LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

Developmental Psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the many ways in

which we change throughout the year. The term development largely refers to the qualitative
changes unfolding or the quantitative changes increasing in capacity. It is a broader term that
includes growth and maturation as its aspects.

Though often used interchangeably, the terms growth and maturation are quite distinct in
nature. Maturation refers to the changes determined by our genes. For e.g. A baby first
crawls, then begins to stand on her feet and finally starts walking. Growth refers to clearly
measurable or specific changes which are quantitative in nature. For e.g. Growing taller.

WHY IS THE STUDY OF LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT?

The study of developmental psychology is essential to understanding how humans learn,

mature and adapt. Throughout their lives, humans go through various stages of development.
Developmental psychologists study how people grow, develop and adapt at different life
stages. They conduct research designed to help people reach their full potential by providing
studies and evidences for cognitive, psychosocial and biological processes of development—
for example, studying the difference between learning styles in babies and adults.

It provides a framework for understanding human aging by creating a context for describing
and explaining regular transformations that occur to an organism under certain conditions.

HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION (Nature v/s Nurture)

Nature (Heredity) can be defined as the genetically inherited biological characteristics. Nurture
(Environment) can be defined as the environmental forces that influence our development.
Psychologists today agree that the interaction between the two shapes the process of
development. This interaction provides us with a reaction range (possible levels that we may
achieve) based on or genetic characteristics and the supporting environment. According to
Genecist Curt Stein, the genetic endowment for any trait is the amount of stretch that is
possible in a rubber band. In other words, the amount of stretch will depend upon its native
endowment (basic stretchability) and the amount of pressure or pull exerted by the people on
the environment.

How the Environment Influences the Expression of Genes:

The concept of the range of reaction helps shed light on how environments influence genes.
According to this concept, heredity does not rigidly fix behavior, but instead establishes a
range of possible developmental outcomes that may occur in response to different
environments. When a reaction range is extremely narrow, it is said to exhibit canalization.
With a highly canalized trait, there are few pathways that development can take, and intense
or more specific environmental pushes are required to deflect the course of development.

The effect of changed environment upon mental traits – two studies concluded by Chicago
University group headed by Freeman (1925), and Stanford University group headed by Bruks
(1928) are notable. Both these investigations emphasized somewhat different methods,
though the purpose was same, that it is to study the influence of home environment upon the
development of mental traits in children. Freeman agrees with Burks view that heredity is a
force in the determination of mental ability by the side of which all other forces are dwarfed
in comparison. Both the studies agree upon the influence of heredity in shaping mental
ability. Both the groups show a general agreement on the role of environment in the
development of individual intelligence. But the Chicago group seems to give greater
emphasis to environment than to heredity. Watson has strongly emphasized the importance
of environment in the development of human personality. If an individual’s abilities,
efficiency and traits of personality would have been exclusively influenced by genetic
factors, environment, training and learning would have no value.

Similarly, if training and education is considered as a sole factor influencing personality

differences, then favourable environmental opportunities are everything and potentialities and
gifted qualities have no implications for personality development. It seems more reasonable
to say that both nature, heredity and environment have important roles to play in the
development of human beings. But their relative importance differs in the development of
various traits of personality. Heredity is more important in determining the physical traits like
height and weight, colours and texture of hair, body strength, etc. although to some extent,
the effect on environment on these traits cannot be ruled out. Similarly, environment has the
upper hand in the development of personality traits like sociability, amiability, honest,
dominance, submission, introversion-extroversion, interests and several other socially
desirable, undesirable traits. Regarding the mental activities, there are sufficient evidences to
believe that hereditary factors determine the potential level or physiological limit of
development which an individual achieves at the maximum. Within this limit, the
environmental factors vastly influence the level of development that really occurs.

Hence, neither nature nor nurture alone can explain one’s personality development. Heredity
and environment cooperatively and co-ordinately help in the growth and development of the
child’s behaviour and personality. Human behaviour and personality is therefore,
undoubtedly the result of an interaction between genetically determined traits and
environmentally determined qualities.

How Genetic Makeup Helps to Shape the Environment:

Not only does environment influence genes, but genes also influence the environments to
which people are exposed. One way this can happen is for parents with certain genetic
predispositions to create a home environment that suits those predispositions, and which may
also suit and encourage the inherited predispositions of their children. Another way is for
people's inherited tendencies to evoke certain environmental influences from others. A third
way is for genes to encourage people to engage in niche picking-seeking out experiences that
are compatible with their inherited tendencies.

According to Pintner (1931) “The potency of environment is not merely so great as

commonly supposed. A child’s abilities are determined by his ancestors and all that the
environment can do is to give the opportunity for the development of his potentialities.”
Pintner further adds that an environment cannot create new powers and abilities. He finally
concludes “All that we can claim is that our calculations agree perfectly with the hypothesis
that intelligence is inherited in the same way as physical characteristics are inherited. Thus,
in his view, heredity is more important than environment in growth and development.
Several experimental findings also emphasize that importance of heredity in individual
differences. Pearson (1904) found a remarkable resemblance among members of the same
family in colour of eyes, ratio of width and length of head and in physical traits which are by
and large affected by environment influences. Interestingly, he noted that the effect of
heredity upon mental characteristics is the same as upon physical characteristics.

For e.g.: Family resemblance studies consistently show that individual differences in IQ
scores are substantially influenced by genetic factors. In addition, individual differences in
certain more specific cognitive abilities, including spatial skills and verbal proficiency, are
also influenced by genes, as are differences in the timing and rate of mental development.
Nevertheless, an enriched environment can boost a child's level of intellectual development
considerably.

