Mechanicalvibrations Lecturesuptomdofsystems 160614172727 PDF

1 Mechanical Vibrations - Introduction
Mechanical Vibrations
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Some Figures Courtesy Addison Wesley
CONTENT
• Fundamentals of vibrations
• Single degree-of-freedom systems
• Free vibrations
• Harmonic forcing functions
• General forcing functions
• Two degree-of-freedom systems
• Free vibrations
• Forced vibrations
• Multi degree-of-freedom systems
• Free vibrations
• Forced vibrations
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Mechanical vibrations
• Defined as oscillatory motion of bodies in response to disturbance.

• Oscillations occur due to the presence of a restoring force
• Vibrations are everywhere:
• Human body: eardrums, vocal cords, walking and running
• Vehicles: residual imbalance of engines, locomotive wheels
• Rotating machinery: Turbines, pumps, fans, reciprocating machines
• Musical instruments
• Excessive vibrations can have detrimental effects:
• Noise
• Loosening of fasteners
• Tool chatter
• Fatigue failure
• Discomfort
• When vibration frequency coincides with natural frequency, resonance occurs.
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• Aeolian, wind-induced or vortex-induced vibration of the Tacoma Narrows bridge on 7 November 1940 caused it
to resonate resulting in catastrophic failure.
Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse Video
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• Millennium Bridge, London: Pedestrians, in reaction to lateral motion of the bridge, altered their gait and started
behaving in concert to induce the structure to resonate further (forced periodic excitation):
Video link
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Fundamentals
• In simple terms, a vibratory system involves the transfer of potential energy to kinetic energy and vice-versa in
alternating fashion.
• When there is a mechanism for dissipating energy (damping) the oscillation gradually diminishes.
• In general, a vibratory system consists of three basic components:
• A means of storing potential energy (spring, gravity)
• A means of storing kinetic energy (mass, inertial component)
• A means to dissipate vibrational energy (damper)
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Fundamentals
• This can be observed with a pendulum:

• At position 1: the kinetic energy is zero and the potential energy is
mgl(1 − cos θ )
• At position 2: the kinetic energy is at its

maximum
• At position 3: the kinetic energy is again
zero and the potential energy at its
maximum.
• In this case the oscillation will eventually stop
due to aerodynamic drag and pivot friction →
HEAT
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Degrees of Freedom
• The number of degrees of freedom : number of independent coordinates required to completely determine the
motion of all parts of the system at any time.
• Examples of single degree of freedom systems:
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Degrees of Freedom
• Examples of two degree of freedom systems:
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Degrees of Freedom
• Examples of three degree of freedom systems:
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Discrete and continuous systems
• Many practical systems small and large or structures can be describe with a finite number of DoF. These are
referred to as discrete or lumped parameter systems
• Some large structures (especially with continuous elastic elements) have an infinite number of DoF These are
referred to as continuous or distributed systems.
• In most cases, for practical reasons, continuous systems are approximated as discrete systems with sufficiently
large numbers lumped masses, springs and dampers. This equates to a large number of degrees of freedom
which affords better accuracy.
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Classification of Vibration
• Free and Forced vibrations

• Free vibration: Initial disturbance, system left to vibrate without influence of external forces.
• Forced vibration: Vibrating system is stimulated by external forces. If excitation frequency coincides with
natural frequency, resonance occurs.
• Undamped and damped vibration

• Undamped vibration: No dissipation of energy. In many cases, damping is (negligibly) small (steel 1 –
1.5%). However small, damping has critical importance when analysing systems at or near resonance.
• Damped vibration: Dissipation of energy occurs - vibration amplitude decays.
• Linear and nonlinear vibration

• Linear vibration: Elements (mass, spring, damper) behave linearly. Superposition holds - double
excitation level = double response level, mathematical solutions well defined.
• Nonlinear vibration: One or more element behave in nonlinear fashion (examples). Superposition does
not hold, and analysis technique not clearly defined.
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Classification of Vibration
• Deterministic and Random vibrations

• Deterministic vibration: Can be described by implicit mathematical function as a function of time.
• Random vibration: Cannot be predicted. Process can be described by statistical means.
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Vibration Analysis
• Input (excitation) and output (response) are wrt time

• Response depend on initial conditions and external forces
• Most practical systems very complex – (mathematical) modelling requires simplification
• Procedure:
→ Mathematical modelling
→ Derivation / statement of governing equations
→ Solving of equations for specific boundary conditions and external forces
→ Interpretation of solution(s)
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Vibration Analysis
17:22:35 Example (1.3 Ed.3)

Spring Elements
• Pure spring element considered to have negligible mass and damping

• Force proportional to spring deflection (relative motion between ends):
F = k ∆x
• For linear springs, the potential energy stored is:
2
U = 12 k ( ∆x )
• Actual springs sometimes behave in

nonlinear fashion
• Important to recognize the presence and
significance (magnitude) of nonlinearity
• Desirable to generate linear estimate
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Spring Elements
• Equivalent spring constant.

• Eg: cantilever beam: Mass of beam assumed negligible cf lumped mass
• Deflection at free end:
mgl 3
δ=
3EI
• Stiffness (Force/defln):
mg 3EI
k= = 3
δ l
• This procedure can be applied for various geometries and
boundary conditions. (see appendix)
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Spring Elements

• Springs in parallel:
w =mg=kδ1 +k 2δ
w=mg=keqδ
• where
keq =k1 + k2
• In general, for n springs in parallel:
i=n
keq = ∑ ki
i=1
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Spring Elements

• Springs in series:
δt =δ1 + δ2
• Both springs are subjected to the same

force:
mg = k1δ 1 = k2δ 2
mg=keqδ t
• Combining the above equations:
k1δ 1 = k2δ 2 = keqδ t
keqδ t keqδ t
δ 1= and δ 2 =
k k2
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Spring Elements
• Springs in series (cont’d):
• Substituting into first eqn:
keqδ t keqδ t
δt = +
k1 k2
• Dividing by keqδt throughout:
1 1 1
= +
keq k1 k2
• For n springs in series:
1 i=n  1 
=∑  
keq i=1  ki 
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Spring Elements
• When springs are connected to rigid components such as pulleys and gears, the energy equivalence
principle must be used.
• Example:
Example (1.10 Ed.3)
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Mass / Inertia Elements

• Mass or inertia element assumed rigid (lumped mass)
• Its energy (kinetic) is proportional to velocity.
• Force ∝ mass * acceleration
• Work = force * displacement
• Work done on mass is stored as Kinetic Energy
• Modelling with lumped mass elements. Example: assume

frame mass is negligible cf mass of floors.
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• Equivalent mass - example:
• The velocities of the mass elements can be written as:
l2 l3
&x2 = &x1 and &x3 = &x1
l1 l1
• To determine the equivalent mass at position l1:
&xeq = &x1
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• Equivalent mass – example (cont’d)
• Equating the kinetic energies:
1 m &x 2 + 21 m2&x 22 + 21 m3&x 32 = 21 meq&x eq

2
2 1 1
• Substituting for the velocity terms:

2 2
l  l 
meq = m1 +  2 ÷ m2 +  3 ÷ m3
 l1   l1 
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Damping Elements
• Absorbs energy from vibratory system → vibration amplitude decays.
• Damping element considered to have no mass or elasticity
• Real damping systems very complex, damping modelled as:
• Viscous damping:
• Based on viscous fluid flowing through gap or orifice.
• Eg: film between sliding surfaces, flow b/w piston & cylinder, flow thru orifice, film around journal
bearing.
• Damping force ∝ relative velocity between ends
• Coulomb (dry Friction) damping:

• Based on friction between unlubricated surfaces
• Damping force is constant and opposite the direction of motion
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Damping Elements
• Hysteretic (material or solid) damping:

• Based on plastic deformation of materials (energy loss due to slippage b/w grains)
• Energy lost due to hysteresis loop in force-deflection (stress-strain) curve of element when load is
applied:
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Damping Elements
• Equivalent damping element:

• Combinations of damping elements can be replace by equivalent damper using same procedures as
for spring and mass/inertia elements.
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Damping Elements
FORD AU IRS
0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Force [KN]
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Velocity [m/s]
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Harmonic Motion
• Harmonic motion: simplest form of periodic motion

(deterministic).
• Pure sinusoidal (co-sinusoidal) motion
• Eg: Scotch-yoke mechanism rotating with angular
velocity ω - simple harmonic motion:
• The motion of mass m is described by:
x = Asin( θ ) = A sin( ωt )
• Its velocity and acceleration are:
dx
= ω A cos( ωt )
dt
and
d 2x
= − ω 2 A sin( ωt ) = − ω 2 x
dt 2
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Harmonic Motion
• Sinusoidal motion emanates from cyclic motion

• Can be represented by a vector (OP) with a magnitude, angular velocity
(frequency) and phase.
• The rotating vector generates a sinusoidal and a co-sinusoidal components along
mutually perpendicular axes.
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Harmonic Motion
• Often convenient to represent sinusoidal and co-sinusoidal components (mutually

perpendicular) in complex number format
• Where a and b denote the sinusoidal (x) and co-sinusoidal (y) components
• a and b = real and imaginary parted of vector X
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Harmonic Motion
Definition of terms:
• Cycle: motion of body from equilibrium position → extreme position → equilibrium position → extreme position
in other direction → equilibrium position .
• Amplitude: Maximum value of motion from equilibrium. (Peak – Peak = 2 x amplitude)
• Period: Time taken to complete one cycle
2π
τ=
ω
ω = circular frequency
• Frequency: number of cycles per unit time.
1 ω
f = =
τ 2π
ω : radians/s f Hertz (cycles /s)
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Harmonic Motion
• Phase angle: the difference in angle (lead or lag) by which two harmonic motions of the same frequency
reach their corresponding value (maxima, minima, zero up-cross, zero down-cross)
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Harmonic Motion
• Phase angle: the difference in angle (lead or lag) by which two harmonic motions of the same frequency
reach their corresponding value (maxima, minima, zero up-cross, zero down-cross)
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Harmonic Motion
• Natural frequency: the frequency at which a system vibrates without external forces after an initial
disturbance. The number of natural frequencies always matches the number of DoF.
• Beats: the effect produced by adding two harmonic motions with similar (close) frequencies.
x1 = A sin( ωt ) x2 = A sin( ωt + δωt )
xt = x1 + x2 = A [sin( ωt ) + sin( ωt + δωt )]
M +N M −N
Since sin M + sin N = 2 sin cos
2 2
δωt   δωt 
xt = 2 A sin  ωt + cos
÷  ÷
 2   2 
Eg: ω=40 Hz and δ= -0.075
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In mechanical vibratory systems, beats occur when the (harmonic) excitation (forcing) frequency is close to
the natural frequency.
Harmonic Motion
• Octave: doubling of any quantity. Used mainly for frequency.

• Octave band (frequency): maximum is double of minimum. Eg: 64 – 128 Hz, 1000 – 2000 Hz.
• Decibel: defined as 10 x log(power ratio)
P
dB = 10Log  ÷
 P0 
In electrical systems (as in mechanical vibratory systems) power is proportional to the value squared hence:
 X 
dB = 20Log  ÷
 X0 
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Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis
• Many vibratory systems not harmonic but often periodic

• Any periodic function can be represented by the Fourier series – infinite sum of sinusoids and co-sinusoids.
ao
x( t ) = + a1 cos( ωt ) + a2 cos( 2ωt ) + ........
2
+ b1 sin( ωt ) + b2 sin( 2ωt ) + .......
ao ∞
= + ∑ [an cos( nωt ) + bn sin( nωt )]
2 n =1
• To obtain an and bn the series is multiplied by cos(nωt) and sin(nωt) respectively and integrated over one
period.
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• Example:
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• Example:
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• As for simple harmonic motion, Fourier series can be expressed with complex numbers:
eiωt = cos( ωt ) + i sin( ωt )

e −iωt = cos( ωt ) − i sin( ωt )
eiωt + e −iωt
cos( ωt ) =
2
eiωt − e −iωt
sin( ωt ) =
2i
• The Fourier series:
ao ∞
x( t ) = + ∑ [an cos( nω t ) + bn sin( nω t )]
2 n =1
Can be written as:
ao ∞   eiω t + e −iω t   eiω t − e−iω t  

x( t ) = + ∑ an  ÷ +b
2 n =1   2 ÷ n  2i
÷
÷
   
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• Defining the complex Fourier coefficients

an − ibn an + ibn
cn = and cn −1 =
2 2
• The (complex) Fourier series is simplified to:
∞
x( t ) = ∑ cn einωt
n =−∞
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ao ∞
x( t ) = + ∑ [an cos( nω t ) + bn sin( nω t )]
2 n =1
• The Fourier series is made-up of harmonics.

• Their amplitudes and phases are defined as:
An = ( an2 + bn2 )
harmonics
b 
φn = a tan  n ÷
 an 
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• The amplitudes (magnitudes) and phases of the harmonics can be plotted as a function of frequency to form
the frequency spectrum of spectral diagram:
An
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44 Mechanical Vibrations – Single Degree-of-Freedom systems
Free undamped vibration single DoF
• Recall: Free vibrations → system given initial disturbance and oscillates free of external forces.
• Undamped: no decay of vibration amplitude
• Single DoF:
• mass treated as rigid, limped (particle)
• Elasticity idealised by single spring
• only one natural frequency.
• The equation of motion can be derived using

• Newton’s second law of motion
• D’Alembert’s Principle,
• The principle of virtual displacements and,
• The principle of conservation of energy.
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• Using Newton’s second law of motion to develop the equation of motion.
1. Select suitable coordinates
2. Establish (static) equilibrium position
3. Draw free-body-diagram of mass
4. Use FBD to apply Newton’s second law of motion:
“Rate of change of momentum = applied force”
d  dx( t ) 
F( t ) = m ÷
dt  dt 
As m is constant
d 2 x( t )
F( t ) = m 2
= mx
&&
dt
For rotational motion
M ( t ) = J &&
θ
For the free, undamped single DoF system
F( t ) = −kx = mx
&&
or
17:22:35 && + kx = 0
mx

Principle of virtual displacements:
• “When a system in equilibrium under the influence of forces is given a virtual displacement. The total
work done by the virtual forces = 0”
• Displacement is imaginary, infinitesimal, instantaneous and compatible with the system
• When a virtual displacement dx is applied, the sum of work done by the spring force and the inertia force
are set to zero:
−( kx )δ x − ( mx
&& )δ x = 0
• Since dx ≠ 0 the equation of motion is written as:
17:22:35 kx + mx
&& = 0

Principle of conservation of energy:
• No energy is lost due to friction or other energy-dissipating mechanisms.
• If no work is done by external forces, the system total energy = constant
• For mechanical vibratory systems:
KE + PE = cons tan t
or
d
( KE + PE ) = 0
dt
• Since
1 2 1
KE = mx& and PE = kx 2
2 2
then
d 1 2 1 2
 mx& + kx ÷ = 0
dt  2 2 
or
&& + kx = 0
mx
17:22:35

Vertical mass-spring system:
17:22:35

Vertical mass-spring system:
mg
• From the free body diagram:, using Newton’s second law of motion:
&& = − k( x + δ st ) + mg
mx
sin ce kδ st = mg
&& + kx = 0
mx
• Note that this is the same as the eqn. of motion for the horizontal mass-spring system
∀ ∴ if x is measured from the static equilibrium position, gravity (weight) can be ignored
• 17:22:35
This can be also derived by the other three alternative methods.

