P O LY T E C H N I C U N I V E R S I T Y O F T H E P H I L I P P I N E S 1

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPATION AND GENDER DIFFERENCES

AMONG SELECTED STUDENTS OF TONDO HIGH SCHOOL

A Thesis
Presented to the College of Education Graduate Studies
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
Sta. Mesa, Manila

A Thesis
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the RSH 630: Research Seminar 1

by:

Henricson O. Hirao

October 2019- 2020

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Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Introduction

Research has established a firm link between regular physical activity and overall

health. Active physical activity participation of the students will help them avoid sedentary

lifestyle that may lead to disease. Physical activity or exercise can improve one’s health and

reduce the risk of developing several diseases like type 2 diabetes, cancer and

cardiovascular disease. Physical activity and exercise can have immediate and long-term

health benefits. Most importantly, regular activity can improve one’s quality of life. A

minimum of 30 minutes a day can allow you to enjoy these benefits.

Females of all ages are less active than their male peers. Males are more physically

active than females. It is a concern nowadays that the female’s activity levels are lower than

male, although it is just one piece in a complex picture this could be contributing to girls

being overweight and obese. Schools should be aware of the differences between the way

males and females behave in the field and the fact that females tend to favor small group

activities. They could then consider the availability of equipment and provision of physical

activities that would encourage girls to take part in more vigorously active play.

Physical activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles

that result in energy expenditure beyond resting expenditure. Exercise is a subset of

physical activity that is planned, structured, repetitive, and purposeful in the sense that

improvement or maintenance of physical fitness is the objective (Exercise and physical

fitness, 2009; Exercise for children, 2009; WHO, 2010). Exercising is the physical exertion of
 P O LY T E C H N I C U N I V E R S I T Y O F T H E P H I L I P P I N E S 3

the body making it to physical activity which results in a healthy or healthier level of physical

fitness both mental and physical health.

This study aim to know the impact of physical activity and healthy lifestyle of the

students. Some researchers in physical education tend to view fun as a long-term intrinsic

affect (enjoyment) toward movement participation and endorse it as critical to physical

education (Prochaska, Sallis, Slymen, & McKenzie, 2003), whereas others defi ne fun as a

short-term extrinsic construct and deem it to be an inappropriate outcome of physical

education (Siedentop, Mand, & Taggart, 1986). The authors of the current study suggest that

fun is a pervasive construct in physical education and must be viewed as a multidimensional

construct (i.e., intrinsic or extrinsic, and achievement or no achievement oriented).

Students today face various stressors in their daily lives, which could potentially

affect their overall health. Studies have shown that as the amount of stress a student

experiences increases, then the student experiences a decrease in quality of life (or

perceived life satisfaction) (Holinka, 2015). This perceived decrease can lead to more

significant health issues. It has been reported that in a group of college students who were

surveyed, over half of the group Edman, Lynch, & Yates, 2014, felt instances of depression).

Due to the extreme health related side effects that result from stress, such as episodes of

depression, much research has been conducted in order to determine methods that may

help individuals cut back on their levels of stress.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), childhood

obesity has more than tripled in the past thirty years and the percentage of children The 8th

National Nutrition Survey reveals that the prevalence of overweight among children 0-5

years old has significantly risen from 1% in 1989 to 5% in 2013. Similarly, prevalence of
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overweight among children 5-10 years old has also risen from 5.8% in 2003 to 9.1% in

2013. The 2011 Global School-based Health Survey also shows that about 13% of

adolescents in the Philippines are overweight and obese. In light of this information, the

relevance of having a fitness program seems to be an essential component in the education

of today’s youth. The school setting is perhaps one ideal place to make a positive impact on

student health and fitness, because Health and Fitness Awareness in Schools students

spend the majority of their day in school. This study is an example of how a school setting

can begin to address the health concerns of today’s youth. It shows that through the process

of education and learning by doing, student knowledge on the subject of health and fitness

has the ability to be measured. By looking at one setting in which health and fitness

awareness has been implemented and measured, this study shows that it is possible to

bring awareness to current health concerns. (https://www.who.int/philippines/news/feature-

stories/detail/addressing-childhood-obesity-in-the-philippines)

In studying gender differences, researcher will know the capacity of what male can

do and female can do in terms of their strength and capabilities in physical activities may

differ on how they perform physical activities inside and outside the school. In addition, to

view what level of physical activity should be given based on their gender.