INFANCY
● LOCOMOTOR DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES (Read from Barron:
Human development I)

Infancy is the period of development between the neonatal period and the appearance of
useful language; the upper limit is about 18 months.

Motor Milestones: Motor milestones is marked by milestones- achievements that develop

systematically. Babies first learn simple skills and then combines them into increasingly
complex ‘systems of actions’, which permits a wider or a more precise range of
movements and more effective control of the environment.

HEAD CONTROL:

• At Birth – most infants can turn their heads from side to side while lying on their back.
While lying chest down, many can lift their heads enough to turn them.

• Within the first two-three months – They lift their heads higher and higher – sometimes
to the point where they lose their balance and roll over on their backs.

• By 4 months – Almost all infants can keep their heads erect while being supported in a
sitting position.

HAND CONTROL:

• Babies are born with a grasping reflex. If the palm of an infant’s hand is stroked, the
hand closes tightly.

• At 3 ½ months – Most infants can grasp an object of moderate size , such as a rattle, but
have trouble holding a small object. Next they begin to grasp objects with one hand and
transfer them to the other, and then to hold small objects.

• Between 7 and 11 months – their hands become coordinated enough to pick up a tiny
object, such as a pea, using the pincer grasp. After that the hand control becomes
increasingly precise.
 • By 15 months – An average baby can build a tower of two cubes.

• After 3 years – An average toddler can copy a circle fairly well.

LOCOMOTION:

• After 3 months – The average infant begins to roll over deliberately – first from front to
back and then from back to front.

• By 6 months – An average baby can sit without support, and can assume a sitting
position without help about two and a half months later.

• Between 6 and 10 months – Most babies begin to get around under their own power by
creeping or crawling. This new achievement of self-locomotion has striking cognitive and
psychological ramifications.

• A little past 7 months – The average baby can stand by holding onto a helping hand or a
piece of furniture. For some months before they can stand without support, babies
practice ‘cruising’.

• 4 months later – Most babies let go and stand alone. The average baby can stand well
about two weeks or so before the first birthday.

• The major motor achievement of infancy is walking.

• At about 11 ½ months – Most infants take their first unaided step. Within a few weeks,
soon after their first birthday, the average child is walking well and achieves the status of
a toddler.

• During the second year – Children begin to climb stairs one at a time, putting one foot
after the another on the same step; later they will alternate feet. Walking down the stairs
comes later.

• In their second year – Toddlers learn to run and jump.

• By 3 ½ years – Most children can balance briefly on one foot and begin to hop.

JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (Refer to Barron for

the stages of development: Human development I)

Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental
model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and
regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and
interaction with the environment. Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s,
where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He
became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that
required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important
differences between the thinking of adults and children.
Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development.
His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed
observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to
reveal different cognitive abilities. Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in
psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed
that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults.
According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically
inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based. He believed
that –
a. All humans move through a set series of stages
b. The movement from one stage to another happens at a specific age.
c. The order of the progress of development is unchanging.
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a
result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an
understanding of the world around them, and then experience discrepancies between what
they already know and what they discover in their environment.
There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:

1. Schemas (building blocks of knowledge):

Piaget (1952) defined a schema as: 'a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing
components that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning'.

In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent
behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. For example, a person might have a
schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a stored form of the
pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and
paying the bill. This is an example of a type of schema called a 'script'. Whenever
they are in a restaurant, they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the
situation.

2. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium,
assimilation and accommodation):

Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information into existing knowledge

structures (schemas). For e.g. A child sees a cat for the first time and calls it a dog
(child is familiar with dogs).

Accomodation is the process of modification of the existing knowledge structures. For

e.g. The child is made to understand that the animal is not a dog as it has different
physical features and is called a cat.

Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information
through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when
new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
3. Stages of Cognitive Development:

Sensorimotor (Birth to 18-24 months)

● Infants in this stage interpret the world only through their motor activities and sensory
impressions.
● During this period children learn that there is a relationship between their actions and
external world. (e.g. clenching their fist will help them hold onto objects)
● The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an
object still exists, even if it is hidden. A four month old will lack this concept though
they master it by eight to nine months.
● By the end of this stage they begin to acquire the ability to form a mental
representation (i.e. a schema) of the object.
● The sensorimotor stage is divided into 6 substages:

1. Simple reflexes (Birth - 1 Month Old) Characterized by reflexes such as rooting

and sucking. (Rooting- A newborn infant will turn its head toward anything that
strokes its cheek or mouth)

2. Primary circular reactions (1-4 Months Old) Infants learn to coordinate

sensations. A primary circular reaction is when the infant tries to reproduce an event
that happened by accident (ex: sucking thumb).

3. Secondary circular reactions (4-8 Months Old) Children become aware of things
beyond their own body and become more object oriented. (ex: accidentally shaking a
rattle and continuing to do so for the sake of satisfaction).

4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 Months Old) Children start to

show intentionality (ex: using a stick to reach something).
 5. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 Months Old) They start to actively
experimenting and exploring new possibilities of objects.

6. Internalization of schemas (18-24 Months Old) A shift to symbolic thinking.

Preoperational (18-24 months to around 7 years) (Read from Baron in detail)

● Language develops to the point that mental images of objects can be expressed
verbally.
● During this stage, young children are able to think about things symbolically. This is
the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than
itself (Symbolic Play, e.g. a stone is a frog). These complex operations are marked by
three unique shifts in the cognitive abilities of children- decentration,
decontexualisation and integration.
● Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of
others.
● Children lack grasp over the concepts of seriation (arranging things along a
dimension) and relational terms (lighter, softer) and conservation.

