TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES

MANILA CAMPUS

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS
CE 202
CE21FA2

REPORT HANDOUTS:

Rock Mechanics

SUBMITTED BY:

DIWA, DAVID CHRISTOPER

HILARIO, AALIYAH D.
NABOR, ALETHEIA C.
RARO, CARLO T.
VIDALLON, MA. HAZEL R.

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. LORENZO R. ADRIANO

DATE SUBMITTED:
September 3, 2019
TOPICS:
I. PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
II. DYNAMIC PROPERTY OF ROCK
III. TYPES OF WAVE THEORY
IV. FACTORS INLFUENCING WAVE VELOCITY
V. STATICS AND DUNAMICS MODULI OF ELASTICITY
VI. GROUTING

DISCUSION:
I. PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTY OF ROCKS
POROSITY
 It refers to the amount of empty space within a given material
 In soil or rock, the porosity (empty spaces) exists between the grounds of minerals

CRITICAL ASPECTS THAT AFFECTS THE PORE SPACES

 Movement of water, air and other fluid
 Transport and other reaction of chemicals
 Residence of roots and other biota

POROSITY IN NATURAL SOILS

 Packing density
 Idealized soils of packed uniform spheres with a diameter between 0.26 to 0.48
 The breadth of the particle size distribution
 Polydisperse – particles with variety of sizes
 Monodisperse – particles with uniform sizes
 The shape of particles
 Particles more irregular in shape used to have larger gaps between their non-touching
surfaces, thus performing of media of greater porosity.
 Cementing
 Welding of particles does not only create pores that are different from those of particulate
media but also reduces the porosity as solid material takes up space that would otherwise
be pore space.

TWO COMPONENTS OF POROSITY

 TEXTURAL POROSITY
- It is the value that the porosity would have if the arrangement of the particles were
random

IMPORTANCE OF TEXTURAL POROSITY

Soil texture plays crucial role for:
 1. Nutrient Supplies – fine texture soils are highly in nutrient status but sandy soils are low
in fertility.
2. Aeration – coarse textured soils are better created than clayey soils.
3. Root Development – percentage of root particle affects root development
4. Moisture Content – coarse textured soils are easily drained, fine textured soils are
poorly drained and hold much water on the large surface area.

 STRUCTURAL POROSITY
- Represents non-random structural influences
- Difference between the textural porosity and the total porosity

TWO KINDS OF STRUCTURAL POROSITY

1. BLOCK STRUCTURE – can be angular block or subangular; irregular block that
are usually 1.5 to 5.0 cm in diameter
2. GRANULAR STRUCTURE – resembles cookie crumbs and is usually less than 0.5
cm in diameter; commonly found in surface horizons where roots have been growing

PERMEABILITY
 It refers to how connected pore spaces are to one another.
 It refers to the degree to which pore spaces in a medium connect to each other, promoting the
movement of fluid through the material.

GOOD PERMEABILITY – the pores are connected

POOR PERMEABILITY – cement blocks the pores, so the pores are not connected.
DENSITY
 Defined as the mass per volume.

FUNCTIONS OF DENSITY
 Individual Grains
 Porosity
 Fluid filling pores

TYPES OF DENSITY IN ROCKS

 Dry Density - measured on rocks without any water or fluid in their pores.
 Wet Density - measured on rocks without any water or fluid in their pores.
 Grain Density - Describes the density of solid or mineral grain of the rock.

STRENGTH

• Is the capacity of an object or substance to withstand great force or pressure.

 • The ability of a certain material to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic
deformation.

• The change in the rock volume or form due to applied stress is called strain.

3 STAGES OF STRAIN DEFORMATION

1. Elastic deformation

-The rock deforms as stress is applied and returns to its original shape as stress is relived.

2.Plastic deformation

-When applies stress in a rock reach the elastic limit, the rock begins to exhibit plastic
deformation.

-In plastic deformation, rock partially returns to its original shape as stress is relieved.

3.Ultimate Failure Stress

-If continues stress is applied, fractures developed and rock will fail.

a. Brittle manner

-Rock fails under low confining stress

b. Ductile manner

-Rock fails under high confining stress

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

• The maximum compressive stress that, under a gradually applied load, a given solid material can
sustain without fracture.

• Compressive strength is measured on materials, components and structures.

