2.

REVIEW ON THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF ANALYSIS

AND DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
2.1 GENERAL
Rapid industrialization being the key to development of a country, engineers and technologists are adopting
machines, machine tools and heavy equipments with wide range of speeds, loads and operating conditions.
Foundations, which support these machines, play an important role in their operating performance besides
satisfying stringent environmental stipulations. An improperly designed machine foundation will impare the
efficiency of the machine itself besides creating structural, acoustic, environmental and abnormal
maintenance problems even if the machine is perfectly sounding on its own. Thus technical and industrial
progress has motivated the intense study of foundations, which support time varying loads (dynamic loads).
Here the foundation engineer play a great role in studying the problems of shocks on and vibration of these
foundations as well as the propagation of waves from these foundations through the soil. When foundations
are subjected to dynamic loads, oscillation that depends on the nature and deformability of the supporting
ground, the geometry and inertia of the foundation and superstructure, and the nature of the dynamic
excitation will result in. The dynamic excitation may be due to waves from earthquake or adjacent explosion,
impact of hammer, wind waves, pile driving; or it may be from the dynamic force imposed on the foundation
of operating machines. Operating machines generate dynamic forces due to the moving /rotating parts. The
generated dynamic force depends on the type of machine. Machine types can be either of the following in
general:
1. Machines that produce a periodic unbalanced force such as reciprocating engines.
2. Machines that produce impact loads like forge hammer.
3. Machines that operate at high-speed such as turbo generator.
And accordingly their foundation varies. The common foundation types utilized are:
a) Block type foundation for machines, which produce periodic force.

Fig.1.1 Block type foundation supporting

reciprocating machine

b) Framed type foundation for machine working at high speed and rotating types.

Fig. 1.2 Typical framed machine foundation

In the analysis design of machine foundations certain design criteria need [12] to be satisfied. These includes
the following:
1. The foundation has to be safe against shear failure
2. The settlement should not exceed the permissible limit.
3. The combined center of mass of the foundation and machine and the center of gravity of the base
plane of the foundation should lie on a single vertical line.

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 4. The comparison of the natural frequencies with the frequency of the acting dynamic force has to be
made so that a possible resonance condition be avoided. This requirement can be achieved when the
ratio of the operating frequency to the lowest natural frequency does not fall with in a given range
(0.8-1.2).
5. The maximum response amplitude of oscillation for a specific speed in a given direction from its state
of rest has to be less than the maximum prescribed amplitude specified by manufacturers. But in the
absence of these prescription criteria, which are available in the form of chart as shown in figure 2.1,
may be used.
6. The depth of the ground-water table should be at least one-fourth of the width of the foundation
below the base plane.

Fig2.1 Chart of vibration standards for high-speed machines.

Use of these charts, as a guide will be made in the selection of an appropriate upper limit for a satisfactory
foundation performance. The limiting displacement amplitudes are typically in the order of a hundredth of a
centimeter compared to the several centimeters that are the usual restriction for foundation settlement under
static load.
2.2 DESIGN PROCEDURES
The design of a machine foundation is a trial-and-error procedure involving some important steps that need
to be satisfied in the design of these foundations which are acted by dynamic loading.
These steps are;
1. Evaluation of the magnitude and characteristics of the dynamic loads.
2. Establishment of proper design criteria in terms of permissible limits of system responses.
3. Simplification and idealization of the physical system and its representation by appropriate
mathematical models guided by relevant mechanism.
4. Determination of relevant system parameters characterizing the elements of the above idealized
model through field and laboratory investigations.
5. Selection of analytical methods and system parameters to compute system responses.
6. Choice of geometric design parameters of the various components of the system which yield
acceptable responses satisfying the design criteria stipulated in step 2.
7. Optimization of the design parameters.
2.3 DESIGN PARAMETERS
The design parameters, which are important for the design of machine foundations can be categorized into
the following subheading groups.
a) The geometric properties of the foundation mat and superstructure.
b) The physical properties of the underlying soil.
c) The machine data.

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2.3.1 THE GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF THE FOUNDATION MAT AND
SUPERSTRUCTURE
This includes the dimensions of each of these systems like the cross sectional areas, lengths, moment of
inertias and mass moment of inertias.
2.3.2 THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE UNDERLYING SOIL
Dynamically loaded foundations induce strains in the supporting soil. This requires the foundation element to
deform in a manner compatible with the deformation of the soil. It will then be necessary to adopt a physical
model that will predict the response of the soil to imposed dynamic loadings in order to allow the structural
designer to include the effect of foundation deformation in a global structural analysis. Several models are
available to accomplish this prediction. Of these models, the elastic half space model is the most widely used.
In here the stress-strain properties can be defined by two elastic constants, the shear modulus (G) and the
Poisson’s ratio () and of course the mass density ().
The model provides for dissipation of energy through damping. The lumped parameter approximations of the
half-space model have been developed that allow the soil to be represented by linear spring constants which
resist applied loads in vertical, horizontal, twisting and rocking modes and dashpot constants. Both spring
and damping constants are frequency dependant. In order to determine these quantities, the soil parameters,
shear modulus (G), Poisson’s ratio() the mass density () and material damping ratio (m) , are important
soil properties that need to be determined.
Shear Modulus G: dynamic loads from vibrating machinery induce shear strains within the soil underneath
the foundation having magnitudes much smaller than that produced by static loadings. As a result the stress-
strain behavior of a soil is much stiffer than that at static strain levels. Consequently it is in appropriate to
obtain a shear modulus directly from a static stress deformation tests.
It is known that a well-designed machine foundation usually induces small strain. In such cases the shear
deformation is almost linearly elastic: the hysteresis loops that develop upon unloading and reloading are
very, very narrow. The actual behavior can be simulated quite accurately as that of a linear hysteretic solid
described through the tangent-at- the-origin shear modulus Go and G<G a odamping
=Gmax ratio o.
Go G
Monotonic loading curve
1
 1

c 

Fig.2.2 The hysteresis loop [1]

Factors That Affect The Shear Modulus of Soil

The low-strain shear modulus, Gmax or the corresponding S-wave velocity
G max
Vs,max = , is the single most important soil parameter influencing the response of machine

foundations. Laboratory and field tests have revealed number of factors on which Gmax and Vs, max depend.
Among which are as listed below[1].
a) The two most important parameters are the mean confining effective stress 'o and the void ratio e.