Concrete operational (7 -11 years)

● Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive
development, because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This
means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try
things out in the real world).
● Children in the age of concrete operations can perform many tasks at a much higher
level than what they could in the preoperational stage. They have a better
understanding of spatial concepts, of causality, of categorization, of inductive and
deductive reasoning, reversibility and of conservation.
●
● Space and Causality: Children in the stage of concrete operations can better
understand spatial relationships. They have a clear idea of how far it is from one
place to another and how long it will take to get there, and they can more easily
remember the route and the landmarks along the way. Experience plays a role in this
development, a child who walks to school becomes more familiar with the
neighbourhood outside the home.

The abilities to use maps and models and to communicate spatial information improve
with age. Although, 6 year olds can search for and find hidden objects, they usually
do not give clear directions for finding the same objects – perhaps, because they lack
the appropriate vocabulary or do not realize what information the other person needs.

Judgements about cause and effect also improve during middle childhood. When 5 to
12 year olds were asked to predict how levers and balance scales would perform with
varying numbers and weights of objects placed at varying distances from the centre,
the older children gave more correct answers than the younger children.
● Categorization: The ability to categorize helps children to think logically.
Categorization includes such sophisticated abilities as seriation, transitive inference,
and class inclusion. Children show that they understand seriation when they can
arrange objects in a series according to one or more dimensions, such as weight (light
to heaviest) or colour (lightest to darkest).

Transitive inference: is the ability to recognize a relationship between two objects by

knowing the relationship between each of them and a third object. For example, in
Mathematics, if variable ‘a’ = ‘b’, and ‘b’= ‘c’ then ‘a’ = ‘c’.

Class inclusion: is the ability to see the relationship between a whole and its parts.
For example, ‘All humans are animals’.

● Inductive and Deductive Reasoning:

According to Piaget, children in the stage of concrete operations use inductive

reasoning. Starting with observations about particular members of a class of people,
animals, objects, or events, they then draw generalised conclusions about the class as
whole. Inductive conclusions must be tentative because it is always possible to come
across new information (a dog that does not bark) that does not support the
conclusion. An example of inductive logic is, "The coin I pulled from the bag is a
penny. The second coin is a penny. A third coin from the bag is also a penny.
Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies."

Deductive reasoning is which Piaget believed does not develop until adolescence
starts with a general statement (premise) about a class and applies it to particular
members of the class. If the premise is true of the whole class, and the reasoning is
sound, then the conclusion must be true. For example, "All men are mortal. Harold is
a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal."

● Conservation: (Read from Baron) In solving various types of conservation

problems, children in the stage of concrete operations can work out the answers in
their heads; they do not have to measure or weigh the objects.
● Logical thought begins developing by the conception of this stage. If asked “Why did
you and your mother go to the market?” they reply, “ Because my mother needed
some milk.” In contrast, younger children may reply “Because afterwards we came
home.”
● Reversibility- Children at this stage master the concept of reversibility- The fact that
many physical changes can be undone by the reversal of the original action.
● Seriation is the ability to arrange objects along some dimension. Children at the
preoperational stage lack a grasp over the concept of seriation. By the stage of
concrete operation, they develop a grasp over this concept. This is also further
developed by school activities where children in grade 1 and 2 are taught the concept
of arranging numbers in increasing and decreasing order along some criteria.
● Relational Terms – dark, darker, soft, softer

Formal operational (11 years and over)

 ● The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and lasts into
adulthood. During this period, major features of adult thought make their appearance.
While children in the earlier stage of concrete operations can think logically, they can
do so only about concrete events and objects. In contrast, those who have reached the
stage of formal operations can think abstractly; they can deal not only with the real or
concrete but with possibilities – events or relationships that do not exist, but can be
imagined.

● Piaget used a test called the 'third eye problem' to determine one's full transformation
into the formal operational stage. Piaget asked children where on their body would
they put an extra eye and why. Children around nine years old typically answered that
the third eye should be located on the forehead. However, children in the eleven year
old range typically suggested that a third eye should be placed on the hand for seeing
around corners. This answer characterizes the abstract thinking and reasoning which
characterizes the formal operational stage.

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning

● Hypothetical thinking- With formal operations, boys and girls move from the world of
the actual to the world of the hypothetical. They can still think about the way things
are, but they become much more skilled at thinking about how things might be if
certain changes took place. Such thinking allows adolescents to judge the
“possibilities” of a purely hypothetical line of reasoning.

Deduction and induction- Hypothetical and abstract thinking make sophisticated deduction
and induction possible. Deduction is reasoning from abstract, general principles to
specific hypothesis that follow from these principles. Induction thinking is the
complementary process of observing a number of specific events or instances and
inferring an abstract general principle to explain those instances. The two processes
can be seen in the adolescents reasoning about nature, science and even social
problems.

Inter propositional logic- The formal operations involve the ability to judge whether
propositions are logically connected to one another, regardless of whether the
propositions are true. This is called inter propositional logic.

Proposition 1 : square is a quadrilateral

Proposition 2 : quadrilateral has four sides

Conclusion : square has four sides.

Reflective thinking – This allows the formal operational person to be his or her own critic, to
evaluate a process, idea or solution from the perspective of an outsider and to find
errors or weak spots in it. The reflective thinker can then sharpen plans, arguments or
points of view- making them more effective, more powerful.
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Read from Barron: Human Development
I)

- Facial expressions within the first few months.

