Biology Study Guide

Vocab

Chapter 5 Section 1

 The cell cycle is the regular pattern of growth, DNA duplication, and cell division that
occurs in eukaryotes cells.

 Mitosis: Is the division of the cell to make two identical cells.

 Cytokinesis: is the process that divides the cell cytoplasm

Section 2

 A chromosome: is one long continuous thread of DNA that consists of numerous genes
along with regulatory information.

 Histones: a group of proteins associated with each chromosome

 Chromatin: The complex of protein and DNA that makes up the chromosome

 Chromatid: One half of a duplicated chromosome

 Centromere: The point where sister chromatids are held

 Sister Chromatids: two halves of a duplicated chromosomes

 Telomere: The ends of the DNA molecules that do not form genes

Section 3

 Growth Factors: are a broad group of proteins that stimulate cell division

 Apoptosis: Is programmed cell death.

 Cancer: Is uncontrolled cell division

A tumor is a mass or group of abnormal cells that form in the body. If you have a tumor,
it isn’t necessarily cancer. Many tumors are benign (not cancerous)

 Benign: tumor of the cancer cells that remain clustered together

 Malignant: tumor when the cancer cells break away

 Metastasize: breakage of cancer cells

 Carcinogens: Substances known to promote the development of cancer

  Oncogenes: is a mutated gene that has the potential to cause cancer.

Section 4

 asexual reproduction: is the production of offspring from a single parent and does not
involve the joining of gametes

 Sexual reproduction; is the production of offspring that requires two parents and involves
the joining of gametes

 Binary fission: The asexual reproduction of a single-celled organism by which the cell
divides into two cells of the same size

Section 5

 tissue: are a group of cells that work together to carry out a function

 Organs: Groups of tissues that work together for a related function

 Organ system: Organs that carry out similar functions

 Cell differentiation: is the process in which a cell becomes specialized for a specific
structure or function

 Stem cells: are Undifferianted biological cells that can differentiate into specialized cells

Chapter 6

Section 1

 Somatic cells: all your body cells except your gametes

 Gametes: All your sex cells

 Homologous chromosomes: are two separate chromosomes one inherited from the
mother and one from the father.

 Autosomes: 22 pairs of Chromosomes

 Sex chromosomes: 23 pair of chromosome that determines the sex of the organism.

 Fertilization: when sperm meets egg

 Diploid: Somatic cells

  Haploid: Gametes

 Meiosis is a form of nuclear division that divides a diploid cell into haploid cells.

Section 2

 Gametogenesis: is the production of gametes

 sperm: male gametes

 egg: female gametes

 polar bodies: cells with a little more DNA that is eventually broken down

Section 3

 trait: are distinguishing characteristics that are inherited

 Genetics: is the study of biological inheritance patterns and variations in an organism

 Purebred: plants where all its generation has the same trait

 Cross: the mating of two organisms

Section 4

 gene: is a piece of DNA that provides a set of instructions to a cell to make a certain
protein

 allele: is an alternative form of a gene that may occur at a specific locus

 locus is the location of a specific characteristic of your genes

 Homozygous: describes two of the same alleles at a specific locus

 Heterozygous: describes two different alleles at a specific locus

 Genome: is all of an organism's genetic material

 Genotype: refers to the genetic makeup of a specific set of genes

 Phenotype: the physical characteristics or traits of an individual organism make up

 dominant: is the allele that is expressed when two different alleles or two dominant
alleles are present

 Recessive: is the allele that is expressed only when two copies are present
Section 5

 Punnet Square: is a grid system for predicting all possible genotypes resulting from a
cross

 Monohybrid Crosses: Crosses that examine the inheritance of only one specific trait

 Testcross: Is a cross between an organism with an unknown genotype and an organism

with the recessive genotype

Diagrams

The cell cycle has four main stages: gap 1, Synthesis, gap 2, and mitosis.

Interphase: In this process, there are three stages: gap 1, gap 2, gap 3
Gap 1: the cells grow in size, they get more organelles, carry out functions and go through
checkpoints.
DNA synthesis: the DNA is duplicated
Gap 2: The cell grows more in size, gets more organelles, carries out more functions, and goes
through more checkpoints
Mitosis has four stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase
Prophase: DNA and proteins condense into tightly coiled chromosomes. The nuclear envelope
breaks down, centrioles begin to move to opposite poles, and spindle fiber forms.
Metaphase: Spindle fibers attach to each chromosome they align the chromosomes along the cell
equator.
Anaphase: chromatids separate to opposite sides of the cells. Cytokinesis usually begins in late
anaphase or telophase.
Telophase: Nuclear membranes start to form, chromosomes begin to uncoil, and the spindle
fibers fall apart.

Miosis
Miosis: has two parts
Miosis 1 consists of prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, and telophase 1.

 Prophase 1: The nuclear membrane breaks down. The centrioles and centrosomes begin
to move and the spindle fibers start to assemble. The duplicated chromosomes condense
and the homologous chromosomes begin to pair up.
  Metaphase 1: Spindle fibers align the homologous chromosomes along the cell's equator.
Each side of the equator has the chromosomes from both parents.

 Anaphase 1: The paired homologous chromosomes separate from each other and move
towards opposite sides of the cell. Sister chromatids remain attached.

 Telophase 1: The spindle fibers disassemble and the cell undergoes cytokinesis.
Miosis 2 consists of Prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2, and Telophase 2.

 Prophase 2: The centrosomes and centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell, and
spindle fibers start to assemble.

 Metaphase 2: Spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the cell equator.

 Anaphase 2: The sister chromatids are pulled apart from each other and moved to
opposite sides of the cell.

 Telophase 2: The nuclear membranes form again around the chromosomes, the spindle
fibers break apart, and the cell undergoes cytokinesis.
Notes
There are two types of growth factors External and Internal factors.
External factors include physical and chemical. One example of a Physical External factor is
cell-to-cell contact. Meaning if a cell is dividing and makes contact with another cell it stops
dividing. Chemical External Factors work by a cell sending chemical signals known as a growth
factor to another cell. In general, cells grow and divide in response to a combination of different
growth factors, not just one. The two types of internal factors are Cyclins and kinases. Cyclins
regulate the cell cycle both by promoting activities for their respective stages and by inhibiting
activities for future cell cycle stages that must not yet be reached. Therefore cyclins must be able
to be both generated and degraded for the cell cycle to proceed. Kinesis help regulate cell growth
when they are activated by cyclins.
Apoptosis occurs when internal or external signals activate genes that help produce self-
destructive enzymes.
Cancer is a disease either caused by mutation or toxic substances. It can be benign or malignant.
Cancer can be treated by radiation or Chemotherapy.
The level of organizations are cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms.
Mendel took two purebred pea plants one purple and the other one white. He picked purebred so
any changes made in the experiment is only done by him. He crossed the two of them. The
resulting offspring, called the first filial or F1, all had purple flowers. The trait of white seemed
to disappear. When mendel allowed the F1 generation to self fertilize, the resulting F2 generation
produced both plant with purple flowers and plants with white flowers. From these observations
he drew three conclusions. He demonstrated that traits are inherited as discrete units, which
provided an explanation for individual traits that persisted without being blended or diluted over
successive generations.
The other two are shown in the law of segregation.

 Organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent.

 Organisms donate only one cop of each gene in their gametes. Thus the two copies
separate.