The purpose of this study aims to probe into the physical activities participation and

the gender differences among selected students of Tondo High School

Theoretical Framework
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Figure 1 shows the Self-determination theory perspective on student’s engagement.

First, it overviews self-determination theory (SDT). Each minitheory was created to explain

specific motivational phenomena and to address specific research questions. Second, the

chapter uses the student-teacher dialectical framework within SDT to explain how

classroom conditions sometimes support but other times neglect and frustrate students’

motivation, engagement, and positive classroom functioning. Third, the chapter highlights

student engagement. In doing so, it overviews recent classroom-based, longitudinally

designed research to reveal three new and important functions of student engagement—

namely, that student engagement fully mediates and explains the motivation-to-

achievement relation, that changes in engagement produce changes in the learning

environment, and that changes in engagement produce changes in motivation, as

students’ behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and agentic engagements represent actions

taken not only to learn but also to meet psychological needs. The chapter concludes with

implications for teachers and with suggestions for future research (Reeve 2012).

This study anchored to the theory on the Gender Differences (Daigle 2003), draws

from studies that have explored relationships between the various mediating variables, and
 P O LY T E C H N I C U N I V E R S I T Y O F T H E P H I L I P P I N E S 6

conceptualizes the influence of each in a comprehensive model. The purpose of this study

was to scrutinize the interrelationships between genders, perceptions of peer, parent, and

teacher support, perceived value and meaningfulness, perceived competence, self-reported

engagement in physical education and the intention to be physically active.

Figure 2: Presents the proposed model depicting the variables that mediate competence

and intention to participate in physical activity. Students with high levels of perceived

competence are more likely to be engaged. It is assumed that a self-reported measure of

intention will reflect actual engagement in class activities. Engagement as perceived and

reported by students has been correlated with the level of engagement observed in

classrooms (Marks 2000). In physical education, a self-reported measure of intention to be

physically active was correlated with actual participation patterns (Greenock 1990). The

model predicts that perceptions of gender appropriateness of the curriculum and

meaningfulness of activities mediate the influence of gender on perceived competence and

intention to engage in physical activity. It is hypothesized that students’ perceptions of their

parents’, teachers’, and peers’ support will positively influence their perceptions of the

curriculum and the meaningfulness they attach to the activities.

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Figure 2

Adapted from the Proposed Model of Daigle (2003)

Goal Theory. Researcher to explain task choices and efforts to improve performance

have used goal theories extensively. Regardless of the theoretical framework, the

relationship between motivation and an individual's future goal setting is mediated by

confidence beliefs. In general, research has shown that stronger ability beliefs result in

higher goals and a stronger commitment to achieving those goals. Although researchers in

achievement goal theory have all included conceptions of ability as a mediator, different

terminology has been used to explain the relationships (see Ames, 1992; Dweck & Elliot,

1983; Nicholls, 1979). According to, the conception of ability construct refers to an

individual's conceptualization of the relationship between effort and ability and has been

identified as an important influence on competence beliefs. (Nicholls 1979) refers to a

“differentiated” or “undifferentiated” conception of ability that is explained from a

developmental perspective. Most young children cannot differentiate between ability and

effort and believe that over time ability can be developed with effort. Older students, on the

other hand, understand ability as a stable capacity. A differentiated conception of ability

leads to the notion that higher effort implies lower ability. Nicholls (Nicholls & Millern 1984)

and others have argued, however, that students can understand ability as a stable capacity
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and still believe it can be modified through effort. Thus, some students at any age will

believe that competence can be enhanced through increased effort. (Dweck & Leggett

1988), refers to an incremental or acquired conception of ability to denote one who believes

that ability can be learned and errors are a natural part of this process. Similar to the

undifferentiated view of ability, individuals with an acquired conception would be more likely

to persist in an activity even if they have a low perception of their ability because they

believe that with effort their ability will improve. The belief that ability is a fixed capacity that

cannot be changed with effort or practice is consistent with (Nicholls 1979), differentiated

conception of ability, attributing performance to natural ability. If individuals believe they lack

the ability necessary for success and believe that ability is a fixed capacity, they are likely to

quit trying since success does not seem possible. Beliefs about ability can certainly

influence an individual's competence beliefs since the evaluation of one's current ability and

the ability to perform skills are critical elements in self-confidence judgments. Successes

are more likely to enhance self-confidence if performances are viewed as resulting from

acquired ability. Additionally, individuals can talk themselves out of success by seeing

failure because of inherent ability or lack of it. Individuals are most at risk when a fixed

conception of ability is combined with a low self-perception of ability.

