Percentile – percentile divide a data set into 100 equal parts having one 𝑘𝑛

− 𝐹𝑏
Pk = Xlb + (100 )c
percent of all the data values the j th percentile is the number that 𝑓𝑝𝑘

seperates the button j% of the data from the top (100-j%) of the data. To
𝑘𝑛
find the jth percentile, Pj − 𝐹𝑏
Dk = Xlb + (10 )c
𝑓𝐷𝑘

1. Arragw the data in increasing magnitude

𝐽 𝑘𝑛
2. Evaluate ( ) N where N is the total number of observations Qk = Xlb + ( 4
− 𝐹𝑏
)c
100
𝑓𝑄𝑘
𝐽
3. If ( ) N is a whole number, then take p as the average between
100
𝐽 𝐽
the values located in ( ) N position and [( ) 𝑁] + 1 position. Pk - kth percentile
100 100
Otherwise P, is the value located in the next higher whole number Dk - kthdecile
to (
𝐽
) N. Qk - kth quartile
100
xlb - lower boundary of the kth P/d/Q class
Example: Fb - <CF of the class preceding the kth P/d/Q
Find the 20th percentile: 99, 100, 34, 78, 56, 89, 48 c - class size
Solution: 34, 48, 56, 78, 89, 99, 100 fPk/fDk/fQk - the frequency of te kth P/d/Qclass
𝐽 2
( )𝑁 = ( ) 7 = 1.4 ≈ 2
100 100 Example:
P20 = 48 Classes f <CF
11-22 3 3
Decile – divides a data set into ten equal parts, each part having ten
23-24 5 8
percent of all the data values. Q1, D3 35-46 11 19
Example: Find the 5th decile: 47-58 19 38
P43
𝐽
( )𝑁 = ( ) 7 = 3.5 ≈ 4
5 49-70 14 52
10 10
71-82 6 58
D5 = 78
83-94 2 60
Quartile – quartile divides a data set into four equal parts, each part Find: 1.) Q1 or 1st quartile
having 25 % of all the data values. 2.) D3 or 3rd decile
3.) P43 or 43rd percentile
Example: Find the 3rd quartile Solution:
𝑘𝑛 1
𝐽
( )𝑁 = ( ) 7 = 5.25 ≈ 6
3
Q1= ( ) = ( ) 60 = 15
4 4 4 4
15 − 8
Q3 = 99 Q1 = 34.5 + ( ) 12
11
Q 1 = 42.14
For grouped data
𝑘𝑛 3
D3= ( ) = ( ) 60 = 18
10 10
D3 = 34.5 + (
18− 8
) 12 Solution:
11
D3 = 45.41
X (xi − µ)2

P43 = (
𝑘𝑛
)=(
43
) 60 = 25.8
13 4
100 100
25.8 − 19 5 36
P43 = 34.5 + ( ) 12
19 7 16
P43 = 50.79 9 4
10 1
Measure of Dispersion/ Variation
17 36
A qualitative measure that describes the extent to which the data are
15 16
dispersed is generally known as a measure of dispersion. 12 1
∑ 𝑥 = 88 ∑(xi − µ)2 = 144
1. Range – the difference between the max value and the min
value of the data set denoted by R
∑ 𝑥 88
R = max – min µ= = =1
𝑛 8
For grouped data, the range is approximated by the difference
between the upper limit of the highest class and the lower limit of
the lowest class. 114
σ2 = = 14.25
8

