By

Vaibhav_Gavit

Physics Project

2019-20 XII
 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher

Mr.Narveer Gahlawat who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on
the topic Magnetism, which also helped me in doing a lot of research and I came to know
about so many new things I am really thankful to him.
Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in finalizing
this project within the limited time frame.

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Signature of Student Signature of Teacher

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Signature of External Examiner
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields.
Electric currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic
field, which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. The most familiar effects occur
in ferromagnetic materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be
magnetized to become permanent
magnets, producing magnetic fields
themselves. Only a few substances are
ferromagnetic; the most common
ones are iron, nickel and cobalt and
their alloys. The prefix Ferro- refers to
iron, because permanent magnetism
was first observed in lodestone, a form
of natural iron ore called magnetite,
Fe3O4. Although ferromagnetism is
responsible for most of the effects of
magnetism encountered in everyday
life, all other materials are influenced
to some extent by a magnetic field, by
several other types of magnetism. Paramagnetic substances such as aluminum and oxygen
are weakly attracted to an applied magnetic field; diamagnetic substances such as copper
and carbon are weakly repelled; while antiferromagnetic materials such as chromium and
spin glasses have a more complex relationship with a magnetic field. The force of a magnet
on paramagnetic, diamagnetic, antiferromagnetic materials is usually too weak to be felt,
and can be detected only by laboratory instruments, so in everyday life these substances are
often described as non-magnetic. The magnetic state (or magnetic phase) of a material
depends on temperature and other variables such as pressure and the applied magnetic
field. A material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism as these variables change.
 HISTORY

Magnetism was first discovered in the ancient world, when people noticed that lodestones,
naturally magnetized pieces of the mineral magnetite, could attract iron. The word magnet
comes from the Greek term for lodestone, "magnítis líthos", which means a stone from the
region of Magnesia. In ancient Greece, Aristotle attributed the first of what could be called a
scientific discussion of magnetism to the philosopher Thales of Miletus, who lived from
about 625 BC to about 545 BC. Around the same time, in ancient India, the Indian surgeon
Sushruta was the first to make use of the magnet for surgical purposes.

In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th-century BC book
named after its author, The Master of Demon Valley. The 2nd-century BC annals, Lüshi
Chunqiu, also notes: "The lodestone makes iron approach, or it attracts it." The earliest
mention of the attraction of a needle is in a 1st-century work Lunheng (Balanced Inquiries):
"A lodestone attracts a needle." The 11th-century Chinese scientist Shen Kuo was the first
person to write – in the Dream Pool Essays – of the magnetic needle compass and that it
improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the astronomical concept of true north.
By the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation.
They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the handle of the spoon
always pointed south.

Alexander Neckam, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for
navigation. In 1269, Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote the Epistola de magnete, the first
extant treatise describing the properties of magnets. In 1282, the properties of magnets and
the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf, a Yemeni physicist, astronomer, and
geographer.

In 1600, William Gilbert published his De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno

Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth).
In this work he describes many of his experiments with his model earth called the terrella.
From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the
reason compasses pointed north (previously, some believed that it was the pole star
(Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the North Pole that attracted the compass).

An understanding of the relationship between electricity and magnetism began in 1819 with
work by Hans Christian Ørsted, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who
discovered by the accidental twitching of a compass needle near a wire that an electric
current could create a magnetic field. This landmark experiment is known as Ørsted's
Experiment. Several other experiments followed, with André-Marie Ampère, who in 1820
discovered that the magnetic field circulating in a closed-path was related to the current
flowing through the perimeter of the path; Carl Friedrich Gauss; Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix
Savart, both of whom in 1820 came up with the Biot–Savart law giving an equation for the
magnetic field from a current-carrying wire; Michael Faraday, who in 1831 found that a time-
varying magnetic flux through a loop of wire induced a voltage, and others finding further
links between magnetism and electricity. James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded
these insights into Maxwell's equations, unifying electricity, magnetism, and optics into the
field of electromagnetism. In 1905, Einstein used these laws in motivating his theory of
special relativity, requiring that the laws held true in all inertial reference frames.

