Lecture 1

Complex Numbers
Definitions.

Let i2 = −1.
√
∴ i = −1.
Complex numbers are often denoted by z.

Just as R is the set of real numbers, C is the set of complex numbers. If z is a complex
number, z is of the form

z = x + iy ∈ C, for some x, y ∈ R.
e.g. 3 + 4i is a complex number.

z = x + iy
↑ 
real part imaginary part.
If z = x + iy, x, y ∈ R,

the real part of z = (z) = Re(z) = x

the imaginary part of z = (z) = Im(z) = y.
eg. z = 3 + 4i
(z) = 3
(z) = 4.
If z = x + iy, then z (“z bar”) is given by

z = x − iy

and is called the complex conjugate of z.

eg. If z = 3 + 4i, then z = 3 − 4i.

Example. Solve x2 − 2x + 3 = 0.
√ √ √ √
−(−2)± (−2)2 −4(1)(3) 2± −8 2±2 −2
x= 2(1) = 2 = 2 =1± 2 i. 
 Lecture 2
Complex Arithmetic.

Addition/Subraction.

Example 1. (2 + 3i) + (4 + i) = 6 + 4i.

Example 2. (8 − 3i) − (−2 + 4i) = 10 − 7i.

Multiplication/Division.

Example 1. (2 + 3i)(1 + 2i) = 2 + 4i + 3i − 6 = −4 + 7i

Example 2. (3 − 2i)(3 + 2i) = 9 − (2i)2 = 9 + 4 = 13

∴ when we multiply two complex conjugates, we get a real number.

(2+3i)(1−4i) 2−8i+3i−12i2
1+4i × 1−4i = (1+4i)(1−4i) =
2+3i
Example 3. 1+4i = 2+3i 1−4i
1−(4i)2 = 14−5i
17
(realising the denominator)
 Lecture 3
Theorem. If two complex numbers are equal then their real parts are equal and their
imaginary parts are equal, i.e., if a + ib = c + id where a, b, c, d ∈ R, then a = c and b = d.

Example 1. Find x, y if (3 + 4i)2 − 2(x − iy) = x + iy.

Left hand side (LHS) = 9 − 16 + 24i − 2x + i2y

= −7 − 2x + i(24 + 2y)
∴ −7 − 2x = x
3x = −7
x = − 73
& 24 + 2y = y
y = −24 
x y
Example 2. Find x, y if + = 2 + 4i.
1+i 2−i
x y
LHS = +
1+i 2−i
x 1−i y 2+i
= × + ×
1+i 1−i 2−i 2+i
x(1 − i) y(2 + i)
= +
1+1 4+1
x(1 − i) y(2 + i)
= +
2 5
x(1 − i) y(2 + i)
Now + = 2 + 4i.
2 5
∴ 5x(1 − i) + 2y(2 + i) = 20 + 40i
5x − i5x + 4y + i2y = 20 + 40i
5x + 4y + i(−5x + 2y) = 20 + 40i
Equating real and imaginary part,

5x + 4y = 20
−5x + 2y = 40
Solving simultaneously,
6y = 60
y = 10
& ∴ x = −4. 
 Lecture 4
Square Roots of Complex Numbers.
Example 1. Find the square root of 35 − 12i.
√
Let 35 − 12i = a + ib : − square both sides.
35 − 12i = (a + ib)2
= a2 − b2 + i(2ab)
∴ a2 − b2 = 35
and 2ab = −12
ab = −6.
By inspection, solutions are a = 6& b = −1 or a = −6 or b = 1.
or a2 − b2 = 35
ab = −6
6
b=− .
a
 2
6
∴ a2 − − = 35
a
36
a2 − 2 = 35.
a
a4 − 36 = 35a2
a4 − 35a2 − 36 = 0.
(a2 − 36)(a2 + 1) = 0
a2 = 36 & a2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ a ∈
/R
∴ a = ±6 & ∴ b = ±1.
√ √
& ∴ 35 − 12i = 6 − i.  (By convention, sign(( z)) = sign((z)))

 the roots of z − (1 − i)z + 7i − 4 = 0 in the form a + ib.