The result is the feeling does not matter what they do or how hard they try, nothing

will help them improve their performance. If the individual does not think they have the

ability and that it cannot be changed, then they will not try. On the other hand, an individual

can have a low self-perception of ability and still succeed if it is coupled with an acquired

conception of ability because they feel that with effort they can improve. These conceptions

of abilities are also connected to two different types of goal patterns. In goal theory research,

a student's goal perspective is also a primary factor related to perceptions of competence.

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Nicholls and his colleagues defined two major kinds of motivationally important goal

perspectives: ego-involved goals and task-involved goals.46 Individuals with ego-involved

goals participate in activities that will result in favorable evaluations of their competence and

avoid activities that might result in negative judgments of their competence. Examples of

typical questions that reflect ego-involved goals are: ‘Will I look smart?” and “Can I do better

than others?’ 1999. Because individuals with an ego-involved goal orientation see errors as

a threat to being able to show their ability, challenging goals are avoided thus hindering skill

development. On the other hand, individuals who focus on mastering tasks and increasing

their skill reflect a task-involved goal orientation. According to Wigfield, et al. (1999),

examples of questions that reflect task-involved goals include, “What will I learn?” and “how

can I do this task?’ Because individuals focus on improving their skill and evaluating their

competence in terms of improvement, this goal orientation is conducive to skill development.

These individuals view errors as a natural process in skill acquisition. (Nicholls 1984) also

discussed a third type of goal orientation: work avoidance. As its label suggests, work

avoidance refers to attempting to do as little work as possible in achievement settings.

Dweck and her colleagues provided a similar contrast in orientation differentiating between

performance goals and learning goals. Thinking of ability as acquirable leads to a learning

goal orientation concerned primarily with increasing competence. On the other hand, an

individual with a performance goal orientation conceives of ability as fixed and is primarily

concerned with how good their competence at the task will appear to others. Similarly,

(Ames 1992) distinguished between the association of performance goals and mastery

goals with both performance and task choice. With performance goals, children try to

outperform others, are more likely to participate in tasks they know they can do, and view

ability as a stable. Mastery-oriented children view ability as acquirable thus choosing

challenging tasks and focusing on their own progress rather than trying to outperform
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others. In summary, regardless of the terminology, individuals who view ability as modifiable

through effort and adopt a mastery-goal orientation are more likely to try new activities and

will display the appropriate motivation present to persist in activities, even under adverse

conditions, with the intent to improve their competence. Even with a low self-perception of

ability, if the individual is mastery oriented, they are more likely to succeed because they are

not afraid to try to improve. More at-risk are the individuals that have a low self-perception

of ability and are ego-oriented. Individuals may not want to put forth the effort to succeed

because they feel inferior in their performance. When coupled with a fixed conception of

ability, the likelihood that the child will participate in the activity is virtually non-existent.

Conceptual Framework

The purpose of this study is to determine the level of gender differences in physical

activity participation.

Figure 2 shows the researchers’ conceptual framework composed of input, process

and output. It shows the strategy that the researchers will undertake to answer the research

sub-problems.

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework

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1. Profile of the
respondents as to:
1.1 Gender 1. Physical activities
1.2 Grade level participation
categories:
2. Physical activities
participation categories: 1.1 Perception of
Support
2.1 Perception of
Support 1.2 Perceived Value
2.2 Perceived Value 1. Data
2.3 Perceptions of Gathering 1.3 Perceptions of
Gender appropriateness Procedure Gender
2.4 Perceived appropriateness
Competence
2.5 Engagement in P.E 1.4 Perceived
an intention to be active Competence

3. Differences on the 1.5 Engagement in

physical activity P.E an intention to
participation of the male be active
and female
respondents.