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  
Gmax   ' o ;
n

where n lies b/n 0.3 to 0.6 for granular soil and 0.5 to 0.9 for silty and clayey soils
b) the static-stress prehistory expressed for instance through the over consolidation ratio OCR influences the
Gmax of clays mainly.
Method Of Determination Of Shear Modulus Gmax
The soil shear modulus Gmax may be determined from field measurements, laboratory measurements or use
of published empirical correlations.
Field Procedures: two widely used in-situ procedures are the steady-state oscillatory test and the cross-hole
test.
The shear modulus from these methods is obtained as;
Gmax  Vs
2

---(2-1)
Gmax  f 2 L2R
where, Gmax = shear modulus
= total mass density of the soil
f= frequency of oscillation in cycle per unit of time
LR= measured wave length
Vs = shear wave velocity
Laboratory Procedures: the resonant column test gives an accurate result of Gmax and has got wide
acceptance.
V
fs  s
4H
(in the torsional mode)
G/
fs 
4H
V
fl  l
4H
(in the axial mode)
E/
fs 
4H
where H is the height of the sample
E is the Young’s modulus of the soil
= 21   G

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 Fig. 2.3 Resonant column test [Based on Woods, 1987; Drnevich, 1985]
Emperical Correlations: several expressions relating Gmax to other soil parameters have been devised on the
basis of laboratory test results.
(OCR)  
Gmax  625* P  o , for granular and cohesive soils (Hardin 1978)
0.3  0.7e 2
a

Where, pa = atmospheric pressure,  is a function of plasticity index Ip as shown below.

 o   a   b  (  a ,  b are the effective stresses in the directions of wave
 1    

2 
propagation and particle motion respectively [Knox, et al., 1982]
Alternatively, the following expression can be used for clean sands:
0.20
180    
Gmax  
2  a
 b p a0.60 ---(2-2)
0.3  0.7e  
Shear Wave Velocity Vs: a vibrating foundation emits shear and dilatational waves into the supporting
ground. The shear waves denoted by S propagate with a velocity s that is a function of G and the mass
density  of the soil.
G
VS  ---(2-3)

and the dilatational ones by p propagate with a velocity V p and is given by:
2(1   )
Vp  Vs ---(2-4)
(1  2 )
In addition to these there are waves that arise with in the ground under an oscillating foundation (mostly
Rayleigh and Love waves)
Poisson’s Ratio  : the Poisson’s ratio to be used is selected based upon the predominant soil type.

Table (2.1) Typical values of Poisson’s ratio [12]

Soil Type Poisson’s ratio,

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 Saturated clay 0.45-0.50
Partially saturated clay 0.35-0.45
Dense sand or gravel 0.40-0.50
Medium dense sand or gravel 0.30-0.40
Silt 0.30-0.40

Soil Damping
Damping which is dissipation of vibration energy in a soil-foundation system comprises: geometric and
material types of damping.
Geometric damping: the body and Rayleigh waves propagate radially outward from the source. As they
radiate these encounters an increasingly larger volume of material, thus the energy density in each wave
decreases with distance from the source. This decrease in energy density or decrease in displacement
amplitude is called what is termed as geometrical damping. This geometrical damping is a measure of the
energy radiated away from the immediate region of the foundation and is related to the mass.
Material damping is a measure of the energy lost as a result of hysteretic effects. Referring the
accompanying figure the material damping is seen to be proportional to be the ratio of the area of the
hysteresis loop Al (energy lost) to the area enclosed by OAB,A (energy input).

 (Shear Stress) B

Fig 2.4 Definition of material damping

A  (Shear strain)
O

The material damping can be obtained from resonant column testing. After the soil has been vibrating in a
steady state condition, the exciter is stopped and the soil vibrations are monitored as they decay. The
displacement-time relation ship is essentially sinusoidal, but with the amplitude decreasing with time. If two
successive amplitudes are z1 and z2, then the material damping m can be calculated from [1];

 m  ln( Z1 / Z 2 ) * 4 2  ln Z1 / Z 2 2 
0.5
---(2-5)

2.3.3 THE MACHINE DATA

The analysis and design of machine foundations is carried out with the machine data as an input. These
include the total weight of the machine, the speed of the rotating parts, mass of the rotating parts and
eccentricities of the rotating parts. It is from these data that the loading of the system be established and
response analyses be carried out. The dynamic loading in machine foundation comes from the imbalance of
the machine parts. Imbalance in machine rotating parts cause harmonic forces of amplitude equal to mo eo 2
where mo, e and  are unbalanced mass, eccentricity and operating circular frequency of the machine,
respectively. So these quantities are very input data and are to be provided by the manufacturers.

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 eo mo

t

Figure showing the motion of the rotating machine part.