2
Example 2. Find
(1 − i) ± (1 − i)2 − 4(1)(7i − 4) √
z= 16 − 30i = (a + ib)
√ 2
(1 − i) ± 1 − 1 − 2i − 28i + 16 16 − 30i = a2 − b2 + i(2ab)
=
√ 2 a2 − b2 = 16
(1 − i) ± 16 − 30i 2ab = −30
=
2
ab = −15
From beside,
a = 5 & b = −3
(1 − i) ± (5 − 3i)
= or a = −5 & b = 3
2 √
1 − i + 5 − 3i 1 − i − (5 − 3i) & ∴ 16 − 30i = 5 − 3i
= or
2 2 ∵ sign(16) = sign(5) = +
= 3 − 2i or − 2 + i. 
 Lecture 5
The Argand Diagram. (Note: Ordered pairs:- eg. 2 + i = (2, 1)
for 2 + i = x + iy on (x, y)-plane)

Two methods: i. P (x, y) the point P on the (x, y)-plane

−→
ii. Vector OP

x-axis is called the real axis.

y-axis is called the imaginary axis.

Eg. Plot the following on the Argand diagram:

P = 2 + 3i; B = 3 − i; A = −2 − i; M = 4; E = 2i
z = x + iy
= r cos θ + ir sin θ
= r(cos θ + i sin θ)

Modulus (Distance OP )
denoted by r, mod z, |z|, |x + iy|
by Pythagoras, r2 = x2 + y 2

r = x2 + y 2

r = |z| = |x + iy| = x2 + y 2 .

Argument (angle θ)
denoted by θ, arg z, arg(x + iy) [or amp z, amp (x + iy) {amplitude}]
by definition, −180◦ < θ ≤ 180◦
For x = 0, tan θ = xy .

The mod-arg form of a complex number

z = x + iy
= r(cos θ + i sin θ)
( = r cis θ).
Complex Conjugate
If z = x + iy, then the complex conjugate is z = x − iy
Radian measure (or circular measure)

eg. 360◦ = 2π radians = 2π rad = 2π c = 2π

180◦ = π
90◦ = π
2
60◦ = π
3
45◦ = π
4
30◦ = π
6
More on mod-arg forms.

Examples. Express the following

√ in mod-arg form:-
(a) 2 + 2i;(b) 2 + 5i;(c) −1 + 3i;(d) 3i;(e) 1 − 3i

(a) 2 + 2i
√ √ √
r = 22 + 22 = 8 = 2 2
& tan θ = 22 = 1 & ∴ θ = π4
√  
& ∴ 2 + 2i = 2 2 cos π4 + i sin π4 . 

(b) 2 + 5i

√ √
r = 22 + 52 = 29
& tan θ = 52 & ∴ θ = tan−1 25 ≈ 68◦ 12
√     
& ∴ 2 + 5i = 29 cos tan−1 25 + i sin tan−1 25
√  
≈ 29 cos 68◦ 12 + i sin 68◦ 12 
 √
(c) −1 + 3i

√ √
r = 12 √+3= 4=2
tan α = 13 & ∴ α = π3 & ∴ θ = π − π3 = 2π
√   3
& ∴ −1 + 3i = 2 cos 2π3 + i sin 3 . 
2π

(d) 3i

 
By inspection, 3i = 3 cos π2 + i sin π2 . 

