The State 6.

Recogniion of basic rules of internaional conduct

o Principle of Sovereignty
 States haven’t always been around – look at South Sudan & Kosovo
 Cannot claim sovereignty without recognising it in others
 Most of human history, people didn’t live in anything resembling modern-day states
 Why some theorists claim internaional society rather than system due to
 State in its present form grew out of medieval Europe
mutual social norms
o Principle of non-interference in domesic afairs of other states
 Although, general principles of what states can & cannot do to their own
Medieval Europe:
populaion (e.g. genocide will lead to interference)
 Overlapping spheres of authority o Range of Diplomaic rules & paterns of conduct

AN
 Landlords, warlords, knights, barons, kings, emperor, priest, bishops, pope  e.g. diplomaic immunity
 Compeing & Overlapping principles of authority o Respect for internaional agreements
 Secular v. Worldly o Respect for rules of war
 Pope crowns king or king crowns pope?

KH
 Ongoing compeiion due to lack of church-state divisions
 Unclear & constantly shiting lines of territorial demarcaion Why did medieval Europe evolve?
 Both within kingdoms – regional boundaries etc…
 And between kingdoms – conquest, marriage, assimilaion etc...  Technological & Warfare Developments
 Verical (hierarchical) relaionship between diferent poliical units  Economic Progress
 Role of ideas

D
 No naional languages
 Educated & Church spoke Lain o Separaion of church & State etc…
 Developments in Cartography

EE
 Huge dialecical diferences in language

Origins of Modern State:

AM
 Greek City States (e.g. Athens, Sparta) & City States of Renaissance Italy
 Closer to modern state than medieval Europe
 Clear boundaries of demarcaion
 Rudimentary principles governing interacion

H
 Diplomacy, Trade, War, Treatment of each other’s ciizens.
 Most importantly, relaions between states were horizontal rather than
verical

I
 Modern Europe emerged out of collapse of Holy Roman Empire
AL
 Somewhat disputed
 Very Gradual Process
 Didn’t really come to an end unil collapse of post WW1 European empires
(or collapse of Soviet Union?)
BY

Essenial Features of Modern State:

1. Demarcated Territory
2. Demarcated Populaion
3. Government: rules populaion at the inside & ariculates state interest towards the outside
4. Sovereignty – A legal concept implying mutual recogniion by other states
o Not the same as ‘empirical independence’
 A region may be highly autonomous but sill not a sovereign state
5. Noion of formal equality between states

EDITED BY ALI HAMEED KHAN

Evoluion of Intl. System  Break up Hapsburg empire & create a Europe of naion-states
 Idea: if “naion” and state are congruent, territorial conlicts will cease
 By 1900 Europe largely states
 Woodrow Wilson: break up Eastern Europe & Balkans into ethnically deined
 But sill dominated by 3 major empires
states
o Russian, Hapsburg & Otoman
 Create League of Naions – based on noion of “collecive security”
o Closer to medieval empires than modern states
 End secret diplomacy & alliance formaion
o Fragmented, somewhat feudal  Soon became clear that these ambiions were not being realised
 German punishments far too strict:
 Prevented post-war economic recovery
Europe in 1900:

AN
 Fuelled resentment among German people
 ¼ of world’s populaion  Damaging German economy had negaive efect on European economy as a
 Economically dominant whole
 Had colonized large parts of the globe  Deining states in Balkans too diicult:
 No clearly demarcated naion states due to widespread minoriies

KH
 Balances of power between main powers oten secured relaive degree of peacefulness
(Concert of Europe)  Led to boundary disputes & issues with minority rights
 Rivalries between European powers were mostly pursued externally in the form of disputes  League of Naions dysfuncional:
over colonial possessions  US didn’t join
 No end to secret diplomacy

D
Growing sources of instability in Europe:
2nd World War:

EE
 German uniicaion & the “German Quesion”:
 Germany became the largest country in Europe (apart from Russia) and thus upset  Some view both wars as one large conlict with break in between
the tradiional balance of power  Coninuaion of conlict due to failures in inishing in 1918
 Embarked on a quest for overseas territories which brought it into conlict with other  Caused by rise of fascism in Europe

