Plant and Equipment

Design

DR. LEONARDO C. MEDINA, JR.

Plant Design & Economics for Chemical
Engineers 5th edition Peters &
Timmerhaus
Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook

7th Edition 8th Edition

Section 9 Section 9
Process Economics Process Economics

Section 28 Section 25
Materials of Materials of
Construction Construction
Plant Design

 Plant design
 includes all engineering aspects involved in the
development of a new, modified, or expanded commercial
process in a chemical or biochemical plant.
 Process engineering
 used in connection with economic evaluation and general
economic analyses of commercial processes
 Process design
 actual design of the equipment and facilities necessary for
providing the desired products and services
Plant Design
 General Overall Design Considerations

1. PROCESS DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

 Inception of basic idea (salesman, customer report
 New or modified product
 Pilot plant can be constructed

The engineer should have the ability to eliminate

unprofitable ventures before the design project
approaches a final proposal stage.
Plant Design
 General Overall Design Considerations

1. PROCESS DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

COMMERCIAL
PILOT PLANT
DEVELOPMENT PLANT

 small-scale replica of the  usually constructed from

full-scale final plant odd pieces of equipment that
are already available and is
not meant to duplicate the
exact setup to be used in the
full-scale plant
Plant Design
 General Overall Design Considerations

2. FLOWSHEET DEVELOPMENT
 Chemical engineer creates one or more solutions
 Different feeds and intermediates
 Performs mass and energy balances
Plant Design
 General Overall Design Considerations
3. COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
 Allows rapid calculations, large storage
 Allow examination of effect that various design
variables will have on the process or plant design
more rapidly than manual calculation
 Use of simulation programs
 Can regress experimental data obtained in the
laboratory or pilot plant for empirical or theoretical
curve fitting
 Use of spreadsheet programs
Plant Design
 General Overall Design Considerations

4. COST ESTIMATION
 As final process design is completed it becomes
possible to make accurate cost estimations
 Pre-design cost estimation
 Provide basis for company management to decide to
infuse further capital
Plant Design
 General Overall Design Considerations

5. PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS OF INVESTMENTS

 When a company invests money it expects to
receive a return
 Rate of return (minimum acceptable)
 Time value of money
Plant Design
 General Overall Design Considerations

6. OPTIMUM DESIGN
 Cost Minimization
 Profit Maximization
 Capacity Maximization
Plant Design
 General Overall Design Considerations

6. OPTIMUM DESIGN
 Several alternative methods can be used for any
given process or operation
 Formaldehyde
 Catalytic dehydrogenation of methanol
 Controlled oxidation of natural gas
 Direct reaction between CO and H2 under special
conditions of catalyst, T and P
Plant Design
 General Overall Design Considerations

6. OPTIMUM DESIGN

If there are two methods for obtaining exactly

equivalent final results, the preferred method is the
one involving the LEAST TOTAL COST.

Optimum Economic Design

Plant Design
 General Overall Design Considerations

7. OPTIMUM OPERATION DESIGN

 Optimum conditions for specific conditions of
temperature, pressure, contact time, or other
variable

Assumptions are made only when they are necessary

and reasonably correct and will not adversely affect
the overall design and its economic conclusions.
 Optimization Applications:

Unit Operation, Variable Symbol

Process/Equipment
Flow of Fluids Economic Pipe Diameter Di

Flow of Heat Optimum Insulation Thickness XI

Evaporation Optimum Number of Effects N

Drying Temperature Difference ΔT

Distillation Optimum Reflux Ratio R = L/D

Condenser Cooling Water Flow Rate w

Filtration Filter Capacity= volume filtrate delivered per V/Өf

filtering time

Leaching Optimum Solvent to Feed Ratio S/F

 Unit Operation, Variable Symbol
Process/Equipment
Solvent Extraction Optimum Solvent to Feed Ratio S/F

Adsorption Optimum Adsorbent to Solution Ratio L/V

Scale Formation in Evaporation Optimum Cycle Time = Operating or Boiling Өt = Ө b + Ө c