Figure 2 Paradigm of the Study

This study will imply the IPO. The Input Box contains the variables that will be

investigated: the level of gender differences in physical activities participation the study also

determined the significance of the difference in gender participation in physical activities

between male and female.

The Process Box includes the data gathering process using the research instrument

Gender activity in physical activities participation by Daigle and statistical treatment are used

to achieve the outcome.

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The Output Box contains the expected results on this level of gender differences in

physical activities participation based on the following categories Perception of Support

Perceived Value Perceptions of Gender appropriateness Perceived Competence

Engagement in P.E an intention to be active

Statement of the Problem

The general problem of this study is: how does the gender differences in physical

activities participation of grade 8 and grade 9 students of Tondo High School?

Specifically, it sought answers to the following questions:

1.1 What is the profile of the respondents?

1.2 Gender

1.3 Grade Level

2. What is the perception of the respondents on gender differences in physical activities

in terms of :

2.1 Perception of support

2.2 Perceived value

2.3 Perception of gender appropriateness

2.4 Perceived competence

2.5 Engagement in physical education and intention to be active

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3. Is there a significant difference in the physical activities participation of the

respondents based on profile?

Hypothesis

This study would like to test the hypotheses below which are anchored at 5% level of

significance.

Ho1: There are no significant differences of the physical activity participation of the

respondents.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

This study was conducted to find out the gender differences in physical activity

participation of male and female grade 8 and grade 9 students of Tondo High School. This

include the perception of the students on gender differences in physical activities in terms of

Perception of support; Perceived value; Perception of gender appropriateness; Perceived

competence; and Engagement in physical education and intention to be active.

There were 100 grade 8 and 100 grade 9 respondents to this study. This study is

limited to grade 8 and grade 9 Students for the School Year 2019 – 2020.

Significance of the Study

The students, parents, teachers, and future researchers will benefit from the

result of the study and may be deemed significant to the following;

Students would help them to realize the importance of participating in physical activities;

this may help to encourage students to boost their interest in physical activities.
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Parents will be benefited in this study because they will know the reasons why their children

need to attend in physical activity in class; they will also help to encourage their child in

participating in physical activities.

Teachers they will be able to understand more on how to support and encourage their

students to participate in physical activities and will do some strategies to make the students

follow and encourage in participation of physical activities .

For Future Researchers results of this research may prove to be useful data to be referred

and analyzed for future observations and studies.

Definition of Terms

The following terms were defined operationally to facilitate better understanding.

Activity - defines as state of being active, energetic, lively actions.

Appropriateness - the quality of being suitable or proper in the circumstances

Gender - is referring to classification by which, grouped as feminine, masculine, or neuter.

Grade level - the level of the educational program studied by a student

Gender Differences - define as a distinction of biological and/or physiological

characteristics associated with either males or females of a species.

Participation - means to join in or take part with others in some activities.

Perception - the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses

Physical activity - refers to any activity that increases your heart rate and makes you get

out of breath some of the time.

Support - give assistance to, especially financially; enable to function or act.

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Chapter 2

Review and Related Literature and Studies

This chapter contains relevant information and researches obtained from various

sources that will lend support and direction to the study on the gender differences. These

theories, literatures and studies are consequential in understanding the current research.

The review investigated the Physical Activity Participation and Gender Differences.

Academic achievement based on the idea that health and physical fitness has an

impact on the ability to achieve academically. Because of the recent pressures of No Child

Left Behind, many schools have opted to limit the amount of time students spend in physical

education classes and recess. With the increased percentages of students who suffer from

diabetes and other health related risks, eliminating or reducing physical activity from the

school day is not the answer. Data was collected from 90 students (46 males and 44

females) during the 2009-2010 school year by using the President’s Challenge Physical

Fitness Test, STAR Reading Percentile scores, and Grade Point Averages (GPA`s). Through

multiple regressions, the researcher did not find statistically significant relationships between

physical fitness levels and STAR Reading Percentiles or between physical fitness levels and

Grade Point Averages. These findings are related to Sub problems No.1 and 3 which is on

the profile and the academic performance of the respondents. (Hylok, M. J. “A Study of the