The harmonic force is f (t )  f o * f (t )
Where f o is the amplitude of the dynamic load given by
f o  mo eo 2 ---(2-6)
The dynamic load acting on the machine can be resolved in to vertical and horizontal components.
Mathematically;
f (t )  f o (Sin(t )  Cos(t )) ---(2-7)

3. REVIEW ON METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FRAMED

MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
3.1 GENERAL
High-speed operating machines, such as turbo-generators with speeds more than 500 rpm are used in several
engineering projects and are generally mounted on framed-type foundations.[4] The foundation is designed
adequately for all possible combinations of static and dynamic loads. In the early days the aforementioned
machines were used to be mounted on the so-called wall-type foundations. With the increase in the size and
output of the machinery, more sophisticated types of foundations need to be devised. Framed foundations are
among these sophisticated ones and today they are popular for supporting high-speed machinery. The
popularity of framed machine foundations arises from the following merits, which they have got. Among
these are: they are quite flexible and versatile since they can be designed for any general location and size of
the site. Also they are very convenient to connect, and service all kinds of pipes, air vents and wiring besides
providing easy access to inspection and maintenance, saving of materials of construction, ease of installation
of the machinery. Though block type of foundations can be designed for high-speed machines, framed
foundations turn out to be more economical besides the advantages mentioned above.
Framed machine foundations are also preferred for a wide variety of electrical machines such as generators,
synchronous compensators, electrical motors and dynamos where sudden changes in load do not occur. [10]
Usually framed foundations make the system over-tuned (natural frequency in the vertical mode is higher
than the frequency of the vertical dynamic load/operating speed of the machine) and the dynamic forces act
on the bearing of the machine itself. In the case of under-tuned machine foundations natural frequency is
lower than the operating frequency of the loads/machine), the foundation acts as a spring and does not
subject the machine to severe accelerations.
Framed machine foundations have also the following demerit, which may not be significant: while modeling
the framed-machine foundation, it will result in a multi-degree-freedom system. The vibration response of
this MDOFs due to applied forces is generally attempted using computer program or solving the coupled
differential equations of machine requires some tedious work usually possible using computers.
A framed machine foundation consists of three or more frames embedded in the foundation slab, and tied
together by longitudinal girders and upper slab/platform having openings to suit the installations including
connections. Sometimes the frames are multistoried like framed structures.

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The common materials of construction used are reinforced concrete and steel or a combination of both.
Framed-machine foundations could be one of the following depending on the arrangement of the structural
components/structural integrity.
1) Table-top type: elevated reinforced concrete structure consisting of beams framing into columns and
supported by a heavy foundation slab. The tops of the columns are connected by a top-slab or heavy
longitudinal and traverse beams forming a rigid table on which the machineries rests. The foundation
slab may rest on the soil or may be supported by piles.[2]
2) The second type is similar to the above with the intermediate framing longitudinal and traverse beams
being lacked. I.e it consists of the following; heavy foundation slab which is supported from
underneath by soil or piles, series of columns on the top of the slab, longitudinal and traverse beams
connecting the top of the columns thereby forming a rigid table (upper plate) on which rest the turbine
and generator. Condensers rest generally on independent supports below the turbine on the foundation
slab.[5] (Figure 3.1)

Fig. 3.1 Typical Model of Framed Machine Foundation

3.2 DYNAMIC IMPEDANCE (Dynamic Springs And Dashpots)
The foundation mat is assumed to undergo rigid body motion under the unbalanced forces. The rigid body
motion possesses in general six degrees of freedom in Cartesian coordinate system. These are the translations
in the three orthogonal axes and a rotation about each of these axes. (Figure 3-2)

Fig. 3.2 Rigid foundation block with its six degrees of freedom

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The dynamic stiffness and damping coefficients of the soil are determined by relating the vector P(t ) of a
set of dynamically applied harmonic excitations to the resulting response vector x(t ) as expressed below.
k x  P ---(3-1)
Where the vectors x and P are the amplitudes of the response x(t ) and harmonic excitation P(t )
respectively. But here the vector { x(t ) } need to be determined first and this will be illustrated by considering
the vertical oscillation.
Consider separately the motion of each body (the foundation block and the supporting ground) as shown in
Fig.3.3
The foundation actions on the soil generate equal and opposite reaction distributed in some unknown way
across the interface and having an unknown resultant Fv(t).
Applying the compatibility equation, the dynamic equation of the block takes the form:
..
Fv (t )  m x v (t )  Pv (t ) ---(3-2)
and similarly for the ground;
Fv (t )   v xv (t ) ---(3-3)
where  v is the dynamic vertical impedance.
Combining equation (3-2) and (3-3) yields the following:
..
m x v (t )   v xv (t )  Pv (t )  0 ---(3-4)

Fig. 3.3 Analysis of the dynamic equilibrium of a vertically

vibrating foundation block.[1]

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From structural dynamics, the steady-state solution xv (t ) of equation (3-4) for harmonic excitation
Pv (t )  Pv sin t is also a harmonic with the same circular frequency . Theoretical and experimental results
show that a harmonic action Fv applied on to the ground and the resulting harmonic displacement x v have the
frequency , but out of phase.
That is if Fv (t )  Fv cos(t   ) then ---(3-5)
xv (t )  xv cos(t     )
x v (t )  x1v cos(t   )  x 2v Sin(t   )
xv  x1v  x2v
2 2

x2
tan   ---(3-6)
x1
The above equations (3-5) and (3-6) can be written equivalently using complex number notation.

Fv (t )  F v exp(it )

---(3-7a)
xv (t )  x v exp(it )
 
F v and x v are complex quantities that can be expressed as
 
F v  F1v  iF2v , x v  x1v  ix 2v ---(3-7b)
Equation (3-7a) and (3-7b) are equivalent to equations (3-5) to (3-6) with the following relations being valid
for the amplitudes.
 
F v  F12v  F22v ; x v  x12v  x22v ---(3-8)
 
F v and x v being complex numbers equation, the dynamic vertical impedance becomes

F (t ) F v
 v  v   which is a complex number.
xv (t ) x
v
This may be put in the form:

 v    icv ---(3-9)
Substitution of (3-9) into (3-4) and doing some mathematical manipulations yields
.. .
m x v (t )  cv x v (t )   v xv (t )  Pv (t ) ---(3-10)
Equation (3-10) is the equation of motion for a given mass m.

