Biology Study Guide

Vocab
Chapter 5 Section 1

· The cell cycle is the regular pattern of growth, DNA duplication, and cell division that
occurs in eukaryotes cells.

· Mitosis: Is the division of the cell to make two identical cells.

· Cytokinesis: is the process that the divides the cell cytoplasm

Section 2

· A chromosome: is one long continuous thread of DNA that consists of numerous genes
along with regulatory information.

· Histones: a group of proteins associated with each chromosome

· ChromatinThe complex of protein and DNA that makes up the chromosome

· Chromatid: One half of a duplicated chromosome

· Centromere: The point where sister chromatids are held

· Sister Chromatids: two halves of a duplicated chromosomes

· Telomere: The ends of the DNA molecules that do not form genes

Section 3

· Growth Factors: are a broad group of proteins that stimulate cell division

· Apoptosis: Is programmed cell death.

· Cancer: Is uncontrolled cell division

· Benign: tumor of the cancer cells that remain clustered together

· Malignant: tumor when the cancer cells break away

· Metastasize: breakage of cancer cells

· Carcinogens: Substances known to promote the development of cancer

· Oncogenes: is a mutated gene that has the potential to cause cancer.

Section 4

· asexual reproduction: is the production of offspring from a single parent and does not involve
the joining of gametes

· Sexual reproduction; is the production of offspring that requires two parents and involves the
joining of gametes

· Binary fission: The asexual reproduction of a single-celled organism by which the cell divides into
two cells of the same size

Section 5

· tissue: are a group of cells that work together to carry out a function

· Organs: Groups of tissues that work together for a related function

· Organ system: Organs that carry out similar functions

· Cell differentiation: is the process in which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or
function

· Stem cells: are Undifferianted biological cells that can differentiate into specialized cells

Chapter 6

Section 1

· Somatic cells: all your body cells except your gametes

· Gametes: All your sex cells

· Homologous chromosomes: are two separate chromosomes one inherited from the mother and
one from the father

· Autosomes: 22 pairs of Chromosomes

· Sex chromosomes: 23 pair of chromosome that determines the sex of the organism.

· Fertilization: when sperm meets egg

· Diploid: Somatic cells

· Haploid: Gametes

· Meiosis is a form of nuclear division that divides a diploid cell into haploid cells.

Section 2
 · Gametogenesis: is the production of gametes

· sperm: male gametes

· egg: female gametes

· polar bodies: cells with a little more DNA that is eventually broken down

Section 3

· trait: are distinguishing characteristics that are inherited

· Genetics: is the study of biological inheritance patterns and variations in an organism

· Purebred: plants where all its generation has the same trait

· Cross: the mating of two organisms

Section 4

· gene: is a piece of DNA that provides a set of instructions to a cell to make a certain protein

· allele: is an alternative form of a gene that may occur at a specific locus

· locus is the location of a specific characteristic of your genes

· Homozygous: describes two of the same alleles at a specific locus

· Heterozygous: describes two different alleles at a specific locus

· Genome: is all of an organism's genetic material

· Genotype: refers to the genetic makeup of a specific set of genes

· Phenotype: the physical characteristics or traits of an individual organism make up

· dominant: is the allele that is expressed when two different alleles or two dominant alleles are
present

· Recessive: is the allele that is expressed only when two copies are present

Section 5

· Punnet Square: is a grid system for predicting all possible genotypes resulting from a cross

· Monohybrid Crosses: Crosses that examine the inheritance of only one specific trait

· Testcross: Is a cross between an organism with an unknown genotype and an organism with the
recessive genotype
Diagrams

The cell cycle has four main stages: gap 1, Synthesis, gap 2, and mitosis.

Interphase: In this process, there are three stages: gap 1, gap 2, gap 3

Gap 1: the cells grow in size, they get more organelles, carry out functions and go through checkpoints.

DNA synthesis: the DNA is duplicated

Gap 2: The cell grows more in size, gets more organelles, carries out more functions, and goes through
more checkpoints
Mitosis has four stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase

Prophase: DNA and proteins condense into tightly coiled chromosomes. The nuclear envelope breaks
down, centrioles begin to move to opposite poles, and spindle fiber forms.

Metaphase: Spindle fibers attach to each chromosome they align the chromosomes along the cell
equator.

Anaphase: chromatids separate to opposite sides of the cells. Cytokinesis usually begins in late anaphase
or telophase.

Telophase: Nuclear membranes start to form, chromosomes begin to uncoil, and the spindle fibers fall
apart.

Miosis
Miosis: has two parts

Miosis 1 consists of prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, and telophase 1.

· Prophase 1: The nuclear membrane breaks down. The centrioles and centrosomes begin to
move and the spindle fibers start to assemble. The duplicated chromosomes condense and the
homologous chromosomes begin to pair up.
 · Metaphase 1: Spindle fibers align the homologous chromosomes along the cell's equator. Each
side of the equator has the chromosomes from both parents.

· Anaphase 1: The paired homologous chromosomes separate from each other and move towards
opposite sides of the cell. Sister chromatids remain attached.

· Telophase 1: The spindle fibers disassemble and the cell undergoes cytokinesis.

Miosis 2 consists of Prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2, and Telophase 2.

· Prophase 2: The centrosomes and centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell, and spindle
fibers start to assemble.

· Metaphase 2: Spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the cell equator.

· Anaphase 2: The sister chromatids are pulled apart from each other and moved to opposite
sides of the cell.

· Telophase 2: The nuclear membranes form again around the chromosomes, the spindle fibers
break apart, and the cell undergoes cytokinesis.
Notes
There are two types of growth factors External and Internal factors.

External factors include physical and chemical. One example of a Physical External factor is cell-to-cell
contact. Meaning if a cell is dividing and makes contact with another cell it stops dividing. Chemical
External Factors work by a cell sending chemical signals known as a growth factor to another cell. In
general, cells grow and divide in response to a combination of different growth factors, not just one. The
two types of internal factors are Cyclins and kinases. Cyclins regulate the cell cycle both by promoting
activities for their respective stages and by inhibiting activities for future cell cycle stages that must not
yet be reached. Therefore cyclins must be able to be both generated and degraded for the cell cycle to
proceed. Kinesis help regulate cell growth when they are activated by cyclins.

Apoptosis occurs when internal or external signals activate genes that help produce self-destructive
enzymes.

Cancer is a disease either caused by mutation or toxic substances. It can be benign or malignant. Cancer
can be treated by radiation or Chemotherapy.

The level of organizations are cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms.
Mendel took two purebred pea plants one purple and the other one white. He picked purebred so any
changes made in the experiment is only done by him. He crossed the two of them. The resulting
offspring, called the first filial or F1, all had purple flowers. The trait of white seemed to disappear. When
mendel allowed the F1 generation to self fertilize, the resulting F2 generation produced both plant with
purple flowers and plants with white flowers. From these observations he drew three conclusions. He
demonstrated that traits are inherited as discrete units, which provided an explanation for individual
traits that persisted without being blended or diluted over successive generations.

The other two are shown in the law of segregation.

· Organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent.

· Organisms donate only one cop of each gene in their gametes. Thus the two copies separate.