Extra Credits

Unit 7

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): molecules power activities at the cellular level.

Glycolysis: occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell, is the breakdown

of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate.

Fermentation: involves glycolysis followed by the reduction of pyruvate by

NADH, either to lactate or to alcohol and CO2.
Cellular Respiration: produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from organic
molecules, particularly glucose.
Citric Acid Cycle: is a cyclical metabolic pathway located in the matrix of mitochondria.
Electron Transport Chain: is a series of electron carriers in the cristae
of mitochondria.

UNIT 8

DNA Replication: the process by which a cell copies its DNA.

Cell Cycle: is an orderly sequence of stages that take place between the time a new cell has
arisen from the division of the parent cell to the point when it has given rise to two daughter
cells.

Centrosome: is the primary microtubule organizing center of a cell.

Cancer: is a genetic disease caused by a lack of control in the cell cycle.

Metastasis: cells from a malignant tumor may travel through the blood or lymph
to start new tumors elsewhere within the body.

Checkpoints: are points at which chemical signals promote or inhibit the

continuance of the cell cycle.
UNIT 9

Life Cycle: in sexually reproducing organisms refers to all the reproductive

events that occur from one generation to the next.

Down Syndrome: also called trisomy 21, is a condition in which an individual

has three copies of chromosome 21.
Meiosis: is a type of nuclear division that reduces the chromosome number
and shuffles the genes between chromosomes.
Turner Syndrome: An XO individual inherits only one X chromosome.
This individual survives because, even in an XX individual.
Klinefelter Syndrome: An XXY individual inherits two (or more) X chromosomes and a Y
chromosome.

Crossing-Over: crossing-over between nonsister chromatids during meiosis I shuffles the alleles
on the chromosomes, so that each sister chromatid of a homologue has a different mix of
alleles.

UNIT 10

Genotype: refers to the combination of alleles in a cell or organism.

Homozygous: an organism with two identical alleles for a trait.
Heterozygous: individuals who have two different alleles.

Phenotype: refers to the physical appearance of the individual.

Pedigree: is a chart of a family’s history with regard to a particular genetic

trait.

Incomplete Dominance: occurs when the heterozygote is intermediate between

the two homozygotes.
UNIT 11

DNA Replication: refers to the process of making an identical copy of a DNA molecule.

Chromatin Condensation: eukaryotes utilize chromatin condensation as a

way to keep genes turned on or off.

Transcription: an RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, the regulatory region at the start of
the gene.

Epigenetic Inheritance: represents an inheritable form of regulation of gene expression, as is

the case with X-inactivation.

Cell Signaling: occurs because a chemical signal binds to a receptor protein in a target cell’s
plasma membrane.

Elongation Cycle: during the elongation cycle, the polypeptide chain

increases in length one amino acid at a time.

UNIT 12

Biotechnology: refers to the use of natural biological systems to create a product or achieve
some other end desired by humans.

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO): is one whose genome has been modified in some way,
usually by using recombinant DNA technology.

Recombinant DNA (rDNA): contains genes from two or more different sources.

Proteomics: explores the structure and function of cellular proteins and examines how
they interact to contribute to the production of traits.

Bioinformatics: is the application of computer technologies to the study

of the genome and proteome.

Genomics: is the study of a genome; the sum of an organism’s genes and

intergenic DNA.