AM
European states, esp. Britain & France  Italy: Rise of Mussolini
 Started to industrialise rapidly which fuelled economic rivalries  Facilitated by a divided and unsuccessful State
 “Eastern Quesion”  Japan:
 Otoman Empire was slowly disintegraing fuelled by internal weakness & the rise of  Rapid modernisaion led to Japan being a world power, but latent racism

H
naionalism among its subject populaions in Eastern Europe prevented Japan from being taken seriously on a world stage
 This led to several local wars, drawing in Czarist Russia & the Hapsburgs ighing on  Germany:
opposite sides  Post-War resentment & economic disasters fuelled rise of Nazis

I
 1914 – 1st World War  Weimar Republic was too dysfuncional to survive
AL  By 1930’s fascists were making moves:
 Britain, France, Russia (& later US) vs. Germany & Hapsburgs
 1St major industrial conlict  Asia: Japan coninues rapid modernizaion & began colonising China
 1st major conlict to be documented on ilm  No real League of Naions acion
 Over 8 million died  Italy: Mussolini invades Abyssinia
 Again, no LoN response
BY

 Systemaic use of chemical warfare

 Germany lose war  Germany: Began breaking Treaty terms
 Marked beginning of US involvement in global poliics  Rearmament, expansionism etc…

Treaty of Versailles Nazi Germany driven by:

 Had four main ambiions:  Widespread “Lebensraum” ideology
 Punish Germany & prevent its military resurgence  Greatness of a country measurable by land occupied
 Done through extracing war reparaions, French occupaion of Ruhr, limits  Noions of racial superiority
on rearmament, stripping of colonial possessions  Resentment of Treaty of Versailles

EDITED BY ALI HAMEED KHAN

  Economic Crisis  East-West European divide also
 Lack of democraic tradiion in Germany  West beneited from Marshall aid + democraised
 Legacy of Prussian militarism?  East was prevented from democraisaion by Soviets
 Personality of Adolf Hitler?  NATO & Warsaw Pact founded
 Quesion over how inluenial one man could have been – would the war have  NATO primary aim one of containment – stop spread of communism
happened anyway?  Warsaw similar – keep communism alive
 Iniial Appeasement by other European powers  No longer acively pursuing global revoluion
 Many proxy conlicts:
 Wars:

AN
Ater WW2:  Korea (1950-53)
 Vietnam (196?-197?)
 Emergence of superpowers – Europe now dominated instead of dominant  Near-Wars:
 ………………….  Berlin Crises (1946 & 1961)
 Cuba (1962)

KH
 “Backyard” Preservaion Conlicts
Causes of Decolonisaion:  Soviets invade Hungary (1956)
 Weakening of European colonial powers (esp. UK & France) in WW2  Soviets invade Czechoslovakia (1968)
 Growth of naionalist movements in colonised areas  Soviets invade Afghanistan (1979)
 US invade Grenada (1983)

D
 Global noions of racial equality and naional self-determinaion
 Very fast process – over period of 20-25yrs  US overthrow of Allende in Chile (1973)
 US support for CONTRA in Nicaragua (1980’s)

EE
 By mid-1960’s most of previously colonised world independent
 Results of decolonisaion varied – Briish tended to leave some form of funcioning  Sustained nuclear proliferaion on both sides
government – Hispanics totally dysfuncional  Interspersed by sustained periods of détente
 By 1970’s world now a world of states  Helsinki Accords
 Paradoxically Europe remained relaively peaceful during this ime

AM
 But sill issues:
 Lines of demarcaion oten set down by colonial powers & oten represented
no signiicant poliical or ethnic grouping
 Oten led to ethnic conlicts within poorly demarcated states
 Oten let poor infrastructures – when colonisers let, no doctors etc… in
 Both sides more or less respected territorial status-quo
 More interested in marinaing exising spheres of inluence rather than
expansionism
 Many States tried to stay out of Cold War

