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Fluids in Motion
There are two types of fluid motion called laminar flow
and turbulent flow.
14-1
Note 14
Solution:
From the equation of continuity the speed of blood in
the capillaries is
Bernoulli’s Equation
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), a Swiss mathematician
and scientist, lived a generation after Pascal and
Torricelli. The equation he derived is a more general
statement of the laws and principles of fluids we have
examined thus far.
Bernoulli allowed for the flow tube to undergo a
possible change in height (Figure 14-3). Consider
Figure 14-2. Illustration of the equation of continuity. The points 1 and 2. Let point 1 be at a height y1 and let v1,
flow tube of a fluid is shown at two positions 1 and 2. At no A1 and p1 be the speed of the fluid, cross sectional area
time does fluid enter or leave the flow tube. of the tube and pressure of the fluid at that point.
Similarly let v2, A2 and p 2 be the same variables at
point 2. The actual system is the volume of fluid in the
The equation of continuity can be applied to explain flow tube.
the various rates of blood flow in the body. Blood In an elapsed time ∆t the amount of fluid crossing A 1
flows from the heart into the aorta from which it is ∆V1 = A1v1∆t and the amount of fluid crossing A2 is
passes into the major arteries; these branch into the ∆V2 = A2v2∆t. But from the equation of continuity, A1v1
small arteries (arterioles), which in turn branch into = A 2v2. So the volume of fluid crossing either area is
myriads of tiny capillaries. The blood then returns to the same; let us simply write it as
the heart via the veins. Blood flow is fast in the aorta,
but quite slow in capillaries. When you cut a finger ΔV = AvΔt .
(capillary) the blood oozes, or flows very slowly. We
can show this by means of a numerical example. Fluid is moved in the flow tube as the result of the
work done on the fluid by the surrounding fluid (the
environment).
€ The net work W done on the fluid in
1 the elapsed time ∆t is
The equation of continuity can be thought of as a statement of
the conservation of fluid. As the fluid flows through the pipe the
volume of fluid remains constant; it neither increases nor decreases.
14-2
Note 14
ρ
p + v 2 + ρgy = const . …[14-6]
2
1 Torricelli’s Theorem
Consider the container filled with fluid in Figure 14-4. Example Problem 14-3
A distance h below the surface of the fluid a small Applying Torricelli’s Theorem
hole allows fluid to escape. What is the velocity of the
outflowing fluid? A glass container of height 1.0 m is full of water. A
small hole appears on the side of the container at the
bottom (as shown in Figure 14-4). What is the speed of
the water flowing out the hole?
Solution:
h
This is a straightforward application of Torricelli’s
theorem and eq[14-7]. The speed of the water is
Figure 14-4. A container of fluid with a small hole a distance v = 2gh = 2 × 9.80(m.s−1 ) ×1.0(m) = 4.43 m.s–1
h below the surface allowing fluid to escape.
The value measured would be less than this if the
fluid (for example, shampoo) had a significant
Applying Bernoulli’s equation we have
€ viscosity.
ρ
p + v 2 + ρgy = const .
2
2 A Fluid at Rest
Assuming a container of normal laboratory size, the For a fluid at rest (static fluid) the speed v in eq[14-6]
atmospheric pressure p is essentially the same at its is zero. Bernoulli’s equation then reduces to
top€and bottom, so we can cancel p and write to a
good approximation p + ρgy = const .
ρ 2 This is just Pascal’s law; see eq[13-3] in Note 13. The
v + ρgy = const . point to be made here is that Bernoulli’s equation is a
2
more general
€ statement of the physics of fluids than is
Pascal’s law.
But if the container is not vanishingly small then the
fluid velocity is essentially zero at the top (at y = 0). So 3 Pressure in a Flowing Fluid
the velocity
€ v of the outflowing fluid (at y = –h) is
We studied hydrostatic pressure in Note 13. We can
given by
show that in a moving fluid the pressure is depen-
ρ 2 dent on velocity.
v + ρg(−h) = 0 ,
2 A fluid flowing along a horizontal level experiences
a constant gravitational potential (y = constant). Ber-
from which it follows that noulli’s equation therefore becomes
2
Eq[14-5] is the same expression as obtained for the final velocity
of an object dropped from rest at a height h (Note 09).
14-4
Note 14
Solution:
The pressure difference in Pa is, using the conversion
expression eq[13-4]:
2( p1 − p2 )
v1 = A2
ρ ( A12 − A22 )
Multiplying
€ by A1 we obtain the flow rate Q:
Figure 14-5. The Venturi tube. These results, too, would be quite in error if the fluid
had a non-negligible viscosity. The viscosity of water
€ has a negligible effect in this example.
From Bernoulli’s equation with y2 = y1 we have
ρ
p1 − p2 = (v 22 − v12 ) . The Aerofoil
2
Bernoulli’s equation helps to explain why an airplane
is equipped with wings to help it stay in the air. An
Substituting the equation of continuity to eliminate v2
airplane wing is an example of an aerofoil (Figure 14-
we can rearrange and solve for v1. The flow rate Q is
6). In a moving stream of air, the air travels more
therefore
€ given by quickly over the top surface of an aerofoil than over the
bottom surface. According to Bernoulli’s principle the
2( p1 − p2 ) pressure on the top surface is less than the pressure on
Q = A1v1 = A1 A2 . …[14-9]
ρ ( A12 − A22 ) the bottom surface, contributing to a net upward force
called aerodynamic lift. When an airplane is flying at
constant altitude and speed, the upward aerodynamic
Since the density of the fluid ρ is also known, as are lift balances the downward gravitational force and
the areas A1 and A 2, Q can be calculated once (p1 – p 2) prevents the plane from falling. This is sometimes
is
€ measured with the manometer. called the Bernoulli effect.
A glider moving on an air track is a kind of aerofoil.
On the top surface of a glider the pressure is atmos-
pheric pressure. In the space between the bottom
14-5
Note 14
surface and the surface of the air track the pressure of wing. From eq[14-5] we can write
the air is higher than atmospheric. The difference in
pressure accounts for the aerodynamic lift that keeps ρ 2 ρ 2
the glider from contacting the air track surface and pabove + air v above = pbelow + air v below
2 2
grinding to a halt.
…[14-10]
= 16,300 Pa.
p − pabove 2
Figure 14-6. Streamlines around an aerofoil. 2
v above = below + v below .
ρ /2
14-6
Note 14
To Be Mastered
• Definitions: laminar flow, turbulent flow, equation of continuity
ρ ρ
• Physics of: Bernoulli’s Equation p1 + v12 + ρgy1 = p2 + v 22 + ρgy 2
2 2
• Physics of: the Venturi tube
• Physics of: the aerofoil
3. Explain briefly what a Venturi tube is used for, and how it is used.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
14-7