 𝑏 2
𝑠−𝑎 3. To a non-repeated quadratic factor 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏 in the denominator,
10 𝐿−1 ( ) 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 cos 𝑏𝑡
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑏 2 corresponds a partial fraction of the form
𝑠 1 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵
11 𝐿−1 ( 2 ) 𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡 𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏
(𝑠 + 𝑎2 )2 2𝑎
1 1 4. To a repeated quadratic factor (𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏)𝑟 in the denominator,
12 (sin 𝑎𝑡 – at cos at)
𝐿−1 ( 2 ) 2𝑎3 corresponds the sum of r partial fractions in the form
(𝑠 + 𝑎2 )2 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷 𝐸𝑠 + 𝐹
+ + ⋯+ 2
𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏 (𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏)2 (𝑠 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏)𝑟
Examples:
Find the inverse transform of the following:
Find the inverse transform of the following:
𝑠+4
𝑠 2 −3𝑠+4 1.
1. 𝑠 2 −𝑠−6
𝑠3
2𝑠 2 −6𝑠+5
2.
𝑠 3 −6𝑠 2 +11𝑠−6

12 2𝑠
2. ( − )
𝑠−5 𝑠 2 +49