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If only the planar motion is of interest, only three of these degrees of freedom are considered (the horizontal
and vertical translations and the rocking about the other horizontal axis) as shown below.
Pv(t)
Mr(t) ch
Ph(t)

,,G
kh
v(t) cv
r(t) cr kr
h(t) kv

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Rigid Foundation Under

harmonic. Substitute Model for the
(Fig. 3.4a) soil-foundation system.
So for the case of the three degrees of freedoms, the matrix [k] commonly referred to as impedance matrix is
given as [3];

kv,st(kv+iaocv) 0 0

[k]= 0 kh,st(kh+iaoch) khm,st(khm+iaochm)

(3-11)

0 kmh,st(kmh+iaocmh) km,st(km+iaocm)

Where kj,st are the static stiffness of the soil, kj and cj are the dynamic stiffness and damping coefficients
which depend on the frequency parameter ao, poisson’s ratio  of the underlying soil, and the foundation
shape. The frequency parameter ao is given by ao =B/Vs where  is the excitation frequency; B is half the
least width of the foundation; Vs is the shear wave velocity which is given by Vs=(G/)0.5 , G is the shear
modulus of elasticity of the soil and  is the soil mass density. The dynamic stiffness khm and kmh couples the
horizontal and rocking motions. They are equal and relatively small for surface and very shallow foundation
and may be neglected.
The determination of the stiffness and damping parameters (analogy parameters of an equivalent mass-
spring-dashpot model) has been a research work of several researchers and are available in the literature.
Among these are Lysmer and Richart et al, Gazetas and Tassoules, Wolf, Mita and Luco, who have
parameters compiled for the analyses of equivalent SDF model for each modes of vibration, [10].
Among the many researchers who organized the results of their research, Gazetas is one who presented the
results in the form of tables and graphs incorporating the shape of the foundation, effect of embedment of the
foundation and also the effect of coupled oscillation. These tables present comprehensive and easy-to-use
information for dynamic spring and dashpot coefficients. The information is in the form of simple algebraic
formulas and dimensionless graphs pertaining to all possible (translational and rotational) modes of
oscillation and covering a wide range of idealized soil profiles and foundation geometries. Utilization of
these tables and charts will be made in this work. The tables and graphs are given in Appendix A.

These tables and graphs give the dynamic stiffnesses k ( ) as a product of the static stiffness k and the

dynamic stiffness coefficient k ( ) which is k ( )  k  k ( ) and the radiation damping (dashpot)

2 k ( )  o
coefficients c( ) . The material damping(dashpot coefficient is) is . The total damping Ctotal is

then given by [7]

2 k ( )  o
Ctotal= c( )  ---(3-12)


3.3 STRUCTURAL PROPERTY

3.3.1 STIFFNESS MATRIX
The stiffness is an inherent property of the structure and is based upon the structural data only.
It is determined using static structural analysis methods. First the stiffness of each element is computed and
these are compiled to yield the stiffness matrix of the given system. (Appendix D)
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 3.3.2 MASS MATRIX
Even though the mass is distributed in reality, it can be idealized as lumped at the nodes of the discretized
structure. The lumped mass at a node is determined on the basis of tributary area. Each structural element is
replaced by splitting its mass at two nodes. The lumped mass at a node is the sum of the mass contributions
of all the structural elements connected to the node.
3.3.3 DAMPING PROPERTY
In structural dynamics it is a usual trend to assume the retarding forces to be proportional in magnitude, but
opposite in direction to the velocity in spite of the actual deceptive characteristics of the system,[6]. This type
of damping is known as viscous damping that could be developed in a body restrained in its motion by a
surrounding viscous fluid. There are also other types of damping such as Coulomb damping, hysteretic
damping (structural damping) and negative damping.
Damping is introduced by architectural, structural and non-structural features. Damping varies with materials
used, the form of structure, the nature of the subsoil, and the nature of vibration of the machine under use.
There is also difference in damping in different modes of vibration. However, damping properties are very
difficult to evaluate and no clear demarcation has yet been established, [6].
Damping matrix is determined from global modal damping ratios, which account for all energy dissipation
mechanisms in the structure or a component thereof.
Rayleigh showed for a structural component with more-or-less similar energy dissipation mechanism, that
damping is proportional to the mass, stiffness and the natural circular frequencies. If c 1 is the damping
contribution from the mass matrix, [m] and c2 from the stiffness matrix [k] and introducing the constant of
proportionalities ao and a1 respectively, we have the following;
[c]=ao[m], [c]=a1[k]
For the ith mode, ci=aomi and the modal damping ratio i which is given by

ci a o mi
 i=   i=
2 mi  i 2m i  i
ao
  i=
2 i
 ao= 2 i i
Similarly the modal damping ratios for a system with stiffness-proportional damping related to the
coefficient a1 will be as follows,
[k]=  i [m]
2

a1
ci= a1 i mi and i= i
2

2
The coefficient a1 can be selected to obtain a specified value of the damping ratio in any one mode, say j for
the jth mode.
a 2 j
From i= 1  i we get a1  .
2 j
Now one can construct the damping matrix, [c]. Such type of damping matrix is called the classical damping
matrix and is given by
[c]=ao[m]+a1[k] ---(3-13)
a a
The total damping n is equal to the sum of 0 and 1  n .
2 n 2
a a
That is n = 0  1  n . The determination of a1 and ao is accomplished by considering two modes i and j
2 n 2
and solving simultaneously. It is done as follows:
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if both modes are assumed to have the same damping ratio , which is reasonably based on experimental data
then;
2 i j 2
ao= , a1= . Hence the damping matrix [c] of the superstructure is determined.
i   j i   j
In applying this procedure to practical problems, the modes i and j with specified damping ratios should be
chosen to ensure reasonable values for the damping ratios in all the modes contributing significantly to the
response.
Where the natural frequencies i and j are to be determined from the undamped condition.
The above method of developing the damping matrix fails when we have two or more parts composing the
system to be analyzed for instance structure-soil system. Modification of the damping matrix will be
important in this case. Because the damping property of such a system is non-proportional type, the
procedure to be followed will be:
[c]s=aos[m]s+a1s[k]s,
[c]f= aof[m]f+a1f[k]f
where the subscripts s and f are to mean superstructure and foundation.
For the determination of aos and a1s, an appropriate damping ratio say =5% can be assumed and for the
coefficients a0f and a1f the damping ratio to be taken depends upon the type of soil in which the structure
rests. Though this is the case, for soils the damping can be fairly easily calculated. Then the two damping
matrices computed will be combined into a single matrix [c] by adding values at the interface where the two
structures interact this is also true for the mass matrix and stiffness matrix of the whole system.