Time + Emptying, Cleaning & Recharging
Time

Reactor Reactant Conversion XA

Pressure Vessel Optimum Diameter D

Humidification Mass velocity of vapor Gy

Gas Absorption Mass Velocity of Liquid Gx

Ion Exchange Mass Velocity of Liquid or mass velocity of Gx or Gy

vapor
 Scope of a Plant Design
Project
Market Study
Technical Analysis
Economic Analysis
Site Selection
Plant Layout
Environmental Impact Assessment
Safety
Process Control
Cost Estimation
 Engineering Economics
A practicing engineer’s decision are
heavily influenced by the economics
of the project.
-beneficial to man: safe and
environmentally benign.
-Though environmentally friendly,
a project will not be pursued if it
is not economically attractive.
 Cost Estimation
A Chemical Engineer must be able to
estimate the following in designing a plant:
Capital costs (Total Capital Investment)
Equipment costs
Manufacturing costs
General expenses
Taxes
Total Capital Investment
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) 80-85%
 manufacturing capital investment
 equipment, installation, instrumentation, piping, insulation, site
preparation etc. directly related to process operation
 non-manufacturing capital investment
• land, offices, warehouses, utility generation, waste disposal etc.
 all except land are depreciable
•Working Capital Investment (WC) 15-20%
 raw materials and supplies, finished and semi-finished
products, accounts receivable, cash for
expenses/accounts payable, taxes payable, non-
depreciable
 Estimating Purchased
Equipment Cost

cost indexing of past purchase orders

scaling on basis of capacity
cost/capacity ratio
6-10th’s rule
firm vendor quotes
 Cost Indexing of Past
Purchases
 Cost Index –a value for a given point of time
showing the cost at that time relative to a certain
base time (usually in the past)

index value at present time

Cn C0
index value at time of original purchase
 Cn=cost of equipment to be estimated (new cost)
 Co=known cost of existing equipment (old cost)
 Cost Indexes
 Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI)
 published monthly in Chemical Engineering
 base value= 100 in 1957-59
 Value=395.4 in May 2001.
 Marshall and Swift Equipment Cost Index (MS)
 published monthly in Chemical Engineering
 base value= 100 in 1926
 Value=1092.0 in 2Q 2001.
 CEPCI and MS are most widely accepted in chemical
process industries..
 Other cost indices
 Nelson-Farrar Refinery Construction Cost Index
 Engineering News –Record Construction Index
Index Values (CEPCI)
 Marshall and Swift
Equipment Cost Index
Capacity Scaling (6-10th’s rule)
 Good approximations are often obtained using an exponent
of 0.6
0. 6
Pn See Table 19/187 PT for x values
Cn C0 See Table 9-48/9-67/Perry
P0

 Cn=cost of equipment to be estimated (new cost)

 Co=known cost of existing equipment (old cost)
 Pn=capacity of new piece of equipment
 Po=capacity of existing piece of equipment
 Actual exponents vary from 0.2 to >1,
 Do not use beyond a 10-fold range of capacity
 Use only for similar types of equipment
Estimation of Capital Investment

Estimating Equipment Installation Costs:

percentage of purchased equipment cost varies from 20-90%
•Firm contractor quotes
 Costs of Instrumentation,
Controls and Insulation

•Instrumentation and Control

– major component of chemical processing plant
– estimated as fraction of purchased equipment cost
(preliminary) or from P&ID’s and instrument index
(detailed and definitive)
•Insulation
– major component for very high or very low
temperature service
– estimate from fraction of purchased equipment cost
(preliminary) or material take-offs (detailed and
definitive)
 Buildings and Yard
Improvements

• control rooms, maintenance shops, warehouses, etc.

– includes plumbing, heating, lighting,
ventilations

• fencing, grading, roads, sidewalks, railroad sidings,

and landscaping

• estimate as a percentage of purchased equipment

cost
 Service Facilities and Land
• utilities
–steam, water, power, compressed air and fuel
• waste disposal, fire protection, shop, first aid,
cafeteria
• estimate as a percentage of purchased equipment
cost
• necessary at a new plant site
• at existing plant site, new facilities may not be
needed, but project may have to pay for future
expansions.
• Land
–purchase may be needed for grass-roots plant
–not depreciable
 Engineering and Services
percentage of fixed capital investment
 Construction Expense and
Contractor’s Fee
 percentage of fixed capital investment
Total Capital Investment
Total Capital Investment
 Total Product Cost

Cost necessary to produce and sell the

product

•Total Product Cost consists of:

•Manufacturing Costs
–Directly related to the manufacturing
process
•General Expenses
–not directly related to manufacturing, but
necessary for running the business
 Direct Product Cost

• raw materials
• operating labor
• direct supervisory and clerical labor
• utilities
• maintenance and repairs
• operating supplies
• lab charges
• patents and royalties
• catalysts and solvents
 Fixed Charges