• The solution to the differential eqn. of motion.
• As we anticipate oscillatory motion, we may propose a solution in the form:
x( t ) = Acos( ωn t ) + B sin( ωn t )
or
x( t ) = Aeiωnt + Be −iωnt
alternatively,if we let s = ±iωn
x( t ) = C e ± st
• By substituting for x(t) in the eqn. of motion: C( ms 2 + k ) = 0
sin ce c ≠ 0,
ms 2 + k = 0 ¬ Characteristic equation
and
k
s = ±iωn = ± ¬ roots = eigenvalues
m
or
k
17:22:35 ωn =
m

• The solution to the differential eqn. of motion.
• Applying the initial conditions to the general solution: x( t ) = Acos( ωn t ) + B sin( ωn t )
x( t =0 ) = A = x0 initial displacement
&x( t =0 ) = Bωn = &x0 initial velocity
• The solution becomes:

&xo
x( t ) = x0 cos( ωn t ) + sin( ωn t )
ωn
1
  &x 
2 2
x ω 
if we let A0 =  x02 +  0 ÷  and φ = a tan  0 n ÷ then
  ωn    &xo 
x( t ) = A0 sin( ωn t + φ )
• This describes motion of harmonic oscillator:

• Symmetric about equilibrium position
• Thru equilibrium: velocity is maximum & acceleration is zero
• At peaks and valleys, velocity is zero and acceleration is maximum
∀17:22:35
ωn = √(k/m) is the natural frequency
• Note: for vertical systems, the natural frequency can be written as:
k
ωn =
m
mg
sin ce k =
δ st
g 1 g
ωn = or fn =
δ st 2π δ st
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• Torsional vibration.
• Approach same as for translational system. Laboratory exercise.
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• Compound pendulum.
• Given an initial angular displacement or velocity, system will
oscillate due to gravitational acceleration.
• Assume rigid body → single DoF
Restoring torque:
mgd sin θ
∴ Equation of motion :
J o&&
θ + mgd sin θ = 0 ¬ nonlinear2nd order ODE
Linearity is approximated if sin θ ≈ θ Therefore :
J o&&
θ + mgdθ = 0
Natural frequency :
mgd
ωn =
Jo
17:22:35

Natural frequency :
mgd
ωn =
Jo
sin ce for a simple pendulum
g
ωn =
l
J
Then, l = o and since J o = mko2 then
md
gd ko2
ωn = 2
and l =
ko d
Applying the parallel axis theorem ko2 = kG2 + d 2
kG2
l= +d
d
Let l = GA + d = OA
g g g
ωn = = =
ko2 / d l OA
 k 2 
G
location A  GA =
17:22:35
The ÷ is the " centre of percussion ′′
 d ÷


• Stability.
• Some systems may have inherent instability
17:22:35

• Stability.
• Some systems may have inherent instability
• When the bar is deflected by θ,
The spring force is :

2kl sin θ
The gravitational force thru G is :
mg
The inertial moment about O due to the angular acceleration &&
θ is :
2
ml &&
J o&&
θ= θ
3
The eqn. of motion is written as :
ml 2 && l
θ + ( 2kl sin θ ) l cos θ − mg sin θ = 0
3 2
17:22:35
For small oscillations, sinθ = θ and cos θ = 1 .Therefore
ml 2 mgl
θ + 2kl 2θ − θ =0
3 2
or
 12kl 2 − 3mgl 
&&
θ +  ÷ θ =0
 2ml 2 ÷
 
The solution to the eqn. of motion depends of the sign of ( )
(1) If ( ) >0, the resulting motion is oscillatory (simple harmonic)

with a natural frequency
 12kl 2 − 3mgl 
ωn =  2 ÷
÷
 2ml 
17:22:35
 12kl 2 − 3mgl 
&&
θ +  ÷ θ =0
 2ml 2 ÷
 
(2) If ( ) =0, the eqn. of motion reduces to:
θ&& = 0
The solution is obtained by int egrating twice yielding :
θ ( t ) = C1t + C2
Applying initial conditions θ ( t = 0 ) = θ0 and θ& ( t = 0 ) = θ& 0
θ ( t ) = θ& 0 t + θ0
Which shows a linear increase of angular displ. at cons tan t velocity.
And if θ& = 0 the bar remains in static equilibrium at θ ( t ) = θ
0 0
17:22:35
 12kl 2 − 3mgl 
θ&& +  ÷ θ =0
 2ml 2 ÷
 
(3) If ( ) < 0, we define:
 12kl 2 − 3mgl   3mgl − 12kl 2 

α = − 2 ÷=  2 ÷
 2ml   2ml 
The solution of the eq.of motion is :
θ ( t ) = B1eα t + B2 e −α t
Applying initial conditions θ ( t = 0 ) = θ0 and θ& ( t = 0 ) = θ& 0
1 
θ( t ) =
2α 
( αθ0 + θ& 0 ) eα t + ( αθ0 − θ& 0 ) e −α t 

which shows that θ ( t ) increases exp onentially with time
and is therefore unstable because the restoring moment ( springs )
is less than the non − restoring moment due to gravity.
17:22:37

• Rayleigh’s Energy method to determine natural frequency
• Recall: Principle of conservation of energy:
T1 + U1 = T2 + U 2
• Where T1 and U1 represent the energy components at the time when the kinetic energy is at its maximum
(∴ U1=0) and T2 and U2 the energy components at the time when the potential energy is at its maximum
(∴ T2=0)
T1 + 0 = 0 + U 2
• For harmonic motion
Tmax = U max
17:22:37

• Rayleigh’s Energy method to determine natural frequency: Application example:
• Find minimum length of mercury u-tube manometer tube so that f n of

fluid column < 2 Hz.
• Determine Umax and Tmax:
• Umax = potential energy of raised fluid column + potential energy of
depressed fluid column.
x x
U = mg + mg
2 raised 2 depressed
x x
= ( Axγ ) + ( Axγ )
2 raised 2 depressed
= Aγ x 2
A : cross sec tional area and γ : specific weight of mercury
• Kinetic energy:
1
T = ( mass of mercury col ) vel 2
2
1  Alγ  2
=  &x
17:22:37 2 g ÷ 

• Rayleigh’s Energy method to determine natural frequency: Application example:
• If we assume harmonic motion:
x( t ) = X cos( 2π f n t ) where X is the max . displacement

&x( t ) = 2π f n X sin( 2π f n t ) where 2π f n X is the max . velocity
• Substituting for the maximum displacement and velocity:

1  Alγ  2 2
U max = Aγ X 2 and Tmax =  ( 2π f ) X
2 g ÷
n

1  Alγ  2 2
U max = Tmax ∴ Aγ X 2 =  ( 2 π f ) X
2 g ÷
n

1  2g 
fn =  ÷
2π  l 
• 1  2g 
Minimum length of column: fn =  ÷ ≤ 1.5 Hz
2π  l 
l ≥ 0.221 m
17:22:37
Free single DoF vibration + viscous damping

• Recall: viscous damping force ∝ velocity:
F = −cx
& c = damping cons tan t or coefficient [ Ns / m ]
Applying Newton' s sec ond law of motion to obtain the eqn.of motion :
&& = − cx
mx & − kx or && + cx
mx & + kx = 0
If the solution is assumed to take the form :
x( t ) = Ce st where s = ±iωn
then : &x( t ) = sCe st and &x( & t ) = s 2Ce st
Substituting for x, &x and &&x in the eqn.of motion
ms 2 + cs + k = 0
The root of the characteristic eqn. are :
2
−c ± c 2 − 4mk c c  k
s1,2 = =− ±  ÷ − ÷
2m 2m  2m  m
The two solutions are :
x1 ( t ) = C1e s1t and x 2 ( t ) = C 2 e s 2t
17:22:37

• The general solution to the Eqn. Of motion is:
x( t ) = C1e s1t + C2 e s2t

or
 2   2 
 c  c   k   c  c   k 
− +  ÷ − ÷t − −  ÷ − ÷t
 2m  2m   m   2m  2m   m 
x( t ) = C1 e  + C2 e 
where C1 and C2 are arbitrary cons tan ts

det er min ed from the initial conditions .
17:22:37

• Critical damping (cc): value of c for which the radical in the general solution is zero:
2
 cc   k  k
 ÷ −  ÷= 0 or cc = 2m = 2mωn = 2 km
 2m   m  m
• Damping ratio (ζ): damping coefficient : critical damping coefficient.
c c c cc
ζ = or = = ζω n
cc 2m cc 2m
The roots can be re − written :
( )
2
c  c  k 2
s1,2 = − ±  ÷ −  ÷ = −ζ ± ζ − 1 ω n
2m  2m   m 
And the solution becomes :
 −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω t  −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω t
 ÷ n  ÷ n
x( t ) = C1e   + C2 e  
• The response x(t) depends on the roots s 1 and s2 → the behaviour of the system is dependent on the
damping ratio ζ.
17:22:37
 −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω t  2 
 ÷ n  −ζ − ζ −1 ÷ωn t
x( t ) = C1e  + C2 e 
• When ζ <1, the system is underdamped. (ζ2-1) is negative and the roots can be written as:
(
s1 = −ζ + i 1 − ζ 2 ω n ) and (
s2 = −ζ − i 1 − ζ 2 ω n )
And the solution becomes :
 −ζ +i 1−ζ 2 ω t  −ζ −i 1−ζ 2 ω t
 ÷ n  ÷ n
x( t ) = C1 e  + C2 e 
  i 1−ζ 2 ÷ω nt  −i 1−ζ 2 ω t 

 ÷ n 
−ζω nt   
x( t ) = e C1e + C2 e 

 
x( t ) = e −ζω nt {( C1 + C2 ) cos( ) (
1 − ζ 2 ω nt + i ( C1 − C2 ) sin 1 − ζ 2ωnt )}
x( t ) = e −ζω nt { C cos ( 1 − ζ ω t ) + C sin ( 1 − ζ ω t ) }
'
1
2
n
'
2
2
n
x( t ) = Xe −ζω nt sin ( 1 − ζ ω t + φ )
2
nor x( t ) = X e 0
−ζωn t
cos ( 1 − ζ 2 ω n t − φo )
17:22:37
Where C’1, C’2; X, φ and Xo, φo are arbitrary constant determined from initial conditions.
{
x( t ) = e −ζωnt C1' cos ( )
1 − ζ 2 ωn t + C'2 sin ( 1 − ζ 2 ωn t )}
• For the initial conditions:
x( t = 0 ) = x0 and &x( t = 0 ) = &x0

Then
&x0 + ζωn x0
C1' = x0 and C'2 =
1 − ζ 2ωn
Therefore the solution becomes
( ) ( )
 &x0 + ζωn x0 
−ζωn t 2 2
x( t ) = e  x0 cos 1 − ζ ωnt + sin 1 − ζ ωnt 
2
 1 − ζ ωn 
• This represents a decaying (damped) harmonic motion with angular frequency √(1-ζ2)ωn also known as
the damped natural frequency. The factor e -( ) causes the exponential decay.
17:22:37
2π
τd =
ωd
Xe −ζωnt
Exponentially decaying harmonic – free SDoF vibration with viscous damping .

Underdamped oscillatory motion and has important engineering applications.
17:22:37
x( t ) = Xe −ζωnt sin ( 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + φ ) or x( t ) = X 0 e −ζωnt cos ( 1 − ζ 2 ωnt − φo )

The cons tan ts ( X ,φ ) and ( X 0 ,φ0 ) representing the magnitude and phase become :
( ) ( )
2 2
X = X0 = C1' + C'2
 C1'   C'2 
φ = a tan  ' ÷ and φ0 = a tan  − ' ÷
 C2   C1 
17:22:37

• When ζ = 1, c=cc , system is critically damped and the two roots to the eqn. of motion become:
cc
s1 = s2 = − = −ωn
2m
and solution is
x( t ) = ( C1 + C2t )e −ωnt
Applying the initial conditions x( t = 0 ) = x0 and &x( t = 0 ) = &x0 yields
C1 = x0
C2 = &x0 + ωn x0
The solution becomes :
x( t ) = [ x0 + ( &x0 + ωn x0 ) t ] e −ωnt
• As t→∞ , the exponential term diminished toward zero and depicts aperiodic motion
17:22:37

• When ζ > 1, c>cc , system is overdamped and the two roots to the eqn. of motion are real and negative:
(
s1 = −ζ + ζ 2 − 1 ωn < 0 )
s2 = ( −ζ − ζ2 −1 ) ω < 0
n
with s2 = s1 and the initial conditions x( t = 0 ) = x0 and &x( t = 0 ) = &x0

the solution becomes :
 −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω t  −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω t
 ÷ n  ÷ n
x( t ) = C1e  + C2 e 
where
C1 =
(
x0ωn −ζ + ζ 2 − 1 + &x0 )
2ωn ζ 2 − 1
C2 =
(
− x0ωn −ζ − ζ 2 − 1 − &x0 )
2ωn ζ 2 − 1
17:22:37
Which shows aperiodic motion which diminishes exponentially with time.
Underdamped ( ζ = 0 )
Overdamped ( ζ > 1 )
Critically Underdamped ( ζ < 1 )
damped ( ζ = 1 )
2π
ωd
2π
ωn
Critically damped systems have lowest required damping for aperiodic motion and mass returns to equilibrium
position in shortest possible time.
17:22:37
Example
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
-]
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-0.2
lacem
n
t[ D
isp
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Elapsed Time [s]
17:22:37

• Logarithmic decrement: Natural logarithm of ratio of two successive peaks (or troughs) in an
exponentially decaying harmonic response.
• Represents the rate of decay
• Used to determine damping constant from experimental data.
• Using the solution for underdamped systems: x1
x1 X 0 e −ζωnt1 cos( ωd t1 − φ0 ) x2
=
x2 X 0 e −ζωnt2 cos( ωd t2 − φ0 )
2π
Let t2 = t1 + τ d = t1 + then
ωd
cos( ωd t2 − φ0 ) = cos( 2π + ωd t1 − φ0 ) = cos( ωd t1 − φ0 )
and τd
x1 e −ζωnt1
= = eζωnτ d t1 t2
x2 e −ζωn ( t1 +τ d )
Applying the natural ln on both sides,
the log arithmic decrement δ is obtained :
x  2π 2πζ 2πζ
δ = ln  1 ÷ = ζωnτ d = ζωn = =
17:22:37  x2  1 − ζ 2 ωn 1 − ζ 2 ωd

• Logarithmic decrement:
For low damping ( ζ << 1 )
14
x 
δ = ln  1 ÷ = 2πζ
 x2  12
Valid for ζ < .3
10
8
δ
6
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
ζ
17:22:37

• Logarithmic decrement after n cycles:
x1
• Since the period of oscillation is
constant: x2
x1 x x x x Xm+1
= 1 2 3 .... m
xm +1 x2 x3 x4 xm +1
xj
Since = eζω nτ d then
x j +1
x1
xm +1
(
= e )
ζω nτ d m
= emζω nτ d
The log arithmic decrement can therefore

be obtained from a number m of
successive decaying oscillations
1  x1 
δ= ln 
m  xm +1 ÷

17:22:37
Free single DoF vibration + Coulomb damping

• Coulomb or dry friction dampers are simple and convenient
• Occurs when components slide / rub
• Force proportional to normal force:
F = µN
F = µ mg for free − s tan ding systems
where µ is the coefficient of friction.
• Force acts in opposite direction to velocity and is independent of displacement and velocity.
• Consider SDOF system with dry friction:
Case 1. Case 2.
17:22:37

• Case 1: Mass moves from left to right. x = positive and x’ is positive or x = negative and x’ is positive.
• The eqn. of motion is:
mx&& = −kx − µ N or && + kx = − µ N
mx ¬ 2nd order hom ogeneous DE
For which the general solution is :
µN
x( t ) = A1 cos( ωn t ) + A2 sin( ωn t ) − (1)
k
k
where the fre quency of vibration ωn is and A1 and A2 are constants dependent on the initial
m
conditions of this portion of the cycle.
• Case 2: Mass moves from right to left. x = positive and x’ is negative or x = negative and x’ is negative.
• The eqn. of motion is:
mx&& = − kx + µ N or m&&x + kx = µ N
For which the general solution is :
µN
x( t ) = A3 cos( ωn t ) + A4 sin( ωn t ) + (2)
k
k
where the fre quency of vibration ωn is again and A3 and A4 are constants dependent
m
17:22:37
on the initial conditions of this portion of the cycle.