- 2 month old demonstrate social smiling in response to adult faces.
- By 3-4 months they show anger, happiness, sadness and surprise.
- 2 month will show more pained expression than anger at inoculation whereas
by 18 months they show anger indicating they understand who and what
caused them discomfort.
- Social referencing: After a fall, an 1 year old child will look up at the caregiver
to understand their reaction and respond accordingly.
- However, a few years later children are able to regulate their emotions and
express it. A 4 year old will close his eyes while watching a scary TV show to
hide himself from the stimulus that he does not like.

Theory of attachment by John Bowlby:

Strange situation test

1. Secure attachment
2. Insecure/ Avoidant attachment
3. Insecure/ Ambivalent attachment
4. Disorganised attachment
- Contact comfort
- Harlows Research

****

CHILDHOOD

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD

2-6 YEARS OR EARLY CHILDHOOD

The period of the most rapid development of motor behaviors is the period
between 2 and 6 years (also known as the preschool years). Skills that
appear are:

● Basic locomotor
● Ball-handling
● Fine eye-hand coordination
● Walking leads to running, jumping, hopping, galloping, and
skipping
● Climbing evolves from creeping.

The following points need to be highlighted.

1. By the age of 3 walking is automatic.

2. By 4 years the child has almost achieved an adult style of walking.
3. By 3 years the child has attempted to run, albeit awkward in style
and lacking control.
4. By the age of 4-5 years the child has more control over running and
can start, stop and turn.
5. By 5-6 skills in running have advanced to the level of an adult
manner.
6. Between the ages of 3 and 6 climbing proficiency using ladders, etc.,
has developed.
7. By 6 years children can hop and gallop skillfully, and jumping
distances are longer.

6-12 YEARS OR LATER CHILDHOOD

After the age of 6 years old, it becomes increasingly difficult to describe

changes and differences in motor skills development. The following
characteristics are evident:

● Changes are more subtle, and are often to fine motor skills only
● By 9 years eye-hand coordination has developed to being very good
● Growth is relatively slow
● This stage is terminated by the onset of puberty
● Motor skills are perfected and stabilized
● Links can be made to physical development.

The following are assessed during this stage.

1. Running. This will become faster depending on the length of stride

and tempo.
2. Jumping. The ability to jump higher will become greater due to body
size, weight, age and strength.
3. Balancing and coordination. This increases as the child becomes
 older and control is perfected.

These areas can benefit greatly from systematic instruction in motor skills,
and physical education programs at school. The quality and type of
environment a child is exposed to will influence the extent to which the
child develops the motor skills learned in the first two stages of
development. Furthermore a child's motor interests will be determined by
his or her opportunities. Differences in gender also come into play in this
stage.

SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Read from Barron: Human Development I)

1. Gender awareness

By the age of four, one understands the fact that one is a male or female which is
termed as gender identity. Again, children understand that the gender is stable over
the time, which is known as gender stability. Ruble and her colleagues have
proposed that complete understanding of one’s sexual identity involves all three
components and centres around a biologically based categorical distinction between
males and females. It is not until they are six or even seven, however, that children
acquire gender consistency – the understanding that even if they adopted the
clothing, hair styles, and behaviours associated with the other sex, they would still
retain their current sexual identity. At this time, they can answer correctly questions
such as “If Jack were gentle and cooked dinner, would Jack be a boy or a girl?”

Gender: A society’s beliefs about the traits and behaviour of males and females.
Gender stereotypes: Cultural beliefs about differences between women and men.
Gender Roles: Expected behaviours of males and females in many situations.
Sex consistency is complete understanding of one’s sexual identity, centring around
a biologically based categorical distinction between males or females. Several
contrasting but not necessarily competing explanations have been offered. One of
these social learning theory emphasizes the role of learning – especially the impact
of modelling and operant conditioning. According to this theory, children are
rewarded for behaving in these accordance with gender stereotypes and gender
roles – for behaving as boys and girls are expected to behave. A second view of
gender development, cognitive development theory, suggests that children’s
increasing understanding of gender is just one reflection of their steady cognitive
growth. A third view is the theory that children develop a cognitive frame work
reflecting the belief of their society about the characteristics and roles of males and
females, this gender schema often strongly affects the processing of new social
information.(Gender schema theory)
2. Peer relations: School play and friendships
1. Spend most of their time in school
2. Acquire and practice social skills
 3. Learn to share, cooperate and work together
4. Most importantly learn to form and maintain relationships
5. Growing understanding of the fact that others may have thoughts
quite different from their own
6. Opportunities to experience intense emotional bonds with persons
other than the caregivers
7. Dealing with bullies ( Anxiety, depression, loneliness etc.)
MORAL DEVELOPMENT by Kohlberg (Read from Barron: Human Development I)
Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral development in
principle but wanted to develop his ideas further.
He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In
each case he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some
authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated.
One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived
somewhere in Europe.
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save
her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist and the Heinz tried desperately to buy
some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug and this was
much more than the Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained
to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the
rest of the money later.
The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money
from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the
chemist’s and stole the drug.

Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions Kohlberg hoped to
discover the ways in which moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The sample
comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10–16 years, 58 of whom were followed up at three-yearly
intervals for 20 years (Kohlberg, 1984).
Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas. What Kohlberg was
mainly interested in was not whether the boys judged the action right or wrong, but the
reasons given for the decision. He found that these reasons tended to change as the children
got older.
He identified three distinct levels of moral reasoning each with two sub stages. People can
only pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning
typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.

a. Preconventional level (Before 9yrs of age)

Stage 1: Punishment and obedience oriented- For example, an action is
perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished. Heinz
should not steal because he will be punished.
Stage 2: Naive Hedonistic orientation- An example would be when a child is
asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks "what's in it for me?" and
the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance. Though
stealing is wrong, Heinz should steal the drug only because it is for his wife.
b. Conventional Level (Early adolescence)
Stage 3: Good boy-good girl orientation- ‘What are other people doing?’
(Approval of others). Heinz should steal the drug because if not, his wife
will die and others will blame him for it.
Stage 4: Social order maintaining orientation- Abiding by the law. Stealing is
a criminal offence and Heinz will go to jail if he steals the drug.
c. Post Conventional Level (late adolescence- adulthood)
Stage 5: Legalistic orientation- Human rights are more important that social
laws. Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical principle orientation- (Very few people exist at this
stage of reasoning) We are victims of a capitalist society where the producer
dictates the rules of existence for the consumer. The act is not stealing, it is
a step towards breaking down the chains of capitalism.
ADOLESCENCE
Physical changes during Puberty (Read from Barron: Human Development
II)

SELF- IDENTITY FORMATION DURING ADOLESCENCE

Self-identity refers to the descriptive characteristics, qualities, and abilities that people use to
define themselves. According to Erik Erikson, a prominent developmental theorist of the
1950's, youth must resolve two life "crises" during adolescence. Erikson used the term
"crisis" to describe a series of internal conflicts (social in nature) that are linked to
developmental stages. According to Erikson's theory, the way a person resolves the crisis will
determine their personal identity and future development.
.
The first crisis typically occurs during early to middle adolescence (12 to 18 yrs), and is
called the crisis of identity versus role confusion. This crisis represents the struggle to find a
balance between developing a unique, individual identity while still being accepted and
"fitting in." Thus, youth must determine who they want to be, and how they want to be
perceived by others. Erikson believed that when youth successfully navigate this crisis they
emerge with a clear understanding of their individual identity and can easily share this "self"
with others; therefore, they are healthy and well-adjusted. As a result, they are confident
individuals who can freely associate with other people without losing their own identity.
However, when youth fail to navigate this crisis successfully, they are uncertain about who
they are. Lacking this understanding, they can become socially disconnected and cut-off from
others; or conversely, they can develop an exaggerated sense of their own importance and
may adopt extremist positions. According to Erikson's theory, when youth become stuck at
this stage, they will be unable to become emotionally mature adults.

The second crisis, occurring between late adolescence and early adulthood (18- 35 yrs), is
called the crisis of intimacy versus isolation. This crisis represents the struggle to resolve the
reciprocal nature of intimacy; i.e., to achieve a mutual balance between giving love and
support, and receiving love and support. Thus, youth must determine how to develop and to
maintain close friendships outside the family, as well as how to achieve reciprocity in
romantic relationships. Erikson believed that when youth successfully navigate this crisis
they emerge with the ability to form honest, reciprocal relationships with others and have the
capacity to bond with others to achieve common goals (e.g., marriage). When youth fail to
navigate this crisis successfully, they can become distant and self-contained; or conversely,
they can become needy, dependent, and vulnerable. If youth do not resolve this crisis, their
emotional development becomes stalled, and as a result, they will remain isolated and lonely
without social supports.

While Erikson's theory remains influential, it has been revised over time. Contemporary
theorists now believe that the process of determining one's identity is a natural process in
which youth "try on" or experiment with different identities, and experience the different
outcomes of their experiments, in order to determine who they are, and how they want to be
perceived by others. For instance, a girl may be curious about Gothic subculture decides she
might like to "go Goth." So she gets her lip pierced, dyes her hair black, and starts wearing a
lot of black and purple Victorian styled clothing with a seductive flair. She starts hanging
around with other Goths, and listening to Goth music. One outcome of this identity
experiment might be rejection by her former set of friends, and constant friction with her
parents over her "outlandish" clothing. Another outcome might be a sense belonging and
camaraderie that she shares with members of this sub-culture, or perhaps she enjoys all the
extra attention she now receives. These outcomes may offset the negative outcomes of her
experiment. She is experimenting with a different identity and experiencing the results of her
experiment. She will ultimately use this information to decide upon her identity.

Similarly, youth will experiment with different social skills and social strategies. Youth will
also observe their peers, and adults they admire, to develop and improve their social skills.
For instance, they may watch a popular teen at a party in order to learn better social skills.
They might notice that this well-liked peer is very funny and tells a good joke; or they may
notice how their vivacious aunt is always asking for other people's opinions, rather than
monopolizing a conversation by talking about herself. This learning process enables them to
create a strong, social web of family, friends, and even lifetime companions. During this
process youth will experience both successes and failures along the way as they experiment
with different approaches during their interactions with others. Ultimately, this social support
network enables youth to create emotional intimacy with a few select people, and to find
satisfaction within these relationships.

SEXUALITY AND GENDER DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE

Although often used interchangeably, the terms "gender" and "sex" do not refer to the same
thing. "Gender" refers a broad set of characteristic qualities that distinguish between
masculinity and femininity and includes personal attributes, social roles, social customs,
activities, and behaviors. Furthermore, the characteristic qualities associated with a particular
gender vary over time, and across cultures. For instance, at one time it was not considered
very feminine to play sports; however, in contemporary Western culture both men and
women play sports with equal zeal. Unlike "gender,", the term "sex" is a constant across time
and culture and refers to a biologic, chromosomal determination of being either male (XY) or
female (XX). In simplest terms, sex is biological while gender is sociological.