Structure

Interface

Foundation
Soil

Having the mass, stiffness and damping matrix developed, the equation of motion for the whole system can
be written.
.. .
[m]{x}  [c]{x}  [k ]{x}  {P(t )} ---(3-14)
The equations of motion are developed with reference to a discrete planar model of a structure subjected to a
set of harmonic loading that result from machines. The displacement superposition equations yield the
coupled differential equations of motion in the local geometric coordinates. These are transformed into
equations of modal coordinates using the method of modal superposition.
Unfortunately, the equations of motion in the modal coordinates remain coupled with respect to the damping
terms even after transformation. This problem is overcome by adapting a method of solution developed for
structures subjected to seismic loading, [11].

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 Fig.3.5a The real system Fig.3.5b The lumped mass model
The real system which is shown in Fig.3.5a is modeled in Fig.3.5b, in which the mass of the superstructure
and the machine is assumed to be concentrated at the top joints (m1, m2, m3 and … ), and that of the mat at
the bottom level by mf. The columns and the soil deform elastically giving rise to the movements of the
masses, mi. Viscous dashpots with damping coefficients ci represent the velocity proportional damping in the
superstructure where as a pair of spring and dashpot with spring coefficients kj and dashpot coefficients cj
respectively, represent the dynamic stiffness and damping of the soil corresponding to each degree of
freedom j of the foundation
The dimension of the foundation block along with the soil data will be necessary to compute the dynamic
soil-structure interaction parameters (the dynamic stiffness and damping) needed for the analysis.
3.4 MODELING TYPES
The dynamic analysis of structures starts with the idealization of the system that helps to develop the
mathematical model and to formulate the equation of motion so as to obtain the dynamic response of the
loading in question provided by the manufacturers of the machine and the analysis of the base mat as a unit.
There are different modeling types, which uses the lumped mass system method of analysis to approximate
the displacement at any instant of time.
Lumped Mass Method
In the Lumped Mass System idealization the infinite number of degrees of freedom may be replaced for the
purpose of analysis and design by an equivalent system having a finite number masses concentrated at nodes.
The inertia-free skeleton of the system in dynamic analysis however retains all the properties of the prototype
system in regards to its ability to deform or to resist deformation.
Some of the modeling techniques are [2];
1) single-lumped mass system (uncoupled superstructure and foundation).
2) Multi-lumped mass system (uncoupled superstructure and foundation)
3) Two lumped mass with coupled soil-structure interaction.
4) Multi-lumped mass with coupled soil-structure interaction.
1. Single-Lumped Mass System (Uncoupled Superstructure And Foundation)
This modeling technique has two parts as can be seen from the figure. I) the top floor plus the supporting
columns, and II) the total structure and equipment plus the bearing soil. These two subsystems are assumed
to possess independent dynamic characteristics; hence no interaction between these two systems exists. The
basic assumption here is to consider the columns bases as perfectly fixed. The structure is modeled so that
Extracted Material to Soil Dynamics Course By Dr. Tensay G - 2012 Page 18
only its three predominant motions (lateral, vertical, and rotational) are predictable at the center of gravity of
masses.

2.Multi-Lumped Mass System (Uncoupled Superstructure And Foundation)

This model is similar to the above one, but some modification is made by lumping the masses in the
superstructure at points where dynamic response is required.

3. Two-Lumped Mass With Coupled Soil-Structure Interaction

This is an improvement over the first model due to the incorporation of the interactivity between the structure
and soil which this has been neglected there.
This model as shown in the accompanying figure has two parts. First one is for the coupled horizontal and
rocking mode and the second one is for vertical mode. The draw back of this model becomes more apparent
when the vibration response at some points in the structure is desired.

4. Multi-Lumped Mass With Coupled Soil-Structure Interaction

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An improved model in relation to the previous model with respect to the degree of reliability of results and
with regard to the availability of sufficient information at all points of interest. The approach is based on
lumping the masses at the points of maximum displacement occurring for any direction of motion. The
foundation slab is modeled using finite-element procedures and is supported by soil-springs at the node
points. The interaction of the soil’s stiffness with the foundation structure is obtained through the use of the
elastic half-space theory. An average damping constant may be used when performing the response
calculation for all modes.

3.5 TRIAL SIZING OF FRAMED MACHINE FOUNDATIONS

Preliminary sizing and geometrical member arrangement constitute the initial design phase for these

foundations. Although this preliminary phase is often based on experience of designers, suggested guidelines
can be useful in arriving at a satisfactory final design.
These guidelines includes:
 All the beams and columns of the foundation should be provided with adequate haunches to
ensure rigidity of joints and to avoid large stress concentrations. [5]
 As far as possible, avoid over-hanging cantilevered projections so that rigidity against vibration
will be ensured.[5]
 Base slab has to be provided and should be rigid enough to ensure uniform settlement or to
prevent differential settlement. And the depth or thickness of the mat should not be less than
0.07(L)4/3 where L is the average of spans between columns.[4]
 As far as possible, the foundation should be so dimensioned that the resultant gravity force due to
the weight of the machine and foundation including the upper deck, intermediate slab if any, the
base slab and the columns passes through the centriod of the base area in contact with the
soil.[4,5]
The following are from {[2]
 The analysis should take into account the equipment size and clearance requirements to assure
that sufficient space is allocated to equipment, anchor bolts, piping and clearance for installation,
maintenance and operation.
 The columns should be stressed almost equally. The columns should be capable of carrying six
times the vertical load with a maximum spacing of 3.6576m.
 The beam depth should be a minimum of one fifth of the clear span, and the beam width is
normally equal to the width of the column.
 The flexural stiffness of the beams should be at least twice the flexural stiffness of the column.
 The total mass of the structure including the mat should not be less than three times the mass of
the supported machine.