H
place to replace them – illiteracy, poverty etc…  China, Yugoslavia, Albania all split from Soviets and went own way
 Major issue was that States went from colonies to fully sovereign too quickly &  Who caused cold war?
couldn’t really adapt  Historians argue

I
 Both sides acted unethically & immorally
AL
 Ater Stalin, series of less brutal but less efecive leaders in USSR
 Poor domesic performances - missed out on many major technological advances of 60’s &
Cold War:
70’s
 Stalin had been ally of West in WW2  Invasion of Afghanistan showed extend of Soviet commitment to coninue spreading ideas –
BY

 Alliance always one of convenience rather than ideological marriage huge cost in inances & manpower
 Yalta, Potsdam & Tehran agreements:  Gorbachev:
 European borders would be largely redrawn to Versailles arrangements with minor  Much younger than usual
adjustments  More public with private life than usual
 Agreed on spheres of inluence  Extremely popular abroad
 But both commited to restoring naional independence & democracy within spheres  Encouraged ‘Glasnost’ – openness
of inluence  Introducion of limited press freedoms etc…
 Contradictory – democraic but within zone?  Increased electoral choice: 2 candidates run
 Soon became clear Soviets intended on using Eastern Europe as a series of satellite States  Perestroika – introducion of limited capitalist market in Soviet Union
 East-West relaions deteriorated  Formally ended class warfare mentality – policy of peaceful co-existence with other
 Symbolised in construcion of Berlin Wall poliical systems

EDITED BY ALI HAMEED KHAN

  Renounced Brezhnev doctrine – interference in puppet states turning capitalist Post-Cold War World:
 Glasnost
 End of bipolarity produced more complex conlicts and divisions (e.g. Bosnia, Kosovo,
 Idea was that criicism would be construcive, lead to reform & improvement of
Rwanda, Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria)
system
 Boundary between internaional war and civil war is oten blurred
 Most criicisms were directed at Gorbachev himself
 For ime being, capitalism appears to have “won” the contest between economic and social
models, despite various economic crises and inancial collapses over past 2 decades
 US sill the dominant economic, military & cultural power, but muliple centres of power are
 Perestroika
arising (China, India, Brazil, Indonesia)
 Didn’t go far enough
 Central & Eastern Europe made smooth transiion to liberal democracy. Russia’s 7 China’s

AN
 Ended up doing more harm than good
future is less certain as is that of many Arab countries
 Basically resulted in diferent arms of the State buying & selling from each other
 No agreement on what “logic” deines the contemporary internaional system. Some
 Ending of Brezhnev doctrine:
anicipate a steady growth in religious & civilizaional conlict. Others expect a gradual
 Some disarmament
paciicaion and “growing together”

KH
 Retreat from expensive military operaions – Afghanistan et al.
 States increasingly cooperate in inter- and supranaional bodies (EU, WTO, NAFTA). But this
 But, without threat of Soviet invasion, more countries renounce communism
does not seem to threaten the survival of the state system as the dominant internaional
 Late 1980’s:
ordering principle
 Almost all Eastern European Communist regimes had been overthrown
 State-disintegraion is happening esp. in the Middle East. But that too does not seem to
 1989 Berlin wall falls
threaten “stateness” as a social ordering principle

D
 Someimes gradual & peaceful: Poland, Hungary
 UN is no longer paralyzed by Cold War rivalries.
 Someimes rapid but peaceful: Czechoslovakia
 However…….
 Someimes violent: Romania

EE
 Religiously inspired non-state violence and “asymmetrical warfare” has
 1990 Germany reuniies
dominated the agenda since 9/11. But is it more than a historical blip?
 1993 Czechoslovakia split
 Yugoslavian split v. violent
Gorbachev Response:

AM

 Soviet economy coninues to struggle
 Growing unrest in Balic states & western Asia
 Tries to prevent by delegaing more power to puppet states
 Doesn’t work

H
 Failed Military Coup

I
Gorbachev success or Failure:
AL
 On one hand, caused collapse of one of largest empires world has seen in incredibly short
period of ime
 On other, in doing so, “liberated” hundreds of millions of people from oppressive Soviet
mentality
BY

 Quesion over whether G really knew what he was doing?