2. Variance – the mean of the squared diffeerence of the

observations from their mean is denoted by σ2.
b. For grouped data:
a. For ungrouped data
∑𝑁
𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 − µ) ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
2
σ2 = = − µ ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑐𝑚𝑖 − µ𝑔 ) ∑𝑁
𝑖=1𝑓 𝑐𝑚𝑖
2
𝑁 𝑁
σg 2 = = 𝑖
− µg2
where: 𝑁 𝑁

xi –ith observed value of the variable x

N – the total number of observed values where:
µ - mean of the ungrouped data fi – frequency of the ith class
cmi – classmark of the ith class
Example: Compute the value of the variance of the following N – total number of observations
measurements: k – number of classes
13, 5, 7, 9, 10, 17, 15
 𝜎
Example: CV = x 100
µ
Calculate the value of the variance.
CV – it measures the variability of the data set relative to its
Classes f CM fcm (cm − µ)2 𝑓 (cm − µ)2 mean.
11-22 3 16.5 49.5 1324.96 3974.88
23-24 5 28.5 142.5 595.36 2976.8 – it is used to compare the variability of two or more data
35-46 11 40.5 445.5 153.76 1691.36 sets; the higher the CV, the more variable is the data set
47-58 19 52.5 997.5 0.16 3.04 relative to its mean.

59-70 14 64.5 903 134.56 1883.84

71-82 6 76.5 459 556.96 3341.76
Empirical or Chebyshev’s Rule
83-94 2 88.5 177 1267.36 2534.71 It permits us to make statements about the percentage of
60 3174 4033.12 16406.4 observations that must be within a specified number of standard
deviation from the mean.

16406.4
σ2 = =273.44 For any data set with mean (µ) and standard deviation (σ).
60
1. At least 75% of the observations are within 2σ of its mean
2. At least 88.9% of the observations are within 3σ of its mean.
3. Standard Deviation(σ)
 Positive square root of the variance Example:
 A measure of spread about the mean The midterm exam scores of 100 STAT1 students last semester had a mean
𝜎 = √𝜎 2 of 65 and a standard deviation of 8 points.
𝜎= 𝜎
1. At least 45% of the students had scores between 49 & 81
For ungrouped data: 2. At least 88.9% of the students had scores between 41 & 89.
Solution:
∑(𝑥𝑖 − µ)2
𝜎= √
𝑁
65 ± 2(8) 65 ± 3(8)
For grouped data: 65 ± 16 65 ± 24
∑ f(𝑐𝑥𝑖 − µ)2 = 49 & 81 = 41 & 89
𝜎= √
𝑁
Measure of Skewness
- Describes the extent of departure of the distribution of data
4. Coefficient of Variation from symmetry. It is measured by the coefficient of skewness.
 The ratio of the standard deviation to its mean expressed It is denoted by Sk.
in percent. It is denoted by CC and is computed as :
 3(𝜇 − 𝑚𝑑) Example:
𝑆𝑘 =
𝜎 Compute Sk
13, 5, 7, 9, 10, 17, 15, 12 : 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17
A distribution is said to be symmetric about the mean if the distribution to
the left of the mean is the “mirror image” of the distribution to the right of Solution:
the mean. 3(11 − 11)
𝑆𝑘 = =0
3.775
∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2
𝜎=√
𝑛
For grouped data:
Classes f <Cf Cm
11-22 3 3 16.5
23-34 5 8 28.5
34-46 11 19 40.5
𝜇 = 𝑚𝑑 = 𝑚𝑜 47-58 19 38 52.5
59-70 14 52 64.5
Likewise, a symmetric distribution has Sk = 0 since its mean is equal to its 71-82 6 58 76.5
median and its mode. 83-94 2 60 88.5

60 𝑛
( − 19) − 𝐹𝑏
2
𝑚𝑑 = 46.5 + 12 = 𝐿𝑇𝑅𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑑 + 𝑐 ( 2 )
19 𝑓𝑚𝑑
Positively skewed (right tailed)
-extreme high observations on the end 𝑚𝑑 = 53.45

∑ 𝑓𝐶𝑚 3174
𝜇= =
𝑚𝑜 < 𝑚𝑑 < 𝜇 𝑛 60
𝜇 = 52.9

3(52.9 − 53.45)
𝑆𝑘 =
3.775
𝑆𝑘 = −0.0998
Negatively skewed (left tailed)
-extreme low observations on the left
Measure of kurtosis
-the degree of peakedness of a data distribution is measured by the
𝜇 < 𝑚𝑑 < 𝑚𝑜
coefficient of kurtosis, denoted by k.

