ROLE OF UST ON

INDIAN RAILWAYS
 OBJECTIVES
To:
• Understand the principle of ultrasonic testings
• Know the technique of testing.
• Become familiar with standard & codes.
• Learn how to interpret the indications.
 INTRODUCTION
• Ultrasonic: The science of using high frequency
sound waves for inspection of metal pieces or
components in IR
• UST of axles has been introduced sometimes in
1950s as a tool for preventive maintenance to
ensure safety in running of trains
• An excellent NDT for detecting & locating internal
defects
• Provides quantitative information regarding
thickness, depth & size of a discontinuity present in
a:
– metallic materials
– non-metallic materials
• Has restricted applications on ASS & CI
 CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES
SOUND WAVES

SUBSONIC SONIC SUPERSONIC

(˂ 20 Hz) (20-20,000 Hz) ˂ 20,000 Hz
[Audible Range]

ULTRASONIC HYPERSONIC
20 KHz- 500 MHz ˂ 500 MHz
(20 KHz-15 MHz
in practical use)
Ultrasonic wave: Sound waves of frequency more than
20,000 Hz (20 KHz) & less than 500 MHz
 PRODUCTION OF U- WAVES
• Some natural & artificial crystals produce U- waves
when alternating voltage is applied on the faces of
suitably cut crystal.
• The crystals vibrate with a frequency equal to that of
the applied electrical pulses.
• These vibrations are the sources of the U- waves
• Commonly used crystals producing U-waves:
• Natural crystal:
– Quartz
– Sodium potashium tartrate
• Artificial crystal:
– Barium titanate
– Lithium sulphate
– Lead zirconate titanate (PZT).
 NEED FOR U- TESTING OF AXLE
• Mainly employed for detection of internal
flaws where as the service failure of axles is
mainly due to fatigue cracks originating from
the surface.
• The surface crack can be detected by MPI, DPT,
etc. But in axles with press fitted wheels, gears
& bearings, etc, the location of wheel seat,
gear seat & bearing seat respectively remain
inaccessible to any other method of testing &
as such U-method of testing is most suited.
RECOMMENDED FREQUENCY FOR DIFFERENT
APPLICATION: UST
Recommended Different Application
Frequency
0.5 MHz - 1 MHz Examination of CI & steel casting &
materials of coarse grained structure
2 MHz Examination of steel plates
2MHz – 4 MHz Examination of forging, weldment &&
materials of fine grained structure
6 MHz – 10 MHz For fine grained material where higher
resolution to detect flaws is required
7MHz – 10 MHz Special application
 TRANSDUCER/PROBE A search unit
Transducer/Probe: A search unit containing piezo electric device
that converts electric energy in to mechanical energy (sound) &
then converts sound back to electric signals displayed on CRT
 PRINCIPLE: ULTRASONIC TESTING
• A beam of U-waves, generated by means of
piezo electric effect, is set up on the surface
of the component through a couplant.
• The waves propagate into the material to the
opposite surface with some attenuation &
reflected & returns to the transducer
• Any discontinuity in the path of waves
scatters the waves & are reflected back
sooner from the defect free part
 PRINCIPLE: ULTRASONIC TESTING
• The transducer at once converts U-waves into
electrical energy.
• The energy reflected from the flaw and that from the
back surface, having travelled different path lengths,
are indicated on the CRT screen. CRT screen is
divided in to 10 equal divn along X-axis & 5 equal
divn along Y-axis
PRINCIPLE: ULTRASONIC TESTING
 COUPLANT
• The couplant couples the transducer to the
surface of the test specimen to ensure
efficient sound transmission from transducer
to the specimen
• Done by smoothing out the irregularities on
the test surface & by excluding the air
between the transducer & the test specimen
• Commonly used couplants are Water,
Glycerine, Machine oil, Grease, Paraffin etc.
 SELECTION OF COUPLANT
• For testing purposes, usually various grades of
oil, grease, glycerine are used:
Surface Couplant
Very good surface Thin m/c oil
Rough surface Mixture of machine &
cylinder oil
Horizontal & Vertical Heavy oil/ Grease.
surface
 PROPERTIES OF A GOOD COUPLANT
• Easy available
• Easily applicable
• Good adherence
• Anti toxic
• Anti corrosive
• Free from foreign particles
• Homogeneous
 TESTING METHOD:U-TESTING