(e) 1 − 3i

√ √
r = 12 + 32 = 10
−1 −1
∴ −θ
tan(−θ) = 3 &√  = tan 3−1& ∴  θ = −tan 3−1≈ 71◦ 34 .
& ∴ 1 − 3i = 10 cos − tan 3 + i sin − tan 3
√     
= 10 cos tan−1 3 − i sin tan−1 3
√  
≈ 10 cos 71◦ 34 − i sin 71◦ 34 .
 Lecture 6
Axioms
An integral domain is a set of elements with two binary operations defined for them, which
obey the laws obeyed by the integers.
A set S is an integral domain if its elements a, b, c, . . . obey the following laws.
1. Closure Law for Addition, i.e., a + b ∈ S
2. Closure Law for Multiplication, i.e., a × b ∈ S
3. Commutative Law for Addition, i.e., a + b = b + a
4. Commutative Law for Multiplication, i.e., a × b = b × a
5. Associative Law for Addition, i.e., a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
6. Associative Law for Multiplication, i.e., a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c
7. Distributive Law of Multiplication over Addition, i.e., a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
8. There exists an additive identity (or zero element) 0, such that for every a,
a + 0 = 0 + a = a (Note 0 ∈ S)
9. There exists a multiplicative identity (or unity element) 1, such that for every a,
a × 1 = 1 × a = a (Note 1 ∈ S)
10. There exists an additive inverse (or opposite), −a, for each member a of the set such
that a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0.
11. Cancellation Law. If ab = ac and a = 0, then b = c.
Example 1. Z, the set of the integers, is an integral domain.
The elements of a field F obey the above axioms 1-10 for integral domains, (where a, b, c
are elements of F) and instead of the cancellation law, there is a law about the existence
of a multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal):
11
. If a−1 and 1 are elements of F, and a × a−1 = a−1 × a = 1, where a = 0, then a−1 is
the multiplicative inverse of a.
Example 2. C, the set of complex numbers is a field.
Example 3. The additive inverse of z = 2 + 3i is −z = −2 − 3i
 
Example 4. The multiplicative inverse of z = 2 + 3i is z −1 = 1
2+3i = 1 2−3i
2+3i 2−3i = 2−3i
13 .
 Lecture 7

cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
(∗)
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A
Mod-arg theorems

i. If z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) & z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

then if z1 = z2 then r1 = r2 & θ1 = θ2 .

ii. |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 ± 2π.

i.e., for example:

arg(z1 z2 ) = 100◦ + 140◦ − 360◦

= −120◦

 z1 
arg z2 = arg z1 − arg z2 ± 2π.

Proof . If z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )

and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
then z1 z2 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) · r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
= r1 r2 (cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 + i sin θ2 cos θ1 + i sin θ1 cos θ2 )
= r1 r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )) − (see (∗) above)
& ∴ |z1 z2 | = r1 r2 = |z1 ||z2 | and arg(z1 z2 ) = θ1 + θ2 = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).

Extended:

arg(z1 z2 · · · zn ) = arg z1 + arg z2 + · · · + arg zn ± 2πn.

|z n | = |z|n (eg., |z 3 | = |zzz| = |z||z||z| = |z|3 ).

and arg(z n ) = n arg z ± 2πk.

   
 1 
= 1
and arg 1
= arg 1 − arg(z n ) = 0 − n arg z ± 2πk = −n arg z ± 2πk.
zn |z|n zn
Example 1. Find the modulus and argument of z = (2 − i)(1 − 3i).

|z| = |2 − i||1 − 3i|

 
= 22 + 12 · 12 + 32
√ √
= 5 · 10
√
= 50
√
= 5 2.
arg(z) = arg(2 − i) + arg(1 − 3i) = − tan−1 1
2 − tan−1 3 ≈ −98◦ 8 .

(−1 + 2i)(1 + i)
Example 2. z =
−2 − 3i
| − 1 + 2i||1 + i|
|z| =
| − 2 − 3i|
√ √
5· 2
= √
13
√
10
=√
13

10
= .
13
arg(z) = arg(−1 + 2i) + arg(1 + i) − arg(−2 − 3i)
≈ 285◦ 15 − 360◦
= −74◦ 45
 Lecture 8
Triangle Inequalities.

Example 1. If z1 = 2 + i and z2 = −1 + 2i, z1 + z2 = 1 + 3i. 

Polygon Rule.
Subtraction of Complex Numbers.

z2 − z1 = z2 + (−z1 ):
Triangle Inequalities.
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |:

|z1 − z2 | ≥ |z1 | − |z2 |:

Example 2. Verify the triangle inequalities if

z1 = 2 − 3i,
z2 = −1 + 4i,
z1 + z2 = 1 + i,
z1 − z2 = 3 − 7i.
√
|z1 | = 13
√
|z2 | = 17
√
|z1 + z2 | = 2
√
|z1 − z2 | = 58.
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |
√ √ √
2 ≤ 13 + 17 
|z1 − z2 | ≥ |z1 | − |z2 |
√ √ √
58 ≥ 13 − 17 .
∴ triangle inequalities hold. 
Product of Complex Numbers.

The triangle OQR is constructed similar to AOP . A is the point (1, 0).