During early to mid-adolescence, youths' understanding of gender is quite rigid and

stereotyped. As a result, younger adolescents will typically participate in more gender-
stereotyped behaviours than do older adolescents. This means that girls will gravitate toward
more "girly" activities and present an ultra-feminine appearance, while guys will lean toward
more "guy" activities and present an über-masculine appearance. There are a number of
reasons for these gender-stereotyped behaviours.

First, teens' bodies have changed so much during puberty that their bodies now begin to
resemble adult bodies. Of course, youth like some of these physical changes, but dislike
others. As a result may want to enhance the physical changes they find desirable or
appealing, and downplay or conceal the changes they dislike. For instance, girls may begin to
use a great deal of cosmetics to conceal acne blemishes. Meanwhile, guys may be quite
pleased with their new facial hair and relish their new shaving ritual, but insist upon spraying
themselves with heavy colognes and deodorants to mask their new powerful body odor. Thus,
some gender-stereotyped behaviours result from these efforts to "play-up" or "play-down" the
physical changes to their bodies.

Second, because teens are becoming more interested in dating and forming romantic
relationships, they will perform stereotypic, gender-specific behaviours in an effort to be
attractive to the opposite sex. In general, guys tend to be attracted to young ladies who have
with certain feminine characteristics. Therefore, teen girls begin to spend a lot of time trying
to achieve a feminine appearance by fixing their hair, applying makeup to emphasize rosy
lips and cheeks and wearing scented lotions and sprays to make them smell nice. Guys may
lift weights at the gym to enlarge their muscles, learn to play a masculine sport like football
or skateboarding, and choose clothing they consider rugged and handsome. Therefore, some
increase in gender-stereotyped behaviour results from these efforts to attract the opposite sex.

Third, during early adolescence, friends and families will influence how teens express their
gender. Thus, stereotypical behaviors are passed down from one generation to the next. When
fathers, grandfathers, uncles, older brothers, and friends tell youth what it means "to be a
man," or describe what men are expected to do, this shapes youths' perception of masculinity,
and influences their behavior. For instance, a father may insist that his son help his mother by
carrying the groceries upstairs and he may notice his sisters are not required to perform this
task. This teen might conclude that it is masculine to carry or lift heavy items for women and
so he may volunteer to carry his girlfriend's backpack on their way home from school.
Similarly, mothers, grandmothers, aunts, older sisters, and friends will tell teen girls what is
"lady-like," which will shape girls' perceptions of femininity and influence their behavior. For
example, a mother may correct her daughter for laughing too loudly, stating that it is not
"lady-like" to guffaw. As a result, this young teen may learn to "giggle" in a stereotypically
feminine manner.

The increase in gender-stereotyped behaviors generally peaks during middle adolescence, and
then begins to subside. By late adolescence youths' gender identity typically becomes more
stable, but without rigidity. At this point youth feel confident and secure enough to enjoy
activities that interest them; regardless of whether or not these activities are traditionally
associated with their gender. For instance, a boy who has watched his grandmother
peacefully enjoying needlepoint may decide he'd like to try needlepoint as a hobby. While he
recognizes this is a stereotypical feminine activity, he also recognizes that his enjoyment and
participation in this activity does not diminish his masculinity.

Likewise, as young men and women become more secure and confident in their gender
identity they no longer feel they must always present a perfectly masculine or feminine
appearance. For example, young ladies may feel totally comfortable wearing jeans, tee-shirts,
sneakers, and ball caps, even though this outfit isn't particularly feminine. By late
adolescence youth have usually figured out their role in society, including their gender role,
and they have established a secure and comfortable individual identity that corresponds to
their values, beliefs, and interests.

This flexibility that youth begin to enjoy in late adolescence is indicative of a more mature
understanding of gender; one that recognizes gender is best understood along a continuum,
ranging from purely masculine to purely feminine, with most people falling somewhere in
between these two extreme poles. Usually when people examine themselves and others in a
more holistic manner to include personal preferences, physical type, interests, activities,
behaviors, style, and personality traits, they will find a mixture of masculine and feminine
characteristics that compose their identity. For example, many fathers can be described as
nurturing and gentle, even though these are stereotypically considered feminine
characteristics. As well, many women can be described as fiercely competitive and
aggressive, even though these are traditionally considered masculine characteristics. Thus, as
adolescents transition into adulthood, their understanding of gender becomes much less rigid
and more broadly defined. Nonetheless, the majority of youth will ultimately identify with
the gender that corresponds to their biological sex. However, some youth will identify with
both genders and these youth are called transgendered; meaning, they crossover both genders.

MAJOR CONCERS DURING ADOLESCENCE

DELINQUENCY

Delinquency or delinquents refer to a person who commits a misdemeanor. While juvenile

delinquency is considered to be the participation in illegal behavior by minors (adolescents).
A juvenile delinquent violates law, is habitually disobedient, uncontrolled by parents and
guardians, habitual absentees in school or colleges. He also endangers his morality and
health and also poses danger for others in the society. Delinquents are very impulsive and
indulge in acts at the spur of the moment. They are socially insensitive and lack conscience
and guilty feeling.(Below 18 years)

Multiple influences contribute to delinquent behavior in adolescence, including genetic and

biological factors, mental and personality attributes, and socioeconomic and cultural
environments. Research findings suggest that poor parental supervision and inconsistent
discipline contributes to defiant behaviors in childhood. Aggressive behavior early in life is
one of the strongest risk factors for antisocial behaviour in adolescence because early
aggression has the potential to turn into school failure, impairments in socio-emotional
development, peer rejection, delinquency, and adult crime (Moffitt, 1993).