• depreciation

• local taxes

• insurance

• rent
 Plant Overhead Cost
•hospital and medical
•general engineering
•safety services
•cafeteria and recreation facilities
•payroll and overhead
•janitorial services
•warehouses
•shipping and receiving
Materials of Fabrication Selection
 Corrosion – chemical or electrochemical attack
 choose combination of metals that are close as possible in
the galvanic series
 corrosion rate → affected by pH
 aluminum and zinc dissolves rapidly in either acidic and
basic solutions
 oxidizing agents
 powerful accelerator of corrosion
 cathodic protection
 widely used in the protection of underground pipes and
tanks from external soil corrosion and in water systems.
Materials of Fabrication Selection

 Ferrous Metals and Alloys

 steel
 carbon steel is commonly used
 low cost
 ease of fabrication
 limited corrosion resistance
 stainless steel
 martensitic
 ferritic
 austenitic
Process Equipment Design
Factors considered in the selection of materials of
construction for process vessels

1. CHEMICAL FACTOR
 Resistance to corrosion
 Table in Peters et al., corrosion resistance
 Table of Materials of Construction in Chemical
Engineers Handbook
 Reagent → Vessel material
Process Equipment Design
Factors considered in the selection of materials of
construction for process vessels

2. PHYSICAL FACTOR
 Ability to resist expansion
 Material properties: elasticity, machinability,
porosity, hardness, softness, conductivity of heat
and elasticity, etc.
Process Equipment Design
Factors considered in the selection of materials of
construction for process vessels

3. ECONOMIC FACTOR
 Cost of Material of Construction
 Fabrication cost
Process Equipment Design
Pressure Vessels

1. RIVETED (seldom given in BE, not used in industries)

Longitudinal joint (tangential stress)

circumferential joint (longitudinal stress)

Process Equipment Design
Pressure Vessels

2. WELDED (commonly used in industries)

Design Equation
Material Selection
Material Selection
Material Selection
 Pressure Vessels
 Type
 Riveted or bolted
 Welded
 Standards
 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
 British Code or British Standards (BS)
 (West) German Code (A. D. Merkblätter)
 Variable
 Working or Operating
 Design
 Design Considerations
 Pressure
 Internal
 External
 Temperature
 Material of Construction
 Design Stress
 Welded Joint Efficiency
 Corrosion Allowance
 Design Loads
 Major
 Subsidiary
 Minimum Practical Wall Thickness
 Welded Joint Efficiency
 Single-welded butt joint with bonding strips
 0.90 for fully radiographed
 0.80 for spot examined (radiographed)
 0.65 if not radiographed
 Double-welded butt joints
 1.00 for fully radiographed
 0.85 for spot examined (radiographed)
 0.70 if not radiographed
 Welded Joint Efficiency
 In general, for spot examined (in the absence of
available precise data)
 0.85 for electric resistance weld
 0.80 for lap welded
 0.60 for single-butt welded
 1.0 for seamless shells and heads
 Design Equations

• Shells
– Cylindrical
– Spherical
• Heads/Closures/Ends
– Flat
• Plates
• Formed ends
– Domed
• Types
– Pierced
– Unpierced
 Design Equations
– Domed
• Hemispherical
• Ellipsoidal
• Torispherical (or dished ends)
• Conical
 Design Equations (Internal
Pressure)
• Cylindrical Shells
P ri where t 0.5ri
t Cc or P 0.385SEJ
SEJ 0.6 P

1
2 where t 0.5ri
SEJ P
t ri ri Cc or P 0.385SEJ
SEJ P
 Design Equations (Internal
Pressure)

• Spherical Shell
P ri
t Cc where t 0.356ri
2SEJ 0.2 P or P 0.665SEJ

1
3 where t 0.356ri
2SEJ 2 P
t ri ri Cc or P 0.665SEJ
2SEJ P
 Design Equation (Internal
Pressure)

• Hemispherical Head (formula of

spherical shell can be used)
• Ellipsoidal Head (for 2:1 ratio)

PDa
t Cc
2SEJ 0.2 P
 Design Equation (Internal
Pressure)
• Torispherical Head

0.885 PLa
t Cc
SEJ 0.1P
where Knuckle radius 6% Crown radius
3t
 Design Equations (Internal
Pressure)

• Conical Head (for any point on a

cone)

PDc 1
t Cc
2 SEJ P cos
 Design Equation (Internal
Pressure)
• Conical Head (at cone-cylinder
junction)
C s PDc
t Cc
2 SEJ P