Probing being done:

initial
pulse back surface
echo

crack
echo
crack

0 2 4 6 8 10
plate
SKETCH OF U-SCAN
 CALIBRATION STANDARDS
IIW BLOCK IIW BLOCK
 CALIBRATION OF UFD
• UFD is calibrated for the following parameters:
• Linearity of time base:
– Position of successive bottom peaks obtained from a std test
block of known length for all ranges (up to 500 mm)
• Linearity of amplitude:
– Linearity for each frequency range by comparing echo
amplitude obtained with different gain settings & the gain is
re-set to obtain echo at half the previous scale height
• Checking of resolution:
– The probe is placed on IIW block using a time base range of
100 mm & the resolution is calculated by taking the echoes
from the surface at 85 mm & 91 mm
 CALIBRATION OF UFD
• Max penetrating power:
– The probe is placed on the surface of the perspex disc
inserted in IIW block to obtain the no. of multiple echoes
from the bottom of the perspex & amplitudes of the echoes
is determined
• Checking of dead zone: (Dead zone-This is the
distance below the surface of a material in which the
defect can not be detected)
– The probe is placed on the reference block & corresponding
echoes at a distance of 5 mm or 10 mm of steel
• Checking of sensitivity:
– The probe is placed on opposite end of a reference block of
406 mm long having a flat bottom of 3.2 mm dia at a mid
radius to depth of about 25 mm perpendicular to one end
face & the gain is adjusted to obtain the echo of 12.5 mm
amplitude & the amplitude of the bach echo is seen whether
it is at 25 mm by scanning on the axle end faces
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF AXLE
• Various type of axles used in railways:
– Loco
– Carriage
– Wagon
– EMU
– Tower wagon
– Crane, etc
 CLASSIFICATION OF AXLE
On Indian Railways the different type of axles
in use have been classified into four following
categories for U- testing purposes with regard
to different techniques:
• Type ‘A’
• Type ‘B’
• Type ‘C’
• Type ‘D’
RECOMMENDED TIME FOR U-TESTING OF AXLES
Type of axle Testing technique Rec time per Class
axle in mts
Mandatory Conf Mand Conf
Type ‘A’ FE FE 14 80 WP.
Axles with wheel seat outer NELA WG,YP/YG,
most or higher or equal in dia TD WDS4B
than other portion of the axle HA Loco axle
Type ‘B’ FE FE 30 75 C & W,
Axles with journal outermost & NELA NELA EMU
lower dia than wheel seat & TD
body of the axle HA
Type ‘C’ FE FE 35 80 WDM1,
Same as type ‘B’ but axles NELA NELA WDM2,
with gear TD Electric loco
HA
Type ‘D’ FE (15-20mm FE 40 85 BEML, ICF
same as type ‘B” but with dia probe) NELA coach axle
protrusion at journal end face NELA TD
HA
 PERIODICITY OF U-TEST
• All types of axle passing through the shops for POH
or for further attention are tested in shops as per
different periodicity stipulated by RDSO
• In every code of procedure some standard peaks are
specified in all the techniques
• While testing of an axle, several peaks in some of the
axles & a few in other axles are also appearing in
addition to the standard peaks
• It becomes a problem for the operator to take a
decision in such cases
• In this case the operator follows the directives given
in the respective code of procedure that an axle
showing a prominent signal other than those shown
in the pattern has to be withdrawn from service.
 PERIODICITY OF U-TEST
Type of Axle Periodicity (month)
Carriage axle 18
Wagon axle 48
EMU coaches 6
Diesel & Electric 12 & 6 months depending
Locomotives on run
C&W At the time of dropping &
ROH in sick line
 DIFFERENT TESTING TECHNIQUES
There are three basic techniques applied for UST
of axles recommended by RDSO:-
• FE scanning/straight beam technique (using normal
probe): Through scanning of whole length of the axle. Mandatory
for all type of axles
• NELA (scanning from axle end & in to the nearer wheel seat
using angular probe lower than 200). Mandatory for B, C & D type
of axles
• HA (scanning across the dia using angular probe with an angle
higher than 350). Mandatory where indicated by RDSO &
confirmatory for the findings in FE & NELA
• An additional technique i.e.TD. (using normal probe).
Not mandatory in any case. Confirmatory technique in case of
doubt
 CONTROL SIGNAL
• One signal is selected for a particular scanning
technique & is called ‘Control Signal’
• Testing is done at specified height of control
signal as mentioned in the code
• Control signal is taken from a far end fillet for
FE & inner fillet for NELA & HA
 FAR END SCANNING
• The main purpose of FE is to test the whole
length of axle by probing from each end face
• Employed for type ‘A’ axle
• May be applied for type B, C,& D axle but this will
not be fool proof method for such type of axles
• UFD: Calibration for the particular range:
– The time scale is calibrated to 250/300 mm per msd
acc to the length of the axle using a std bar of 500 mm
• Probe used: 2.5 MHz; 20/25 mm dia
• The probe is placed perpendicular on the cleaned
end of the axle keeping it 2-5 mm away from
outer periphery with slight rotatory movement
using soft grease as couplant & height of the
control peak as given in the code of procedure
supplied by RDSO is adjusted
 FAR END SCANNING
• U-waves travel through the whole length of the axle &
are reflected from its end, change of sections or from
defects, if present
• The probable reflection in axle may be as follows:
– End of the axle
– End of the journal
– Wheel seat radius
– Stress relieve groove
– Gear seat radius
• All the peaks are observed carefully & compared all the
peaks given in the respective codes
• Scanning of the full axle is done from both the end
faces
TESTING OF AXLE IN SERVICE