• The term µN/k [m] is a constant representing the virtual displacement of the spring k under force µN. The
equilibrium position oscillates between +µN/k and -µN/k 1 for each harmonic half cycle of motion.
17:22:37

• To find a more specific solution to the eqn. of motion we apply the simple initial conditions:
x( t = 0 ) = x0 and &x( t = 0 ) = &x0

The motion starts from the extreme right ( ie. velocity is zero )
Substituting int o
µN
x( t ) = A3 cos( ωn t ) + A4 sin( ωn t ) + (2)
k
and
&x( t ) = − A3ωn sin( ωn t ) + A4ωn cos( ωn t ) + 0
gives
µN
A3 = x0 − and A4 = 0
k
Eqn.( 2 ) becomes
µN  µN
x( t ) =  x0 − ÷ cos( ω n t ) + ( 2a ) valid for 0 ≤ t ≤ π / ωn
 k  k
17:22:37

µN  µN
x( t ) =  x0 − ÷cos( ωn t ) + valid for 0 ≤ t ≤ π / ωn
 k  k
= Initial displacement for next half cycle
17:22:37

• The displacement at π/ωn becomes the initial displacement for the next half cycle, x 1.
 π   µN  µN  x − 2µ N 
− x1 = x  t = = x
÷  0 − ÷ cos( π ) + = −  0 ÷
 ωn   k  k  k 
 π 
and the initial velocity &x ( t = 0 ) is = &x  t = ÷ in eqn ( 2a )
 ωn 
Substituting these initial conditions int o eqn.( 1)
µN
x( t ) = A1 cos( ωn t ) + A2 sin( ωn t ) − ( 1)
k
and its derivative
&x( t ) = −ωn A1 sin( ωn t ) + ωn A2 cos( ωn t )
gives
3µ N
A1 = x0 − and A2 = 0
k
such that eqn.( 1 ) becomes :
3µ N  µN
x( t ) =  x0 − ÷ cos( ωn t ) − ( 1a ) valid for π / ωn ≤ t ≤ π 2 / ωn
 k  k
17:22:37

µN  µN
 k  k
3µ N  µN
x( t ) =  x0 − ÷cos( ωn t ) − valid for π / ωn ≤ t ≤ π 2 / ωn
 k  k
17:22:37
This method can be applied to successive half cycles until the motion stops.
• During each half period π/ωn the reduction in magnitude (peak height) is 2µN/k
• Any two succesive peaks are related by:
4µ N 
xm = xm −1 −  ÷
 k 
• The motion will stop when xn < µN/k

• The total number of half vibration cycles, r, is obtained from:
2µ N   µ N 
x0 − r  ÷≤  ÷
 k   k 
or
 µN 
 0x − 
r≥ k
2 µ N 
  
÷
  k  
17:22:37

µN  µN
 k  k
3µ N  µN
x( t ) =  x0 − ÷cos( ωn t ) − valid for π / ωn ≤ t ≤ π 2 / ωn
 k  k
Final position
17:22:37
• Important features of Coulomb damping:

1. The equation of motion is nonlinear (cf. linear for viscous damping)
2. Coulomb damping does not alter the system’s natural frequency (cf. damped natural frequency for viscous
damping).
3. The motion is always periodic (cf. overdamped for viscous systems)
4. Amplitude reduces linearly (cf. exponential decay for viscous systems)
5. System eventually comes to rest – number of vibration cycles finite (cf. sustained vibration with viscous
damping)
6. The final position is the permanent displacement (not equilibrium) equivalent to the friction force (cf.
approaches zero for viscous systems)
17:22:37
Forced (harmonically excited) single DoF vibration
• External energy supplied to system as applied force or imposed motion (displacement, velocity or acceleration)
• This section deals only with harmonic excitation which results in harmonic response (cf. steady-state or
transient response from non-harmonic excitation).
• Harmonic forcing function takes the form:
F( t ) = F0 ei ( ω t +φ ) or F( t ) = F0 cos( ωt + φ ) or F( t ) = F0 sin( ωt + φ )
• Where F0 is the amplitude, ω the frequency and φ the phase angle.

• The response of a linear system subjected to harmonic excitation is also harmonic.
• The response amplitude depends on the ratio of the excitation frequency to the natural frequency.
• Some “common” harmonic forcing functions are:
• Rotating machine / element with (large) residual imbalance
• Regular shedding of vortices caused by laminar flow across slender structures (VIV) – ie: chimneys,
bridges, overhead cables, mooring cables, tethers, pylons…
• Vehicle travelling on pavement corrugations or sinusoidal surfaces
• Structures excited by regular (very narrow banded) ocean / water waves
17:22:37
89
17:22:37
90
17:22:37
Forced (harmonically excited) single DoF vibration

• Equation of motion when a force is applied to a viscously damped SDOF system is:
mx & + kx = F ( t )
&& + cx ¬ non hom ogeneous differential eqn.
• The general solution to a nonhomogeneous DE is the sum if the homogeneous solution x h(t) and the particular
solution xp(t).
• The homogeneous solution represents the solution to the free SDOF which is known to decay over time for all
conditions (underdamped, critically damped and overdamped).
• The general solution therefore reduces to the particular solution x p(t) which represents the steady-state vibration
which exists as long as the forcing function is applied.
17:22:37
Forced (harmonically excited) damped single DoF vibration

• Example of solution to harmonically excited damped SDOF system:
Homogenous solution: decaying vibration @ natural frequency
Particular solution: steady-state vibration @ excitation

frequency
Complete solution
17:22:37
Forced (harmonically excited) single DoF vibration – undamped.

• Let the forcing function acting on the mass of an undamped SDOF system be:
F( t ) = F0 cos( ωt )
• The eqn. of motion reduces to:
&& + kx = F0 cos( ωt )
mx
• Where the homogeneous solution is:
xh ( t ) = C1 cos( ωn t ) + C2 sin( ωn t )
where ωn = k / m
• As the excitation is harmonic, the particular solution is also harmonic with the same frequency:
x p ( t ) = X cos( ωt )
• Substituting xp(t) in the eqn. of motion and solving for X gives:
F0
X=
k − mω 2
• The complete solution becomes
F0
17:22:37 x( t ) = xh ( t ) + x p ( t ) = C1 cos( ωnt ) + C 2 sin( ωnt ) + 2
cos( ωt )
k − mω
94
17:22:37
95
17:22:37

• Applying the initial conditions x( t = 0 ) = x0 and &x( t = 0 ) = &x0 gives:
F0 &x0
C1 = x0 − and C2 =
k − mω 2 ωn
• The complete solution becomes:
 F0   &x0  F0
x( t ) =  x0 − 2 ÷cos( ω n t ) + ω ÷ sin( ω n t ) + 2
cos( ωt )
 k − mω   n k − mω
• The maximum amplitude of the steady-state solution can be written as:
X 1 F
= where δ st = 0
δ st ω 
2 k
1−  ÷
 ωn 
• X/δst is the ratio of the dynamic to the static amplitude and is known as the amplification factor or amplification
ratio and is dependent on the frequency ratio r = ω/ωn.
17:22:37

X / δ st
• When ω/ωn < 1 the denominator of the steady-
state amplitude is positive and the amplification
factor increases as ω approaches the natural
frequency ωn. The response is in-phase with
the excitation.
• When ω/ωn > 1 the denominator of the steady-

state amplitude is negative an the amplification
factor is redefined as:
X 1
= ω
δ st  ω  2 r=
ωn
ω ÷ −1
 n
and the steady − state response becomes :
x p ( t ) = − X cos( ωt )
which shows that the response is out-of-phase with
the excitation and decreases (→ zero ) as ω increases
(→ ∞)
17:22:37
98
17:22:37
99
17:22:37
• When ω/ωn = 1 the denominator of the steady-

state amplitude is zero an the response
becomes infinitely large. This condition when
ω=ωn is known as resonance.
X / δ st
17:22:37
101
17:22:37

• The complete solution
 F0   &x0  F0
x( t ) =  x0 − 2÷
cos( ω n t ) + ω ÷ sin( ω n t ) + 2
cos( ωt )
 k − mω   n k − mω
can be written as:
δ st
x( t ) = Acos( ωn t + φ ) + 2
cos( ωt ) for ω / ωn < 1
ω 
1−  ÷
 ωn 
δ st
x( t ) = Acos( ωn t + φ ) − 2
cos( ωt ) for ω / ωn > 1
ω 
1−  ÷
 ωn 
where A and φ are functions of x0 and &x0 as before.
• The complete solution is a sum of two cosines with frequencies corresponding to the natural and forcing
(excitation) frequencies.
17:22:37
103
17:22:37
104
17:22:37
105
17:22:37
106
17:22:37
ω /ωn < 1
ω /ωn > 1
17:22:37
• When the excitation frequency ω is close but not exactly equal to the natural frequency ωn beating may
occur.
• Letting the initial conditions x0= x’0 =0 , the complete solution:
 F0   &x0  F0
x( t ) =  x0 − 2÷
cos( ω n t ) + ω ÷ sin( ω n t ) + 2
cos( ωt )
 k − mω   n k − mω
reduces to :
( F0 / m ) ( F0 / m )    ω + ωn     ω − ωn   
x( t ) = [ c os( ωnt ) − cos( ωt )] = 2 sin   ÷t  ×sin  ÷t  
( ωn2 − ω 2 ) ( ωn − ω ) 
2 2   2    2  
If we let the excitation frequency be slightly less than the natural frequency:
ωn − ω = 2ε
where ε is a small positive number. Then
ωn ≈ ω and ωn + ω = 2ω
therefore :
( ωn − ω ) ( ωn + ω ) = ωn2 − ω 2 = 4εω
Substituting for ωn − ω , ωn + ω and ωn2 − ω 2 in the complete solution yields :
17:22:37 ( F0 / m )
x( t ) = sin ( ε t ) ×sin ( ωt )
( 2εω )
( F0 / m ) sin ε t ×sin ωt
x( t ) = ( ) ( )
( 2εω )
• Since ε is small, sin(ε t) has a long period. The solution can then be considered as harmonic motion with a
principal frequency ω an a variable amplitude equal to
( F0 / m ) sin ε t
X(t ) = ( )
( 2εω )
17:22:37
110
17:22:37
Forced (harmonically excited) single DoF vibration – Damped.

• Steady-state Solution
• If the forcing function is harmonic:
F( t ) = F0 cos( ωt )
• The equation of motion of a SDOF system with viscous damping is:
& + kx = F0 cos( ωt )
&& + cx
mx
• The steady-state response is given by the particular solution which is also expected to be harmonic:
x p ( t ) = X cos( ωt − φ )
where the amplitude X and the phase angle φ are to be det er min ed
17:22:37
• Substituting xp into the steady-state eqn. of motion yields:
( )
X  k − mω 2 cos( ωt − φ ) − cω sin( ωt − φ ) = F0 cos( ωt )
 
applying the trigonometric relationships :
cos( ωt − φ ) = cos( ωt )cos( φ ) + sin( ωt ) sin( φ )
sin( ωt − φ ) = sin( ωt )cos( φ ) − cos( ωt ) sin( φ )
we obtain :
( )
X  k − mω 2 cos( φ ) + cω sin( φ ) = F0
 
X ( k − mω 2 ) sin( φ ) − cω cos( φ ) = 0
 
which gives :
F0  cω 
X= 1
and φ = a tan  ÷
 k − mω 2 

( )
2 2 2 2
 k − mω − ( cω ) 
for the particular solution
x p ( t ) = X cos( ωt − φ )
17:22:37
• Alternatively, the amplitude and phase can be written in terms of the frequency ratio r = ω/ωn and the
damping coefficient ζ:
X 1 1
= =
δ st 1 1
 2 2 2 2  2 2 2 2
 ω   ω   1 − r  + [ 2ζ r ] 
 1 −  ÷  +  2ζ    
ω
   n    ωn 
 
 ω 
 2ζ ÷
ω  2ζ r 
φ = a tan  n ÷ =
2÷
a tan  ÷
 ω   1 − r2 
1− ÷
 ω ÷ ÷
  n 
17:22:37

X 1  2ζ r 
= φ = a tan  ÷
δ st 1
 1 − r2 
 2 2 2 2
 1 − r  + [ 2ζ r ] 
 
17:22:37
• The magnification ratio at all frequencies is reduced

with increased damping.
• The effect of damping on the magnification ratio is
greatest at or near resonance.
• The magnification ratio approaches 1 as the frequency
ratio approaches 0 (DC)
• The magnification ratio approaches 0 as the frequency
ratio approaches ∞
• For 0 < ζ < 1/ √2 the magnification ratio maximum
occurs at r = √(1 - 2ζ2) or ω = ωn √(1 - 2ζ2) which is
lower than both the undamped natural frequency ωn and
the damped natural frequency ωd = ω n √(1 - ζ2)
• When r = √(1 - 2ζ2) Mmax= 1/[2ζ √(1 - ζ2)] → if Mmax can
be measured, the damping ratio can be determined.
• When ζ = 1/√2 dM/dr = 0 at r = 0.
• When ζ > 1/√2 M decreases monotonically with
increasing frequency.
17:22:37
• For undamped systems (ζ = 0) the phase angle is 0o

(response in phase with excitation) for r<1 and 180 o
(response out of phase with excitation) for r>1.
• For damped systems (ζ > 0) when r < 1 the phase
angle is less than 90o and response lags the excitation
and when r >1 the phase angle is greater than 90 o and
the response leads the excitation (approaches 180 o for
large frequency ratios..
• For damped systems (ζ > 0) when r =1 the phase lag is
always 90o.
17:22:37
• Complete Solution
• The complete solution is the sum of the homogeneous solution xh(t) and the particular solution xp(t):
x( t ) = X 0 e −ζωnt cos( ωd t − φ0 ) + X cos( ωt − φ )
where ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 , X and φ are given as before, and X 0 and φ0 are det er min ed from
the initial conditions
17:22:37
• Quality Factor & Bandwidth