 Acive or Reacive
 Claimed his ‘game-plan’ was to make socialism atracive
 Failed
 Redeeming factor that, when he realised SU was failing, didn’t use military force to curtail
independence movements

EDITED BY ALI HAMEED KHAN

Power Diplomacy:
Characterisics of Power:
 Many diferent methods of internaional interacion
 Power is dynamic: Capabiliies of states will luctuate of ime  Tradiionally diplomacy the most important method
 Has objecive & subjecive aspects.  Diplomacy has many meanings
 Someimes percepion of capabiliies (and of willingness to use them) is more  ‘The sum of all inter-state interacions at a given ime’
important than actual capabiliies  ‘The foreign policy of a paricular state’ – US diplomacy in the middle-east
 Power is relaive (“powerful in relaion to whom?”)  Formal Diplomacy: Both a legal & highly reined social pracise
 Power is situaional: certain types of power are more useful in certain contexts  Highly ritualised & enshrined in internaional law (diplomaic immunity, formal
 E.g. Canada regularly wins in trade disputes with USA declaraions of war etc…)

AN
 Power is mulidimensional  Organised by specialised staf operaing in ‘Diplomaic Core’
 Tradiional aim to uphold communicaion between governments
 Occasional subordinate funcion of informaion gathering
Dimensions of Power:  Promote trade, investment, tourism etc…

KH
 Consular services & services for expats
 Military Capabiliies  Governed by internaional treaies e.g. Vienna convenion
 Geography (e.g. size, locaion, type of boundaries etc…)  Tradiionally bilateral – foreign embassies
 Populaion (size, cohesion, morale, support for government, educaion level, age proile  More recently mulilateral with UN etc…
etc…)  Tradiionally between diplomats but more recently done on increasingly minister-to-

D
 Economic Factors (e.g. technology, producivity, self-suiciency, natural resources, minister basis as communicaions have improved
communicaions & transport infrastructure)  EU has formalised mulilateral bureaucracy to a certain extent

EE
 Nature of Government & poliical elites  But diplomacy sill holds powerful legal status
 Social, cultural & ideological atraciveness & inluence  Very few countries, even rogue states, will violate embassy extraterritoriality
 Diferent kinds of capabiliies are oten converible or “fungible” – notable excepion being US embassy in Iran
 Argument over whether power is a means/insurance policy or the end-goal  Foreign diplomats cannot be arrested without express consent of home

AM
naion
 Even states poorly socialised in internaional law & convenion tend to respect
3 Major ‘Constellaions’: enshrinement in internaional law
 Mulipolar – When a number of states (>2) enjoy roughly equal capabiliies

H
 Can be messy – who are your allies?
 Bipolar – 2 states (Cold War U.S & USSR)
 Perhaps more stable than mulipolarity – you know where you stand

I
 Unipolar – 1 State
AL
 Has never happened, would require 1 state to become more powerful than all others
combined
 Power tends to get balanced. How a state counterbalances depends on its own capabiliies in
relaion to those of the states it seeks to counterbalance
BY

 Small states tend to act diferent to large states

 Will generally either:
 Declare Neutrality, try to assure both sides of this
 Join one side, trade freedom for security

EDITED BY ALI HAMEED KHAN

Naionalism & IR Naionalism & The State:

What is a Naion?  Separaism:

o One Naion group (usually a minority) within a state wants to secede in order to
 A group of people which (1) shares certain “objecive” criteria and (2) which subjecively
form a state of its own
believes that it forms a bounded community which is disinct from other communiies
o 2 schools of thought on prevening this:
o Quesion over whether (1) sill relevant, esp. when naionalism plays a role  1.Appeasement through giving in to some demands.
 2.Belief that by giving in to demands you are only encouraging them to ask
for more
Naional self-determinaion:  Irredenism:

