Cells of the Immune System

Line of Defense
 First Line of Defense: Skin and Mucous Membrane – The skin and the mucous
membranes are the body’s first line of defense against environmental pathogens. This
function results from both physical and chemical factor.
 Physical Factors:
 Intact Skin – The dermis is made of connective tissues while the epidermis,
which made contact with the outside environment is made of tightly packed
epithelial cells with little or no material between the cells. The top layer of the
epidermal cells is dead and contains a protective protein called keratin. The
periodic shedding of the top layer helps remove microbes at the surface. In
addition, dryness of the skin is a major factor in inhibiting microbial growth on
the skin
o Factor that it could be broken:
 Burns
 Cuts
 Puncture wounds
 Other conditions.
 Mucous Membranes – Consists of epithelial layer and underlying connective
tissue layer. Lines the entire gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts. The
epithelial layer of the mucous membrane secretes a fluid mucus, a slightly
viscous glycoprotein produced by goblet cells of a mucous membrane. The
function of the mucous membrane is to prevent tracts from drying out. Mucous
membranes secrete mucous as well to trap bacteria and other foreign
substances. Mucous are stores in sinuses.
o Some pathogens that can thrive on the moist secretions are able to
penetrate the membrane if the microorganism is present in sufficient
numbers.
 Example would be the Treponema pallidum
 Other Physical Factors:
o Lacrimal apparatus – group of structures that manufactures and drains
tears. The continual washing action helps keep microorganisms come in
contact with the eye. If an irritation substance or large numbers of
microorganisms come in contact with the eye, the lacrimal gland starts to
secrete heavily, and the tears accumulate more rapidly than they can be
carried away.
o Saliva – similar to that of tears in terms of cleansing action. Saliva are
produced by the salivary glands that helps to dilute the numbers of
microorganisms and wash them from the surface of the teeth and the
mucous membrane of the mouth.
o Cilia – moves synchronously to propel inhaled dust and microorganism
that have become trapped in mucous upward toward the throat. This so-
called ciliary escalator keeps the mucous blanket moving toward the
 throat at a rate of 1-3 cm per hour; coughing and sneezing speed up the
escalator.
o Earwax – helps prevent microbes, dust, insects, and water from entering
the ear.
o Urine – prevents microbial colonization in the genitourinary tract.
o Vaginal secretions.
o Peristalsis, defecation, vomiting, and diarrhea.

 Chemical Factors
 Sebaceous glands of the skin – produce an oily substance called sebum that
prevents hair from drying and becoming brittle. Sebum also forms a protective
film over the surface of the skin. The low pH of the skin, between 3 and 5, is
caused in part by the secretion of fatty acids and lactic acid. The skin’s acidity
probably discourages the growth of many other microorganisms.
 Perspiration – helps maintain body temperature, eliminates certain wastes, and
flushes microorganisms from the surface of the skin. Perspiration also contains
lysozyme, an enzyme capable of breaking down walls of gram-positive bacteria
and, to lesser extent, gram negative bacteria.
 Lysozyme - breaks chemical bonds on peptidoglycan, which destroys the cell
walls. It is also found in tears, saliva, nasal secretions, tissue fluids, and urine,
where it exhibits its antimicrobial activity.
 Earwax – besides from physical barrier, it also function as a chemical
protectant. It is rich in fatty acids giving the ear canal a low pH which inhibits
the growth of many pathogenic microbes.
 Saliva – does not only contain enzyme salivary amylase, it also have numbers
of substances that inhibit the growth of microbes. These include lysozyme,
urea, and uric acid. Saliva is also slightly acidic having pH ranging from 6.55-
6.85. it also contains an antibody IgA that prevents attachment of microbes so
they cannot penetrate mucous membrane.
 Gastric juice – produced by the glands of the stomach, is a mixture of
hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and mucous. The very high acidity of gastric juice
(pH1.2-3.0) is sufficient to destroy bacteria and most bacterial toxins, except
Clostridium botulinum and Staphylococcus aureus. In contrast, the bacterium
Helicobacter pylori neutralizes stomach acid, thereby allowing the bacterium to
grow in the stomach. Its growth initiates an immune response that results in
gastritis and ulcers.
 Vaginal secretions – play a role in antimicrobial activity in two ways.
o Glycogen produced by vaginal epithelial cells id broken down into lactic
acid by Lactobacillus acidophilus. That creates an acidic pH (3-5) that
inhibits microbes.
o Cervical mucus.
 Urine – has an acidic pH of 6 that inhibits microbes
 Second Line of Defense – when the microbes penetrate the first line of defense, they
encounter a second line of defense that includes defensive cells, such as phagocytic
cells; inflammation; fever; and antimicrobial substances.
 Formed Elements in Blood – are created in the bone marrow by stem cells in a
process called hematopoiesis. It all began when a cell called pluripotent stem sell
develops into two other types of cells called myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem
cells. From these two stem cells, all of the formed elements develop.

