UNIT-1

Computer:
A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores
data input, processes the data input, and generates the output in a required
format.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the
following five functions −

Step 1 − Takes data as input.

Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as

required.

Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.

Step 4 − Generates the output.

Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Characteristics of Computers:
Following are certain advantages of computers.
1. High Speed:
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even
the pico second.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to
man who will spend many months to perform the same task.

2. Accuracy:
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input
is correct.

3. Storage Capability:
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

4. Diligence:
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and
lack of concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

5. Versatility:
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the
very next moment it may be playing a card game.
 6. Reliability:
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

7. Automation:
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the
computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer
memory, then the program and instruction can control the program
execution without human interaction.

8. Reduction in Paper Work and Cost:

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to
reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the
problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it
substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

Limitations of Computers:

Following are certain limitations of computers.

1. No I.Q.:
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

2. Dependency:
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on
humans.

3. Environment:
 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and
suitable.
 4. No Feeling:
 Computers have no feelings or emotions. It cannot make judgment
based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike humans.

Computer – Generations
Following are the main five generations of computers.
S.No Generation & Description

First Generation

1 The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum

tube based.

Second Generation
The period of second generation: 1959-1965.
2
Transistor based.

Third Generation
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated
3
Circuit based.

Fourth Generation
4 The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI
microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI
5
microprocessor based.
1.First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes:
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic
drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They
were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of
electricity, the first computers generated a lot of heat, which was often the
cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and
they could only solve one problem at a time, and it could take days or weeks to
set-up a new problem. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and
output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing
devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a
business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

2.Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors:

Transistors replace vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of
computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread
use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the
vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more
energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the
computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to
symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being
developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These
were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory,
which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy
industry.
3.Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits:
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed
on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed
and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation
computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating
system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one
time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the
first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors.

4. Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors:

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands
of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first
generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The
Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the
computer—from the central processing unitand memory to input/output
controls—on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in
1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the
realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more
everyday products began to use microprocessors.As these small computers
became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which
eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse
and handheld devices.

5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial

Intelligence:
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition,
that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors
is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and
molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in
years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices
that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-
organization.
Classification of computers:
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

S.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately

1
Computer) powerful microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system, similar to

2 Workstation personal computer however has a more powerful micro
processor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting

3 Mini Computer
hundreds of users simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting

4 Main Frame hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is
different from minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute

5 Supercomputer
hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
 1. PC (Personal Computer):

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for

an individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that
enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and
for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home,
the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing the
Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these

systems are normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power,
now-a-days high-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same
computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun
Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

2. Workstation:

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM),

desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of
applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and
relatively high quality graphics capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen,

large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface.
Most workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a
special type of workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk
drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like
PC, workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked
together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as
stand-alone systems.

3. Minicomputer:
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users
simultaneously.

4. Mainframe:
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of
supporting hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously.
Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and supports many
simultaneous execution of programs.

5. Supercomputer:
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations
(number crunching).

For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated)

graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic
design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical
prospecting).

Computer – Components

All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and
perform the following five basic operations for converting raw input
data into information useful to their users.

S.No. Operation Description

The process of entering data and instructions into the

1 Take Input
computer system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for

2 Store Data
processing as and when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in

3 Processing Data
order to convert them into useful information.
 The process of producing useful information or results
4 Output Information
for the user, such as a printed report or visual display.

Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the

5 Control the workflow
above operations are performed.

Block diagram of computer:

Input Unit:
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into
the computer. This unit creates a link between the user and the
computer. The input devices translate the information into a form
understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit):

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all
types of data processing operations. It stores data, intermediate
results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all
parts of the computer.

CPU itself has the following three components −

  ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Memory Unit
 Control Unit

Output Unit:
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get
the information from the computer. This unit is a link between the
computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's
output into a form understandable by the users.

History of Computers
 Tally Sticks
A tally stick was an ancient memory aid device to record and
document numbers, quantities, or even messages.

 Abacus
• An abacus is a mechanical device used to aid an
individual in performing mathematical calculations.
•The abacus was invented in Babylonia in 2400 B.C.
•The abacus in the form we are most familiar with was
first used in China in around 500 B.C.
•It used to perform basic arithmetic operations.
 Earlier Abacus Modern Abacus

 Napier’s Bones
•Invented by John Napier in 1614.
•Allowed the operator to multiply, divide and calculate
square and cube roots by moving the rods around and
placing them in specially constructed boards.

Fig. Napier’s Bone

 Slide Rule
•Invented by William Oughtred in1622.
•Is based on Napier's ideas about logarithms.
•Used primarily for
–multiplication
–division
–roots
–logarithms
–Trigonometry
•Not normally used for addition or subtraction.

Slide rule

 Pascaline
•Invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642.
•It was its limitation to addition and subtraction.
•It is too expensive.

Fig: Pascaline
  Jacquard Loom
•The Jacquard loomis a mechanical loom, invented by
Joseph-Marie Jacquard in 1881.
•It an automatic loom controlled by punched cards.

Fig: jacquard loom

 Arithmometer
•A mechanical calculator invented by Thomas de Colmarin
1820,
•The first reliable, useful and commercially successful
calculating machine.
•The machine could perform the four basic mathematic
functions.
•The first mass-produced calculating machine.

Fig: Arithmometer
Difference Engine and Analytical Engine:
•It an automatic, mechanical calculator designed to tabulate
polynomial functions.
•Invented by Charles Babbage in1822 and 1834
•It is the first mechanical computer.

Difference Engine Analytical Engine

 First Computer Programmer

•In 1840, Augusta Ada Byron suggests to Babbage that he
use the binary system.
•She writes programs for the Analytical Engine.

 Scheutzian Calculation Engine

•Invented by Per Georg Scheutz in 1843.
•Based on Charles Babbage's difference engine.
•The first printing calculator.
  Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)
•It was the first electronic digital computing device.
•Invented by Professor John Atanasoffand graduate student
Clifford Berry at Iowa State University between 1939 and
1942.

 ENIAC
•ENIACstands for Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer.
•It was the first electronic general-purpose computer.
•Completed in 1946.
•Developed by John Presper Eckertand John W.
Mauchl.

 UNIVAC 1
•The UNIVAC I(UNIVersal Automatic Computer 1) was
the first commercial computer.
•Designed by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly.

 EDVAC
•EDVAC stands for Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer
•The First Stored Program Computer
•Designed by Von Neumann in 1952.
•It has a memory to hold both a stored program as well
as data.
  The First Portable Computer
•Osborne 1–the first portable computer.
•Released in 1981 by the Osborne Computer Corporation.