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  The mass of the top half of the structure should not be less than the mass of the supported
machine.
 The beams and columns should be checked for individual member resonance with the machine-
acting frequency. The lowest natural frequency of the columns is approximated by
44800( f c' )1 / 4
fn 
pl
where f c' is the concrete strength [psi], p is column axial stress [psi], l is column height in inch and
f n is natural frequency of column in rpm.

3.6 DESIGN CHECK LIST

Once the proposed structure is modeled, trial sizes are selected and analysis is performed. The predicted
behavior of the proposed structure is checked or compared against certain requirements. These includes the
following:
 The static bearing capacity should be less than or equal to 50% of the allowable soil pressure.
 The static settlement must be uniform and should be within allowable limit
 The magnification factor should preferably be less than 1.50. The sum of the static plus modified
dynamic load should not create bearing pressure greater than 75% of the allowable soil pressure.
 Vibration amplitudes at operating frequency of the machine need to satisfy the conditions
prescribed values. The prescription may be available in chart form like the following.

Fig. 3.6a Vibration standards

of high-speed machines[2]

Fig. 3.6b Vibration performance of

rotating machines[2]
Table 3.1 Table showing the condition of the machine with the prevailing peak velocity.
Horizontal peak velocity (in/sec) Machine condition
Less than 0.005 Extremely smooth
0.005-0.010 Very smooth
0.010-0.020 Smooth
0.020-0.040 Very good
0.040-0.080 Good
0.080-0.160 Fair
0.160-0.315 Slightly rough
0.315-0.630 Rough
Greater than 0.630 Very rough
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4 DYNAMIC RESPONSE COMPUTATIONS
4.1 BASIC RELATIONS
The mass of structures is distributed throughout the structure itself and the foundation mat. But for the sake
of analysis, one can make idealization in such a way that the masses are concentrated at the nodes or joints as
shown in Fig. 3.5b. The number of independent displacements required to define the displaced positions of
the masses relative to their original equilibrium position is called the number of degrees of freedom. The
equation of motion for a single mass m1 along a single degree of freedom say x1 is as follows;

m1
(Damping force, )
(Spring force, )
Fig. 4.1 Figure showing the direction of the drag forces and the direction of motion
Applying Newton’s second law of motion, we have
..
P1 (t )  Fd 1  Fs1  m1 x1 -- -(4-1)
Rearranging equation (4-1)
..
m1 x1  Fd 1  Fs1  P1 (t ) ---(4-2)
These damping force and spring force are from only one degree of freedom. For an n degrees of freedom (x 1,
x2, x3… xn), the drag forces along the degree of freedom x1will be
n .
Fd 1   c1 j x j
j 1
n
---(4-3)
Fs1   k1 j x j
j 1

For any mass mi in any degree of freedom xj, the drag forces becomes
n .
Fdi   cij x j
j 1
n
---(4-4)
Fsi   k ij x j
j 1

and correspondingly the equation of motion will be

..
mi x i  Fdi  Fsi  Pi (t ) ---(4-5)
Substituting equation (4-4) into the equation of motion (Eq. (4-5)) yields
.. n . n
mi x i   cij x j   k ij x j  pi (t ) ---(4-6)
j 1 j 1

If we consider a system owing mass m resting on a spring of stiffness k and is free to oscillate along only one
direction in the vertical direction,

z m

C K
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 Fig. 4.2 Mass-spring-dashpot system.
..
The equation of motion is  kz  m z (omitting the damping force)
..
 m z  kz  0 ---(4-7)
The solution of equation (4-7) is a harmonic type given by
z  ao cos  n t  bo sin  n t ---(4-8)
where, a o and bo are constants and  n is the natural circular frequency.
Equation (4-8) can be rewritten as
z  co sin( n t   ) ---(4-9)
..
z   n2co sin( nt   )
..
---(4-10)
z   z 2
n
Plugging equation (4-10) into equation (4-7) and solving we obtain
n
 n  k / m  Tn  ---(4-11)
2
where Tn is the natural period of oscillation.

The displacement response when plotted becomes

Tn

z t

Fig .4-3 Response for undamped oscillation.

Now if the dashpot c is considered, the equation of motion will be
.. .
m z  c z  kz  0 ---(4-12)
Here we assume a solution of the form z  e at
where, a is a constant to be determined.
.
 z  ae
at

z  e at   .. ---(4-13)
 z  a 2 e at
Inserting these values into equation (4-12) and simplifying
c k
a2  a   0 ---(4-14)
m m
The solution of equation (4-14) is given by
1
a1, 2  * (c  c 2  4km) ---(4-15)
2m
We need to define the following important parameters in the analysis.

Natural circular frequency

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Critical damping

Damping ratio
 n  k / m
cc  2 km
c

cc
d  n 1  2
Depending on the values of the terms in the square root of equation (4-15), we have the following cases.
If c 2  4km, then the system is critically damped.
If c 2  4km, then the system is under damped.
If c 2  4km , then the system is over damped.
If the mass in Fig.4-2 is subjected to a harmonic force f (t) of the form f o Sint , then the equation of motion
will be:
.. .
m z  c z  kz  f (t ) ---(4-16)
The solution of this equation will be
sin(t   )
z  e wd t c1 sin( d t   )  f o ---(4-17)
((k 2  m 2 ) 2  (c ) 2
The first part of the solution is transient and dies out after some time where as the second part is the steady
state response, so
sin(t   )
z  fo ---(4-18)
((k 2  m 2 ) 2  (c ) 2
sin(t   )
z  fo ---(4-19)
k (1  r 2 ) 2  (2 rk ) 2
2


where, r  is the frequency ratio.
n
The amplitude of displacement z is given by
fo
z  k ---(4-20)
(1  r )  (2 r ) 2
2 2

fo
zs  is the magnitude of the static displacement under a force f o .
k
z
Define M to be equal to
zs
1
M= ---(4-21)
(1  r 2 ) 2  (2 r ) 2
M is called the magnification factor of the displacement.
The force transmitted to the foundation Ft is
.
Ft  c z  kz ---(4-22)
.
Plugging the expressions for z and z and after certain mathematical manipulations, we arrive at
Ft  q k 2  c 2 2 (Cos(t    1 )) ---(4-23)