Far end scanning

FAR END SCANNING
FAR END SCANNING TRACE PATTERN OF WAGON AXLE
(DRAWING NO. SK-69601)
 NEAR END LOW ANGLE
• Useful in checking cracks in type
B, C & D axles
• Used:
– to conform the findings in FE
– to detect crack in raised wheel seat
& gear seat etc of an axle
• UFD: the time scale is calibrated
for 100 mm per msd using normal
probe.
• Probe used: 2.5 MHz; 20/25 mm
dia
• The normal probe is fitted with
perspex wedge of angles
(between 50 to 200) as mentioned
in the respective codes
 NEAR END LOW ANGLE
• The perspex wedge is placed on the axle end
face directing the central beam towards the
inner fillet of wheel seat
• In flaw free axle, one back peak is obtained
which is taken as reference peak (control
peak)
• By this technique, crack in the inner wheel
seat radius is detected.
• Crack appearing at the end of near wheel seat
radii from the probing end can not be
detected as the same will be under shadow
zone.
LOW ANGLE SCAN TRACE PATTERN FOR WDG2 DIESEL LOCO
AXLE TO DRG NO SK.VL-034 PROBING FROM THE GEAR END
 HIGH ANGLE
• Used to:
– check the findings obtained in FE & NELA
– find out cracks which is not accessible by NELA
• UFD: The time scale is calibrated for 50 mm per msd of
shear wave using normal probe.
• Probe used: 2.5 MHz; 20/25 mm dia
• The perspex wedge is placed on the journal & body of
the axle with probe index marked at distances given in
the respective codes from collar fillet & wheel seat
inner fillet
• The probe is moved forward & backward longitudinally
from the mean position up to a distance given in the
code
• The probe is moved circumferentially (curved surface)
on the axle directing the central beam towards the
wheel seat inner & collar fillet
HA SCANNING
HIGH ANGLE SCAN PATTERN
 TRACE DELAY
• Used for conforming the findings in FE
• Probe used: 2.5 MHz; 20/25 mm dia
• UFD: Calibrated for 500 mm
• 0-500 mm: 1st Range
• 0-500 mm: 2nd Range
• 0-500 mm: 3rd Range
• 0-500 mm: 4th Range
• 0-500 mm: 5th Range
• In FE scanning long testing range (about 2500-
3000 mm) is required & as such peaks from
various reflectors from the axle appear closer.
The operator may face difficulties in evaluating
the oscillograph pattern. Therefore, this
technique is applied to examine the axle in parts
of 500 mm or less as desired.
 TRACE DELAY
• The tested axle is examined in
parts (4-5 parts depending on
its length) by longitudinal wave
using normal probe for
confirmation of the flaw signals
obtained during FE
• The couplant is applied on its
end face & probing is done
• The first back peak is shifted to
10th & CRT is observed for any
additional peak
• Similar test is done on all the
parts.
DIFFICULTIES FACED DURING UST OF AXLES IN SERVICE
• Surface of the axle: End faces with sharp edges, dent &
hammer marks etc must be removed by filing or by using
emery paper before probing
• Body of the axle: Body of the axles(C&W axle)
containing/contaminated with rust, scales, dirt, grit,
paint, pit must be cleaned by using k.oil/filing/emery
paper before conducting HA technique
• Extra holes drilled on the end face: Sometimes extra
holes are drilled on the end face of the axle after aftre
plugging the oversized holes which minimises testing
areas. Scanning by lower dia probe to be used
• Geometry of the axle:
– Electric & diesel axles have no. of fillets & std peaks from the
fillet locations appear very closer & as such TD technique must
be employed.
DIFFICULTIES FACED DURING UST OF AXLES IN SERVICE
– Axles with protruded ends (BEML axle) have limited
probing area & as such lower dia probe to be used for
FE & perspex wedge to be kept carefully on the
narrow portion for NELA
• Coarse grain axle:
– Coarse grainedaxles (due to improper HT) to be tested
with 2.5 MHz. Absence of depleted back peak
amplitude associated with greasy patterns received
from all the available probing positions makes the axle
suspected to be coarse grained
– Such axles to be tested with 1.25 MHz probe. If bak
peak amplitude improves with absence or decreasing
greasy pattern, the coarse grained structure is
confirmed & axles to be drawn from service
CRITERIA FOR ACCEPTANCE & OTHERWISE
• The axle is rejected in which permanent flaw
signal is found during scanning by FE, NELA &
HA technique
 STAMPING ON TESTED AXLES
• All tested axles are stamped on the inner face
of the hub with following details:
– UT.02.1.01. MM/YY/XXXX
• UT: Ultrasonic test
• 02: Code for Railway
• 1: Code for type of workshop
• 01: Code for place of workshop
• MM/YY: Month & year of testing
• XXXX: Initial of person testing the axle
 REPORTING & RECORDING OF TESTED AXLE

