PAPER SYNTAX

ASPECTS OF DEEP STRUCTURE :

CATEGORIZATION, FUNCTIONAL NOTIONS,
PHRASE MARKERS

LECTURER:
Dr. Baginda Simaibang, M.Ed

BY:
Indah Utami (201711047)
Morin Oktavia (2017111054)
Farrah Dina Milyarni (2017111060)
Dhea Permata Yani (2017111065)

PGRI UNIVERSITY OF PALEMBANG

FACULTY OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
ACADEMIC YEAR 2019
 PREFACE

First at all, give thanks for God’s love and grace for us. Thanks to God for helping
us and give us chance to finish this assignment on time. And I would like to say
thank you to Dr. Baginda Simaibang, M.Ed as the lecturer that always teaches us
and give much knowledge about English especially about this our material.

This assignment is one of the English tasks that composed of Aspects of Deep
Structures : Categorization, Functional Notions, Phrase Markers the writers realized
this assignment is not perfect. But the writers hope it can be useful for all people.
Critics and suggestion is needed here to make this assignment be better.

Hopefully, we as a student in “PGRI University of Palembang” can learn English

better by using Aspects of Deep Structures : Categorization, Functional Notions,
Phrase Markers.

Writers,

October 8th 2019

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ............................................................................................................ ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................... iii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION........................................................................
1.1 Formulation Of Problem ..........................................................................
1.2 Benefits of Study......................................................................................
CHAPTER II CONCEPT OF ............................................................................
2.1 Aspects of Deep Structure ..................................................................
2.1.1 Categorization .........................................................................
2.1.2 Functional Notions ...................................................................
2.1.3 Phrase Markers ........................................................................
CHAPTER III LESSON PLAN .........................................................................
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................

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 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Formulation of Problem

The problems discussed can be formulated as follows:
1. DK TEPEKER KATA KATA NYO

1.2 Benefits of Study

Based on the formulation of problem, the benefits of study of this paper can be
identified as follows:
1. SAMO DK KEPIKIR JG >,<

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 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

2.1 Aspects of Deep Structure

Chomsky is one of the most popular linguists in modern linguistic studies.
His Transformational-generative Grammar (TG) has a revolutionary influence in
this field since he published his first book Syntactic Structures in 1957 (Chomsky,
1957). In his theory, Chomsky points out that there are two levels of syntactic
structure in every sentence. The first is called deep structure or D-structure, which
is formed by the XP rule. Deep structure plays an important role in the interpretation
of sentences. The second is called surface structure or S-structure, which is formed
by applying appropriate transformations for the deep structure of sentence in
question. The following figure may explain clearly the relationship between them:

The XP Rule

Deep Structure

Transformations

Surface Structure
In transformational and generative grammar, deep structure (also known as
deep grammar or D-structure) is the underlying syntactic structure—or level—of a
sentence. Deep structures are generated by phrase-structure rules, and surface
structures are derived from deep structures by a series of transformations. In The
Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar (2014), Aarts, Chalker, and Weiner point
out that, in a looser sense:"deep and surface structure are often used as terms in a
simple binary opposition, with the deep structure representing meaning, and the
surface structure being the actual sentence we see."
The terms deep structure were popularized in the 1960s and '70s by
American linguist Noam Chomsky, who eventually discarded the concepts in his
minimalist program in the 1990s. D-Structure relates to the effort to identify the