• Uniaxial compressive strength is the maximum axial compressive stress that a right-cylindrical
sample of material can withstand before failing. It is also known as unconfined compressive
strength of a material because confining stress is set to zero.

TENSILE STRENGTH

• it is the ability of a material to support a maximum load without fracture when being stretched or
pulled before breaking.

• rarely measured directly or used in analysis or design.

Three types of tensile strength

1.Yield strength

-The stress that a material can withstand without permanent deformation.

 2.Ultimate strength

-The maximum stress that a material can withstand

3.Breaking strength

-The stress coordinate on the stress-strain curve at the point of rupture.

Two manners of Tensile Failure

1.Ductile Failure

-Yield as the first stage of failure, some hardening on the second stage and breakage after a
possible neck formation.

2.Brittle Failure

-Sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low stress.

SHEAR STRENGTH

• Materials ability to resist forces that can cause the internal structure of the material to slide
against itself.

• Shear Testing

-Performed to determine the shear strength of a material.

-It measures the maximum shear stress that may be sustained before a material will rupture.

HARDNESS

• Resistance of a material to deformation, indentation, or penetration by means such as abrasion,

drilling, impact, and scratching.

• The degree of hardness is relative and different substances are being compared with one another.

• Mohs' scale of hardness is the most commonly used way or knowing the hardness or a mineral or
rock.

ELASTICITY

• Refers to the property of reversibility of deformation when subjected to a load.

• Stress – The ratio of applied forced to a cross section area.

a. Tensile stress- stress that tend to stretch or lengthen the material.

b. Compressive Stress- stress that tends to compress or shorten the material.
c. Shear Stress- stress that tend to shear materials.
 Strain- the deformation of a solid due to stress
 -The greater the stress, the greater the strain

1.Tensile Strain

2.Bulk or Volume strain

3. Shear strain

-Elastic Modulus-proportionality constant between stress and strain.

1. Young's modulus

2. Bulk modulus

3. Shear modulus

PLASTICITY

-The quality of being easily shaped or molded.

-Ability of certain solids to flow or to change shape permanently when subjected to stresses of
intermediate magnitude between those producing temporary deformation, or elastic behavior, and those
causing failure of the material, or rupture (see yield point). Plasticity enables a solid under the action of
external forces to undergo permanent deformation without rupture. Elasticity, in comparison, enables a
solid to return to its original shape after the load is removed.

TYPES OF WAVES
Seismology

Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the
earth. A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves.

Body Waves
Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the surface waves emitted
by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves.

Surface Waves

Surface waves, in contrast to body waves can only move along the surface. They arrive after the main P
and S waves and are confined to the outer layers of the Earth. They cause the most surface destruction.
Earthquake surface waves are divided into two different categories: Love and Rayleigh.

P-Waves (Compression Waves)

The P in P-waves stands for primary, because these are the fastest seismic waves and are the first
to be detected once an earthquake has occurred. P-waves travel through the earth’s interior many times
faster than the speed of a jet airplane, taking only a few minutes to travel across the earth.
P-waves are predominantly compressional waves. As a P-wave passes, material compresses in
the same direction the wave is moving, and then extends back to its original thickness once the wave has
passed. 4-8 km/sec
 P-waves travel through liquids and gases as well as through solids. Although liquids and gases
have zero rigidity, they have compressibility, which enables them to transmit P-waves. Sound waves are
P-waves moving through the air.

Because the earth’s mantle becomes more rigid and compressible as the depth below the
asthenosphere increases, P-waves travel faster as they go deeper in the mantle. The density of the mantle
also increases with depth below the asthenosphere. The higher density reduces the speed of seismic
waves. However, the effects of increased rigidity and compressibility in the deep mantle are much
greater than the effect of the increased density.
S-Waves
The S in S-waves stands for secondary, because they are the second-fastest seismic waves and
the second type to be detected once an earthquake has occurred. Although S-waves are slower than P-
waves, they still travel fast, over half the speed of P-waves, moving at thousands of kilometers per hour
through the earth’s crust and mantle. 2.5-4 km/sec
S-waves are shear waves (though that is not what the S stands for). They move by material
flexing or deforming sideways (shearing) from the direction of wave travel, and then returning to the
original shape once the wave passes.
S-waves can travel only through solids, because only solids have rigidity. S-waves cannot travel
through liquids or gases.