• When damping is small (ζ < 0.05) the peak magnification ratio corresponds with resonance ( ω =ωn).
• The value of the magnification ratio (Quality factor or Q factor) becomes:
 X  1 1
Q= ÷ = =
 δ st ω =ωn  2ζ
1
2  2
  ω   
2 2
ω 
 1 −  ÷  +  2ζ  
 ω
  n    ωn 
 
1
• The points where the magnification ratio falls
Q=
2ζ
below Q/√2, are called the half power points R 1
and R2. (Power is proportional to amplitude Q
squared: Power = Fv = cv2 = c(dx/dt)2 2
• The Quality factor Q can be used to estimate
the equivalent viscous damping of systems.
• The difference between the half power
frequencies is called the bandwidth. Bandwidth
17:22:37
R1 1 R2

• The values of the half power frequencies are determined as follows:
 X  1 Q 1
δ ÷ = = =
 st    ω 2  
2 2 2 2 2ζ
ω
1 −  ÷  +  2ζ 
  ωn    ωn 
In terms of the frequency ratio r :
r 4 − r 2 ( 2 − 4ζ 2 ) + ( 1 − 8ζ 2 ) = 0
Which, when solved gives :
r12 = 1 − 2ζ 2 − 2ζ 1 + ζ 2 and r22 = 1 − 2ζ 2 + 2ζ 1 + ζ 2

When ζ is small , ζ 2 is negligible and the solutions can be reduced to :
2 2
ω  ω 
r12 = R12 =  1 ÷ ; 1 − 2ζ and r22 = R22 =  2 ÷ ; 1 + 2ζ
 ωn   ωn 
∴ ( )
ω22 − ω12 = R22 − R12 ωn2 ; 4ζωn2
17:22:39
ω2 + ω1
Since = ωn and ω22 − ω12 = ( ω2 + ω1 ) ( ω2 − ω1 ) ,
2
the bandwidth ∆ω = ω2 − ω1 can be written as :
ω22 − ω12 4ζωn2
∆ω = ; ; 2ζωn
ω2 + ω1 2ωn
The qualily factor Q can then be exp ressed in terms of the natural frequency and bandwidth :
1 ω
Q; ; n
2ζ ∆ω
17:22:39

• Complex notation.
• Recall that a harmonic function may expressed as follows:
F( t ) = F0 cos( ωt + φ ) = F0 sin( ωt + φ ) = F0 ei( ωt +φ )
• If the harmonic forcing function is expressed in complex form:

F = F0 eiωt
• The equation of motion for a damped SDOF system becomes:
& + kx = F0 eiωt
&& + cx
mx
• The actual excitation function is real and is represented by the real part of the complex function.
Consequently, the steady-state response is also real and is represented by the real part of the complex
particular solution which takes the form:
x p ( t ) = Xeiωt
Therefore :
&x p ( t ) = iω Xeiωt and &&x p ( t ) = −ω Xeiωt
• Substituting in the eqn. of motion gives:
− mω 2 Xeiωt + icω Xeiωt + kXeiωt = F0 eiωt

17:22:39

• The response amplitude becomes:
F0
X= ¬ X / F0 is called the RECEPTANCE ( Dynamic compliance )
(
 k − mω 2 + icω 
  )
multiplying the numerator & deno min ator on the RHS by k − mω 2 − icω ( )
and separating real and imaginary components :
 2

− ω ω
X = F0 
k m c 
− i
2 2
 k(− m ω 2 2
+ c 2 2
ω ) k − mω 2 2
+ c ω 
 ( )
y
applying the complex relationships : x + iy = Aeiφ where A = x 2 + y 2 and φ = a tan  ÷
x
The magnitude of the response can be written as :
F0  cω 
X= 1
e −iφ where φ = a tan  ÷
 k − mω 2 

 (
k − mω + c )
2 2 2
2 2
ω 

And the steady − state solution becomes :
F0
xp( t ) = 1
ei( ωt −φ )

( 2 2
) 
17:22:39 2
 k − mω + c 2ω 2 


• As before the response amplitude:
F0
X=
( )
 k − mω 2 + icω 
 
can be written in terms of the frequency ratio r and the damping ratio ζ :
kX 1
= ≡ H( iω ) ¬ Complex Frequency Re sponse Function ( FRF )
F0 1 − r 2 + i2ζ r
The magnitude of H( iω ) is given by :
kX 1
H( iω ) = = which is the same as the magnification ratio M :
F0
( 1− r )
2 2
+ ( 2ζ r )
2
It can be shown that the complex FRF and its magnitude are related by :
 2ζ r 
H( iω ) = H( iω ) e −iφ where e −iφ = cos φ + i sin φ and φ = a tan  ÷
 1 − r2 
The steady − state response can therefore be exp ressed as :
F
x p ( t ) = 0 H( iω ) ei( ωt −φ )
k
• Measurements of the magnitude FRF can be used to experimentally determine the values of m, c and k.
17:22:39

• When the excitation function is described by: F( t ) = F0 cos( ωt )
• The steady-state response is given by the real part of the solution:
F0 F0
xp( t ) = 1
ei( ωt −φ ) = 1
cos( ωt − φ )

( 2 2
) 2 2 2 
( ) 
2 2 2
 k − mω + c ω   k − mω + c 2ω 2 
 
F
= Re  0 H( iω )eiωt 
k 
F
= Re  0 H( iω ) ei( ωt −φ ) 
k 
• Conversely, when the excitation function is described by: F( t ) = F0 sin( ωt )
• The steady-state response is given by the imaginary part of the solution:
F0 F0
xp( t ) = 1
ei( ωt −φ ) = 1
sin( ωt − φ )

( )
2 2 2 2 2 
( ) 
2 2 2
 k − mω + c ω   k − mω + c 2ω 2 
 
F
= Im  0 H( iω )eiωt 
k 
F
= Im  0 H( iω ) ei( ωt −φ ) 
17:22:39
k 

• Complex Vector Notation of Harmonic Motion:
• Harmonic excitation and response can be represented in the complex plane
Steady − state displacement :
F
x p ( t ) = 0 H( iω ) ei( ω t −φ )
k
Steady − state velocity :
F
&x p ( t ) = iω 0 H( iω ) ei( ω t −φ ) = iω x p ( t )
k
Steady − state acceleration :
F0
H( iω ) ei( ω t −φ ) = −ω 2 x p ( t )
2
&&x p ( t ) = ( iω )
k
Since i and − 1 respectively can be written as :
π
π  π  i2
i = cos  ÷+ i sin  ÷ = e and − 1 = cos ( π ) + i sin ( π ) = eiπ
2 2
• It can be seen that:
• The velocity leads the displacement by 90 o and is multiplied by ω.
• The acceleration leads the displacement by 180 o and is multiplied by ω2.
17:22:39

• Complex Vector Notation of Harmonic Motion:
F0
xp( t ) = H( iω ) ei( ω t −φ ) &x p ( t ) = iω x p ( t ) &&x p ( t ) = −ω 2 x p ( t )
k
17:22:39

• Response due to base motion (harmonic)
• In this case, the excitation is provided by the imposed harmonic motion of the supporting base.
• The displacement of the base about a neutral position is denoted by y(t) and the response of the mass from
its static equilibrium position by x(t).
• At any time, the length of the spring is x – y and
the relative velocity between the two ends of the
damper is x’ – y’.
• The equation of motion is:
&& + c( &x − &y ) + k( x − y ) = 0
mx
If y( t ) = Y sin( ωt ) the eqn.of motion becomes :
&& + cx
mx & + kx = cy
& + ky k( x − y )
= cωY cos( ωt ) + kY sin( ωt )
= A sin( ωt − α )
cω
where A = Y k 2 + ( cω )2 and α = a tan  − ÷
 k  c( &x − &y )
• The applied displacement has the same effect of
applying a harmonic force of magnitude A to the
y( t ) = Y sin( ω t )
mass.
17:22:39

• The steady-state response of the mass is given by the particular solution x p(t):
Y k 2 + ( cω )2
xp( t ) = 1
sin( ωt − φ1 − α )

(
 k − mω 2 2
)
+ c 2 2 2
ω 

cω  cω 
where α = a tan  − ÷ and φ1 = a tan  ÷
 k   k − mω 2 
The solution can be simplified to :
x p ( t ) = X sin( ωt − φ )
where
1 1
 2 2
 2  2
 2
X  k + ( cω )  1 + ( 2ζ r )
=  
= ¬ Displacement Transmissibility
2 2 2
Y
(
 k − mω
2 2
)
+c ω 
 (
 1 − r )
2 2
+ ( 2ζ r ) 

and
 3   
 mcω ÷ 2ζ r 3
φ = a tan = a tan  2÷
17:22:39  ( )
 k k − mω 2 + ( cω )2 ÷
  1 + ( 4ζ 2
− 1)r 

1
  2
X  1 + ( 2ζ r ) 2
  2ζ r 3 
= and φ = a tan  2÷
2
( )
2 2 2
Y
+ ( 2ζ r )   1 + ( 4ζ − 1 )r 
 1 − r 
17:22:39
• Characteristics of the displacement

transmissibility:
• The transmissibility is 1 when r = 0 (DC) and
close to 1 when r is small.
• For undamped systems (ζ = 0), Td → ∞ at
resonance (r = 1)
• For all damping values Td<1 for r >√2 and
Td = 1 for r = √2
• For r <√2 Td is inversely proportional to ζ
• For r >√2 Td is proportional to ζ
17:22:39

• Transmitted Force
• The force transmitted to the base/support is caused by the reaction of the spring and damper:
F = k( x − y ) + c( &x − &y ) = − mx
&&
Since the steady − state ( particular ) solution is x p ( t ) = X sin( ωt − φ ) ,F can be written as :
F = mω 2 X sin( ω t − φ ) = FT sin( ωt − φ )
• Where FT is the amplitude of the transmitted force and is given by:

1
2  2
2
FT 1 + ( 2ζ r )
=r  2 2 2  ¬ Force Transmissibility
kY  ( 1 − r ) + ( 2ζ r ) 
• Note that the transmitted force is always in–phase with k( x − y )
the motion of the mass x(t):
c( &x − &y )
y( t ) = Y sin( ω t )
17:22:39
1
FT  1 + ( 2ζ r ) 2  2
= r2  2 2
kY  ( 1 − r ) + ( 2ζ r ) 
17:22:39

• Relative Motion
• If z = x – y represents the motion of the mass relative to the base, the eqn. of motion: k( x − y )
&& + c( &x − &y ) + k( x − y ) = 0

mx
can be written as :
mz && = mω 2Y sin( ωt )
&& + cz& + kz = − my c( &x − &y )
The ( steady − state ) solution of which is :
mω 2Y sin( ωt − φ1 )
z( t ) = 1
= Z sin( ωt − φ1 )

( 2 2
) 2 2
 k − mω + ( cω ) 
where the amplitude Z is given by :
mω 2Y r2
Z= 1
=Y 1

( )
2 2 2 
( )
2 2 2
2 2
 k − m ω + ( cω )   1 − r + ( 2ζ r ) 

and the phase φ1 is given by :
 cω   2ζ r 
φ1 = a tan  ÷ = a tan  ÷
17:22:39  k − mω 2   1 − r2 

• Relative Motion
Z r2
= 1
Y

( )
2 2 2 2
 1 − r + ( 2ζ r ) 

 2ζ r 
φ1 = a tan  ÷
 1 − r2 
17:22:39

• Rotating Imbalance Excitation
• With the horizontal components cancelled the vertical component of the excitation is:
2
F( t ) = meω sin( ω t )
The eqn. of motion is :
Mx & + kx = meω 2 sin( ω t )
&& + cx
and the steady − state solution becomes :
 me  ω 2 
i( ω t −φ )
x p ( t ) = X sin( ω t − φ ) = Im   ÷ H( iω ) e 
 M  ω n  
The response amplitude and phase are given by :
2
meω 2 me  ω  MX r2
X = =  ÷ H( iω ) or = = r 2 H( iω )
1 M  ωn  me 1

( )
2 2 2
(

)
2 2 2
2 2
 k − M ω + ( cω )   1 − r + ( 2ζ r ) 

 cω   2ζ r 
φ = a tan  ÷ = a tan  ÷
 k − Mω 2   1 − r2 
17:22:39

• Rotating Imbalance Excitation
MX r2
= 1
me

(
 1 − r )
2 2  2
+ ( 2ζ r ) 2 

= r 2 H( iω )
 2ζ r 
φ = a tan  ÷
 1 − r2 
17:22:39

• Forced Vibration with Coulomb Damping
• The equation of motion for a SDOF with Coulomb damping subjected to a harmonic force is:
&& + kx ± µ N = F0 sin( ω t )
Mx
• Solution complicated.
• If µN is large cf F0, motion of mass m is discontinuous
• If µN << F0 motion of mass m will approximate harmonic motion
• When µN << F0 an approximate solution to eqn. of motion may be used to determine equivalent viscous
damping ratio.
• This is achieved by equating dissipated energy for both cases.
• For Coulomb damping, the energy dissipated during a cycle of amplitude X is:
∆W = 4 ( µ NX ) − 4 quarter cycles
• For viscous damping, the energy dissipated during a cycle of amplitude X is:
2π / ω 2π / ω 2 2π
dx
∆W = ∫ Fv dt = ∫ ceq  ÷ dt = ∫ ceq X 2ω cos 2 ( ωt ) d( ωt )
t =0 t =0
 dt  t =0
= π ceqω X 2
17:22:39

• Equating the dissipated energies:
4µ N
ceq =
πω X 2
• And the equivalent damping ratio is defined as:
ceq ceq 4µ N 2µ N
ζ eq = = = =
cc 2mωn 2mωnπω X π mωnω X
• The amplitude X and the phase φ of the response becomes:

12
 2
  
  4µ N    4µ N 
 1 −  πF ÷   ± 1 − 
F0   0   π F
X= φ = a tan  0 
k  2 2   2 1 2 
 1 −  ω    
 1−  4 µ N   
   ωn ÷  
     

÷ 
π F0   
   
  
• These approximations are only valid for µ N << F0
17:22:39
SDoF systems – General forcing functions

• Methods to solve response due to general (nonharmonic) forcing functions.
• General forcing function may be periodic (nonharmonic) or aperiodic.
• Aperiodic forcing functions may be finite or infinite
• When the duration of a transient forcing function << natural period of system, forcing function called
SHOCK.
• When forcing function is periodic (not harmonic), it can be described with a series (sum) of harmonic or
Fourier components.
17:22:39
Types of deterministic forcing functions.
Deterministic
Deterministic
Periodic
Periodic Non-periodic
Non-periodic
Sinusoidal
Sinusoidal Complex
ComplexPeriodic
Periodic Almost
Almost Periodic
Periodic Transient
Transient
17:22:39
Deterministic
Deterministic
Periodic
Non-periodic
Sinusoidal
Sinusoidal Complex
Complex Almost
Almost Periodic
Periodic Transient
Transient
Periodic
Periodic
Can be defined mathematically. Waveform contains harmonics which are multiples if the
17:22:39 fundamental frequency (show spectrum) Signal factory.vee
Deterministic
Deterministic
Periodic
Non-periodic
Sinusoidal
Sinusoidal Complex
ComplexPeriodic
Periodic Almost
Almost Periodic
Periodic Transient
Transient
Contains sine wave of arbitrary frequencies which frequency ratios are not rational numbers (show
17:22:39 spectrum) Signal factory.vee
Deterministic
Deterministic
Periodic
Non-periodic
Sinusoidal
Sinusoidal Complex
ComplexPeriodic
Periodic Almost
Almost Periodic
Periodic Transient
Transient
Half-sine pulse Sin(x)/x