 Leukocytes are divided into two main categories based on their appearance
under a light microscope
o Granulocyte – have presence of large granules in their cytoplasm that can
be seen with a light microscope after staining. They are differentiated into
three types of cells based on how the granules stain: neutrophils,
basophils, and eosinophils.
 Neutrophils – stain pale lilac with a mixture of acidic and basic
dyes. It is commonly called polymorphonuclear leukocytes
(PMNs), or polymorphs. Neutrophils are highly phagocytic and
motile, are active in initial stages of an infection. They have the
ability to leave the blood, enter an infected tissue, and destroy
microbes and foreign particles.
 Basophils – stain blue-purple with basic dye methylene blue.
Basophils releases substances such as histamine, that are
important in inflammation and allergic responses.
 Eosinophils – stain red or orange with the acidic dye eosin.
Eosinophils are somewhat phagocytic and also have the ability to
leave the blood. Their major function is to produce toxic proteins
against certain parasites such as helminths. Although eosinophils
are physically too small to ingest and destroy hemlinths, they can
attach to the outer surface of the parasites and discharge peroxide
 ions that destroy them. Their number increases significantly during
certain parasitic worm infection and allergic reaction.
o Agranulocytes – also have granules in their cytoplasm, but the granules
are not visible under the light microscope after staining. There are three
different types of agranulocytes: monocytes, dendritic cells, and
lymphocytes.
 Monocytes – are not actively phagocytic until they leave
circulating blood, enter body tissues, and mature into
macrophages. In fact, the proliferation of lymphocytes is one
factor responsible for the swelling of lymph nodes during an
infection. As blood and lymph that contains microorganisms pass
through organs with macrophages, the microorganisms are
removed by phagocytosis. Macrophages are also responsible for
the disposal of worn out blood cells.
o Fixed macrophages are macrophages that stand guard in
specific tissues.
 Histiocytes – connective tissue macrophages.
 Stellate reticuloendothelial cells or kupffer cells –
found in liver.
 Alveolar macrophages – in the lungs.
 Microglial cells – in nervous system.
 Tissue macrophages – in the spleen, lymph nodes,
and red bone marrow.
 Dendritic cells – have long extensions that resemble the dendrites
of nerve cells, thus their name. Dendritic cells are especially
abundant in the epidermis of the skin, mucous membranes, the
thymus, and lymph nodes. Dendritic cells destroy microbes by
phagocytosis and initiate adaptive immunity responses.
 Lymphocytes
o Natural Killer Cells – found in blood and in the spleen,
lymph nodes, and red bone marrow. NK cells have the
ability kill a wide variety of infected body cells and certain
tumor cells. NK cells attack any body cells that display
abnormal or unusual plasma membrane protein. The
binding of NK cells to a target cell, such as an infected
human cell, causes the release of vesicles containing toxic
substances from NK cells.
 Some granules contain a protein called perforin
which results in cytolysis – the cell burst.
 Other granules of NK cells are called granzymes,
which are protein-digesting enzyme that induce the
target cell to undergo apoptosis – a self-
destruction.
This type of attack kills the infected cells but not the
microbes inside the cells; the released microbes, which
may or may not be intact, can be destroyed by the
phagocytes.
  B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes

 Third Line of Defense – it includes lymphocytes that targets specific pathogens for
destruction when second-line defenses can’t contain infections. It includes a memory
component that allows the body to more effectively respond to the same pathogen in the
future.
 B cells – recognizes antigens and produces antibodies.
o Antibodies do not directly kill bacteria, but mark them for destruction.
They do this by binding specific antigens and neutralizes it. When
antibodies bind to viruses, they can prevent viruses from infecting cells.
When they bind to toxins, they can neutralize the toxins.
o Antibodies belong to a family of large molecules known as
immunoglobins. Different types play roles in the immune defense
strategy:
 IgG – works efficiently to coat microbes, speeding their uptake by
other cells in the immune system. The most abundant antibody,
the one that normally makes up about 75% of all antibodies in the
blood. It is the predominant antibody of the secondary antibody
 response – that is following subsequent contacts with a given
antigen.
 IgM – is very effective in killing bacteria. It is an antibody that
immature B cells synthesize and inserts their plasma membrane.
It is the predominant class of antibody produced after initial
contact with an antigen.
 IgA– is the major class of antibody present in the mucous
membrane of the body, in saliva and in tears. It concentrates in
body fluids – tears, saliva, the secretions of the respiratory tract
and digestive tract – guarding the entrances of the body.
 IgE – its job is to protect against parasitic infections, is the villain
responsible for the symptoms of allergy.
 IgD – remains attached to B cells and plays a key role in initiating
early B-cell response.
o As B cell matures during embryonic development, they develop surface
receptors that allow them to recognize specific antigen. Then they travel
in the blood stream, distributing throughout the lymph nodes, spleen, and
tonsils. Once B cell reach their destination, they remain inactive until they
encounter a foreign cell with an antigen that matches their particular
receptor site. The foreign antigen can be presented to the B cell directly.
But usually macrophages and T lymphocytes interact with B cells as an
Antigen Presenting Cells to bring about antibody production. Upon such
an encounter, the B cell’s receptor will bind to the antigen. The
appropriate B cell is turned on or stimulated, then it rapidly multiplies into
large homogenous group and grows bigger into a plasma cell.
o Plasma cell – actively secretes antibody that will bind with the original
stimulating agent. The antibodies are secreted into the lymph fluid which
then enters the blood plasma to circulate throughout the body. Although
the clone cells only live a few days, their antibodies remain and circulate
in the blood and lymph, gradually decreasing in number.
o Memory B cell – these cells are long lived and have recorded the
information about the foreign antigen so antibodies can be made more
quickly, and in greater amount, in case a second exposure should occur
 T cells – defends the body against intracellular pathogen.
o Macrophages phagocytize invading microbes and present parts of the
antigen to the T cell. The appropriate T cell is turned on or stimulated.
The activated T cell rapidly multiplies into large homogenous (clone)
group of cytotoxic T cells.
o Cytotoxic T cells – attack microbes directly. Also kill infected cells.
Cytotoxic T cell migrates to the site of infection and produce chemicals
which directly kill the invader. It release “perforin” that cause pores to
form in the target cell resulting in lysis.
o Portion of the activated T cell becomes memory T cell. These cells record
the information about the foreign antigen so T cells can respond more
quickly, and more strongly, if second exposure occur.
 o Portion of T cells become T helper cells or T suppressor cells. T helper
cells stimulate other T cells and B cells by releasing cytokines and other
stimulating chemicals.

Cytokines: Chemical Messenger of Immune System

 Cytokines function as a chemical messenger that mediates the communication of
different cells for the immune response.
 These are soluble protein or glycoproteins that are produced by practically all cells of the
immune system in response to a stimulus.
 There are probably around 200 cytokines each have common names that reflect their
functions known at the time of the discovery.
o Interleukins (between leukocytes) – cytokines that serves as communicator
between leukocytes.
o Chemokines (from chemotaxis) – a family of small cytokines that induces the
migration of leukocytes into areas of infection or tissue damage.
o Interferon – interfering with viral infections in host cells
o Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) – tumor cells were observed to be one of its
targets. These cytokines are a strong factor in inflammatory reactions of
autoimmune diseases such as Rheumatoid Arthritis.
o Hematopoietic cytokines – function in controlling the pathway by which stem cells
develop into different red or white blood cells.
 Some of these are interleukins with designations:
o Colony stimulation factor (CSF)
 Granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) – stimulates the production of
neutrophils from the granulocyte monocyte precursor.
 GM-CSF – used therapeutically to increase the numbers of protective
macrophages and granulocytes in patients undergoing red bone marrow
transplants.
 Cytokines, among other things, may stimulate cell to produce more cytokines. This
feedback look occasionally get out of control, resulting in a harmful overproduction of
cytokines – A cytokine Storm.