Rayleigh Wave
The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh,
who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885. A Rayleigh wave rolls along
the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and
down, and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an
earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves

Love Wave (Q-Wave)

The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after Augustus Edward Hough love, a
British mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911. It's the
fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Confined to the surface of the crust, Love
waves produce entirely horizontal motion. Usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh Wave
Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves but deep earthquakes generally do
not generate surface waves.
FACTORS INFLUENCING WAVE SPEED

Seismic wave
Seismic waves are propagating vibrations that carry energy from the source of the shaking outward in all
directions.
Seismic wave speed
Seismic waves travel fast, on the order of kilometers per second (km/s). The precise speed that a seismic
wave travels depends on several factors, most important is the composition of the rock.
FACTORS AFFECTS WAVE SPEED:
 Temperature tends to lower the speed of seismic waves
  pressure tends to increase the speed of seismic waves.
Pressure increases with depth in Earth because the weight of the rocks above gets larger with
increasing depth. Usually, the effect of pressure is the larger and in regions of uniform composition, the
velocity generally increases with depth, despite the fact that the increase of temperature with depth works
to lower the wave velocity.
COMPRESSIONAL OR P-WAVES
 P wave is a sound wave travelling through rock. In a P wave, the rock particles are alternately
squished together and pull apart (compressions and dilatations).
 P-waves are the first waves to arrive on a complete record of ground shaking because they travel
the fastest.
 The velocity of a wave depends on the elastic properties and density of a material. If we let k
represent the bulk modulus of a material, m the shear-modulus, and r the density, then the P-wave
velocity, which we represent by a, is defined by:

A modulus is a measure of how easy or difficulty it is to deforms a material. For example, the bulk modulus
is a measure of how a material changes volume when pressure is applied and is a characteristic of a
material. For example, foam rubber has a lower bulk modulus than steel.

Shear or S Wave
 S waves, travel slower than P waves and are also called "shear" waves because they don't change
the volume of the material through which they propagate, they shear it.
 S-waves are transverse waves because they vibrate the ground in a the direction "transverse", or
perpendicular, to the direction that the wave is traveling.
 In S wave, the rock particles slide past one another, undergoing shear.
 The S-wave speed depends on the shear modulus and the density

RELATIONSHIP OF DENSITY AND ELASTICITY

• As the elasticity of the material increases the speed increases.
• As the density increase, the speed increases.
• Speed increases as the materials becomes more organized because the magnitude of the elasticity
increase faster than density.
• It is observed from seismic surveys that velocities generally increase with depth.
• Densities also increase with depth so it must be that the bulk and shear moduli increase faster than
the density.

STATIC AND DYNAMIC MODULI OF ELASTICITY

The Modulus of Elasticity
  Provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded, an elastic deformation (strain) is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the applied force per unit area (stress) stress).
 Ratio of force exerted upon a substance or body to the resultant deformation.

STRESS AND STRAIN

Stress
 Stress refers to the cause of a deformation
 Stress is the ratio of an applied force F to the area A over which it acts:

Strain
 Strain refers to the effect of the deformation.
 Strain is the relative change in the dimensions or shape of a body as the result of an applied stress:

 The downward force F causes the displacement x.

 Thus, the stress is the force; the strain is the elongation.

1. YOUNG MODULUS
 Young's modulus (E or Y) is a measure of a solid's stiffness or resistance to elastic deformation
under load.
 Young’s modulus is the elastic modulus we use for deformation which takes place when a force
which is parallel to the axis of the object is applied to one face while the opposite face is held fixed
by another equal force.

When a rod or wire of length L and cross section A is under tension produced by a force F it will
experience a change in length ΔL.
 The tensile stress is defined as the magnitude of the force per unit cross-sectional area (F/A).
 The tensile strain is defined as the fractional change in length (ΔL/L).
Young’s modulus Y is defined as the ratio of the stress to the strain.
  The bigger Young’s modulus is the stiffer is the material since for the same fractional change in
length (strain) you will need a bigger force (stress).
When a material reached a certain stress, the material will begin to deform. It is up to point where the
materials structure is stretching and not deforming. However, if you are to stress the material more than
this, the molecules or atoms inside will begin to deform and permanently change the material.
A good analogy to this would be a rubber band: when you stretch a rubber band you are not deforming
it, but stretching it. However, if you pull it too hard the rubber band will begin to deteriorate, or deform.
Usually when this happens, it is not too much longer until it breaks.
2. Shear modulus
 A shearing stress alters only the shape of the body, leaving the volume unchanged.
 The shear modulus is the elastic modulus we use for the deformation which takes place when a
force is applied parallel to one face of the object while the opposite face is held fixed by another
equal force.