Source of Magnetism

Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:

1. Electric current.
2. Spin magnetic moments of elementary particles. The magnetic moments of the nuclei
of atoms are typically thousands of times smaller than the electrons' magnetic
moments, so they are negligible in the context of the magnetization of materials.
Nuclear magnetic moments are nevertheless very important in other contexts,
particularly in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI).

Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material are arranged such that their
magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to
electrons combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic magnetic moments as a result of the
Pauli exclusion principle (see electron configuration), or combining into filled subshells
with zero net orbital motion. In both cases, the electron arrangement is so as to exactly
cancel the magnetic moments from each electron. Moreover, even when the electron
configuration is such that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is
often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute magnetic moments that
point in different, random directions, so that the material will not be magnetic.

Sometimes, either spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic field—each of

the electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up. A suitable material can then
produce a strong net magnetic field. The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its
structure, particularly its electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned above, and also
on the temperature. At high temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more difficult
for the electrons to maintain alignment.
 MATERIALS

Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the tendency of a material to oppose an

applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a
material with paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external
magnetic field), the paramagnetic behavior dominates.[10] Thus, despite its universal
occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely diamagnetic material. In a
diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic
moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization arises from the
electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood classically as follows: “When a material
is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in addition to
their Coulomb attraction to the nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending
on which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal force on
the electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling
them away from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic
moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases the ones aligned parallel to the
field (in accordance with Lenz's law). This results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an
opposite direction to the applied field.”

Paramagnetism

In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or molecular orbitals
with exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons are required by the Pauli’s
Exclusion Principle to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite
directions, causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align
its magnetic moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these
magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field,
thus reinforcing it.

Ferromagnetism

A Ferro-magnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons. However, in

addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's tendency to be parallel to an applied
field, there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to orient
parallel to each other to maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus, even in the absence of an
applied field, the magnetic moments of the electrons in the material spontaneously line up
parallel to one another.
Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the Curie
temperature, or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This is
because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to
ferromagnetic order.
Ferromagnetism only occurs in a few substances; the common ones are iron, nickel, cobalt,
their alloys, and some alloys of rare earth metals

Magnetic Domains

The magnetic moments of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause them to behave

something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and align themselves into
small regions of more or less uniform alignment called magnetic domains or Weiss
domains. Magnetic domains can be observed with a magnetic force microscope to reveal
magnetic domain boundaries that resemble white lines in the sketch. There are many
scientific experiments that can physically show magnetic fields.
When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and divides into two
domains aligned in opposite directions so that they stick together more stably as shown at
the right.
When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move so that the domains
aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure (dotted yellow area) as
shown at the left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may not return to an
un-magnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic material's being magnetized,
forming a permanent magnet.
When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all others to result
in only one single domain, the material is magnetically saturated. When a magnetized
ferromagnetic material is heated to the Curie point temperature, the molecules are agitated
to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization and the magnetic properties
they cause cease. When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure
spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can freeze into a
crystalline solid.

Anti-Ferromagnetism

In an anti-Ferromagnet, unlike a
Ferromagnet, there is a tendency
for the intrinsic magnetic
moments of neighboring valence
electrons to point in opposite
directions. When all atoms are
arranged in a substance so that
each neighbor is 'anti-aligned',
the substance is
antiferromagnetic. Anti-
Ferromagnets have a zero net
magnetic moment, meaning no field is produced by them. Anti-Ferromagnets are less
common compared to the other types of behaviors, and are mostly observed at low
temperatures. In varying temperatures, anti-Ferromagnets can be seen to exhibit
diamagnetic and ferromagnetic properties.
In some materials, neighboring electrons want to point in opposite directions, but there is
no geometrical arrangement in which each pair of neighbors is anti-aligned. This is called a
spin glass, and is an example of geometrical frustration.

Ferrimagnetism

Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence of a field.