The chances of having a criminal record are almost twice as high for abused and neglected
children compared to children who do not experience maltreatment (Widom, 1989). Although
maltreatment increases the likelihood of delinquency, the majority of abuse victims (70%) do
not have adult criminal records.

Adolescents who engage in deviant behaviors seek out friends who are engaging in similar
acts. Youth who gravitate toward delinquent peer groups are at the greatest risk for frequent
involvement in illegal activities. Delinquency escalates within group settings because youth
reinforce and model delinquent behaviors with other group members.

Causes of delinquency:
1) Constitutional or psychological factors: Defective constitution or glandular systems were
also thought to be the cause of delinquent behaviour. Udai Shanker observes that poor
health, short or too big stature or some deformity which give rise to feeling of inferiority,
dispose one to more aggression, as a compensatory reaction for his inadequacies.
Consequently, this leads to delinquent behaviour. (psychological)
2) Intelligence factor: While earlier writers like Lombroso and Goddard emphasize that the
most important cause of delinquency and crime is low grade mentality, sometimes it is
argued on the basis of the statistics that since the majority among the delinquents possess low
intelligence therefore causes delinquency. But this conclusion is not well founded.
Moreover, defective intelligence may lead to delinquency in one situation and may be a
barrier to it in another situation. Hence, low intelligence alone cannot be held responsible for
delinquent behaviour. (Cognitive).
3) Environmental and social factors: It has been proved that delinquent behaviour is a
learned reaction. Delinquents do not inherit delinquent characters from their parents or
ancestors but are made so by the uncongenial environment and social conditions. Udai
Shanker observes that delinquency is the product of social economic conditions and is
essentially a coefficient of the friction between the individual and the community. It is
therefore the uncongenial environment of the family, school, neighbourhood and society
which should be blamed for the delinquent behaviour of the child since he picks up
delinquent trait in such situations. Youth who contend with overcrowding, inadequate
housing, under-resourced schools, and dangerous neighborhoods are more likely to have
behavioral problems as well as social and emotional deficits compared to youth from more
favored homes and neighborhoods.
4) Substance abuse risk factors: First, juveniles are using more powerful drugs today than
was the case as recently as 10 years ago. Secondly, the age at which some juveniles begin
using drugs is younger. Children in elementary schools are found to be using powerful illegal
drugs. The use of these illegal substances or the use of legal substances illegally motivates
young people to commit crimes to obtain money for drugs. Additionally, juveniles are far
more likely to engage in destructive, harmful and illegal activities when using drugs.

PREVENTION
1. Since today’s delinquents are tomorrow’s criminals, maximum efforts should be made for
the prevention, control and treatment of the identified delinquents. Parents, society and the
government must join hands to introduce social, legal and economic reforms aimed at
elevating the conditions of the poor and providing adequate employment as well as
educational opportunities for the youth.
2. The task narrowing the gulf between the rich and the poor, linguistic groups and religious
sects should be given priority. Discrimination on the lines of economic or religious status can
infuse a sense of inferiority in the minds of young children pushing them towards deviant
ways.
3. The importance of moral values should be inculcated. There should be an end to the crisis
of character threatening the existence of the moral base and legal codes of our society.
4. The system of education and national planning need rethinking and re-modification for
minimizing economic difficulties of our youth and adults. Compulsory vocational training in
school and college will equip the youth with required skill to sustain themselves or create
employment for themselves
5. The problem of unemployment has to be checked and the professional dissatisfaction as
well as frustration affecting the vast population of the younger generation should be curbed.
6. Attempts should be made to minimize undesirable influence of literature, films and other
mass media. Children are unable to differentiate the lines between real and reel life and may
grow up with unrealistic expectations learnt from faulty role models.
8. The parents, elders, government authorities, social, religious, educational and political
leaders should be such that they become ideals of socially desirable behavior. Family and
society are the first agents of socialization and hence play an important role in teaching in
passing morals, values and principles to the youth.
9. The society should feel the necessity of providing social and legal justice to its citizens. In
case of environmental deprivations and hazards of life, the affected individual should be
helped, protected and rehabilitated. Thus, there is a need for modifying the environmental
conditions so that one does not fall victim to social and emotional maladjustment or lured by
the criminals and drifted by instinctive behaviour to commit crimes.

SUBSTANCE ABUSE

Substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern of substance use that results in repeated intake of
the substance for non medical purposes resulting in significant adverse effects and
maladaptive behaviours. This leads to failure to meet the obligations at work, in school or at
home. The repeated use of psychoactive substance in hazardous ways can also lead to
recurrent legal problems related to the substance. However, a substance abuser may continue
the use of the substance despite its negative effect on social relationships as these abusers are
addicted to the experience of altered senses.

People are most likely to begin abusing drugs or alchohol including tobacco, alcohol, and
illegal and prescription drugs—during adolescence and young adulthood. By the time they
are seniors, almost 70 percent of high school students will have tried alcohol, half will have
taken an illegal drug, nearly 40 percent will have smoked a cigarette, and more than 20
percent will have used a prescription drug for a nonmedical purpose.

Symptoms

Changes in physical appearance can be additional clues to possible drug or alchohol use and
may include:

● Bloodshot or glazed eyes.