Multiplication by i, −1, −i.

Multiplication by i, rotation 90◦ (anticlockwise).

Multiplication by −1, rotation 180◦ anticlockwise.

Multiplication by −i, rotation 270◦ anticlockwise

 Lecture 9
Geometric Representation of Locus Problems.

General forms:- |z − z1 | = a represents a circle, centre at z1 radius a units.

Example 1. |z| = 1.

Example 2. |z − 3| = 2.

Example 3. |z − i| = 1.
Example 4. |z − 1 − 2i| = 2
|z − (1 + 2i)| = 2 centre (1, 2), radius 2 units.

Example 5. |z| ≤ 3 (note:- if less than, it is inside, if it is greater than, it is outside.)

Example 6. 2 < |z| ≤ 3.

Example 7. |z| ≤ 4 and 0 ≤ arg z ≤ π

3.
Example 8. 1 ≤ (z) ≤ 2 if z = x + iy,
then (z) = y (& ∴ 1 ≤ y ≤ 2)

Example 9. − π6 < arg z ≤ π

3.

Example 10. 1 ≤ (z) ≤ 2 and (z) ≤ −1

Example 11. 1 ≤ (z) ≤ 2 or (z) ≤ −1

Example 12. |z| ≤ 4 or 0 ≤ arg z ≤ π
3
 Lecture 10
Using Algebra to Represent Locus Problems

Example 1. Show algebraically that |z − 2 − i| = 4 represents a circle with radius 4 units

and centre (2, 1).

|z − 2 − i| = 4.
∴ |x + iy − 2 − i| = 4.
∴ |(x − 2) + i(y − 1)| = 4.

∴ (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 4.
∴ (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 16.
which is a circle centre (2, 1), radius 4 units. 

Example 2. Sketch the curve: (i) (z 2 ) = 3 (ii) (z 2 ) = 4.

(i) (z 2 ) = 3
((x + iy)2 ) = 3
(x2 − y 2 + 2ixy) = 3
x2 − y 2 = 3.
(ii) (z 2 ) = 4.
∴ 2xy = 4.
∴ xy = 2.

Example 3. Describe in geometric terms, the curve described by 2|z| = z + z + 4.

2|z| = z + z + 4.
∴ 2|x + iy| = x + iy + x − iy + 4.

∴ 2 x2 + y 2 = 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2).

∴ x2 + y 2 = x + 2.
∴ x2 + y 2 = (x + 2)2 .
∴ x2 + y 2 = x2 + 4x + 4.
∴ y 2 = 4x + 4.
⇒ sideways parabola at vertex (−1, 0).
Example 4. Sketch the locus of (z + iz) < 2.

(x + iy + i(x + iy)) < 2.

∴ (x + iy + ix − y) < 2.
∴ x − y < 2.

Example 5. If z1 = 1 + i & z2 = 2 + 3i find the locus of z if |z − z1 | = |z − z2 |.

|x + iy − (1 + i)| = |x + iy − (2 + 3i)|.
∴ |(x − 1) + i(y − 1)| = |(x − 2) + i(y − 3)|.
 
(x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = (x − 2)2 + (y − 3)2 .
(x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = (x − 2)2 + (y − 3)2 .
x2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 − 2y + 1 = x2 − 4x + 4 + y 2 − 6y + 9.
∴ 2x + 4y = 11.

N.B. |z − z1 | = |z − z2 | will always be a straight line. It will always be the perpendicular

bisector of the interval joining z1 to z2 .
 Lecture 11
(∗) Note. sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A & cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B.

De Moivres Theorem. (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ.

Proof. (By mathematical induction for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .)

Step 1. Test n = 0.

L.H.S. = (cos θ + i sin θ)0

=1
R.H.S. = cos 0 + i sin 0
=1
= L.H.S.
∴ it is true for n = 0.

Step 2. Assume true for n = k i.e., (cos θ + i sin θ)k = cos kθ + i sin kθ.