However, like anti-Ferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins tend to point in
opposite directions. These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal
geometrical arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sub-lattice of electrons
that point in one direction, than from the sub-lattice that points in the opposite direction.
Most ferrites are ferrimagnetic. The first discovered magnetic substance, magnetite, is a
ferrite and was originally believed to be a Ferromagnet; Louis Néel disproved this, however,
after discovering ferrimagnetism.
Super-Magnetism
When a Ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it acts like a single magnetic spin
that is subject to Brownian motion. Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar
to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger.
Other Types of Magnetism
 Meta-Magnetism
 Molecule-based Magnet
 Spin Glass
 ELECTROMAGNET

An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric

current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Electromagnets
usually consist of a large number of closely spaced turns of wire that create the magnetic
field. The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from
a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic core concentrates
the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet.
The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent
magnet is that the magnetic field can be quickly changed by
controlling the amount of electric current in the winding. However,
unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet
requires a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic
field.
Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical
devices, such as motors, generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard
disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic
separation equipment. Electromagnets are also employed in
industry for picking up and moving heavy iron objects such as scrap
iron and steel. Electromagnetism was discovered in 1820.
 Magnetism, Electricity, and Special Relativity

As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special

relativity, electricity and magnetism are
fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism
lacking electricity, and electricity without
magnetism, are inconsistent with special
relativity, due to such effects as length
contraction, time dilation, and the fact that
the magnetic force is
velocity-dependent.
However, when both
electricity and magnetism
are taken into account, the
resulting theory
(electromagnetism) is fully
consistent with special relativity. In particular, a
phenomenon that appears purely electric or
purely magnetic to one observer may be a mix of
both to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism
are dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity "mixes" electricity and
magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to
how relativity "mixes" space and time into space-time.
All observations on electromagnetism apply to what might be considered to be primarily
magnetism, e.g. perturbations in the magnetic field are necessarily accompanied by a
nonzero electric field, and propagate at the speed of light.
 Magnetic Fields in a Material

When electric current is carried in a wire, a magnetic field is formed around it. The
magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the wire. The magnetic field direction
depends on the direction of the current. It can be determined using the "right hand rule", by
pointing the thumb of your right hand in the direction of the current. The direction of the
magnetic field lines is the direction of your curled fingers. The magnitude of the magnetic
field depends on the amount of current, and the distance from the charge-carrying wire. The
formula includes the constant . This is called the permeability of free space, and has a
value . The unit of magnetic field is the Tesla, T.

B = magnetic field magnitude (Tesla, T)

μ0 = permeability of free space ( )
I = magnitude of the electric current (Amperes, A)
r = distance (m)
 MAGNETIC FIELD

A magnetic field is the magnetic effect of electric currents and magnetic materials. The
magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or
strength); as such it is represented by a vector field. The term is used for two distinct but
closely related fields denoted by the symbols B and H, where H is measured in units
of amperes per meter (symbol: A⋅m−1 or A/m) in the SI. B is measured in tesla (symbol: T)
and newton per meter per ampere (symbol: N⋅m−1⋅A−1 or N/
(m⋅A)) in the SI. B is most commonly defined in terms of
the Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges.
Magnetic fields can be produced by moving electric
charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary
particles associated with a fundamental quantum property,
their spin. In special relativity, electric and magnetic fields
are two interrelated aspects of a single object, called
the electromagnetic tensor; the split of this tensor into
electric and magnetic fields depends on the relative velocity
of the observer and charge. In quantum physics, the electromagnetic field is quantized and
electromagnetic interactions result from the exchange of photons.
In everyday life, magnetic fields are most often encountered as a force created
by permanent magnets, which pull on ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, or
nickel, and attract or repel other magnets. Magnetic fields are widely used throughout
modern technology, particularly in electrical engineering and electro mechanics. The Earth
produces its own magnetic field, which is important in navigation, and it shields the Earth's
atmosphere from solar wind. Rotating magnetic fields are used in both electric
motors and generators. Magnetic forces give information about the charge carriers in a
material through the Hall Effect. The interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such
as transformers is studied in the discipline of magnetic circuits.