Relationship between Physical Fitness and Academic Performance” 2010 )

Understanding the relationship between physical activity, body weight, and academic

achievement can help provide schools and organizations with the evidence needed to

appropriately design academic and physical activity programming. At this point, evidence

suggests a positive relationship between physical activity and grade point average, rate of

learning, classroom behavior, as well as cognitive, social, and motor skill development.
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Research also suggests that heavier children have greater risk for school absenteeism than

their peers do. Data is still scarce and inconclusive regarding the relationship between body

weight and academic achievement. This section includes literature investigating the

relationship between physical activity, body weight, and academic performance. Study

results show statistically significant relationships between fitness and academic

achievement, though the direction of causation is not known (Chomitz, et al., 2009).Data

analyzed in this study indicate that additional curricular emphasis on physical education may

result in small absolute gains in grade point average and strongly suggest a relative

increase in performance per unit of academic teaching time. Observations show a positive

association between academic performance and physical activity. Data suggest that heavier

children have greater risk for school absenteeism than their normal-weight peers do. This

study suggests that schools have the potential to influence habitual physical activity among

children by encouraging increased participation in extracurricular sport activities, by favoring

active commuting to school, and by providing exercise equipment and supervision for youth

in their neighborhoods. Available data suggest that the rate of academic learning per unit of

class time is enhanced in physically active students. These findings are related to Sub

problems No.1 and 3 which is on the profile and the academic performance of the

respondents. (“Chomitz, et.al 2009 “Relationship between Physical Activity, Weight, and

Academic Achievement”.)

A study entitled “Gender differences in the pre-competition temporal patterning of

anxiety and hormonal responses” was conducted by Thatcher J.,et. Al. (2004). He used

Descriptive survey method and a questionnaire. The respondents are six male and 6 female

field hockey players completed the modified Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2, including

both intensity and direction subscales, and provided saliva and urine samples 24, 2, and 1

hour prior to competition. These samples were analyzed for cortisol, and noradrenalin and
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adrenaline, respectively. Two x 3 repeated measures ANOVAs revealed significant gender x

time interactions for cognitive and somatic anxiety intensity and adrenaline and

noradrenalin, but not cortisol. While males' anxiety and hormonal responses demonstrated

no significant changes, significant increases in females' anxiety, and significant decreases in

their adrenaline and noradrenalin were observed over time. Moreover, while males' anxiety

and hormonal responses mirrored each other, this was not the case for the females with

increases in females' cognitive and somatic anxiety intensity levels accompanied by

decreases in adrenaline and noradrenalin. Although this study has extended this line of

research by adopting a psycho-physiological approach and measuring anxiety intensity and

direction in male and female athletes, replication is required with larger samples from a

greater diversity of sports. These findings are related to Sub problems No.1 and 2 which is

on the profile and the Physical activities participation of the respondents.

This is a descriptive survey type of research entitled Attitudes of Male and Female

UDM Students in Physical Education, the respondents are 180 students: 90 female and 90

male from the ten colleges of UDM the researchers adopted the instrument from the study of

Villahermosa (1997). Based on the findings of the study the researchers therefore conclude

that as to Physical Education content, both female and male respondents manifested a

positive attitude. The different activities offered in the physical education provide

opportunities for the total development of the students – physically, emotionally, socially, and

mentally. The study is related to the present study because it answers the sub-questions 1

and 4, which are the profile of the respondents and physical activity participation of the

respondents. (Carlos J. et al. 2009).

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The researchers used the descriptive correlation method. The researchers employed a

structure-standardized questionnaire as the data gathering. The respondents of this study

were the male and female athletes in different events from the nine colleges of Universidad

De Manila. The purpose of this study was to investigate the gender equity in sports at

Universidad De Manila. The results of the study showed that: The research attempted to

answer several questions about gender equity in sports, including: whether equal resources

should be provided for men’s and women’s teams; whether men and women should

compete together of separately in certain sports; whether there are sports that should be

exclusively for men or women; whether rules of certain sports should be altered so as to

faster equal opportunity. The author compares sports and education, arguing that just as

access to education is necessary to participate in the cultural life of a nation, so is access to

sporting opportunities. The author then examines several proposals for improving equality of

access, including allowing women to play more sports & changing the rules. Changing the

coaching style and adding new sports. This study was conducted to measure women’s sport

interest in response to title IX of the 1972 education amendments to the civil rights act of

1964 that requires that institutions meet women’s sport interest in equal measure to men’s.