Exp(T-x)
17:22:39 All other deterministic data that can be described by a suitable function
SDoF systems – General forcing functions - Periodic

• For periodic forcing functions, the response of system is obtained by using the principle of superposition:
• The total response consists of sum of response functions due to individual harmonic functions in forcing
function.
• The periodic forcing function (period τ = 2π/ω) can be expressed as a Fourier series:
a ∞ ∞
F( t ) = o +
2
∑ a j cos( jω t ) + ∑ b j sin( jωt )
j =1 j =1
where
τ
2
a j = ∫ F( t )cos( jω t ) dt for j = 0, 1, 2.....
τ0
τ
2
b j = ∫ F( t ) sin( jω t ) dt, for j = 1, 2, 3.....
τ0
• The eqn. of motion can be written as:
a ∞ ∞
& + kx = o +
&& + cx
mx
2
∑ a j cos( jω t ) + ∑ b j sin( jω t )
j =1 j =1
• The RHS is a constant + a sum of harmonic functions.
17:22:39

• Using the principle of superposition, the steady-state solution is the sum of the steady-state solution for the
following equations:
ao
&& + cx
mx & + kx = (1)
2
∞
&& + cx
mx & + kx = ∑ a j cos( jω t ) (2)
j =1
∞
&& + cx
mx & + kx = ∑ b j sin( jω t ) (3)
j =1
• The steady-state solutions of (1), (2) and (3) are
ao
xp( t ) =
2k
aj k
xp( t ) = cos( jω t − φ j )
( 1− j r )
2 2 2
+ ( 2ζ jr )2
bj k
xp( t ) = sin( jω t − φ j )
17:22:39 ( 1− j r )
2 2 2
+ ( 2ζ jr )2

• The entire steady-state solution is given by:
a ∞ aj k ∞ bj k
xp( t ) = o + ∑ cos( jω t − φ j ) + ∑ sin( jω t − φ j )
( 1− j r ) ( 1− j r )
2k j =1 2 2 2 j =1 2 2 2
+ ( 2ζ jr )2 + ( 2ζ jr )2
where
 2ζ jr  ω
φ j = a tan  2 2÷
and r =
 1 − j r  ωn
• The response amplitude and phase for each harmonic (j th term) depend on j.
• When r = 1 the response amplitude is relatively high for any value j (more so when both j and ζ are small)
• As j becomes larger (higher harmonics) the amplitude response becomes smaller → the first few terms are
usually needed to generate a reasonably accurate response.
• Complete Solution
• The complete solution is obtained by including the transient part of the solution which is dependent on the
initial conditions.
• This requires setting the complete solution and its derivative to the specified initial displacement and velocity
which produces a complicated expression for the transient part of the solution.
17:22:39
Example: Triangular forcing function. Vee & Excel

• Situation sometimes arises when the periodic forcing function is given (obtained) experimentally (eg: wave,
wind , seismic, topography..) and represented by discrete measurement data.
• When the (measured) data cannot be readily described by a mathematical function

• The discrete measurement data can be integrated numerically to obtain the Fourier coefficients.
2 N 2 N  2 jπ ti  2 N  2 jπ ti 
a0 = ∑ Fi a j = ∑ Fi cos  ÷ and b j = ∑ Fi sin  ÷ for j = 1, 2.....
N i =1 N i =1  τ  N i =1  τ 
• The Fourier coefficients can then be used to find the solution with the excitation frequency taken as the
lowest frequency component of the data.
17:22:39 2π
ω=
τ
SDoF systems – General forcing functions – Nonperiodic

• When the forcing function is arbitrary and nonperiodic (aperiodic) it cannot be represented with a Fourier
series
• Alternative methods for determining the response must be used:
• Representation of the excitation function with a Convolution integral
• Using Laplace Transformations
• Approximating F(t) with a suitable interpolation method then using a numerical procedure
• Numerical integration of the equations of motion.
17:22:39

series
17:22:39

• Convolution integral
• Consider one of the simplest nonperiodic exciting force: Impulsive force: which has a large magnitude F
which acts for a very short time ∆t.
• An impulse can be measured by the resulting change in momentum:
Im pulse = F ∆t = m&x2 − mx
&1
where &x1 and &x2 represent the velocity of the lumped mass before and after the impulse .
• The magnitude of the impulse F∆t is represented by

t + ∆t
F=
% ∫ F dt
t
and a unit impulse is defined as
t + ∆t
f = lim
% ∆t →0
∫ F dt = Fdt = 1
t
• For Fdt to have a finite value, F approaches infinity as ∆t nears zero.
17:22:39

• Convolution integral – Impulse response
• Consider a (viscously) damped SDoF (mass-spring-damper system) subjected to an impulse at t=0.
• For an underdamped system, the eqn. of motion is:
&& + cx
mx & + kx = 0
• And its solution:  
−ζωn t &x0 + ζωn x0
x( t ) = e  x0 cos ( ωd t ) + sin ( ωd t ) 
2
 1 − ζ ωn 
where
2
c 2 k  c  k
ζ = ωd = ωn 1 − ζ = − ÷ ωn =
2mωn m  2m  m
• If, prior to the impulse load being applied, the mass is at rest, then:
x( t < 0 ) = 0 and &x( t < 0 ) = 0 or x( t = 0 ) = 0 and &x( t = 0 − ) = 0
−
• The impulse-momentum equation gives:

−
f = 1 = mx(
& t = 0 ) − mx(
& t = 0 ) = mx& 0
%
• And the initial conditions are given by:
1
x( t
17:22:39 = 0 ) = x0 = 0 and &x( t = 0 ) = &x0 =
m

• The solution reduces to:
e −ζωnt
x( t ) = g( t ) = sin ( ωd t )
mωd
• g(t) is the impulse response function an represents the response of a viscously damped single degree of
freedom system subjected to a unit impulse.
17:22:39

• If the magnitude of the impulse is F instead of unity, the initial
velocity x’0 = F/m and the response becomes:
Fe −ζωnt
x( t ) = % sin ( ωd t ) = F g( t )
mωd %
• If the impulse is applied to a stationary system at an
arbitrary time t = τ the response is
x( t ) = F g( t −τ )
%
17:22:39

• Convolution integral – Arbitrary exciting force
• If we consider the arbitrary force to comprise of a series of impulses of varying magnitudes such that at time
τ, the force F(τ) acts on the system for a short period ∆ τ.
• The impulse acting at t = τ is given by F(τ )∆τ.
• At any time t the elapsed time is t - τ
• The system response at t due to the impulse is
x( t ) = F g( t −τ ) = F( τ )∆τ g( t −τ )
%
• The total response at time t is determined by summing
the responses caused by the impulses acting al all
times τ :
x( t ) = ∑ F( τ ) g( t − τ ) ∆τ
Making ∆τ → 0 the response can be exp ressed as :
t
x( t ) = ∫ F( τ ) g( t − τ ) dτ
0
Substituting the impulse response function g( t − τ ) :
t
1
x( t ) = ∫ F( τ )e −ζωn ( t −τ ) sin [ ωd ( t − τ ) ] dτ ¬ Convolution or Duhamel int egral
mωd 0
• 17:22:39
This solution does not account for initial conditions.
• Can be integrated explicitly or numerically depending on F(t)

• Convolution integral – Arbitrary exciting force
• In the case where the excitation is provided by an arbitrary imposed motion of the base, y(t), the relative
displacement is given by:
t
1
z( t ) = ∫ &&y( τ )e −ζωn ( t −τ ) sin [ ωd ( t − τ ) ] dτ
ωd 0
17:22:39
Example: Step load

series
17:22:39

• Laplace Transformation
• Efficient method to generate solution of linear differential equations
• Converts differential equations into algebraic equations to facilitate solving
• Can be applied to discontinuous functions
• Can be used for any type of excitation including periodic & harmonic
• Automatically accounts for initial conditions
• The Laplace transform of x(t) is given by:
∞
x( s ) = L x( t ) = ∫ e − st x( t ) dt
0
• Where s the subsidiary variable and is usually complex.
• To use Laplace Transform:

1. Write the equation of motion
2. Compute or look-up the Laplace transform of each term using known initial conditions
3. Solve the transformed (algebraic ) equation of motion
4. Use the inverse Laplace transform to obtain the response (solution)
17:22:39

series
17:22:39

• Numerical Methods (interpolation)
• Used when the nonperiodic forcing function cannot be described mathematically
• It may be possible to “fit” a mathematical approximation (say polynomial) to data then use the convolution
integral
• Often more practical to represent the digitised data with a series of incremental functions:
• Step functions
• The arbitrary function is
represented by a series of step
functions of varying magnitudes
∆F1, ∆F2, ∆F3… and start times t1,
t2, t3….
• Note that the polarity of ∆F
changes with the slope of the
function
• Smaller intervals yield better
accuracy.
• The approximation is also
improved by choosing the
subsequent start times so that
17:22:39
F(t) intersects the step at mid-
height of the step.

• Numerical Methods (interpolation) - Step functions
• The system response due to a step excitation ∆Fi for any time interval ti - 1 < t < ti (i = 1, 2, 3 …..j-1) can
be determined from the previous example:
1 j −1   ζωn 
x( t ) = ∑ ∆ Fi 1 − e −ζωn ( t −ti )  cos ( ωd ( t − ti ) ) + sin ( ωd ( t − ti ) )  
k i =1   ωd 
• When t = tj the response is:
1 j −1  −ζω ( t − t )  ζω 
( )
x( t ) = ∑ ∆ Fi 1 − e n j i  cos ωd ( t j − ti ) + n sin ωd ( t j − ti )  
k i =1  ωd 
( )

17:22:39

• Numerical Methods (interpolation) - Rectangular impulses
• The arbitrary function is represented by a series of rectangular impulses Fi the polarity of which depends on the
polarity of F(t) at that instant.
• The response of the system in any time interval ti - 1 < t < ti is obtained by adding the response caused by Fj
(applied over ∆tj to the response at t = tj which represent the initial condition:
17:22:39

• Numerical Methods (interpolation) – Ramps (linear) approximation
• The arbitrary function is represented by a series of linear functions and the response of the system in any time
interval ti - 1 < t < ti is obtained by adding the response caused by the linear (ramp) during a specified interval to
the response due to the previous ramp (initial condition)
17:22:39

• (Shock) Response Spectrum
• Shows the variation in maximum response of a damped SDOF due to a particular transient (shock)
excitation.
• The Shock Response Spectrum (SRS) is plotted for a range of natural frequencies usually at fractional
octave intervals.
• The SRS is used to determine the effect of a particular (shock) excitation function on damped SDoF
systems.
• Given the nature of real shocks, the SRS is usually computed using numerical means.
17:22:39
164 Mechanical Vibrations – Two Degree-of-Freedom systems
• Two degree of freedom systems:
17:22:39
• Two degree of freedom systems:
17:22:39
• No. of DoF of system = No. of mass elements x number of motion types for each mass
• For each degree of freedom there exists an equation of motion – usually coupled differential equations.
• Coupled means that the motion in one coordinate system depends on the other
• If harmonic solution is assumed, the equations produce two natural frequencies and the amplitudes of the
two degrees of freedom are related by the natural, principal or normal mode of vibration.
• Under an arbitrary initial disturbance, the system will vibrate freely such that the two normal modes are
superimposed.
• Under sustained harmonic excitation, the system will vibrate at the excitation frequency. Resonance occurs
if the excitation frequency corresponds to one of the natural frequencies of the system
17:22:39
• Equations of motion
• Consider a viscously damped system:
• Motion of system described by position x1(t) and x2(t) of masses m1 and m2
• The free-body diagram is used to develop the equations of motion using Newton’s second law
17:22:39
m1&&x1 + c1&x1 + k1 x1 − c2 ( &x2 − &x1 ) − k 2 ( x2 − x1 ) = F1

m2&&x2 + c2 ( &x2 − &x1 ) + k2 ( x2 − x1 ) + c3&x2 + k3 x2 = F2
or
m1&&x1 + ( c1 + c2 )x
& 1 − c2&x2 + ( k1 + k 2 )x1 − k 2 x2 = F1
m2&&x2 − c2&x1 + ( c2 + c3 )x
& 2 − k2 x1 + ( k2 + k3 )x2 = F2
• The differential equations of motion for mass m 1 and mass m2 are coupled.
• The motion of each mass is influenced by the motion of the other.
17:22:39
m1&&x1 + ( c1 + c2 )x
& 1 − c2&x2 + ( k1 + k 2 )x1 − k 2 x2 = F1
m2&&x2 − c2&x1 + ( c2 + c3 )x
& 2 − k 2 x1 + ( k 2 + k3 )x2 = F2
• The coupled differential eqns. of motion can be written in matrix form:

r r r r
[ m] x( t ) + [ c ] x( t ) + [ k ] x( t ) = F( t )
&& &
where [ m] , [ c ] and [ k ] are the mass, damping and stiffness matrices respectively and are given by:
 m1 0   c1 + c2 − c2   k1 + k2 − k2 
[ m] =  [ c] =  [ k] = 

 0 m2   − c2 c2 + c3   − k2 k 2 + k3 
r r r r
x(t), &x(t),&&x(t) and F(t) are the displacement, velocity, acceleration and force vectors
respectively and are given by :
r  x1( t )  r  &x1( t )  r &&x1( t )  r  F1( t ) 

x( t ) =   &x( t ) =   &&x( t ) =   and F( t ) =  
x (
 2  t ) &x
 2 ( t ) x
&&
 2 ( t ) F (
 2  t )
• Note: the mass, damping and stiffness matrices are all square and symmetric [m] = [m] T and consist of the
mass, damping and stiffness constants.
17:22:39
• Free vibrations of undamped systems

• The eqns. of motion for a free and undamped TDoF system become:
m1&&x1 + ( k1 + k2 )x1 − k2 x2 = 0
m2&&x2 − k 2 x1 + ( k 2 + k3 )x2 = 0
• Let us assume that the resulting motion of each mass is harmonic: For simplicity, we will also assume that
the response frequencies and phase will be the same:
x1( t ) = X 1 cos( ωt + φ ) and x2 ( t ) = X 2 cos( ωt + φ )

• Substituting the assumed solutions into the eqns. of motion:
{ }
 − m1ω 2 + ( k1 + k 2 ) X 1 − k 2 X 2  cos( ω t + φ ) = 0
 
{ }
 − k2 X 1 + − m2ω 2 + ( k2 + k3 ) X 2  cos( ωt + φ ) = 0
 
As these equations must be zero for all values of t, the cosine terms cannot be zero. Therefore:
{ −m1ω 2 + ( k1 + k2 ) } X 1 − k2 X 2 = 0
− k2 X 1 + { − m2ω 2 + ( k 2 + k3 ) } X 2 = 0
• Represent
17:22:39 two simultaneous algebraic equations with a trivial solution when X1 and X2 are both zero – no vibration.