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universal grammar: the grammatical principles that underlie, at a deep innate level,
the grammars of all languages, each of which is performed at a surface
communication level. D-Structure is then the deep innate and universal principles
of grammar upon which all languages depend, despite the vast surface differences
between languages, for example, the surface differences between Japanese and
English; deep structure universal grammatical principles are transformed to
generate correct grammatical structures at the surface level of any given language.
With the emergence of Chomsky's Minimalist program, Chomsky is still
clear that deep knowledge underlying the human ability to speak and understand is
innate. This means that at a deep level, prior to culture or language, babies have
prior knowledge of the universal structure of language upon which the surface
knowledge of the phonetical and grammatical knowledge of a given language will
be superimposed. Or instance, a passive sentence like (1a) was claimed to have a
Deep Structure in which the noun phrases are in the order of the
corresponding active (1b):
(1a) The Bear was cheased by the lion
(1b) The Lion chased the bear
Similarly, a question such as (2a) was claimed to have a deep structure closely
resembling that of the corresponding declarative (2b):
(2a) Which martini did Harry drink?
(2b) Harry drink that martini.
...Following a hypothesis first proposed by Katz and Postal
(1964), Aspects made the striking claim that the relevant level of syntax for
determining meaning is Deep Structure."In its weakest version, this claim was only
that regularities of meaning are most directly encoded in Deep Structure, and this
can be seen in (1) and (2). However, the claim was sometimes taken to imply much
more: that Deep Structure is meaning, an interpretation that Chomsky did not at
first discourage. And this was the part of generative linguistics that got everyone
really excited—for if the techniques of transformational grammar could lead us to
meaning, we would be in a position to uncover the nature of human thought.
Consider these sentences:
(1) You close the door.

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 (2) The door is closed by you.
(3) Close the door!
The first sentence is active, second is passive, and the last is imperative. If
you take a look those closely, you will find that those three are very closely related,
even identical. They seem to be identical, since they have the same underlying
abstract representation that is called deep structure. It is defined as an abstract level
of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural
interpretation are represented. If you want to analyze the relation of those three
sentences, the first you have to know about the deep structure of them, since deep
structure is the input of transformation rules. You can’t apply transformation rules
if you don’t have deep structure. Transformation rules are sets of rules which will
change or move constituents in the structures derive from the phrase structure rules.
e.g.
The DS (deep structure)

(2)
SD (structure description) : 1234
SC (Structural change) : 3 4 + be 2+en 1
SS (Surface structure) : The door is closed by you
Note: the SC is passive transformation rules

(3) SD: 1234

SC: 0234
SS: Close the door!
Note: 0 is deletion

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From the above example, it can be concluded that deep structure then is a pure
representation of thematic relations. Anything which is interpreted as the subject or
object of a given predicate will be in the subject or object position of that predicate
at Deep structure no matter where it is found at Surface structure.

2.1.1 Categorization
Special dina cantek yg ngerjoi hehhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhheeeee

2.1.2 Functional Notions

Ini jugo mbak hehehheeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeehhehe

2.1.3 Phrase Markers

Phrase Markers is a representation of the immediate constituent structure

of a linguistic construction. Based on the background of Phrase Markers, A parse
tree or parsing tree or derivation tree or concrete syntax tree is an ordered,
rooted tree that represents the syntactic structure of a string according to
some context-free grammar. The term parse tree itself is used primarily
in computational linguistics; in theoretical syntax, the term syntax tree is more
common. Parse trees concretely reflect the syntax of the input language, making
them distinct from the abstract syntax trees used in computer programming. Unlike
Reed-Kellogg sentence diagrams used for teaching grammar, parse trees do not use
distinct symbol shapes for different types of constituents.
Parse trees are usually constructed based on either the constituency relation
of constituency grammars (phrase structure grammars) or the dependency relation
of dependency grammars. Parse trees may be generated for sentences in natural
languages (see natural language processing), as well as during processing of
computer languages, such as programming languages. A related concept is that
of phrase marker or P-marker, as used in transformational generative grammar. A
phrase marker is a linguistic expression marked as to its phrase structure. This may
be presented in the form of a tree, or as a bracketed expression. Phrase markers are
generated by applying phrase structure rules, and themselves are subject to further

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transformational rules. A set of possible parse trees for a syntactically
ambiguous sentence is called a "parse forest."