No clear and reliable differences were identified in the different fact or structures that

described the sports of interest to men and women. These findings are related to Sub

problems No. 1, and 2 which is on the profile of the sophomores and the perception of the

respondents on physical activities. (Fernandez et.al; “Gender Equity in Sports” 2006)

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Chapter 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The chapter contains relevant information about the researchers’ methods and

technique in conducting this study. All data’s are consequent in the study to seek a clear

result.

Research Design

In this, the researchers used the descriptive type of research to examine Gender

Differences in Participation in physical activities of the respondents. The descriptive method

is suitable for this study to find out the physical activities participation of the male and female

grade 8 and grade 9 students of Tondo High School. The concern of this descriptive design

is the detailed description of the present situation, analysis of the present condition leads to

find the solution of the future problem and guide the present status.

Sample and Sampling Technique

The respondents of the study were the 200 students, 100 grade 8, and 100 grade 9

students from Tondo High School. Purposive Sampling will be used since the researchers

believe that these respondents, based on prior information could provide the data they need.

The idea is to extract relevant, useful and objective information from these respondents to

give them insight and information on how to enhance their participation in Physical

Education. Table 1 shows the distribution of the respondents.

Table 1

Distribution of the Respondents

Grade Level Male Female Total

Grade 8 50 50 100
Grade 9 50 50 100
Total 100 100 200
Instrumentation
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In this study, the researchers used a 35 – item questionnaire as their data-

gathering device in this study. The researchers adapted the instrument from the gender

differences in physical activity questionnaire by Daigle (2003). The prepared questionnaire

contains five categories (1) perception of support, (2) perceive value, (3) perception of

gender appropriateness, (4) Perceive competence, (5) engagement in physical education

and intention to be active,

Items included in the questionnaire were selected in relation to their relevance to the

purpose of the study. These items were arranged according to categories. The directions for

answering the questionnaire were made clear as possible to get right information needed.

Table 2 shows the description of the 4-point scale system (Likert-type scale).

Table 2

Description of the Four – Point Likert Scale

Verbal Level of physical

Boundary Scale
Interpretation activity participation

3.25 – 4.00 4 Strongly Agree Very High

2.50 – 3.24 3 Agree High
1.75 – 2.49 2 Disagree Low
1.00 – 1.74 1 Strongly Disagree Very Low
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Data Gathering Procedure

This study is to find out the participation of male and female Grade 8 and Grade 9

students of Tondo High School in physical activities.

The researchers sought approval from the Principal of the school to conduct this

study. The researchers administered the instrument to the students personally. The

researchers used the ONE-ON-ONE strategy, one researcher – one respondent. The

researchers used this strategy so if the respondents have a question the researchers can

answer and explain to them clearly.

Statistical Analysis of Data

In this study, the researchers used statistical formulae in analyzing the raw data:

1. Frequency and percentage was used as a descriptive statistical technique

particularly when describing relations of magnitude as well for numerical analysis.

2. Weighted arithmetic mean (WAM) was be used to show what is typical to the group

or the points were the group tends to cluster together.

3. Z – Test was used to find out the significant difference in the physical activities

participation of the male and female respondents.

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References

Daigle G. (2003). “Gender Differences in Participation of Physical Activities: A

Comprehensive Approach”. Louisiana State University.

https://www.academia.edu/9486930/Validating_the_Physical_Activity_and_Leisure_Motiv
ation_Scale_PALMSv
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1114737.pdf
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d84e/40fe9492128e4d5295e8192a013360a1df67.pdf
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0213785
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236875468_A_Cluster_Analysis_on_Students%
27_Perceived_Motivational_Climate_Implications_on_Psycho-Social_Variables
https://www.who.int/philippines/news/feature-stories/detail/addressing-childhood-obesity-
in-the-philippines
https://mightymustangsutk.weebly.com/goal-theory.html
https://wikispaces.psu.edu/display/PSYCH484/6.+Goal+Setting+Theory

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