Test for n = k + 1.

i.e., L.H.S. = (cos θ + i sin θ)k+1 & R.H.S. = cos(k + 1)θ + i sin(k + 1)θ
= (cos θ + i sin θ)k (cos θ + i sin θ)1
= (cos kθ + i sin kθ)(cos θ + i sin θ)(since we have assumed it true for n = k)
= cos kθ cos θ + i sin θ cos kθ + i sin kθ cos θ − sin kθ sin θ
= cos kθ cos θ − sin kθ sin θ + i(sin θ cos kθ + sin kθ cos θ)
= cos(kθ + θ) + i sin(kθ + θ) (see (∗) above)
= cos(k + 1)θ + i sin(k + 1)θ
= R.H.S.
Step 3. If the result is true for n = 0, then true for n = 0 + 1, i.e., n = 1. If the result is
true for n = 1, then true for n = 1 + 1, i.e., n = 2 ans so on for all nonnegative integers
n 
Example 1. Simplify:
(cos 2θ+i sin 2θ)3
(a) (cos θ − i sin θ)−4 (b) (sin θ − i cos θ)7 (c) (cos θ−i sin θ)4 .

(a) (cos θ − i sin θ)−4 = cos(−4θ) − i sin(−4θ)

= cos 4θ + i sin 4θ 
(b) (sin θ − i cos θ) = (−i cos θ + sin θ)7
7

= −i7 (cos θ − i sin θ)7

= i(cos 7θ − i sin 7θ)
= sin 7θ + i cos 7θ 
(cos 2θ+i sin 2θ)3 (cos θ+i sin θ)6
(c) (cos θ−i sin θ)4 = (cos θ−i sin θ)4
(cos θ+i sin θ)6
= (cos(−θ)+i sin(−θ))4
(cos θ+i sin θ)6
= (cos θ+i sin θ)−4

= (cos θ + i sin θ)10

= cos 10θ + i sin 10θ 
Example 2. Express in the form x + iy:
 6  √ 10
(a) cos π2 + i sin π2 (b) 1 + 3 .

(a) (cos π2 + i sin π2 )6 = cos 6π 6π

2 + i sin 2
= cos 3π + i sin 3π
= −1 + 0i
= −1 
√ 10
(b) (1 + 3) = (2(cos π3 + i sin π3 )10
= 210 (cos 10π
3 + i sin 3 )
10π
 √ 
= 210 − 12 − i 23
√
= −512 − 512i 3 
 Lecture 12
De Moivre’s Theorem and the Argand Diagram
√
Example. If z = 3 + i represent the following on the Argand Diagram:

z, iz, z1 , −z, 2z, z, z 2 + z, z 3 − z

z = 2(cos π6 + i sin π6 )

z −1 = (2(cos π6 + i sin π6 ))−1

= 12 (cos − π6 + i sin − π6 )
= 12 (cos π6 − i sin π6 )
2z = 4(cos π6 + i sin π6 )

z 2 = (2(cos π6 + i sin π6 ))2

= 4(cos π3 + i sin π3 )
z 3 = (2(cos π6 + i sin π6 ))3
= 8(cos π2 + i sin π2 )
Solution on next page.
 Lecture 13
Trigonometric Identities and DeMoivre’s Theorem

π
Example. Obtain cos 6θ in terms of cos θ. Hence show that x = cos(2k + 1) 12 where
k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 is a solution to the equation 32x6 − 48x4 + 18x2 − 1 = 0 and hence deduce
π
that cos 12 . cos 5π 1
12 = 4 .

cos 6θ + i sin 6θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)6 .

Consider using Pascal’s Triangle:

1
11
121
1331
14641
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
..................

For example,
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5
(a + b)6 = a6 + 6a5 b + 15a4 b2 + 20a3 b3 + 15a2 b4 + 6ab5 + b6