• Written in matrix form it can be seen that the solution exists when the determinant of the mass / stiffness
matrix is zero:
{
 − m1ω 2 + ( k1 + k 2 )

} − k2 
  X1  = 0
  X 2 


− k 2 −{m2ω 2
+ ( k 2 + k )
2 }
or
m1m2ω 4 − { ( k1 + k 2 ) m2 + ( k 2 + k3 ) m1 } ω 2 + ( k1 + k2 ) ( k 2 + k2 ) − k 22 = 0
• The solution to the characteristic equation yields the natural frequencies of the system.
• The roots of the characteristic equation are:
1  ( k + k ) m + ( k2 + k3 ) m1 
ω12 , ω 22 =  1 2 2 
2 m1m2 
1
1   ( k1 + k2 ) m2 + ( k 2 + k3 ) m1   ( k1 + k2 ) ( k 2 + k3 ) − k 2   2
2 2
±   −4 
2  m1m2   m1m2  

• This shows that the homogenous solution is harmonic with natural frequencies ω1 and ω2
17:22:39
• Because the system is coupled, the constants X1 and X2 are a function of both natural frequencies ω1 and
ω2
• Let the values of X1 and X2 corresponding to ω1 be X1(1) and X2(1) and those corresponding to ω2 be X1(2) and
X2(2)
• Since the simultaneous algebraic equations are homogeneous only the amplitude ratios r1 = (X2(1)/X1(1)) and
r2 = (X2(2)/X1(2)) can be determined.
• Substituting ω( 11 )and ω2 gives:

X2 − m1ω12 + ( k1 + k 2 ) k2
r1 = ( 1 ) =
X1 k2
=
− m2ω12 + ( k2 + k3 ) { }
− m1ω 2 + ( k1 + k 2 ) X 1 − k2 X 2 = 0
X 2( 2 ) − m1ω 2 2 + ( k1 + k2 )
r2 = ( 2 ) = =
k2 { }
− k 2 X 1 + − m2ω 2 + ( k2 + k3 ) X 2 = 0
X1 k 2 − m2ω 2 2 + ( k2 + k3 )
• The normal modes of vibration corresponding to the natural frequencies ω1 and ω2 can be expressed in
vector form known as the modal vectors:
r ( 1 )  X 1( 1 )   X 1( 1 )  r ( 2 )  X 1( 2 )   X 1( 2 ) 
X = = and X = =
(1)   ( 1)  (2)  (2)
 X 2   r1 X 1   X 2   r2 X 1 
• The modal vectors describe the relative amplitude of vibration of each mass for each of the natural
17:22:39
frequencies.

• The motion (free vibration) of each mass is given by:
r( 1 )  x( 1 ) ( t )  X ( 1 ) cos( ω1t + φ1 ) 

x (t )=  1  = 1  → First mod e
(1) (1)
 x2 ( t )  r1 X 1 cos( ω 1t + φ1 )
r( 2 )  x( 2 ) ( t )  X ( 2 ) cos( ω 2 t + φ2 ) 
x (t )=  1  = 1  → First mod e
(2) (2)
 x2 ( t )  r2 X 1 cos( ω 2 t + φ2 )
• The constants X1(1) , X1(2) ,φ1 and φ2 are determined from the initial conditions.
17:22:39

• Two initial conditions for each mass need to be specified (second order D.E.s)
• The system can be made to vibrate freely in either mode (i = 1, 2) by applying the appropriate initial
conditions
x1( t = 0 ) = X 1( i ) &x1( t = 0 ) = 0
x2 ( t = 0 ) = r1 X 1( i ) &x2 ( t = 0 ) = 0
• Any other combination of initial conditions will result in the excitation of both modes
• Two initial conditions for each mass need to be specified (second order D.E.s)
• The resulting motion is obtained by superposition of the normal modes:
r r( 1 ) r( 2 )
x( t ) = x (t )+ x (t)
or
r r r
x1( t ) = x1( 1 ) ( t ) + x1( 2 ) ( t ) = X 1( 1 ) cos( ω1t + φ1 ) + X 1( 2 ) cos( ω2t + φ2 )
r r r
x2 ( t ) = x2( 1 ) ( t ) + x2( 2 ) ( t ) = r1 X 1( 1 ) cos( ω1t + φ1 ) + r2 X 1( 2 ) cos( ω2t + φ2 )
• If the initial conditions are:
x1( t = 0 ) = x1( 0 ) &x1( t = 0 ) = &x1( 0 )

x2 ( t = 0 ) = x 2 ( 0 ) &x2 ( t = 0 ) = &x2 ( 0 )
• constants X1(1) , X1(2) ,φ1 and φ2 can be by substituting the initial conditions in the combined motion eqns.
17:22:39
The

x1 ( t ) = X 1( 1 ) cos( ω1t + φ1 ) + X 1( 2 ) cos( ω2t + φ2 )
r
x2 ( t ) = r1 X 1( 1 ) cos( ω1t + φ1 ) + r2 X 1( 2 ) cos( ω2t + φ2 )
substituting the initial conditions:
x1 ( 0 ) = X 1( 1 ) cos( φ1 ) + X 1( 2 ) cos( φ2 )
&x1 ( 0 ) = −ω1 X 1( 1 ) sin( φ1 ) − ω2 X 1( 2 ) sin( φ2 )
x2 ( 0 ) = r1 X 1( 1 ) cos( φ1 ) + r2 X 1( 2 ) cos( φ2 )
&x2 ( 0 ) = −ω1r1 X 1( 1 ) sin( φ1 ) − ω2 r2 X 1( 2 ) sin( φ2 )
The following unknowns can be identified:
x1 ( 0 ) = X 1(1)cos(φ1 ) + X 1(2)cos(φ2 )
&x1 ( 0 ) = −ω1 X 1(1) sin(φ1 ) − ω2 X 1(2) sin(φ2 )
x2 ( 0 ) = r1 X 1(1)cos(φ1 ) + r2 X 1(2)cos(φ2 )
&x2 ( 0 ) = −ω1r1 X 1(1) sin(φ1 ) − ω2 r2 X 1(2) sin(φ2 )
17:22:39

• Solving for the identified constants yields:
 r x ( 0 ) − x2 ( 0 )   −r x ( 0 ) + x2 ( 0 ) 
X 1( 1 ) cos( φ1 ) =  2 1  X 1( 2 ) cos( φ2 ) =  1 1 
 r2 − r1   r2 − r1 
 − r &x ( 0 ) + &x2 ( 0 )   r &x ( 0 ) − &x2 ( 0 ) 
X 1( 1 ) sin( φ1 ) =  2 1  X 1( 2 ) sin( φ2 ) =  1 1 
 ω (
1 2 r − r1 )   ω (
2 2 r − r1 ) 
Therefore:
{ } +{ }
2 2
X 1( 1 ) = (1)
X 1 cos( φ1 ) (1)
X 1 sin( φ1 )
{ 1 2 } { 1 2 }
2 2
X 1( 2 ) = (2)
φ + (2)
φ X 1( 1 )
X 1( 1 ) sin( φ1 )
X cos( ) X sin( )
 X ( 1 ) sin( φ1 ) 
φ1 = a tan  1( 1 ) 
X
 1 cos( φ )
1  
 X ( 2 ) sin( φ2 )  φ
φ2 = a tan  1( 2 ) 
 X 1 cos( φ2 )  X 1( 1 ) cos( φ1 )
17:22:42
• In terms of the amplitude ratios ri and natural frequencies ω I:

2
1 2 { − r2&x1 ( 0 ) + &x2 ( 0 )}
X 1( 1 ) = { r2 x1( 0 ) − x2 ( 0 )} +
( r2 − r1 ) ω12
2
1 2{ r1&x1 ( 0 ) + &x2 ( 0 )}
X 1( 2 ) = { − r1 x1( 0 ) − x2 ( 0 )} +
( r2 − r1 ) ω22
 − r2&x1( 0 ) + &x2 ( 0 ) 
φ1 = a tan  
ω [
 1 2 1r x ( 0 ) − x 2 ( 0 )] 
 r1&x1 ( 0 ) + &x2 ( 0 ) 
φ2 = a tan  
ω [
 2 1 1− r x ( 0 ) − x 2 ( 0 ) ] 
17:22:39
• Free vibrations of undamped system

• Example:
17:22:37
• Free vibrations of undamped system

• Example:
Masses: 0.71 kg each

Middle spring: 175 N/m
Bottom spring: 350 N/m
Animations courtesy Tom Irvine

(Vibrationdata)
17:22:38
• Coordinate Coupling
• Whenever possible, the coordinates are chosen so that they are independent based from the equilibrium
position.
• In some cases, another pair of coordinates may be used – generalised coordinates
• The lathe can be simplified to be represented by a 2DoF with the bed considered as a rigid body with two
lumped masses representing the headstock and tailstock assemblies. The supports are represented by two
springs.
• The following set of coordinates can be used to describe the system:
17:22:37
• (1): the deflection at each extremity of the lathe x1(t) and x2(t)
• (2): the deflection at the centre of gravity x(t) and the rotation θ(t)
• (3): the deflection at extremity A x1(t) and the rotation θ(t)
17:22:37
• Equations of motion using x(t) and θ(t)
• Using the FBD, in the vertical direction and about the C.G. respectively:
• && = − k1( x − l1θ ) − k 2 ( x + l2θ )
mx and J o&&
θ = k1( x − l1θ )l1 − k 2 ( x + l2θ )l2
in matrix form:
 m 0  &&x   k1 + k2 − ( k1l1 − k 2l2 )   x  0 

+    =  
 0 J  &&
 o     − ( k1l1 − k 2l2 )
θ ( )
k1l12 + k 2l22  θ  0 

• As each eqn. contains both x and θ the system is

coupled – Elastic or static coupling
• Whenever a displacement or torque is applied thru
the C.G. the resulting motion will contain both
translation and rotation.
• The system is uncoupled (eqns. independent) only
when k1l1 = k2l2
• Only then can pure translation or rotation be
generated by a displacement or torque thru the C.G.
17:22:37
• (1): the deflection y(t) at point P located at distance e to the left of the C.G. and the rotation θ(t)
17:22:37
• Using the FBD, the translational and rotational equations of motion are:
&& = − k1( y − l1' θ ) − k 2 ( y − l'2θ ) − me&&
my θ and J p&&
θ = k1( y − l1' θ )l1' − k 2 ( y − l'2θ )l'2 − mey
&&
in matrix form:

 m me  &&y   k1 + k2 ( k2l'2 − k1l1' )

  y  = 0 
 me J  && +     
 θ
p 

k(2 l '
2 − k1l1
'
) ( '2
k1l1 + k 2l2 
 )
' 2  θ  0 
• As each eqn. contains both y, y’’, θ and θ’’ the

system is coupled with both elastic (static) and
mass (dynamic) coupling
• When k1l’1 = k2l’2 , the system is dynamically
coupled only → the inertial force my’’ produced
by vertical motion will induce a rotational motion
(my’’e) and vice verca.
17:22:37
• General case for viscously damped 2DoF:
 m11 m12  &&x1   c11 c12   &x1   k11 k12   x1  0 

m m  &&x  +  c c  &x  +  k k   x  = 0 
 21 22   2   21 22   2   21 22   2   
• System has elastic (static) coupling if the stiffness matrix is not diagonal
• System has damping or velocity (dynamic) coupling if the damping matrix is not diagonal
• System has mass or inertial (dynamic) coupling if the mass matrix is not diagonal
• The system behaviour does not depend on the choice of coordinates!

• There exists a set of coordinates which will produce (statically and dynamically) uncoupled equations
of motions → principal or natural coordinates. These uncoupled equations can be solved
independently.
17:22:37
• Harmonically forced vibrations – undamped

• The harmonic excitation forces are: k1
F1 ( t ) = F1 sin( ω f t ) and F2 ( t ) = F2 sin( ω f t ) x1 k1
whereω fis the forcing frequency.
m1 m1
• Applying Newton’s 2nd law gives the eqns. of motion:
F1+k2(x2-x1) F1
m1&&x1 + ( k1 + k 2 )x1 − k 2 x2 = F1 sin( ω f t ) k2
m2&&x2 + k 2 x2 − k 2 x1 = F2 sin( ω f t ) k2(x2-x1)
• Assuming that the solutions will take the form of the excitation – harmonic: m2 m2
x1 = X 1 sin( ω f t ) and x2 = X 2 sin( ω f t )
F2 F2
• Substituting for x1 and x2 in the eqns. of motion:
( − m1ω 2f + k1 + k2 )X 1 sin( ω f t ) − k 2 X 2 sin( ω f t ) = F1 sin( ω f t )

( − m2ω 2f + k2 )X 2 sin( ω f t ) − k2 X 1 sin( ω f t ) = F2 sin( ω f t )
17:22:37
• Harmonically forced vibrations – undamped

Dividing throughout by sin(ω f t) and putting in matrix form :

(
 k1 + k2 − m1ω 2f ) − k2 
  X 1  =  F1 
  X 2   F2 


− k2 ( k2 − m2ω 2f ) 
or
 d11 d12   X 1   F1 
d d   X  = F  → d11 X 1 + d12 X 2 = F1 and d 21 X 1 + d 22 X 2 = F2
 21 22   2   2 
The response amplitudes X1 and X 2 can be determined using Cramer's rule:
F1 d12 d11 F1
F2 d 22 d F −d F d 21 F2 d F − d 21 F1
X1 = = 22 1 12 2 and X2 = = 11 2
d11 d12 d11d 22 − d 21d12 d11 d12 d11d 22 − d 21d12
d 21 d 22 d 21 d 22
• Note: the determinant (characteristic equation) can be equated to zero (d11d22 – d21d12 = 0 ) to define the
system natural frequencies.
• Under forced excitation, when d11d22 – d21d12 = 0 the response amplitudes X1 and X2 → ∞
• This defines resonance conditions (excitation frequency corresponds to either natural frequencies)
• 17:22:37
Note: Due to coupling both masses will exhibit resonance when the excitation force is applied to only one
mass:
• Harmonically forced vibrations – undamped absorber

• A mass-spring assembly added to a single degree of freedom with a natural frequency ωn tuned to the
forcing frequency ωf will act as a vibration absorber and reduce the vibration of the main mass to zero.
• Undamped vibration absorbers are designed so that the natural frequencies of the resulting system are
displaced away from the excitation frequency.
• The equations of motion of the main mass m1 and the

auxiliary mass m2 are:
m1&&x1 + k1 x1 + k2 ( x1 − x2 ) = F0 sin( ωt )
m2&&x2 + k2 ( x2 − x1 ) = 0
Rearranging
m1&&x1 + ( k1 + k 2 ) x1 − k 2 x2 = F0 sin( ωt )
m2&&x2 + k2 x2 − k 2 x1 = 0
Assuming harmonic solutions
x j ( t )= X j sin( ωt ) j =1, 2
And substituting into the eqns. of motion: m2
 − ω 2m X +
 1 1 ( k1 + k2 ) X 1 −k2 X 2  sin( ωt )= F0 sin( ωt )
2
−
17:22:37 ω m2 X 2 + k 2 X 2 − k 2 X 1 = 0
In matrix form :
 −ω 2 m1 + ( k1 + k 2 ) − k2   X 1   F0 
   =  
 − k2 −ω m2 + k2   X 2   0 
2
Using Cramer's rule to determine the response amplitudes X1 and X 2 :