AN
o One naional group within a state wants to secede in order to join a neighbouring
 The principle that every naion should have a state of its own state which already exists
o And/or:
o A state claims a group and territory located in a neighbouring state, mostly based on

KH
How do Naions Emerge? claims of ethnic or cultural ainity
 “State ‘makes’ Naion”  “Naionalist civil war”
o French government’s atempts to homogenise language 19 th C o Conlict (mostly) between diferent populaion groups inside a state, either over
o Irish governments atempt to revitalise Irish Language, culture etc… separaist or irredenist demands by one group or over the distribuion of poliical
power inside the state

D
o Italian government’s atempts to solidify uniicaion
 “Naion ‘makes’ State” o Someimes demands are to do with more regional autonomy – e.g. Quebec
o Self-Determinaion  “Internaionalised civil war”

EE
 “State ‘makes’ Naion and Naion ‘makes’ State” o A civil war that draws in one or more (oten) neighbouring states
o The two are linked?  Syria

AM
Relaionship between State & Naion: 4 Possibiliies

1. Naion-State:

A state containing one large, dominant & relaively homogenous naional group (e.g.

H
o
Japan, Ireland, Germany)

 Non-Naion-State:

I
o
AL
A state containing several disinct naional groups (e.g. Switzerland, Afghanistan,
Canada, India)

 Non-State Naion

A Naion without a state of its own (e.g. Kurds, Palesinians)

BY

 Muliple Naions / Muliple States:

 Naion spread over several states which for their part contain several naions
(e.g. almost all Central & Eastern Europe)
 One dominant group, but numerous minoriies within the states
 Irredenism frequent

EDITED BY ALI HAMEED KHAN

War Convenional Warfare:

 Fairly universal experience – most naions have used ‘collecive group violence’ at some  The overt use of armed force by one or more countries against another country or countries
point in their history – possible excepion of aborigines  Marks the “end of the diplomaic road” and the perceived exhausion of atempts at non-
 Nature of war has changed dramaically violent coercion 9economic sancions, embargos, poliical pressure etc…)
o For most of history, war was a specialised afair fought by warrior caste  Has broadly deined & stated poliical objecives
o Later a much larger afair with mass conscripion etc…  Is believed to be winnable by both paries at the outset
 Direct link between Naionalism & Warfare  Generally includes tacics to avoid unchecked escalaion through:
 Invenion of nuclear war has raised stakes – potenial to end humanity o Limited goals
 Recently – looks to have gone full circle o Restricted Geographical scope

AN
o Mass conscripion no longer common o Limits on the use of some weapons
o Weapons require more specialisaion o Atempts to keep channels of communicaion open
o Far more precise – less civilian casualies than during World Wars o Atempts to court potenial mediators
o Provisions for the other side to back out without having to accept total &

KH
uncondiional surrender
Unconvenional Warfare:  Rare in recent imes
o But sill recurrent
Arms transfer:

 Export of weapons by one country to another

D
 Purpose: WMD Warfare:
o Increase foreign inluence

EE
 Use of nuclear, chemical & biological weapons
o Make money
 During cold war, huge nuclear stockpile built up
o Support domesic arms industries
 Nuclear only ever used once in open warfare
 Many surprising naions heavily involved
 Chemical/biological rarely used
o e.g. Sweden exports vast number of arms to Saudi Arabia

AM
“Special Operaions”:
“Virtues” of Nuclear Weapons:
 Overt or covert use of military and related personnel to intervene in foreign conlicts, either
inter-state or domesic  Can stabilise the situaion & deter aggression

H
o Allows governments to intervene in foreign conlicts without being drawn into ill- o E.g. Europe during Cold War, India & Pakistan?
scale war  Provide “cheap” protecion for weaker states
 Can hide unfavourable acions from scruinising public in democraic o North Korea, Iran, Pakistan