Calculating Shear Modulus

 Stress is force per unit area

 Strain is the angle expressed in radians

 Shear strain is Δx/l = tan θ or sometimes = θ, where θ is the angle formed by
the deformation produced by the applied force.

When an object like a block of height L and cross section A experiences a force F parallel to one face, the
sheared face will move a distance Δx.
 The shear stress is defined as the magnitude of the force per unit cross-sectional area of the face
being sheared (F/A).
 The shear strain is defined as Δx/L.
The shear modulus S is defined as the ratio of the stress to the strain.

 The bigger the shear modulus the more rigid is the material since for the same change in horizontal
distance (strain) you will need a bigger force (stress). This is why the shear modulus is sometimes
called the modulus of rigidity.
 To a first approximation there is no change in volume in this deformation. The planes of atoms
merely slide sideways over one another. That is why the area A (which determines the number of
atomic bonds) is important in defining the stress and not just F.
This valuable property tells us ahead of time how stiff a material is to shearing deformation. If a material
is very stiff to attempted shearing, then it will transmit the shear energy very quickly. The shear modulus
is the ratio the shear stress needed to deform a material by a given angle (measured as the tangent of the
deformation angle).

3. Bulk modulus
 The bulk elastic properties of a material determine how much it will compress under a given
amount of external pressure. The ratio of the change in pressure to the fractional volume
compression is called the bulk modulus of the material.

Note: Bulk modulus is negative because of decrease in V

since F/A is generally pressure P, we may write:

The bulk modulus of a solid influences the speed of sound and other mechanical waves in the material. It
also is a factor in the amount of energy stored in solid material in the Earth's crust. This buildup of elastic
energy can be released violently in an earthquake, so knowing bulk moduli for the Earth's crust materials
is an important part of the study of earthquakes. The bulk modulus is a factor in the speed of seismic waves
from earthquakes.

GROUTING
 Grouting in civil engineering refers to the injection of pumpable materials into a soil or rock
formation to change its physical characteristics.
 Grout increase the strength and decrease compressibility and permeability.
 soil or rock is injected with fluid grout which sets and reduces or acts as a sealant on the material’s
permeability.
 Grout may also be used in the formation of pile foundations, ground anchors, undreaming,
underpinning, in road construction, dam construction, and so on.

Grout Materials
 Suspension – cement + water/clay
 Emulsion – asphalt or bitumen of water
 Solution – chemical

Grout injection Methods

• Grout injection techniques were developed to simply fill a void in the soil.
• Typically, grouting is carried out is by driving pipes or boring holes into the ground, and then
pumping the grout solution at high pressure through inserted tubes.

Types of Grout Injection System

1. Permeation Grouting
2. Compaction Grouting
3. Fracture Grouting
 4. Jet Grouting

Permeation Grouting
 Permeation grouting involves drilling any cracks, joints or void in rock, concrete, soil and other
porous materials.
 This is typically done to strengthen the existing formation, creating an impermeable water barrier
or both.
Compaction Grouting
 Compaction Grouting involves injection of low mobility grout via drill casings that are
drilled/driven to pre-set depths. The grout, usually comprised of cement, sand, dry ash and water,
is placed from the bottom-up with pressure-based criteria.
Fracture Grouting
 Fracture grouting is the injection of the cement slurry grout, hydrofracturing soil, creating lenses.
The lenses compact surrounding soil and then lift the overlying soil and structures.
 Fracture grouting uses a low viscosity grout that splits through the ground by hydraulic fracturing
and penetrates into the fractures.
Jet Grouting
 Jet grouting uses a high-pressure ‘jet’ of either grout, water, air or a combination to erode soil
whilst simultaneously injecting grout into the soil through a ‘jet monitor’. The specially designed
drill stem and monitor are raised and rotated at the same time to combine the grout with the original
soil to form ‘soilcrete’.