F1 d12 d11 F1
F d 22 d F −d F d F2 d F −d F
X1 = 2 = 22 1 12 2 and X 2 = 21 = 11 2 21 1
d11 d12 d11d 22 − d 21d12 d11 d12 d11d 22 − d 21d12
d 21 d 22 d 21 d 22
Or
X1 =
( k2 − ω 2 m2 ) F0
X2 =
k2 F0
( k1 + k2 − ω 2m1 ) ( k2 − ω 2m2 ) − k22 ( k1 + k2 − ω 2m1 ) ( k2 − ω 2m2 ) − k22
and
• In order to minimise the amplitude of mass 1, the numerator of X 1 should be equated to zero which
produces:
k2
ω2 =
17:22:37 m2

If the original machine was operating near resonance :
k1
ω 2 ; ω12 =
m1
If the absorber is designed so that its natural frequency corresponds to the forcing frequency :
k2 k1
ω2 = =
m2 m1
The amplitude of the machine (m1) at its original resonant frequency will be zero.
Since
F0 k k2
δ st = , ω1 = 1 and ω2 =
k1 m1 m2
The dynamic response (magnification factor) of the main mass and the auxiliary mass (absorber) are :
2
ω 
1−  ÷
X1
=  ω2  and
X2
=
1
δ st  k  ω  2    ω  2  k δ st  k  ω     ω   k2
2 2
1 + 2 −  ÷  1 −  ÷  − 2 1 + 2 −  ÷  1 −  ÷  −
 k1  ω1     ω2   k1  k1  ω1     ω2   k1
17:22:37
• The size of the auxiliary mass m2 is

governed by the allowable deflection X 2.
• These systems can be quite effective
over a reasonable frequency band ± 5
%.
• The new system has an added degree
of freedom hence two resonance
peaks.
• The system will pass thru the first
resonance during startup, it is essential
that the run-up time is minimised.
• Otherwise, introduce damping to
prevent large vibrations of m 1 if the
excitation frequency is likely to vary.
• At ω= ω1 X1 = 0 and X2 = -k1 δst/k2 =
-F0/k2 which shows that the force
exerted by the absorber mass is out of
phase with (counteracts) the exciting
17:22:37
force which causes X 1 to reduce to
zero.
• Harmonically forced vibrations – damped absorber
• Introducing a viscous damper produces the following eqns.

of motion:
m1&&x1 + k1 x1 + k 2 ( x1 − x2 ) + c2 ( &x1 − &x2 ) = F0 sin( ωt )
m2&&x2 + k 2 ( x2 − x1 ) + c2 ( &x2 − &x1 ) = 0
Assuming harmonic solutions in the form :
x j ( t )= X j eiωt j =1, 2
Yields the steady-state amplitudes:
X1=
(
F0 k2 − ω 2 m2 + ic2ω )
( )( ) (
 k1 − ω 2 m1 k2 − ω 2 m2 − m2 k 2ω 2  + ic2ω k1 − ω 2 m1 − ω 2 m2
  )
X 1 ( k2 + ic2ω )
X =
( )
2
17:22:37
k2 − ω 2 m2 + ic2ω

Using the following definitions :
Mass ratio : µ = m2 m1
Static deflection : δ st = F0 k1
Square absorber natural frequency : ωa2 = k 2 m2
Square main mass natural frequency : ωn2 = k1 m1
Natural frequency ratio : f = ωa / ωn
Forced frequency ratio : g = ω / ωn
Critical damping cons tan t : cc = 2m2ω / ωn
Damping ratio : ζ = c2 / cc
The magnitude ratios can be written as :
( 2ζ g ) 2 + ( g 2 − f 2 )
2
X1
=
δ st
( 2ζ g ) ( g − 1 + µ g ) +{ µ f ( )( )}
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
g − g −1 g − f
X2
=
( 2ζ g ) 2 + f 4
δ st
( 2ζ g ) ( g − 1 + µ g ) +{ µ f ( )( )}
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
17:22:37 g − g −1 g − f
( 2ζ g ) 2 + ( g 2 − f 2 )
2
X1
=
δ st
( 2ζ g ) ( g − 1 + µ g ) +{ µ f ( )( )}
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
g − g −1 g − f
17:22:37
• When damping is infinite, the two masses are rigidly coupled and the system behaves as an undamped single
DoF system with mass m1 + m2 and stiffness k1
• X1 approaches ∞ when ζ = 0 and ζ = ∞
• The amplitude of the absorber mass is always greater that that of the main mass. Allow for large vibration
amplitudes and consider fatigue issues for design of absorber springs.
• X1 will have a minimum
• All damping values produce curves which intersect at A and B
• The frequencies of A and B can be located by substituting the extreme conditions ζ = 0 and ζ = ∞ into the
magnitude ratio equation.
• It has been shown that vibration absorbers operate optimally when the ordinates of A and B are equal for which:
1 1
f = ωa / ω n = =
( 1 + µ ) ( 1 + m2 m1 )
• Such systems are known as tuned vibration absorbers.
17:22:37
196 Mechanical Vibrations – Multi Degree-of-Freedom systems
• Vibration analysis of continuous systems require solution to partial differential equations which do not
always exist
• Analysis of multi DoF systems requires solution of a collection of ordinary differential equations.
• Continuous systems are often approximated by MDoF systems.
• Previous principles apply:
• One eqn. of motion for each degree of freedom
• One generalised coordinate for each degree of freedom
• The number of natural frequencies and mode shapes are equal to the number of DoFs
• The natural frequencies are determined by equating the determinant to zero (solution to characteristic
equations becomes more complex as number of DoF increases)
• Eqns. of motion obtained from Newton’s second law, influence coefficients or Lagrange’s equations.
17:22:37
• Modelling continuous systems as MDoF systems:

• Finite element models:
• The geometry of a distributed mass system is replaced by a large number of small structural
elements (m,c,k)
• A simple solution is assumed for each element
• Inter-element compatibility and equilibrium is used to approximate the solution
• Lumped-mass or discrete-mass models:

• The (distributed) mass or inertia of the system is replaced by a finite number of rigid bodies
(lumped mass)
• These lumped mass are connected by mass-less spring and damping elements.
• Linear or angular coordinates are used to describe the motion of each lumped mass element
• Better accuracy is usually achieved when more lumped masses are used
17:22:37
• Lumped-mass or discrete-mass models:
17:22:37
• Equations of Motion – Newton’s second law.

1. Define suitable coordinates to describe the position of each lumped mass in the model
2. Establish the static equilibrium of the system and determine the displacement of each lumped mass
wrt to their respective static equilibrium position.
3. Draw the free-body diagram for each lumped mass in the model. Indicate the spring, damping and
external forces on each mass element when a positive displacement and velocity is applied to each
mass element.
4. Generate the equation of motion for each mass element by applying Newton’s second law of motion
with reference to the free-body diagrams:
mi&&xi = ∑ Fij ( for mass mi ) and θi = ∑ M ij

J i&& ( for rigid body of inertia J )
j j
• Example: Consider the specific MDoF system:
17:22:37
mi&&xi = − ki ( xi − xi −1 ) + ki +1 ( xi +1 − xi ) − ci ( &xi − &xi −1 ) + ci +1 ( &xi +1 − &xi ) + Fi for i = 1,2,3...,n − 1

Rearranging:
mi&&xi − ci &xi-1 + ( ci + ci +1 ) &xi − ci +1&xi+1 − ki xi-1 + ( ki + ki +1 ) xi − ki +1 xi+1 = Fi for i = 1,2,3...,n − 1
• Note that the system has both stiffness and damping coupling
• The equations of motion of masses m1 and mn at the extremities of the system are obtained by setting
i = 1 & xi-1 = 0 and i = n & xn+1 = 0
m1&&x1 + ( c1 + c2 ) &x1 − c2&x2 + ( k1 + k2 ) x1 − k2 x2 = F1
mn&&xn − cn &xn-1 + ( cn + cn +1 ) &xn − kn xn-1 + ( kn + kn +1 ) xn = Fn
• In matrix form:
r
[ m ] &&xr + [ c ] &xr + [ k ] xr = F
17:22:37

• Where the mass matrix [m], the damping matrix [c] and the stiffness matrix [k] are given by:
 m1 0 0 ... 0 0
0 m 0 ... 0 0
 2 
0 0 m3 . . . 0 0
[ m] =  . .

 . . 
 . . 
 
 0 0 0 . . . 0 mn 
 ( c1 + c2 ) − c2 0 ... 0 0 
 −c ( c2 + c3 ) − c3 ... 0 0 
 2 
 0 − c3 ( c3 + c4 ) ... 0 0 
[ c ] =  . . . 

 . . . 
 
 . . . 
 0 0 0 . . . − cn ( cn + cn +1 ) 
17:22:37
 ( k1 + k 2 ) −k2 0 ... 0 0 
 −k ( k 2 + k3 ) − k3 ... 0 0 
 2 
 0 − k3 ( k3 + k4 ) ... 0 0 
[ k ] =  . . . 

 . . . 
 . . . 
 
 0 0 0 . . . −kn ( kn + kn +1 ) 
• And the displacement. Velocity, acceleration and excitation force vectors are given by:
 x1( t )   &x1( t )  &&x1( t )   F1( t ) 

x ( t )  x ( t )  &&x ( t )  F ( t ) 
 2   2   2   2 
r  .  &xr = 
.  &&xr = 
.  r  . 
x=    F= 
 .   .   .   . 
 .   .   .   . 
       
 xn ( t )  &xn ( t )  &&xn ( t )   Fn ( t ) 
17:22:37

• In general terms:
 m11 m12 m13 . . . m1n   c11 c12 c13 ... c1n   k11 k12 k13 . . . k1n 
m m22 m23 . . . m2n  c c c23 ... c2n  k k k 23 . . . k 2n 
 21   21 22   21 22 
 . . . ... .   . . . ... .   . . . ... . 
[ ] 
m = [ ] 
c = [ ] 
k =
. . . ... .  . . . ... .  . . . ... . 
     
 . . . ... .   . . . ... .   . . . ... . 
m mnn  c cnn  k knn 
 n1 mn1 mn3 . . .  n1 cn2 cn3 ...  n1 kn2 kn3 ...
17:22:37
• Influence coefficients.
• It is sometimes practical to express the eqns. of motion of MDoF systems in terms of influence
coefficients
• The elements of the stiffness matrix are known as the stiffness influence coefficients and relate the force at
a point in the system with the displacement applied at another point in the system.
• The stiffness influence coefficient kij is defined as the force at point i due to a unit displacement at point j
when all other points, except j, are fixed.
• The total force at i is the sum of the forces due to all applied displacements.:
 k11 k12 k13 ... k1n 
k k k23 ... k 2n 
 21 22 
n r  . . . ... . 
r
Fi = ∑ kij x j i = 1,2,3...n or F = [ k] x where [ k] = 
. . . ... . 
j =1  
 . . . ... . 
k knn 
 n1 kn2 kn3 . . .
17:22:37
• Influence coefficients – stiffness.

• Example:
• Use static equilibrium to determine the stiffness influence coefficients.

• Step 1: x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = 0.
• For which the free–body diagram is:
k11 = F1 x11 = F1 = k1 + k 2
k 21 = − k 2
k31 = 0
17:22:37
• Step 2: x1 = 0, x2 = 1, x3 = 0.
k12 = − k 2
k 22 = k 2 + k3
k32 = − k3
17:22:37
• Step 3: x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 1.
k13 = 0
k 23 = − k3
k33 = k3
17:22:37

• The system stiffness matrix is:
 k11 k12 k13   ( k1 + k 2 ) − k2 0 

[ k ] =  k21 k22 k23  =  − k2 ( k 2 + k3 ) − k3 
  
 k31 k32 k33   0 − k3 k3 
• The calculation of n stiffness influence coefficients require the solution of n simultaneous equations.
• Thus the computation of stiffness influence coefficients for a system with n degrees of freedom may require
a significant effort (up to n2 computations)
17:22:37
Multi-level building example
• Influence coefficients - flexibility.

• It is sometimes easier to define the system in terms of the flexibility influence coefficients
• The flexibility influence coefficients relates the displacement at a point in the system with the force applied
at another point in the system.
• The flexibility influence coefficient aij is defined as the deflection at point i due to a unit force point j with no
other forces acting on the system.
• For a linear system:
xij = aij F j
• When several forces act at various points in the system, Fj for j = 1, 2, 3….n, the total deflection at point i is
the sum of the deflections caused by each individual applied force:
n n r
r
xi = ∑ xij = ∑ aij F j i = 1,2,3.....n in matrix form : x = [ a] F
j =1 j =1
r r
where x and F are the displacement and force vectors and [ a ] is the flexibility matrix:
 a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n 

a a a23 . . . a2n 
 21 22 
[ a] =  . . . ... . 
 . . . ... . 
 
 an1 an2 an3 . . . ann 
17:22:37

• Not unexpected that the flexibility matrix is related to the stiffness matrix.
r
[ a ] −1 xr = [ a ] F [ a ] −1
r −1 r r
F = [ a] x = [ k ] x
Fi
[ a ] −1 = [ k ]
• Reciprocity theorem: For a linear system : aij = a ji
• Consider the work done by forces Fi andf Fj x j = aij Fi
xi = aii Fi
Case 1: Wi = 12 Fi xi = 12 aii Fi2
Fj
Case 2 : W j = 12 F j x j = 12 a jj F j2
When Fi and Fj are applied sequentially the total work is:
Wij = 12 aii Fi2 + 12 a jj F j2 + x j Fi = 12 aii Fi2 + 12 a jj F j2 + aij F j Fi

x j = a jj F j
xi = a ji F j
and when Fj is applied before Fi the total work is:
W ji = 12 a jj F j2 + 12 aii Fi2 + xi F j = 12 aii Fi2 + 12 a jj F j2 + a ji Fi F j

Since the total work done is not dependent on the sequence of applied force :
Wij = W ji
17:22:37 hence aij = a ji
211

• Example: Use static equilibrium to determine the flexibility matrix of the system.
• Step 1: Apply a unit load at point 1 only and calculate the deflections of each mass due to the unit load at 1.
a11 = x11 / F1 = x11

Mass 1:
k1a11 = k 2 ( a21 − a11 ) + F1
k1a11 = k 2 ( a21 − a11 ) + 1
Mass 2 :
k 2 ( a21 − a11 ) = k3 ( a31 − a21 )
Mass 3 :
k3 ( a31 − a21 ) = 0
Solving :
1 1 1
= , a21 = , a31 = ,
a11 17:22:37
k1 k1 k1

Mass 1:
k1a12 = k2 ( a22 − a1 )
Mass 2 :
k 2 ( a22 − a13 ) = k3 ( a32 − a22 ) + 1
Mass 3 :
k3 ( a32 − a22 ) = 0
Solving :
1 1 1 1 1
a12 = , a22 = + , a32 = +
k1 k1 k2 k1 k2
17:22:37

Mass 1:
k1a13 = k 2 ( a23 − a3 )
Mass 2 :
k 2 ( a23 − a13 ) = k3 ( a33 − a23 )
Mass 3 :
k3 ( a33 − a23 ) = 1
Solving :
1 1 1 1 1 1
a13 = , a23 = + , a33 = + +
k1 k1 k2 k1 k2 k3
17:22:37

• The flexibility matrix of the system is:
 a11 a12 a13  1 k1 1 k1 1 k1 

[ a ] =  a21 a22 a23  = 1 k1 ( 1 k1 + 1 k2 ) ( 1 k1 + 1 k2 ) 
 
 a31 k32 a33  1 k1 ( 1 k1 + 1 k 2 ) ( 1 k1 + 1 k2 + 1 k3 ) 
• It can be verified that the inverse of this flexibility matrix is the system stiffness matrix:
 ( k1 + k 2 ) −k2 0 
[ k ] =  − k2 ( k 2 + k3 ) − k3 

 0 − k3 k3 
17:22:37

• Step 1: Apply a unit load at point 1 only and

calculate the deflections at points 1, 2 and 3 due
to the unit load at 1.
9 l  3 11 l 
 3 7  l3 
a11 = x11 / F1 = x11 =  ÷ a12 =  ÷ a13 =  ÷
768  EI ÷
 768  EI ÷
 768  EI ÷


11 l  3 1 l  3 11  l 3 
a21 = a12 =  ÷ a22 =  ÷ a23 =  ÷
768  EI  48  EI  768  EI 
17:22:37

7  l3  11  l 3  9  l3 
a31 = a13 =  ÷ a32 = a23 =  ÷ a33 =  ÷
768  EI  48  EI  768  EI 
• The system flexibility matrix is:
 a11 a12 a13   9 11 7 

l3
[ a ] =  a21 a22 a23 =
 768EI
11 16 11
 
 a31 k32 a33   7 11 9 
17:22:37
• Influence coefficients - inertia.