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 fo
where, q  and 1  A tan(k / c )
k (1  r )  (2 r ) 2
2 2

The magnitude of the transmitted force Ft is given as

Ft = q k 2  c 2 2 ---(4-24)

4.2 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

A complete dynamic analysis of a given MDOF system is normally performed in two stages. The first one is
the determination of the natural frequencies and the mode shapes of the system. These two will provide
information about the dynamic characteristics of the system like the relative degree of stiffness of the system,
the resonance condition, the deflection pattern that the system assumes the maximum amplitude of
oscillation.
The second stage is response computations of the system caused by the dynamic forces.
4.2.1 METHOD OF DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Referring to Equation (4-6) and expanding the equation of motion results in the following;
.. . . .
m11 x 1+c11 x 1+c12 x 2+…+c1n x n+k11x1+k12x2+…+k1nxn=f1(t)
.. . . .
m22 x 2+c21 x 1+c22 x 2+…+c2n x n+k21x1+k22x2+…+k2nxn=f2(t)
. . .
. . .
.. . . . ---(4-25)
mnn x n+cn1 x 1+cn2 x 2+…+cnn x n+kn1x1+kn2x2+…+knnxn=fn(t)

In matrix form
m{x}  c{x}  k x   f (t )
.. .
---(4-26)

4.2.2 SOLUTION METHOD

Modal superposition
The coupled differential equations of motion in the geometrical coordinates are to be solved by the method
of modal superposition in which a transformation to the modal coordinates is made.
The response x(t) is expressed as a linear combination of the modal forms as;
N
{x(t )}  { n }Z n (t ) ---(4-27)
n 1

where  n  are the natural vibration mode and Z n (t ) are the time variation of the displacements.
The natural vibration mode  n  is determined from the free-vibration motion of the masses. Accompanying
the mode shapes are the natural vibration frequency  n . These terms need to be determined before we go
solving the equation of motion.
Undamped free vibration
The undamped free vibration is given by
m{x}  k x  0
..
---(4-28)
The solution for this free vibration equation is a simple harmonic.
{x(t )}  {}Z (t ) ---(4-29)
Where Z (t )  a cos t  b sin t ---(4-30) 
{x(t )}  {}(a cos t  b sin t ) ---(4-31)

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 Where { } and  are the unknown natural vibration modes and natural frequencies.
Substituting equation (4-31) into equation (4-32) gives
 
  2 m   k   Z (t )  0 ---(4-32)
Since Z (t) should be different from zero.
 
   2 m  k     0 ---(4-33)
Equation (4-32) has a non-trivial solution, if the determinant of the coefficient matrix is zero.
[k ]   2 [m]  0 ---(4-34)
If equation (4-34) is expanded it gives the known characteristic equation or frequency equation of the order N
in  m2 .
Where N is the number of degrees of freedom.
Solution of equation (4-34) yields the natural circular frequencies  m of the system and by substituting  m
values back in equation (4-33), one obtains the eigenvector,   .
Generally, the determination of the natural frequencies and modes of a structure requires solution of the
matrix eigenvalue problem given by
k   m  ---(4-35)
where    m , Iteration schemes are available to solve this problem. The inverse vector iteration method
2

supplemented with shift is employed in this work.

The procedure involved in the inverse vector method starts with the assumption of a starting iteration vector
x1  and consists of the following steps to be repeated for j=1,2,3,… until convergence,[6].
 
1.Determine  x j 1  by solving the following algebraic equations,
 
k  x j 1   mx1 j 

---(4-36)
 
2. Obtain an estimate of the eigenvalue by
T

 x j 1  mx1 j 
 
 j 1   
T
---(4-37)
 
  
 x j 1  m x j 1 
   
3. Check the convergence by comparing two successive values of 
 j 1   j
 tolerance ---(4-38)
 j 1
 
4. If the convergence criterion is not satisfied normalize  x j 1  as
 
 

 x j 1 
x  
j 1
 
0.5
---(4-39)
   T    
  x j 1  m x j 1  
    

5. If the convergence criterion is not satisfied then the last values are stored as

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  
 x l 1 
l  l 1 ,  l   
---(4-40) 
0.5
   T    
  x l 1  m x l 1  
    

The above steps are used to determine the vibration properties of the first mode only.
Determination of the vibration properties for the rest modes is accomplished by introducing the shift  .
 
[k ]    m  ---(4-41)
 
where; [ k ]= k    m ,      now with this modified stiffness go to the above steps.
Forced Vibration
With the natural vibration modes determined, substitution of (4-27) into the equation of motion,(4-26)
yields;
.. .
[m]{ } Z
n
n n (t )   [c]{ n } Z n (t )  [k ]{ n }Z n (t )  { f (t )}
n n
---(4-42)

Premultiplying each term of (4-42) by {mT}results the following

.. .
{ }[m]{ n } Z n (t )  { mT }[c]{ m } Z n (t )  { mT }[k ]{ n }Z n (t ) { mT }{ f (t )}
T
m
n n n
---(4-43)
Applying the condition of orthogonality (4-43) can be written as;
.. .
M m Z m   C mn Z n  K m Z m  Fm (t ) ---(4-44)
n

Where;
M m  { mT }[m]{ m }
Cmn  { mT }[c]{ n }
K m  { mT }[k ]{ m }
Fm (t )  { mT }{ f (t )}
Equation (4-44) exists for each n=1, to N and the set of N-equations can be written in matrix form;
.
M Z  C Z  K Z
..
 {F (t )} ---(4-45)
M  and K  are diagonal matrices, where as [C] is a non-diagonal matrix of elements Cmn. The above
equations of motion. Equation (4-45) are coupled through the damping terms. Because of the fact that
damping property of the whole system is non-proportional type, decoupling is not possible. To overcome this
problem the following technique is done. Taking the coupling terms to the right but leaving only the term
corresponding to n=m equation (4-34) can be written as; [11].