∑𝑁
𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝜇)
4
𝑘= −3 (for ungrouped data)
𝑁𝜎 4

𝑓𝑖 (𝑐𝑚𝑖 −𝜇𝐺 )4
𝑘 = ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 − 3 (for grouped data)
𝑁𝜎 4
 663.52 27520.96
Example:1. Compute the coefficient of kurtosis 1806.3 326285
1. 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16 3342.32 1396411.92
x (𝒙𝒊 − 𝝁)𝟒 (𝒙𝒊 − 𝝁)𝟐 3011.8 2267756.48
6 625 25 16628.28 6595844.02
7 256 16
9 16 4 6595844.02
𝑘= −3
11 0 0 100(27649.9646)
13 16 4 𝑘 = −0.6145
15 256 16
2
16 625 25 ∑ 𝑓(𝑐𝑚 − 𝜇)2
77 1794 90 𝜎4 = [ ]
𝑁
16628.28 2
2 =( )
∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇)2 100
𝜎4 = [ ]
𝑁 = 27649.9696
90 2
=( )
7
= 165.31 Fundamentals of counting principles
1794
𝑘= −3 Theorem: If an operation can be performed in n ways, and if for reach if
7(165.31)
𝑘 = −1.45 these a second operation can be performed together in 𝑛1 𝑛2 ways.

2. Compute the coefficient of kurtosis Example: A freshman must take a natural science, a social science and
PE. If there are 3 natural science courses, 5 social science courses and 4
Classes f Cm fCm (𝒄𝒎 − 𝝁)𝟒 (𝒄𝒎 − 𝝁)𝟐 PE course, in how many different ways can a student select his courses to
be enrolled?
43-49 9 46 414 216,070.28 464.83
50-56 13 53 689 44,941.29 211.99 𝑛1 ∗ 𝑛2 ∗ 𝑛3 = 3 ∗ 5 ∗ 4 = 60 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
57-63 15 60 900 3266.53 57.15
64-70 25 67 1675 0.10 0.31 Permutation- any arrangement of all elements on part of a set with regard
71-77 16 74 1184 1720.06 41.47 to its order or position.
78-80 10 81 810 32628.50 180.63
85-91 8 88 704 174551.49 417.79 Case 1: Theorem: the number of permutations of n distinct objects taken
92-98 4 95 380 566939.12 752.95 r all at a time is n.
6756 2127.12
Example: Consider 3 letters a, b, c. the possible permutations are:
abc,acb,cab,cba,bac,bca
𝒇(𝒄𝒎 − 𝝁)𝟐 𝒇(𝒄𝒎 −𝝁)𝟒
n! = 3! = 6
4183.47 1944632.52
2755.87 584236.77
857.25 48997.95
7.85 2.5
 Case 2: Theorem: The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken  There are 10 seniors and 15 juniors in a JS Club. In how many ways
r at a time. may a committee made up of 2 seniors and 3 juniors be
selected?
𝑛! n1 x n2 = 10C2 x 15C3
𝑛𝑃𝑟 = ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 ≥ 𝑟
(𝑛 − 9)! = 20,475