A. Constituency-Based Parse Trees

The constituency-based parse trees of constituency grammars (= phrase structure

grammars) distinguish between terminal and non-terminal nodes. The interior
nodes are labeled by non-terminal categories of the grammar, while the leaf
nodes are labeled by terminal categories. The image below represents a
constituency-based parse tree; it shows the syntactic structure of
the English sentence John hit the ball:

The parse tree is the entire structure, starting from S and ending in each of the
leaf nodes (John, hit, the, ball). The following abbreviations are used in the
tree:

1. S for sentence, the top-level structure in this example

2. NP for noun phrase. The first (leftmost) NP, a single noun "John",
serves as the subject of the sentence. The second one is the object of
the sentence.
3. VP for verb phrase, which serves as the predicate
4. V for verb. In this case, it's a transitive verb hit.
5. D for determiner, in this instance the definite article "the"
6. N for noun

Each node in the tree is either a root node, a branch node, or a leaf node.[4] A root
node is a node that doesn't have any branches on top of it. Within a sentence, there is
only ever one root node. A branch node is a mother node that connects to two or more
daughter nodes. A leaf node, however, is a terminal node that does not dominate other

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nodes in the tree. S is the root node, NP and VP are branch nodes,
and John (N), hit (V), the (D), and ball (N) are all leaf nodes. The leaves are the lexical
tokens of the sentence.[5] A mother node is one that has at least one other node linked
by a branch under it. In the example, S is a parent of both N and VP. A daughter node
is one that has at least one node directly above it to which it is linked by a branch of a
tree. From the example, hit is a daughter node of V. The terms parent and child are
also sometimes used for this relationship

B. Dependency-Based Parse Trees

The dependency based parse trees of dependency grammarssee all nodes as

terminal, which means they do not acknowledge the distinction between terminal
and non-terminal categories. They are simpler on average than constituency-based
parse trees because they contain fewer nodes. The dependency-based parse tree for
the example sentence above is as follows:

This parse tree lacks the phrasal categories (S, VP, and NP) seen in the
constituency-based counterpart above. Like the constituency-based
tree, constituent structure is acknowledged. Any complete sub-tree of the tree
is a constituent. Thus this dependency-based parse tree acknowledges the
subject noun John and the object noun phrase the ball as constituents just like
the constituency-based parse tree does.

The constituency vs. dependency distinction is far-reaching. Whether the

additional syntactic structure associated with constituency-based parse trees is
necessary or beneficial is a matter of debate.

C. Phrase Markers

Phrase markers or P-markers, were introduced in early transformational

generative grammar, as developed by Noam Chomsky and others. A phrase marker
representing the deep structure of a sentence is generated by applying phrase

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structure rules. Then, this application may undergo further transformations. Phrase
markers may be presented in the form of trees (as in the above section
on constituency-based parse trees), but are often given instead in the form of
"bracketed expressions", which occupy less space in the memory. For example, a
bracketed expression corresponding to the constituency-based tree given above may
be something like :

[S [N John] [VP [V hit] [NP [D the] [N ball]]]]

As with trees, the precise construction of such expressions and the amount of detail
shown can depend on the theory being applied and on the points that the query
author wishes to illustrate.

D. What do phrase markers consist of?

NP → (D) (AP) N (PP)

a. Structure of Phrase Markers: Heads, Spesificiers, and Complements.

1. Heads: Phrases are built around a nucleus called the head.

-The obligatory nucleus around which a phrase is built.

1) Noun Phrase: head is the noun

2) Verb Phrase: head is the verb, etc.

NP

Determiner Noun

The Books

VP

Goes

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 1) Prepositional phrases: in the dome
2) Adjectival phrases: very difficult

E. Specifiers :
a. Semantically, they help to make the meaning of a head more precise.
b. Syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. In English, for
example, they occur to the left boundary (beginning) of their respective
phrases.
c. The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category
of the head

Some Specifiers :

Category Typical Functions Examples

Determiner Specifier of N The, a , this, those, no

Qualifier Specifier of P Never, perhaps, often

Degree Word Specifier of A or P Very, quite, almost

F. Complements :
These elements, which are themselves phrases, provide information about
entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head