cos 6θ + i sin θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)6

= cos6 θ + 6 cos5 θi sin θ + 15 cos4 θ(i sin θ)2 + 20 cos3 θ(i sin θ)3 + 15 cos2 θ(i sin θ)4
+6 cos θ(i sin θ)5 + (i sin θ)6 - from Pascal’s Triangle
= cos6 θ + 6i cos5 θ sin θ − 15 cos4 θ sin2 θ − 20i cos3 θ sin3 θ + 15 cos2 θ sin4 θ + 6i cos θ sin5 θ
− sin6 θ
∴ cos 6θ = cos6 θ − 15 cos4 θ sin2 θ + 15 cos2 θ sin4 θ − sin6 θ − equating parts
= cos6 θ − 15 cos4 θ(1 − cos2 θ) + 15 cos2 θ(1 − cos2 θ)2 − (1 − cos2 θ)3
= cos6 θ − 15 cos4 θ + 15 cos6 θ + 15 cos2 θ(1 − 2 cos2 θ + cos4 θ)
− (1 − 3 cos2 θ + 3 cos4 θ − cos6 θ)
= cos6 θ − 15 cos4 θ + 15 cos6 θ + 15 cos2 θ − 30 cos4 θ + 15 cos6 θ − 1 + 3 cos2 θ
− 3 cos4 θ + cos6 θ
= 32 cos6 θ − 48 cos4 θ + 18 cos2 θ − 1
If cos 6θ = 0, then 6θ = ± π2 , ± 3π
2 , ± 2 , ± 2 , ± 2 , etc.
5π 7π 9π

∴ θ = ± 12
π
, ± 3π
12 , ± 12 , ± 12 , ± 12 , etc.
5π 7π 9π
 = 2k+1
12 π for k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±5, . . .

∴ these are the roots of 32 cos6 θ − 48 cos4 θ + 18 cos2 θ − 1 = 0.

Now if x = cos θ, then 32x6 − 48x4 + 18x2 − 1 = 0 has roots

π
x = cos 12 , cos 3π 5π 7π 9π 11π
12 , cos 12 , cos 12 , cos 12 , cos 12

= cos 2k+1
12 π for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (six roots because we have degree six).

Product of roots of 32x6 − 48x4 + 18x2 − 1 = 0 is − 32

1
.

∴ cos 12
π
· cos 3π
12 · cos 12 · cos 12 · cos 12 · cos 12 = − 32
5π 7π 9π 11π 1

∴ cos 12
π
· √1
2
· cos 5π
12 · cos 12 · (− 2 ) · cos 12 = − 32
7π √1 11π 1

∴ cos 12
π
· cos 5π
12 · cos 12 · cos 12 =
7π 11π 1
16

12 = − cos 12 and cos 12 = − cos 12 .

But cos 11π π 7π 5π

∴ cos2 π
12 · cos2 5π
12 = 1
16

∴ cos 12
π
· cos 5π
12 =
1
4 
 Lecture 14
Example. If z = cos θ + i sin θ, show that z n + z1n = 2 cos nθ. Hence or otherwise obtain
π
an expression for cos5 θ in terms of cos nθ and then evaluate 02 cos5 θ dθ.

z = cos θ + i sin θ
z n = (cos θ + i sin θ)n
= cos nθ + i sin nθ
1
n
= z −n = (cos θ + i sin θ)−n
z
= cos −nθ + i sin −nθ
= cos nθ − i sin nθ.
1
∴ zn + = (cos nθ + i sin nθ) + (cos nθ − i sin nθ)
zn
= 2 cos nθ.
Pascal’s :
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
14 6 41
1 5 10 10 5 1
 5    2  3  4  5
1 5 14 3 1 2 1 1 1
z+ = z + 5z + 10z + 10z + 5z +
z z z z z z
10 5 1
= z 5 + 5z 3 + 10z + + 3+ 5
 z z z 
5 1 3 1 1
= z + 5 + 5 z + 3 + 10 z +
z z z
1
Now : − z n + n = 2 cos nθ.
z
1
∴ z + = 2 cos θ,
z
1
z 3 + 3 = 2 cos 3θ,
z
5 1
& z + 5 = 2 cos 5θ.
z
∴ (2 cos θ) = 2 cos 5θ + 5 · 2 cos 3θ + 10 · 2 cos θ
5

32 cos5 θ = 2 cos 5θ + 10 cos 3θ + 20 cos θ

 
∴ cos5 θ = 321
2 cos 5θ + 10 cos 3θ + 20 cos θ
1
= 16 (cos 5θ + 5 cos 3θ + 10 cos θ)
  π
2
 π
2
& ∴ 5
cos θ dθ = 1
16 (cos 5θ + 5 cos 3θ + 10 cos θ) dθ
0 0