• The report of tested axles (Passed/Rejected) is

recorded in the shop/shed register
 ADVANTAGE:UST
• Most powerful tool for ensuring safety
• Fast & reliable method
• Extremely sensitive at high frequency
• Locates the position & size of the flaw
• Gives indication that the proper HT has been given or
not
• In-situ adaptability
• Portable unit
• Both ferrous & non ferrous components can be
tested
• Can be penetrated up to 10 meters length at a time
 LIMITATION & APPLICATION
LIMITATION:
• Irregular & complicated design is difficult to test
• Testing surface must be cleaned & flattened
• High skillness & experienced men required to
operate UFD
APPLICATION:
• Inspection of castings, forgings, weldments, rolled
products & components in service
• Routine inspection of locomotive
axles, wheel, crank pin, suspension
bearing, etc
• Inspection of rail without dismantling
 UST OF
L0COMOTIVE WHEEL:IRS-R-34/99; CLAUSE-
15, APPENDIX-’A’
IN INDIAN RAILWAYS
WHEEL
 INTRODUCTION
• For detecting internal discontinuities in Rim &
Hub of the wheel
• Reference standard used for calibration &
sensitivity setting:
– Shall be 3.2 mm dia flat bottom hole, drilled
perpendicular to the Rim face & to a depth of
25±2 mm at the used thickness of the Rim
REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR UST OF RIM
Reference standards Alternate Reference standards
 UST: CALIBRATION FOR RIM
• Probe: 2.0-2.5 MHz ; 20 mm dia
• Equipment: RDSO approved UFD 50% height adjustment
from ref std
• Calibration:
• 200 mm for longitudinal wave (i.e. 20
mm/msd)
• using ref std of a portion of a wheel rim
containing readymade defects
• UFD sensitivity adjusted to
produce half of full scale
reflection(50% height) from either
of the reference standards
 SCANNING
• Wheel is inspected
axially by probing it
from both sides by
manual or automatic
scanning
 REJECTION STANDARDS: RIM
• Any wheel disc with flaw indication equal or higher
than ref defect i.e. 50% or higher height. If more than
three defects of amplitude 30% or above are
observed: rejected
 UST: Hub
• Wheel passing in rim test: subjected to hub testing
• No reference standards used
• Probe: 2.0-2.5 MHz; 20 mm dia
• Adjust back echo by any gain at 100% by keeping
probe on flawless hub.
 UST: HUB- REJECTION STANDARD
• Suppression of back echo less than 25% of
the full height although there may be no
flaw echo
 UST: HUB- REJECTION STANDARD
• When the flaw echo more than 50% of
the back echo
 UST: HUB- REJECTION STANDARD
• Flaws coming at more than three locations &
closer than 50 mm from each other although
the echo heights are less than 50% of the back
echo.
 MARKING
• Wheel confirming to the standard should
be punch marked as ‘UT’ on the back
plate at least 25 mm in height or as
mentioned in the drawing