Verb Complements
Complements Options Sample Heads

Ø vanish, arrive, die

NP devour, cut, prove

VP be, become

PPto dash, talk

NP, NP spare, hand, give

NP PPfor buy, cook, reserve

Example : The rabbit vanished

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 Noun Complements
Complements Options Sample Heads

Ø car, boy, electricity

PPof memory, failure, death

PPof PP presentation, gift, donation

PPwith PPabout argument, discussion, conversation

Example : The memory [pp of a cat]

Adjective Complements
Complements Options Sample Heads

Ø tall, green, smart

PPabout curious, glad, angry

PP to apparent, obvious

PPof fond, full, tired

Example : Very tall__

Preposition Complements
Complements Options Sample Heads

Ø near, away, down

NP in, on, near

PP down, up, out

Example : (He got) down_____

Example of Phrase Markers :

This is what the top of most of your trees should look like.

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A sentence always starts with an NP (Noun Phrase) and a VP (Verb Phrase).
Sentences without verb phrases will always earn you a deduction.

Tip: First try starting your your tree like this. It will usually work.

The "S" is a category label. All your trees must come labeled from now on (We've
passed the point in the course where you use some unlabeled trees to get used top
things).

What the label labels is called a node. The points in the tree the branches come
from are called nodes. In this little incomplete tree, the S is the mother node. The
NP and VP are the daughter nodes.

Let's finish the tree:

The NP node and the VP node now have daughters of their own. The NP node has
two daughters, a Det ("Determiner") node and an N ("Noun") node. The VP node
has one daughter, a V ("Verb") node. Generally speaking a Noun Phrase will have
an N daughter and a verb phrase will have a V daughter. These are called their head
words. So you should stop drawing trees that look like this:

Before you leave a tree check to make sure that all the labels make sense and that
all the phrases have heads:

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These trees are nonsense trees. There is an NP without a noun in it, a VP without a
verb in it. If a string of words has no noun in it we do not call it a Noun Phrase (NP).

Every kind of phrase has a typical head.

Phrase Head pairs:

Are there exceptions? Always. But not too many we will worry about. One
important class of exceptions, Pronouns and Proper Names. These are special kinds
of Nouns, really, but we'll draw trees with them like this:

Phrase Head Category Name

NP N Noun

VP V Verb

PP P Preposition

AP A Adjective

AdvP Adv Adverb

A tree makes some claims about the sentence you're drawing it for. The claim can
be right or wrong.

There are two kinds of information a tree makes claims about:

1. What the categories of the words and phrases in it are in context.

2. What the labels of those words and phrases are in context.

What do I mean by "in context"? I mean in the context of the sentence. English
words can be lots of categories, as we saw in lecture. Consider still

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 1. Noun: We built a still in the woods.
2. Verb: We stilled their voices.
3. Adjective: It was a dark and still night.
4. Adverb: We still haven't heard from John.

In each of these sentences still functions as a particular part of speech. In each of

these sentences, there is a correct answer for how to label still in the tree.

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The same is true for phrases. A sequence of words can be a phrase in one sentence
and not in another.

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 CHAPTER I
LESSON PLAN

REFERENCES
LONGMAN

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/phrase%20marker

https://www.thoughtco.com/phrase-structure-grammar-1691509

http://ocw.nur.ac.rw/NR/rdonlyres/Linguistics-and-Philosophy/24-900Spring-
2005/3B3A5D45-6FD2-44C7-AE1A-03D9ADDC545C/0/24_900_synt_3_05.pdf

file:///C:/Users/USER/Downloads/81266761-Aspects-of-the-Theory-of-Syntax-Noam-
Chomsky-1965.pdf

https://files.ifi.uzh.ch/cl/volk/SyntaxVorl/Chomsky

https://gawron.sdsu.edu/fundamentals/syntax/syntax_homework_remedial.htm

https://www.thoughtco.com/phrase-structure-grammar-1691509

http://awinlanguage.blogspot.com/2012/04/deep-structure-vs-surface-structure.html

https://www.thoughtco.com/deep-structure-transformational-grammar-1690374

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https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-deep-structure-236563

http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/15.pdf

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