n  m
.. . .
M m Z m  C mm Z m  K m Z m  Fm (t )   C mn Z n , ---(4-46)
n
Dividing equation (4-22) by Mm yields
C mm . K 1  . 
n  m
..
Zm Z m  m Zm   Fm (t )   C mn Z n  , ---(4-47)
Mm Mm Mm  n 

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Defining m (Lehr’s modal damping ratio) as
C mm
m  ,
2 M m m
where; Cmm  { mT }[c]{ m }
Equation (4-23) will become
1  . 
 Fm (t )   C mn Z n  , n  m
.. .
Z m  2 m m Z m   m Z m 
2
---(4-48)
Mm  n 
Here, the coupling terms on the right hand side are considered as modal dynamic loadings, which are
functions of the solution of the differential equation while the left hand side is the customary expression of
the equation of motion for a single degree of freedom system. So an explicit solution of this equation may not
generally exist, especially if f(t) is not harmonic. For this reason one resort to an iterative method of solution
for such loadings because of the fact that machine foundations are commonly subjected to harmonic loads,
however, a closed solution method is sought in the following.
Basically the solution of equation (4-48) is a combination of the homogeneous and the particular solutions.
The homogeneous solution is given by
Z m (t )  e ( mmt ) Am cos( dmt )  Bm sin( dmt ) ---(4-49)

 dm is the damped circular frequency of the mth mode and is given by  dm   m 1   m 2 
0.5
, where as, the
particular solution is determined next.
The loading acting on the structure is a harmonic type f (t )  Fo (cos t  sin t ) . The steady state response
for such loading system is also a harmonic. As a result the right hand side of equation (4-48) is also expected
to be harmonic.Thus,
Z m (t )  Cm cos t  Dm sin t ---(4-50)
Where,  is the operating circular frequency of the machine.
The coefficients Cm and Dm are to be determined as follows
.
Z m (t )  Cm sin t  Dm cos t ---(4-51)
..
Z m (t )   2 Cm cos t   2 Dm sin t ---(4-52)
Substituting equations (4-51 and 4-52) in to equation (4-48) gives
  2 C m cos t   2 Dm sin t  2 m m  C m sin t  Dm cos t  
1  .  ---(4-53)
 m2  C m cos t  Dm sin t 
 Fm (t )   C mn Z n 
Mm  n 
The solution procedure to be followed now is to insert the expression for Fm(t) and the first derivative of
Z n (t ) , expand the sum, collect the coefficients of sin(t) and cos(t) and equate corresponding coefficients
on both sides of the pair of equations. One obtains these expressions for Cm and Dm in terms of Cn and Dn.
Repeating this process for all modes, 2N expressions with 2N unknowns will result. As to the method of
organization refer Appendix B.
Ultimately with the coefficients of Cm and Dm determined, the general solution is given by;
Z m (t )  e ( mmt ) Am cos( dmt )  Bm sin( dmt )+ Cm Cost  Dm sin t ---(4-54)
Where the coefficients Cm and Dm are as determined above where as Am and Bm are to be determined from
.
the initial conditions. By transforming the initial conditions x (t=0) and x(t  0) , one can get modal initial
. .
conditions Z m (t  0) = Z 0 and Z m (t  0) = Z 0 . This is done as follows;

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  m T mx0
z m 0 
Mm

 m T m x0
.

z m 0 
.
 
Mm
So for at t =0
Z m (0)  Am  C m

Z m (t )   m m e (  m mt ) Am cos( dmt )  Bm sin( dmt )

.

 e (  m mt )  Am dm sin  dmt  Bm dm cos  dmt  C m sin t  Dm cos t

Z m 0  Am  Bm dm  Dm

.

Am + Cm = Zm(0)
.
Am  Bm dm  Dm  Z m (0)
.
Bm dm  Dm  Cm  Z m (0)  Z m (0)
 .
 B Z m (0)  Z m (0)  C m  Dm

 m  dm

 Am  Z m (0)  C m
  m T M x0
 Am   Cm
 Mm
  
 . 
   m  M  x(0)
T

 
   
   Am  Dm 
  Mm 
  
 Bm 
 D m

4.2.3 RESPONSE COMPUTATION

N
Recalling the mode-superposition equation {x(t )}  { n }Z n (t ) . It is known that the response is dominated
n 1
by the first few modes, say r of the total modes N so that the response is approximated by
r
{x(t )}  { n }Z n (t ) where Z n (t ) is as determined from the general solution. This is the so-called mode-
n 1
displacement method.
Once the relative displacements x(t) have been determined by carrying out dynamic analysis, the element
forces and stresses needed for structural design can be done by static analysis of the structure at each instant
of time.
The equivalent static forces associated with the nth-mode responses are given by
{ f sn (t )}   n2 [m]{ n }Z n (t ) ---(4-55)
where {fsn(t)} is the equivalent static force vector.
Particularly for a lumped mass system, the equivalent static force in the jth DOF due to the nth-mode is

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 f jn (t )   n2 m j jn Z n (t ) . ---(4-56)
However, for design purpose it is the peak amplitude of forces that are required. As to the determination of
this peak value first the vector of peak modal equivalent static forces computed as shown below,
 f sno   n2 [M ]n Z no ---(4-57)
where Z no  C n  Dn2 .
2

For the determination of the peak value f o of the total response, one can combine the peak modal response
vectors  f sno  by either of the following modal combination rules.
1. The square-root-of- sum-of squares (SRSS) rule developed by E. Rosenblueth’s Ph.D work (1951).
2. The complete quadratic combination (CQC) rule.
As the SRSS method provides an excellent response estimates for structures with well-separated natural
frequencies, I have adopted it for the computation of the peak response amplitude.
According to the rule,
0.5
 N 
f o    f sno  ---(4-58)
 n 1 

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