Example: consider the number of permutations that are possible by taking  How many two-digit numbers can be formed from the numbers 1,
the four letters (a, b, c, d) two at a time. 2, 3, and 4 if repetition A.) is not allowed B.) is allowed
4!
Sol’n:4𝑃2 = (4−2)! = 12 A.) n1 x n2 = 4(3) = 12
B.) 4(4) = 16
Case 3: Theorem: The number of distinct permutations of n things of which
n, are of one kind, 𝑛2 of a second kind. . . ,𝑛𝑘 of kth kind is
𝑛!
 Consider the numbers 2, 3, 5, 7. If repetition is not allowed, how
𝑛1 ! 𝑛2 !. . . 𝑛𝑘 !
many three digit numbers can be formed such that a.) They are
Example: In a college football training session, the defensive coordinator
all odd, b.) They are all even, c.) they are greater than 500
needs to have 10 players standing in a row. Among these 10 players, there
a.) 2 x 3 x 3 = 18 ways
are 1 freshman, 2 sophomores, 4 juniors and 3 seniors, respectively. How
many different ways can they be arranged in a row if only their class level
235 237 253 257 273 275
will be distinguished?
325 327 357 375 523 527
10! 573 537 723 725 735 753
Solution: = 12600
114!3!2!
b.) 2 x 3 x 1 = 6 ways
Case 4: Circular permutation. The number of permutations of n distinct
objects arranged in a circle is (n-1)! 352 532 732
372 572 752
Example: In how many ways could five plants be planted in a circular
plot. c.) 2 x 3 x 2 = 12 ways

(𝑛 − 1)! = (5 − 1)! = 24 523 572 723 527

573 735 532 723
Combination – no of groups irrespective of position of elements in a 752 537 725 753
group.
 In how many ways can 8 individuals be seated in a row of 8 seats
The no of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time is if two individuals wanted to be seated side by side?
𝑛!
nCr = (𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟! 7P7 x 2P2 = &! X 2! = 10, 080 ways

 Suppose 4 different mathematics books and 5 different physics

Example :
books shall be arranged in a shelf. In how many ways can such
 How many ways are there to select 3 candidates from 8 equally
books be arranged if the books of the same subject shall be
qualified recent graduates for openings in an accounting firm?
places side by side?
8C3 = 56
2!4!5! = 5760 ways
  Determine the possible permutations of the word MISSISSIPPI. the probability that he will get offers from both company is 0.5.
11! What is the probability that he will get at least one offer from this
= 34,650 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
1! 4! 4! 2! two companies.
P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A∩B)
 In how many ways can 2 balls be drawn from a box containing 7 = 0.8 + 0.6 – 0.5
red and 6 green balls? = 0.9
13!
13C2 = = 78 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠  What is the probability of getting a total of 7 or 11 when a pair of
11! 2!
dice is tossed?
 A box contains 7 red and 6 green balls. In how many ways can 2 P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A∩B)
6 2
balls be drawn such that = +
36 36
a. They are both green = 0.22
b. 1 is red and 1 is green  A card is drawn from an ordinary deck of 52 playing cards. Find
6! 7!
a. 6C2 x 7C0 = (6−2)!2! 𝑥 (7−0)!0! = 15 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 the probability of getting
7! 6! a. An ace or a king
b. 6 C2 x 7C0 = (7−1)!1! 𝑥 = 42 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
(6−1)!1! b. A king or a face card
c. Black card or a queen
Probability – a measure of how likely a particular event will occur; Solution:
synonymous to chance. a.
4
+
4
=
8
=
2
52 52 52 13
4 12 4 12 3
In an experiment can result in anyone of N different equally likely b. + − = =
52 52 52 52 13
26 4 2 28 7
outcomes, and if exactly n of theses outcomes comes pond to event A, c. + − = =
52 52 52 52 13
then the probability of event A.
𝑛
P(A) =
𝑁
Conditional Probability
Laws on Probability The conditional probability of B, given A denoted by P(B/A),
1. Additive Rule is defined by
a. if A and B are any two events then P(B/A) =
𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵)
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑃(𝐴) > 0
𝑃(𝐴)
P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A∩B)
Example:
b. If A and B are mutually exclusive, then
Suppose that our sample space S is the population of adults in a
P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B)
small town who have completed the requirements for a college
c. For three events A, B, and C
degree. We shall categorize them according to sex and
P(AUBUC) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) – P(A∩B) – P(B∩C) – P(A∩C) +
employment status
P(A∩B∩C)
Employed Unemployed total
d.if A and A’ are complementary events then P(A) + P(A’)
male 460 40 500
Examples: female 140 260 400
 John is going to graduate from his department in a university by total 600 300 900
the end of the semester. After being interviewed at two
companies he likes, he asses that his probability of getting an One of these individuals is to be selected at random. What is the
offer from company A is 0.8, and the probability that he gets an probability that a male is chosen given that the one chosen is
offer from company B is 0.6. On the other hand, he believes than employed?
 P(M/E) =
𝑃(𝑀∩𝐸) 460⁄
= 600 900 =
460
= 0.767 P(A∩B) = P(B∩A)
𝑃(𝐸) ⁄900 600 B. Two events A and B are independent if and only if
P(A∩B) = P(A) P(B)
Two events A and B are independent, if and only if. C. If in an experiment, the events A1, A2, A3, …. Ak can occur
P(B/A) = P(B) then P(A1 ∩A2 ∩A3 ∩…..Ak) = P(A1) P(A2)
P(A/B) = P(A) P(A3/A1∩A2)...P(Ak/A1 ∩A2 ∩….Ak)
Otherwise, A and B are dependent D. If the events A1, A2, A3 …. Ak are independent then
P(A1 ∩A2 ∩A3 ∩…..Ak) = P(A1) P(A2)P(A3) … P(Ak)
Examples:
Consider an experiment in which 2 cards are drawn in succession Examples:
from an ordinary deck, with replacement. The events are defined A box contains 3 red and 8 black balls. If two balls are drawn in
as A: the first card is an ace, B: the second card is of spade. What succession without replacement, what is the probability than a.)
is the probability of getting a spade on the second draw given are both red b.) the first ball is red and the second ball is black.
that the card is an ace? Solution:
13 1
P(B/A) = P(B) = = a.
3
x
2
=
6
=
3
52 4 11 10 10 5

