Summary Notes

Asexual Reproduction
- Involves no fertilization and produces offspring that is genetically identical to the
parents.
- Asexual reproduction in animals includes fission, budding, and fragmentation.
- Takes place when one parent self-reproduces.
Vegetative Propagation

- This is a type of reproduction from their vegetative parts or specialized reproductive

structures.
- Most structures involved in vegetative propagation are modified stems such as runners,
tubers, corms, and rhizomes
Asexual Reproduction in Animals

- Sea stars have the ability to regenerate half their body when attacked by a fish. The
remaining half can eventually grow new arms as long as the central disk is attached.
This type of reproduction occurs when sea stars regenerate it is asexual reproduction
occurs because each half has the same genetic information.
- A hydra reproduces when an outgrowth, or bud, forms and continues to develop until if
falls off of the parent. This is an example of budding.
- The fish reproduce in external fertilization.
Grafting

- A method of asexual reproduction when cleft from one organism is inserted to

another organism.

- A fisherman wants to alleviate his problem of starfish that are eating the oysters in his
oyster farm. He decides to cut the starfish in half and throw it back into the water. The
process that the starfish undergo, causing more problems for the fisherman is
regeneration.
Facts about Asexual Reproduction
-Enables organisms to reproduce without a mate
-No wasted time and energy
- Enables some organisms to rapidly reproduce a large number of uniform offspring
- Reproduces diverse offspring and takes a longer time to reproduce.

- The process of budding is asexual reproduction resulting in the formation of new

organisms from outgrowths of mature organisms.
- Asexual reproduction required one parent.

- A stem cutting of a rose plant was planted in a pot. Weeks later, the cutting grew
roots and began to grow into a new rose plant, the process led to the formation of the
new rose plant asexual reproduction.
 - Being genetically identical to the parent an advantage for organisms is when the
environment is just like the one the parent lived in successfully.
Sexual Reproduction

- is the formation of offspring through the union of gametes.

- Sex cells is the combination of sperm cell (male) and egg cell (female).
The correct order of sexual reproduction.
- gametes, fertilization, embryo, zygote
Plants and animals produce offspring through asexual and sexual reproduction.
Example of sexual reproduction
- dolphins laying eggs
Parents are required for sexual reproduction two parents.
A method of sexual reproduction in plants
- Flowers from a carrot plant are pollinated and produce seeds.

Part of a Flower in Flowering Plants

Male Reproductive Organs

- Stamen – male reproductive part

- Anther- produces pollen that contains male sex cells
- Filament- holds up the anther

Female Reproductive Organs

- Pistil- female reproductive part
- Stigma- top part of the pistil that has a sticky surface to trap pollen
- Style- joins the stigma and the ovary
- Ovary- contains the female sex cells called ovules.

Ecology
Ecology is a science that deals with understanding how and why these kinds of
interaction happen.

- It involves the study of the relationships and interactions of living things with one another
and with their external environment.

ECOSYSTEM AND ITS COMPONENTS

Ecosystem is a community of different organisms that interact with each other and their
physical environment and depend on each other for survival.
In an ecosystem organism are affected by limiting factors. Limiting factors means to
prevent populations from decreasing continuously and definitely.
- Many kinds of plants and animals can live together in an ecosystem because plants
and animals are interdependent of one another.

- Animal-like protists important to the balance in ecosystems because they break down
dead organic matter.
Ecological Organization from the smallest to the largest
Organism, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biome, Biosphere
Organism – is a group of individual plants, animals and single-celled.

Population – a group of organisms of the same species that live in a defined area form
a population.

Community – consists of different species of organisms that interact with each other in
a given area.

Ecosystem – is composed of all living things interacting with one another and with their
environment.

Biome – refers to a set of ecosystems occupying large ecological areas, sharing distinct
abiotic characteristics among its unique flora and fauna.

Habitat – the actual place or type of environment in which organism or population

lives.
Niche – the role an organism performs in its habitat.
Biotic Component
- living things, their remains, and features, such as nests, associated with their activities
Roles Organisms Play in an Ecosystem
Producers/ autotrophs
- those that can make their own food such as plants.
Consumers/ Heterotrophs

- those that consume or eat other organisms such as animals.

- those that cannot make their own food.
- Insects are consumers because insects get their energy by eating plants or animals.
Herbivore – eats plants directly
Carnivore – Eats animals
Omnivore – Eats both plants and animals

Scavenger – Eats dead animals that died by illness or accident, or killed by other
animals
Decomposers

- a special type of consumer that feed on dead plants and animals.

- Food provides animals with the materials and energy they need for growth, warmth,
and motion. Plants get material for growth mostly from air and water, and obtain
energy from sunlight. Producers provide food to consumers because animals cannot
produce their own food.

Abiotic components – the non-living physical and chemical components of an

ecosystem
e.g. rocks, oxygen, water, sunlight
Flow of Energy in the Ecosystem
Food Chain

- shows the sequence of how organisms obtain their energy.

- It is a single-path flow chart of what ate what.
- Starts with a plant and ends with an animal.
- To complete the cycle, decomposers come in to “clean up” the waste and return
nutrients to the soil.
Food Web

- Describes the relationships of organisms in an ecosystem.

- It shows how variety of food chains are interrelated with one another.
- Food cycles
- Shows the big picture of feeding relationships and energy transfers within an
ecosystem

Interactions in an Ecosystem
Commensalism

- A relationship where one species benefits and the other is harmed.

e.g. The tree frog uses plants or trees for protection from the rain. The frog is
protected from the rain and the tree is neither helped nor harmed.
Mutualism

- is a two-way relationship wherein both organisms benefit from each other.

- e.g. relationship between a flower and the insect that feeds on its nectar.
- Honeyguides are African birds that excitedly lead the way to a bee’s nest, and ratels
are the honey and bee eating mammals that open up and scatter the contents of
the bee’s nests, allowing both the ratels and the honeyguides to feed on the
contents.
Parasitism

- an antagonistic relationship wherein one organism benefits (parasite) but other is

injured (host).
- e.g., Isabel has plenty of lice in her head. The relationship does the girl and lice is
parasitism.
- Tapeworm in an intestinal tract of an animal.