● Dilated or constricted pupils.
● Abrupt weight changes.
● Bruises, infections, or other physical signs at the drug’s entrance site on the body.

Changes in behavior, such as the following, can indicate a problem with drug or alchohol
abuse:

● Increased aggression or irritability.

● Changes in attitude/personality.
● Lethargy.
● Depression.
● Sudden changes in a social network.
● Dramatic changes in habits and/or priorities.
● Financial problems.
● Involvement in criminal activity.
TREATMENT
1. Enhancing family bonding and relationships is a strong substance abuse preventive measure.
Improving parenting skills also helps keep adolescents drug-free. Parents need to develop,
discuss, and enforce family policies on substance abuse. They also need to become educated
about drugs and drug abuse and pass this information on to their kids. This can open
opportunities for family discussions about legal and illegal drugs.
2. The school should help children develop self-control, emotional awareness, communication
skills, and social problem-solving skills. They should also provide academic support. The
focus should be to help students develop good study habits, communication, peer relationships,
and drug resistance skills. Schools should continue to provide academic support as needed,
teach children to be self-sufficient and assertive in resisting drugs, reinforce anti-drug
attitudes, and help children strengthen their personal commitment against drugs.
3. Rehabilitation centres have several programs designed to help addicts keeping in mind their
stage of dependence or addiction. Communities should encourage the idea of rehabilitation
programs as a means of moving towards a healthy and meaningful life and work towards
removing the stigma around rehab.
4. Prevention programs must be an on-going effort, with repeated exposure and education to
reinforce the original prevention message. are most effective when they employ interactive
techniques, such as peer discussion groups and parent role-playing, that allow for active
involvement in learning about drug abuse and reinforcing skills.

EATING DISORDER
Eating Disorders describe illnesses that are characterized by irregular eating habits and severe
distress or concern about body weight or shape.
Eating disturbances may include inadequate or excessive food intake which can ultimately
damage an individual’s well-being. The most common forms of eating disorders include
Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge Eating Disorder and affect both females and
males.
Eating Disorders are of two types:
1. Anorexia Nervosa: Anorexia involves an intense and excessive fear of gaining weight. In
other words, people with this disorder relentlessly pursue the goal of being thin, no matter
what this does to their health. They often have distorted perceptions of their own bodies
believing that they are much heavier than they really are. As a result of such fears and
distorted perceptions, they starve themselves to the point where their weight drops to
dangerously low levels.
There is an intense fear of becoming fat and it is more common among females than males.
This has led researchers to propose that far more than males, adolescents and young women
feel tremendous pressure to live up to the images of beauty shown in the mass media, to be as
thin as the models who are held up as paragons of female desirability. If they are not this thin,
they reason, they will be viewed as unattractive.
 Anorexia can have damaging health effects, such as brain damage, multi-organ failure, bone
loss, heart difficulties, and infertility. The risk of death is highest in individuals with this
disease.
SYMPTOMS OF ANOREXIA NERVOSA
Emotional and behavioral

● Dramatic weight loss

● Dresses in layers to hide weight loss or stay warm
● Is preoccupied with weight, food, calories, fat grams, and dieting
● Refuses to eat certain foods, progressing to restrictions against whole categories of food (e.g.,
no carbohydrates, etc.)
● Makes frequent comments about feeling “fat” or overweight despite weight loss
● Complains of constipation, abdominal pain, cold intolerance, lethargy, and/or excess energy
● Denies feeling hungry
Physical

● Stomach cramps, other non-specific gastrointestinal complaints (constipation, acid reflux,

etc.)
● Difficulties concentrating
● Abnormal laboratory findings (anemia, low thyroid and hormone levels, low potassium, low
blood cell counts, slow heart rate)
● Dizziness
● Fainting/syncope
● Feeling cold all the time
● Sleep problems
2. Bulimia Nervosa: In this disorder, individuals engage in recurrent episodes of binge eating
– eating large amount of food within a short period of time, followed by some kind of
compensatory behaviour designed to prevent weight gain. This can involve self-induced
vomiting, the misuse of laxatives, fasting or exercising so excessive that it is potentially
harmful to the person’s health. The cause is once again in “thin is beautiful” - it seems to play
an important role. Bulimics do tend to perceive themselves as much heavier than they really
are.
SYMPTOMS OF BULIMIA NERVOSA

Emotional and behavioral

● In general, behaviors and attitudes indicate that weight loss, dieting, and control of food are
becoming primary concerns
● Evidence of binge eating, including disappearance of large amounts of food in short periods
of time or lots of empty wrappers and containers indicating consumption of large amounts of
food
● Evidence of purging behaviors, including frequent trips to the bathroom after meals, signs
and/or smells of vomiting, presence of wrappers or packages of laxatives or diuretics
● Appears uncomfortable eating around others
● Develops food rituals (e.g. eats only a particular food or food group [e.g. condiments],
excessive chewing, doesn’t allow foods to touch)
● Skips meals or takes small portions of food at regular meals
● Disappears after eating, often to the bathroom
Physical

● Noticeable fluctuations in weight, both up and down

● Body weight is typically within the normal weight range; may be overweight
● Stomach cramps, other non-specific gastrointestinal complaints (constipation, acid reflux,
etc.)
● Difficulties concentrating
● Abnormal laboratory findings (anemia, low thyroid and hormone levels, low potassium, low
blood cell counts, slow heart rate)
● Dizziness
● Fainting/syncope
● Feeling cold all the time
● Sleep problems
● Cuts and calluses across the top of finger joints (a result of inducing vomiting)