A card is drawn from a deck of 52 playing cards. Given that the b.

3
x
8
=
24
=
12

card drawn is a face card, then what is the probability of getting 11 10 110 55

a.) king b.) spade c.) red card

𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵) 4 1
a. P(B/A) = = = If a dice is thrown twice, what is the probability of getting both 6?
𝑃(𝐴) 12 3
b. P(C/A) =
𝑃(𝐶∩𝐴)
=
3
=
1 1 1 1
𝑃(𝐴) 12 4 x =
𝑃(𝐷∩𝐵) 6 1 6 6 36
c. P(D/A) = = =
𝑃(𝐴) 12 2

A box contains 6 black and 5 yellow marbles. Two marbles are

drawn from the box in succession without replacement
a. Black on the first draw
b. Black on the second draw Questions and their Solutions
c. Black on the second draw given that it is yellow on Question 1
the 1st draw
A die is rolled, find the probability that an even number is obtained.
Solution:
6 SolutionLet us first write the sample space S of the experiment.
a.
11
5 1
S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
b. = Let E be the event "an even number is obtained" and write it down.
10 2
6 3
c. = E = {2,4,6}
10 5
We now use the formula of the classical probability.
P(E) = n(E) / n(S) = 3 / 6 = 1 / 2
Multiplication Rule and Law Question 4
Two dice are rolled, find the probability that the sum is a) equal to 1
A. If in an experiment the events A and B both occur then
P(A∩B) = P(A) P(B/A) b) equal to 4
c) less than 13
Solution
a) The sample space S of two dice is shown below.
S = { (1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6)
(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(2,5),(2,6)
(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),(3,5),(3,6)
(4,1),(4,2),(4,3),(4,4),(4,5),(4,6)
(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5),(5,6)
(6,1),(6,2),(6,3),(6,4),(6,5),(6,6) }
Let E be the event "sum equal to 1". There are no outcomes which
correspond to a sum equal to 1, hence
P(E) = n(E) / n(S) = 0 / 36 = 0
b) Three possible outcomes give a sum equal to 4: E = {(1,3),(2,2),(3,1)},
hence.
P(E) = n(E) / n(S) = 3 / 36 = 1 / 12
c) All possible outcomes, E = S, give a sum less than 13, hence.
P(E) = n(E) / n(S) = 36 / 36 = 1