I
countries – US are sill heavily in Colombia  Fact that consequences of using them are so awful makes their use less likely
AL
o Facilitates gradual escalaion as well as de-escalaion and withdrawal
o Can be done clandesinely or at least discreetly
Drawbacks of Nuclear Weapons:
Terrorism:
BY

 Nuclear war is hard to limit: if it breaks out it could destroy the earth
 Overridingly negaive term – BBC won’t use it in atempt to remain neutral
 Nuclear war would make the military/civilian disincion meaningless
 Deiniion: (1) a form of poliical violence that (2) is carried out by individuals,
o Corbyn’s argument
nongovernmental organisaions, or relaively small groups of covert government agents; that
o If purpose of weapons is as deterrent, using them when atacked is fuile & will only
(3) speciically targets civilians; and that (4) uses clandesine atack methods”
cause millions more deaths on the other side
 Diferent forms of terrorism:
o Danger of accidental or unplanned usage (technological failure, “mad leader”, thet
o State-Sponsored (e.g. Libya under Gaddai)
by terrorist groups etc…)
o Transnaional (e.g. Al-Queda)
o Create power gap between nuclear & non-nuclear states – destabilising
o Purely Domesic (e.g. Red Brigades in Italy)

EDITED BY ALI HAMEED KHAN

Two Nuclear Doctrines: The United Naions

1. MAD – Mutually Assured Destrucion:  Founded ater WW2 & the collapse of League of Naions
 Built on a tension between promoing and respecing state sovereignty (“order”) and
 “Deterrence through punishment” & “Security through vulnerability”
promoing certain universal human values (“jusice”)
o If you look vulnerable they won’t think you are planning your own strike
 Main Aim: retain second-strike capability, but otherwise prepare no defence against
nuclear atack
Main Tasks:
 Advantages:
o Makes nuclear war less likely since the aggressor faces destrucion  Promote internaional peace through principle of collecive security

AN
o Limits nuclear build-up since both sides can destroy each other even with  Diplomaic intervenions, mediaion & adjudicaion of disputes
relaively few nuclear weapons  Internaional sancions (e.g. Libya, Iraq, South Africa)
 Problems:  Peacekeeping (57 operaions so far)
o Leaves you dependant on raionality & survival insinct of the other side  Authorising armed force against violators of internaional law

KH
 What happens when opposiion leader is backed into a corner?
o Provides no security against accidental use of nuclear weapons
 No defence network in place
o Commits yourself to commiing mass-murder (at a ime when it would be
enirely fuile because deterrents have already failed)
 Economic Development (UN development programme, World Bank etc…)
 Human Rights (Based on UDHR & various protocols)
 Aid refugees & carry out disaster relief (UN High Commissioner for Refugees)
 Develop & Maintain internaional law (ICJ)

D
 Kissinger: Nuclear deterrents require raional leaders, but they also need to be a bit mad
– raional enough to understand it, mad enough to give appearance that they would ire Main UN Bodies:

EE
missiles if needed
 General Assembly (193 members) “one member, one vote”
2. NUT – Nuclear Uilisaion Theory o Can pass resoluions but not legally binding legislaion
 Security Council (5 permanent members 10 non-permanent members elected every 2 years)
 “Deterrence through damage denial”
o Europe overly represented

AM
 Aim: destroy enemy weapons before they explode on one’s territory through
o Can authorise use of force against countries violaing internaional law
o (1) irst-strike nuclear weapons (to destroy enemy missiles) and (2) space-based
o Notable use was in case of evicing Saddam Hussein from Kuwait
missile defence (“Star Wars”)
o Libyan bombings most recently
 Advantages:
o P5 have veto power
 Leaves you less dependent on raionality of opponent

H
o Calls for reform unlikely to succeed as would require consent of SC members
 Provides some protecion against accidental or terrorist launch of nuclear weapons
 Secretariat headed by UN Sec. Gen.
 Problems:
 Associated Agencies: WHO, World Bank, Food & Agriculture organisaion, UNESCO
o Ani-missile defence is never completely reliable – some missiles will get through