20o 30o 45o 60o

Cs 1.00 1.35 2.05 3.20
Rules of Thumb (Heuristics)
• Design Pressure

• Design Temperature

• Corrosion Allowance
 Design Pressure
• Allowance is either 10% of max operating P or
70–175 kPa which ever is greater. Design P =
max operating P + Allowance
• When no data is available for max operating P,
Design P = normal operating P + 175 kPa
• For vessels operating at 0.32–1 atm and 316–
538oC, Design P = 377 kPa
• For vacuum operation, design P is 200 kPa
outside and full vacuum inside
 Design Temperature

• For operating temperature between –30 to

350oC, Design T = Operating T + 30oC
• Below –30oC, special steel required
• Above 350oC, allowable design stress falls
sharply
 Piping System
• Pipe
– Nominal Diameter
– Schedule Number
P
Schedule Number 1000
S

 Tubing
– Outside diameter
– Wall Thickness/Gauge
 Pipe and Tubing
• Pipe • Tubing
– Heavy walled – Thin walled
– In moderate length – In coils of several
of 20-40 feet hundred feet
– Slightly rough – Very smooth wall
– Can be screwed, – Connected by
welded or flanged compression,
– Made by welding, flaring or soldering
casting or piercing – Made by extrusion
– Relatively large or cold-drawned
Friction Factor Calculation

• Conduit Configuration
• Friction Factor
• Temperature Correction
 Conduit Configuration
• Diameter for circular conduits
• Equivalent Diameter for non-circular conduits
(Turbulent flow only)

cross - sectional area

Deq 4
wetted perimeter
Isothermal Friction Factor
• Skin
– Equations
– Moody Diagram or Friction Factor Chart
• Form
– Resistance Coefficient (K)
– Equivalent Length
 Pipe Friction Equation
• Fanning Equation • Darcy-Weisbach
Equation

2
2 f Fanning v Le f Darcy v 2 Le
F F
gc D 2 gc D

 Friction Factor Relationship

f Darcy 4 f Fanning
Moody Diagram (Newtonian)
 Affinity Laws
[Constant Impeller Speed]
• Flow
Q1 D1
Q2 D2

• Head
2
H1 D1
H2 D2

• Power
3
BHP1 D1
BHP2 D2
PUMP CURVES
 Gas Motive Devices
• Fans
– Low pressure service of up to 0.5 psi
– Volume service of up to 130,000 ft3/min
– Gas compressibility usually assumed
negligible
• Blowers
– Pressure service of up to 1.5 psi
– Volume service of up to 200,000 ft3/min
• Compressors
– For large volume and higher pressure
service
Process Equipment
Design
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 17
Four inch (4.0 inch) schedule 40 steel pipes are to be
used to transport high pressure steam. The pipe joints are
to be butt-welded. The safe working fiber stress for butt
welded pipes is 457.1 kg/cm2. The maximum steam
pressure, in kg/cm2, the pipes can handle is

a. 50.8 kg/cm2
b. 18.28 kg/cm2
c. 25 kg/cm2
d. 55 kg/cm2
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 18
A spherical carbon storage tank for ammonia has an
inside diameter of 30 ft. All joints are butt welded with
backing strip. If the tank is to be used at a working
pressure of 50 psig and a temperature of 80 ̊ F, estimate
the necessary wall thickness. Assume no corrosion
allowance is necessary. Efficiency is 80% and allowable
tensile strength is 13,700 psi.
a. 1/2 in
b. 1/4 in
c. 7/16 in
d. 5/16 in
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 19
A reactor will operate at 300 psi and 600 ̊ F. Height =
12 ft; crown radius = 66 in; diameter = 6 ft; double
welded butt joint, efficiency = 80%. Allowable tensile
strength of material is 12,000 psi. The thickness of the
shell is

a. 1 and 3/16 in
b. 1 and 1/16 in
c. 2 in
d. 1 and ¼ in
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 20
A reactor will operate at 300 psi and 600 ̊ F. Height =
12 ft; crown radius = 66 in; diameter = 6 ft; double
welded butt joint, efficiency = 80%. Allowable tensile
strength of material is 12,000 psi. The thickness of the
head is

a. 5/2 in
b. 1/2 in
c. 3/4 in
a. 3/2 in
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 22
A water tank 30 ft. in diameter has a thick steel plate
available at 3/8 in thick. Assume the allowable stress of
steel is 15,000 psi and a joint efficiency of 80%.
Provide a corrosion allowance of 1/16 inch. The
maximum height of the water tank is