1 sin 5θ
π
= 16 5 + 53 sin 3θ + 10 sin θ 02
   
= 1
16
1
sin 5π
+ 5
sin 3π
+ 10 sin π
− 0
 5 5 2 2 2 2

16 5 − 3 + 10
1 1
=
= 8
15 
5
N.B. Similar expressions can be found for sin θ:
1
zn − = (cos nθ + i sin nθ) − (cos nθ − i sin nθ)
zn
= 2i sin nθ.
 5  2  3  4  5
1 4 1 3 1 2 1 1 1
z− = z − 5 · z · + 10z
5
− 10z + 5z −
z z z z z z
     
1 1 1
= z 5 − 5 − 5 z 3 − 3 + 10 z −
z z z
∴ (2i sin θ) = 2i sin 5θ − 5 · 2i sin 3θ + 10 · 2i sin θ
5

32i5 sin5 θ = 2i sin 5θ − 10i sin 3θ + 20i sin θ (Note : i5 = i)

sin5 θ = 32 (2 sin 5θ − 10 sin 3θ + 20 sin θ)
1
(dividing by 32i)
= 161
(sin 5θ − 5 sin 3θ + 10 sin θ)
    1
&∴ sin5 θ dθ = 161 1
(sin 5θ−5 sin 3θ+10 sin θ) dθ = 16 − 5 cos 5θ+ 53 cos 3θ−10 cos θ)+C)
 Lecture 15
Complex Roots of Unity.

If z n = ±1 has n roots, all lying on the unit circle in the argand diagram evenly spaced,
for example:

For z n = 1:
• n is odd, 1 real root and n − 1 non-real complex roots.
• n even, 2 real roots, n − 2 non-real complex roots.
z n = −1 has n complex roots.

Example. Solve z 7 = 1 and show the roots on the argand diagram. Hence show that
7 + cos 7 + cos 7 = − 2 .
cos 2π 4π 6π 1

If z = cos θ + i sin θ (modulus 1 because |z 7 | = |z|7 = 1 & ∴ |z| = 1),

z 7 = (cos θ + i sin θ)7 = 1
= cos 7θ + i sin 7θ = 1.
Equating real parts,
cos 7θ = 1
7θ = 0, 2π, 4π, 6π, 8π, 10π, 12π, . . .
θ = 0, 2π 4π 6π 8π 10π 12π
7 , 7 , 7 , 7 , 7 , 7 ,...
∴ roots are z1 = cos 0 + i sin 0 = 1
z2 = cos 2π 2π
7 + i sin 7 = α
z3 = cos 4π 4π
7 + i sin 7 = α
2

z4 = cos 6π 6π
7 + i sin 7 = α
3

z5 = cos 8π 8π
7 + i sin 7 = α
4

z6 = cos 10π 10π

7 + i sin 7 = α
5

z7 = cos 12π 12π

7 + i sin 7 = α
6

(7 solutions because degree of polynomial equation z 7 = 1 is 7.)

 cos 8π 7 = − sin 7
6π
7 = cos 7 sin 8π 6π

cos 10π 7 = − sin 7 .

4π
7 = cos 7 sin 10π 4π

cos 12π 7 = − sin 7

2π
7 = cos 7 sin 12π 2π

& ∴ the roots for − π < arg z ≤ π, are :

z1 = 1
z2 = cos 2π 2π
7 + i sin 7 = z7 = α
z3 = cos 4π 4π
7 + i sin 7 = z6 = α
2

z4 = cos 6π 6π
7 + i sin 7 = z5 = α
3

−3
7 − i sin 7 = z4 = α
z5 = cos 6π 6π

−2
7 − i sin 7 = z3 = α
z6 = cos 4π 4π

−1
7 − i sin 7 = z2 = α
z7 = cos 2π 2π

i.e., the complex roots of unity always occur as pairs

(Note: an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a0 = 0, then sum of roots = − ab .)

z7 = 1
z7 − 1 = 0
& ∴ sum of roots = 0 (since coefficients of z 6 is 0.)
∴ z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 + z5 + z6 + z7 = 0
& ∴ 1 + 2 cos 2π 4π 6π
7 + 2 cos 7 + 2 cos 7 = 0

7 + 2 cos 7 + 2 cos 7 = −1
2 cos 2π 4π 6π

7 + cos 7 + cos 7 = − 2
cos 2π 4π 6π 1