I
 Internaional Court of Jusice (ICJ)
AL
 If you can intercept 90% of missiles, opponent will just build more
o Usually mariime boundaries, ishing rights, when states are in dispute over alleged
o Makes other side feel more vulnerable & thereby fuels proliferaion further
violaion of diplomaic norms
o Raises quesion: are you building these defences to prevent a irst strike or a
retaliaion strike?
o Very expensive
BY

Efeciveness of the UN:

 Required Reagan administraion to scrap Ani-Ballisic Missile treaies & damaged uility
of MAD  More efecive since end of Cold War, both in terms of decisions taken & aciviies on the
ground (e.g. peacekeeping)
 But, efeciveness is impeded by:
 World currently leaning back towards MAD – see India & Pakistan o Lack of own enforcement agencies
o Perceived lack of legiimacy of UNSC
o Dependence on the self-interest of powerful member states
o Coninued need to balance “sovereignty and order” concerns on one hand with an
ethical “jusice” agenda on the other

EDITED BY ALI HAMEED KHAN

Internaional Law Efeciveness of Internaional Law:

Diferent to domesic law – set of rudimentary rules & principles but few if any disinct & set  Relaively high rates of compliance (Cause or Efect?)
processes – Very litle enforcement – In primiive stage  More efecive in spheres of internaional behaviour (e.g. trade) as opposed to domesic
issues – human rights

Areas of Internaional Law:

Factors Beneiing Growth of Internaional Law:
 Internaional interacion (e.g. peace, war, environmental protecion, boundaries)

AN
 Domesic Afairs (human rights, ethnic minoriies, democracy)  Increased Interacion (both internaional & transnaional)
 Growing ethnical sensiiviies (internaional “civilising” process
 Spread of democracy
Making of Internaional Law:

KH
 Internaional Treaies (governed by principle of pacta sunt servanda)
Examples of Internaional Organisaions:
 Custom
 Judicial precedent & scholarly interpretaion  Non-Governmental (NGO’s):
 Internaional Assemblies (UN General Assembly Resoluions) o Greenpeace, Amnesty, Doctors Without Borders etc…

D
 Governmental (IGO’S)
o General Global – UN

EE
Adherence to Internaional Law: o Specialised Global – World Trade Organisaion
o General Regional – EU
 Voluntary Compliance (for a variety of possible reasons)
o Specialised Regional – Arab Monetary Fund
 Coercion (mainly through self-help by states, but increasingly sancioned by UN)
A self-help system – up to states to bring forward their own cases

AM

o More powerful states more likely to have their rights respected than smaller, weaker
Funcions of IGO’s:
ones
 Arena for discussion & deliberaion
 Forum for cooperaion

H
Adjudicators of Internaional Law:  Neutral informaion providers & enforcers of agreements
o No coercive capacity without policing force but sill can be inluenial on reputaional
 States
basis

I
 UNSC
 Promote internaional laws & norms
 Internaional Courts: (ICJ, ICC, Regional Supernaional Courts – ECJ)
AL
 Someimes they expand beyond their remit:
o ICC: Predecessors:
o Jacques Delors in EU, Koi Annan in UN
 Nuremberg Trials
 Some mainly intergovernmental organisaions have supernaional elements
 Yugoslavia War Crimes
o E.g. the EU
 Lockerbie
BY

Why do IGO’s Grow?

Subjects of Internaional Law:
 Increased internaional interacion
 States
o Air travel, internet, satellites
 Individuals accused of serious Human Rights abuses
 Increased global interdependence (Cause or Efect?)
 Growth of problems & aciviies with cross-border ramiicaions
o E.g. polluion
 Quest for enhanced security
 Eforts by weak states to gain strength & inluence

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 o E.g. Ireland only 1% EU populaion but relaively larger inluence
 Their perceived success