• The elements of the mass matrix are referred to as the inertia influence coefficients.
• The inertia influence coefficients of a system can be determined by applying the impulse-momentum
equations.
• The inertia influence coefficients m1j, m2j, m3k…..mnj are defined as the impulses applied at points 1, 2,3…n
to produce a unit velocity at point j and zero velocity at every other point in the system.
• The total impulse at point i is:  m11 m12 m13 ... m1n 
m m22 m23 ... m2n 
 21 
n r r  . . . ... . 
F = ∑ mij&x j i = 1,2,3...n or F = [ m ] &x where [ m] = 
%i % . . . ... . 
j =1  
 . . . ... . 
m kn2 kn3 ... mnn 
 n1
r r
and F and &x are the impulse and velocity vectors.
%
• The inertia influence coefficients of linear systems are symmetrical:
mij = m ji
17:22:37

• Example: Determine the inertia influence coefficients (mass matrix) of the 2DoF system:
• Step 1: Apply impulses F1 (trailer) along

x(t) and F2 (pendulum) along θ(t) which
will result in a unit velocity along x (x’ =
1) and zero velocity along θ (θ’ = 0).
Applying the linear impulse - momentum eqn :
F1 = m11&x1 = m11
l
& + mθ& = ( M + m )
m11 = ( M + m )x
2
Applying the angular impulse - momentum eqn about O :
F2 = m21&x1 = m21
l  ml 2  l
m21 = mx
& + ÷θ& == m
2  3  2
17:22:37

• Example: Determine the inertia influence coefficients (mass matrix) of the 2DoF system:
• Step 2: Apply impulses F1 (trailer) along

x(t) and F2 (pendulum) along θ(t) which
will result in zero velocity along x (x’ =
0) and a unit velocity along θ (θ’ = 1).
Applying the linear impulse - momentum eqn :
F1 = m12&x2 = m12
l l
& + mθ& = m
m12 = ( M + m )x
2 2
Applying the angular impulse - momentum eqn about O :
F2 = m22&x2 = m22
l  ml 2  ml 2
m22 = mx
& + &
÷θ =
2  3  3
The mass or inertia matrix of the system is therefore :
 M +m ml 
( )
2 
[ m] =  2
 ml ml 
17:22:37 
 2 3 
• Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

• The solution to the eqn. of motion of a free undamped MDoF system
[ m ] &&xr + [ k ] xr = 0
• defines the (steady-state) harmonic vibration of the system due to an initial disturbance (initial conditions).
• The solution is established by assuming a solution in the form:
xi ( t ) = X iT( t ) i = 1,2,3.....n
where Xi is a constant and T is a function of time.
 xi ( t ) 
The amplitude ratio of any two coordinates   is independent of time.
 x j ( t ) 
Which signify that the motion (vibration) of all the degrees of freedom are synchronised - mode shape is fixed
and is written as :
 X1 
X 
 2
r  . 
X = 
 . 
 . 
 
Xn 
17:22:37

• Substituting the assumed solution into the eqn. of motion gives:
r r r
[ m ] XT ( t ) + [ k ] XT( t ) = 0
&&
in scalar form:
 n   n 
 ∑ mij X j ÷T( t ) +  ∑ kij X j ÷T( t ) = 0
&& i = 1,2,3.....,n
 j =1 ÷  j =1 ÷
   
which gives:
n
&&T ( t )
∑ kij X j
j =1
− = n
i = 1,2,3.....,n
T( t )
∑ mij X j
j =1
n
&&T ( t )
∑ kij X j
j =1
− = n
= ω2 or : T( t ) + ω 2T( t ) = 0
&&
T( t )
∑ mij X j
j =1
17:22:37

Then :
n
∑ ( kij − ω 2mij ) X j = 0 i = 1,2,3.....,n
j =1
or in matrix form:
r r
 [ k ] − ω 2 [ m]  X = 0 (a)
 
as found previously, the solution to the above can be written as :
T( t ) = C1 cos( ωt + φ )
• This solution reveals that the degrees of freedom can vibrate harmonically at the same frequency ω and phase
angle φ as long as the frequency satisfies eqn. (a) which represents a set on n linear homogeneous equations.
• For non-trivial solutions, the determinant of the coefficient matrix must be zero which gives the characteristic
equation:
kij − ω 2 mij = [ k ] − ω 2 [ m ] = 0
• This is known as the eigenvalue problem, where ω2 is the eigenvalue and ω the natural frequency of the
system.
• Expansion of the characteristic equation gives an nth order polynomial in terms of ω2 the solution of which
produces n real and positive roots when the mass and stiffness matrices are symmetric and positive.
• n natural frequencies are in ascending order ω1 ≤ ω2 ≤ ω3 ≤ …. ≤ ωn with ω1 being the fundamental
17:22:37
The
natural frequency.

If we let :
1
λ=
ω2
Equation (a) becomes:
r r
[ λ [ k ] − [ m] ] X = 0
and multiplying both sides by [ k ] -1 gives :
r r
[ [ ] [ ]] = 0
λ I − D X
or
r r
λ [ I ] X = [ D] X
where [ D ] = [ k ] −1 [ m ] is the dynamical matrix .
for a non-trivial solution the determinant of the characteristic eqn. must be zero:
λ [ I ] − [ D ] =0
• Expanding gives an nth degree polynomial in terms of λ

• This form lends itself to obtaining solutions by numerical (computer) methods to determine the roots of a
polynomial equation.
17:22:37

• Example: Find the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the system when k1 = k2 = k3 = k and m1 = m2 = m3 = m.
• The dynamical matrix is given by:
[ D ] = [ k ] −1 [ m ] ≡ [ a ] [ m ]
• And the flexibility and mass matrix were determined previously:
1 k1 1 k1 1 k1  1 1 1 
1
[ a ] = 1 k1 ( 1 k1 + 1 k 2 ) ( 1 k1 + 1 k2 )  = 1 2 2 
k
1 k1 ( 1 k1 + 1 k2 ) ( 1 k1 + 1 k2 + 1 k3 )  1 2 3 
1 0 0 1 1 1 
m
[ m ] = m 0 1 0  therefore : [ D ] = 1 2 2 
k
0 0 1 1 2 3 
17:22:37

• Example: Find the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the system when k1 = k2 = k3 = k and m1 = m2 = m3 =
m.
• Equating the C.E. determinant to zero:
λ 0 0  1 1 1 
m  1 
λ [ I ] − [ D ] =  0 λ 0  − 1 2 2 = 0  λ = ÷
  k   ω2 
 0 0 λ   1 2 3 
subtracting and dividing throughout by λ :
1− m   − m  − m 
 ÷  ÷  ÷
 kλ   kλ   kλ 
m 2m   2m 
=  − ÷  1 − ÷ − ÷ =0
 kλ   kλ   kλ 
 − m   − 2m   1 − 3m 
 ÷  ÷  ÷
17:22:37  kλ   kλ   kλ 

• Example: Find the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the system when k1 = k2 = k3 = k and m1 = m2 = m3 = m.
m mω 2
If α = =
kλ k
1−α −α −α
−α 1 − 2α −2α = α 3 − 5α 2 + 6α − 1 = 0
−α −2α 1 − 3α
whose roots (eigenvalues) are:
mω12 k
α1 = = 0.198 ω1 = 0.445
k m
mω22 k
α2 = = 1.555 ω2 = 1.247
k m
mω32 k
17:22:37 α3 = = 3.249 ω3 = 1.803
k m

The mode shapes are determined by calculating the eigenvectors :
r r
[ λi [ I ] − [ D ] ] X ( i ) = 0 ( i denotes the ith mode shape)
1 m
First mode : substituting λ1 = = 5.049 gives :
ω12 k
X (1)  X (1) 
 1 0 0  1 1 1    1   4.049 −1 −1   1  0 
 5.049 m 0 1 0  − m 1 2 2    X ( 1 )  =  −1 3.049 − 2   X ( 1 )  = 0 
  2    2   
k  k 
 0 0 1 1 2 3    X ( 1 )   −1 −2 2.049   X ( 1 )  0 
 3   3 
From the first and second rows :
X 2( 1 ) + X 3( 1 ) = 4.049 X 1( 1 ) and 3.049 X 2( 1 ) − 2 X 3( 1 ) = X 1( 1 )

(1) (1) ( 1)
Solving for X 2 and X 3 in terms X 1 :
X 2( 1 ) = 1.802 X 1( 1 ) and X 3( 1 ) = 2.247 X 1( 1 )

 1 
r (1) (1)  
Therefore the first mode shape is : X = X 1 =  1.802 
 2.247 
17:22:37  
1 m
Second mode : substituting λ2 = = 0.643 gives :
ω22 k
X( 2)  (2)
  1 0 0   1 1 1   1   −0.357
 −1 −1   X 1  0 
0.643 m 0 1 0  − m 1 2 2    X ( 2 )  =  −1 −1.357
   
−2   X 2( 2 )  = 0 
 k  k   2   
 0 0 1 1 2 3    X ( 2 )   −1 −2 −2.357   X ( 2 )  0 
 3   3 
− X 2( 2 ) − X 3( 2 ) = 0.357 X 1( 2 ) and − 1.357 X 2( 2 ) − 2 X 3( 2 ) = X 1( 2 )

(2) (2) (2)
X 2( 2 ) = 0.445 X 1( 2 ) and X 3( 2 ) = −0.802 X 1( 2 )

 1 
r(2) (2)  
Therefore the second mode shape is : X = X1 =  0.445 
 −0.802 
 
17:22:37
1 m
Third mode : substituting λ3 = = 0.308 gives :
ω32 k
X(3) X(3)
  1 0 0   1 1 1   1
  −0.692 −1 − 1   1  0 
0.308 m 0 1 0  − m 1 2 2    X ( 3 )  =  −1 −1.692 −2   X ( 3 )  = 0 
 k  k   2    2   
 0 0 1  1 2 3    X ( 3 )   −1 −2 −2.692   X ( 3 )  0 
 3   3 
− X 2( 3 ) − X 3( 3 ) = 0.692 X 1( 3 ) and − 1.692X 2( 3 ) − 2 X 3( 3 ) = X 1( 3 )

(3) (3) (3)
X 2( 3 ) = −1.247 X 1( 3 ) and X 3( 3 ) = 0.554 X 1( 3 )

 1 
r(3) (3)  
Therefore the third mode shape is : X = X 1 =  −1.247 
 0.554 
 
17:22:37
2.24
 1  1.802
7
 
X 1( 1 ) =  1.802  1.
 2.247  0
 
Node
 1  1.
 
X 1( 2 ) =  0.445  0 0.445 -0.802
 −0.802 
 
Node Node
 1 
  1. 0.554
X 1( 3 ) =  −1.247 
0
 0.554  -1.247
 
17:22:37
 1 
k  
X 1( ) =  1.802 
1
Mode # 1 ωn = 0.45
m  2.247 
 
 1 
k  
X 1( ) =  0.445 
2
Mode # 2 ωn = 1.25
m  −0.802 
 
 1 
k  
X 1( ) =  −1.247 
3
Mode # 3 ωn = 1.80
m  0.554 
17:22:37  
 1 
k  
X 1( ) =  1.802 
1
Mode # 1 ωn = 0.45
m  2.247 
 
 1 
k  
X 1( ) =  0.445 
2
Mode # 2 ωn = 1.25
m  −0.802 
 
 1 
k  
X 1( ) =  −1.247 
3
Mode # 3 ωn = 1.80
m  0.554 
17:22:37  
 1 
k  
X 1( ) =  1.802 
1
Mode # 1 ωn = 0.45
m  2.247 
 
 1 
k  
X 1( ) =  0.445 
2
Mode # 2 ωn = 1.25
m  −0.802 
 
 1 
k  
X 1( ) =  −1.247 
3
Mode # 3 ωn = 1.80
m  0.554 
17:22:37  
234
Mechanical Vibrations
Good luck for the exam!
17:22:37
Some Figures Courtesy Addison Wesley

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1 Mechanical Vibrations - Introduction

• Defined as oscillatory motion of bodies in response to disturbance.

Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse Video

• This can be observed with a pendulum:

• At position 2: the kinetic energy is at its

• Examples of two degree of freedom systems:

• Examples of three degree of freedom systems:

Discrete and continuous systems

• Free and Forced vibrations

• Undamped and damped vibration

• Linear and nonlinear vibration

• Deterministic and Random vibrations

• Input (excitation) and output (response) are wrt time

17:22:35 Example (1.3 Ed.3)

• Pure spring element considered to have negligible mass and damping

• Actual springs sometimes behave in

• Equivalent spring constant.

• Equivalent spring constant.

• In general, for n springs in parallel:

• Equivalent spring constant.

• Both springs are subjected to the same

• Combining the above equations:

k1δ 1 = k2δ 2 = keqδ t

• Substituting into first eqn:

• For n springs in series:

Example (1.10 Ed.3)

Mass / Inertia Elements

• Modelling with lumped mass elements. Example: assume

Mass / Inertia Elements

• The velocities of the mass elements can be written as:

Mass / Inertia Elements

• Equating the kinetic energies:

1 m &x 2 + 21 m2&x 22 + 21 m3&x 32 = 21 meq&x eq

• Substituting for the velocity terms:

• Coulomb (dry Friction) damping:

• Hysteretic (material or solid) damping:

• Equivalent damping element:

• Harmonic motion: simplest form of periodic motion

• Sinusoidal motion emanates from cyclic motion

• Often convenient to represent sinusoidal and co-sinusoidal components (mutually

• Frequency: number of cycles per unit time.

• Octave: doubling of any quantity. Used mainly for frequency.

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

• Many vibratory systems not harmonic but often periodic

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

eiωt = cos( ωt ) + i sin( ωt )

Can be written as:

ao ∞   eiω t + e −iω t   eiω t − e−iω t  

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

• Defining the complex Fourier coefficients

• The (complex) Fourier series is simplified to:

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

• The Fourier series is made-up of harmonics.

Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis

Free undamped vibration single DoF

• The equation of motion can be derived using

Free undamped vibration single DoF

For the free, undamped single DoF system

Free undamped vibration single DoF

Free undamped vibration single DoF