a. 84.3 ft
b. 43.6 ft
c. 68.05 ft
a. 48.03 ft
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 15
A chemical engineer was commissioned to design a vertical
cylindrical tank with a flat bottom and a conical roof. The tank
must be able to hold a maximum of 4,500 m3 of water for
firefighting purposes. Ease of climbing the tank and bearing
capacity allows a maximum height of 16.5 m from the bottom of
the tank up to the rim of the tank cylinder. Normal working
practice dictates that the maximum working capacity of the tank is
90% of the total tank volume. The tank roof has a 10% incline.
Suitable steel plates available for constructing the tank come in
size 4’x8’ sheets. The number of steel plates needed is…
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 15

The number of steel plates needed is…

a. 540
b. 575
c. 610
a. 525
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 23
A cylindrical water tank with a hemispherical dome has
the dimensions shown below: The tank is full.

10 ft

20 ft

20 ft
The total force, in lbf, exerted by the water on the base of the
tank is most nearly
a. 500,000
b. 520,000
c. 550,000
d. 590,000
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 21
A horizontal cylindrical tank is used for the storage of motor
gasoline in the bulk plant of an oil company in Pandacan. The tank
has an inside diameter of 3 m and an inside length 10 m. The
suction line of the tank is located 30 cm from the tank bottom to
avoid sucking out the sludge. To prevent overfilling, the maximum
height of liquid in the tank is not made to exceed 90% of the
vertical height of the tank. The working capacity of the tank in
kiloliters is
a. 36.23
b. 63.32
c. 45.23
a. 68.32
Unit Operation
Economics
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 13
A smelting furnace operating at 2,400˚F is to be insulated on the
outside to reduce heat losses and save on energy. The furnace wall
consists of a ½ inch steel plate and 4-inch thick refractory inner
lining. During operation without outer insulation, the outer surface
of the steel plate exposed to air has a temperature of 300 ˚F.
Ambient air temperature is at 90˚F. Operation is 300 days per
year. Thermal conductivities in BTU/hr-ft-˚F are: steel plate = 26;
refractory = 1; insulation to be installed=0.025. The combined
radiation and convection loss to air irrespective of material
exposed is 3 BTU/hr-ft2.˚F, annual fixed charge is 20% of the
initial installation cost. If heat energy is P5.00 per 10,000 BTU and
installed cost of insulation is P100/in-ft2 of area, the optimum
thickness of the outer insulation that should be is…
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 11
A multiple effect evaporator produces 10,000 kg of salt from a
20% brine solution per day. One kg of steam evaporates 0.7 N
kg water in N effects at a cost of P25/1000 kg of steam. The cost
of the first effect is P450,000 and the additional effects at
P300,000 each. The life of the evaporator is 10 years with no
salvage value. The annual average cost of repair and
maintenance is 10% and taxes and insurance is 5%. Assume 300
operating days per year. The optimum number of effects for
minimum annual cost is
a. 3 effects
b. 5 effects
c. 4 effects
d. 2 effects
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 12
A process requires 20,000 lb/hr of saturated steam at 115 psig.
This is purchased from a neighboring plant at P18.00 per short ton
and the total energy content rate (mechanical) in the steam may
be valued at P7.5x10-6 per BTU. Hours of operation per year are
7200. The friction loss in the line is given by the following equation:

187.5 Lq1.8 mc0.20 in ft-lbf/lbm

F 0.20 4.8
d Di
in P/yr
1. 5
Cf 1.44 Di L
where L = length of straight pipe, ft.
q = steam flow rate, cu.ft. per sec.
mc= steam viscosity, cp
d = steam density, lb per ft3
Di= inside diameter of pipe, in.

The optimum pipe diameter that should be used

for transporting the above steam is
a. 6 in
b. 4 in
c. 3 in
d. 5 in
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 15
One hundred gram moles of R are to be produced hourly from a
feed consisting of a saturated solution of A (CAO = 0.1 gmol/L).
The reaction A → R with rate ra = (0.2/hr)CA. Cost of reactant at
CAO = 0.1 gmol/L is P3.75/gmol A; cost of backmix reactor,
installed complete with auxiliary equipment., instrumentation,
overhead, labor depreciation, etc is P0.075/hr-L. The %
conversion of A that should be used for optimum operation is

a. 45%
b. 60%
c. 50%
d. 40%