Trade & Economic Development

EU:
 World is Unequal
 Rapidly growing in terms of members o Inequality prevails across society – healthcare, economics, child labour etc…
 Most recent = Croaia  Developed countries v. developing countries
 Free movement of people, goods, services, capital o Vast majority of world’s populaion in developing
 Characterised by compromise between inter-governmentalism & supernaionalism  Middle-Income countries

AN
 Can bring cases against members if rules are broken o Brazil, Mexico, Turkey, Parts of Middle-East
o Ireland currently faces possible legal batle over environmental violaions o Some extreme wealth, majority in poverty
 Some votes require majority, others require unanimity  Countries can move between levels
 So far has remained fairly stable despite numerous crises o Singapore was once not more than swamp, now one of world’s richest

KH
o Greece, Refugees, Brexit etc… o Ireland – not quite 3rd world in early 20th century, now one of richest
 EU irst real challenge to modern sovereign naion-state system o Argenina receded from huge prosperity in 1800’s – now middle-income
o Generally quite stable – relaively unlikely a country will move up or down rapidly
 End of WW2:
o Beginning of decolonisaion – atempts to develop

D
o Some new countries – largely underdeveloped – no formal educaion system – Gave
rise to development aid on bilateral basis

EE
 Atermath of WW2: Several internaional insituions established
o Internaional Labour Insituion
 Three Global insituions formed in 1940’s:

AM
World Trade Organisaion (WTO):

 Based on General Agreement on Tarifs & Trade

Basic Aim: reduce barriers to the worldwide exchange of goods & services & to global

H

compeiion
 Rules on trade disputes between states & imposes sancions on ofending countries
Most players in global economy either are currently or are planning to become members

I

AL  Overarching Organisaion for world capitalism – can lead to controversy – disagreements
over beneits of Free Trade etc…

Internaional Monetary Fund (IMF):

BY

 Aim: help countries overcome short-term balance of payments & exchange rate diiculies
through loans
 Loans are subject to condiionality – reforms etc…
 Voing in IMF is according to shareholder model
o The more you put in, the larger your say

World Bank:

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  Aim: Promote economic growth in developing countries through various kinds of longer-term o Donor countries then dictate terms to recipient countries
loans, both to governments & to the private sector
 More long-term than IMF

 Has 4 Agencies:
o Internaional Bank for reconstrucion & development
 Looks at creditworthiness etc… of prospecive projects
 Can someimes invest in projects commercial banks would never look at
o Internaional Development Associaion:

AN
 Interest-Free loans to poorest countries for spending in basic services
o Internaional Finance Corporaion
 Loans to private developments in poorer countries & to private investors
 Atract foreign investors through covering their risk in potenially risky areas
o Mulilateral Investment Guarantee Agency

KH
 Risk guarantees on larger scale than above

Arguments for GEI’s (Global Economic Insituions):

D
 They help integrate countries into the global capitalist system & thereby promote
development

EE
o E.g. Singapore, S. Korea, Taiwan, Chile, Ireland
 Foster good domesic governance & accountability
o Oten would cut government spending in crucial areas
o Now more speciically tailored approach

AM
 Insituionalised trade rules beneit weaker states
o “Right instead of Might”
 Social & Environmental issues were oten neglected in the past, but recently they have
moved up on the agenda of GEI’s

H
o Increasingly working at more grassroots level – individual villages etc…
o In potenially corrupt naions aid may come with signiicant condiionality
 Issue of respecing naional sovereignty

I
AL
Arguments Against GEI’s:

 They try to maintain the global capitalist system which in turn enshrines inequality,
beneiing wealthier states & MNC’s
BY

o While certain insituions may have welfare elements, they certainly don’t amount to
a welfare state
 Their economic prescripions oten harm the poorest members of society
o Oten IMF ‘cures’ involve cuing spending irst – can harm most vulnerable at irst
 The economic model they promote is oten inappropriate for the socieies to which it applies
o Cultural backgrounds may favour socialism, autarchy etc…
 They impinge on naional sovereignty
o When Ireland accepted Troika provisions it forfeited a degree of sovereignty
 They are undemocraic
o Wealthy countries have most inluence – shareholders

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