Definitions, Units and Measurements

 The B-Field-The magnetic field can be defined in several equivalent ways based on
the effects it has on its environment. Often the magnetic field is defined by the force
it exerts on a moving charged particle. It is known from experiments
in electrostatics that a particle of charge q in an electric field E experiences a
force F = qE. However, in other situations, such as when a charged particle moves in
the vicinity of a current-carrying wire, the force also depends on the velocity of that
particle. Fortunately, the velocity dependent portion can be separated out such that
the force on the particle satisfies the Lorentz force law, here v is the particle's velocity
 and × denotes the cross product. The vector B is termed the magnetic field, and it
is defined as the vector field necessary to make the Lorentz force law correctly
describe the motion of a charged particle. This definition allows the determination
of B in the following way. He command, "Measure the direction and magnitude of the
vector B at such and such a place," calls for the following operations: Take a particle
of known charge q. Measure the force on q at rest, to determine E. Then measure the
force on the particle when its velocity is v; repeat with v in some other direction. Now
find a B that makes the Lorentz force law fit all these results—that is the magnetic
field at the place in question. Alternatively, the magnetic field can be defined in terms
of the torque it produces on a magnetic dipole.
 The H-Field-In addition to B, there is a quantity H, which is also sometimes called
the magnetic field. In a vacuum, B and H are proportional to each other, with the
multiplicative constant depending on the physical units. Inside a material they are
different. The term "magnetic field" is historically reserved for H while using other
terms for B. Informally, though, and formally for some recent textbooks mostly in
physics, the term 'magnetic field' is used to describe B as well as or in place
of H. There are many alternative names for both.
Units
In SI units, B is measured in tesla (symbol: T) and correspondingly ΦB (magnetic flux) is
measured in weber (symbol: Wb) so that a flux density of 1 Wb/m2 is 1 tesla. The SI unit of
tesla is equivalent to (newton·second)/ (coulomb·metre). In Gaussian-cgs units, B is
measured in gauss (symbol: G). (The conversion is 1 T = 10,000 G.) One nano-tesla is also
called a gamma (symbol: γ). The H-field is measured in amperes per metre (A/m) in SI units,
and in oersteds (Oe) in cgs units.

Magnetic Field Lines

Mapping the magnetic field of an object is simple in principle. First, measure the strength
and direction of the magnetic field at a large number of locations (or at every point in
space). Then, mark each location with an arrow (called a vector) pointing in the direction of
the local magnetic field with its magnitude proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field.
An alternative method to map the magnetic field is to 'connect' the
arrows to form magnetic field lines. The direction of the magnetic
field at any point is parallel to the direction of nearby field lines,
and the local density of field lines can be made proportional to its
strength.
Magnetic field lines are like streamlines in fluid flow, in that they
represent something continuous, and a different resolution would
show more or fewer lines. An advantage of using magnetic field
lines as a representation is that many laws of magnetism (and
electromagnetism) can be stated completely and concisely using
simple concepts such as the 'number' of field lines through a
surface. These concepts can be quickly 'translated' to their
mathematical form. For example, the number of field lines through
a given surface is the surface integral of the magnetic field. Various phenomena have the
effect of "displaying" magnetic field lines as though the field lines were physical
phenomena. For example, iron filings placed in a magnetic field, form lines that correspond
to 'field lines'. Magnetic field "lines" are also visually displayed in polar auroras, in
which plasma particle dipole interactions create visible streaks of light that line up with the
local direction of Earth's magnetic field.
Field lines can be used as a qualitative tool to visualize magnetic forces.
In ferromagnetic substances like iron and in plasmas, magnetic forces can be understood by
imagining that the field lines exert a tension, (like a rubber band) along their length, and a
pressure perpendicular to their length on neighboring field lines. 'Unlike' poles of magnets
attract because they are linked by many field lines; 'like' poles repel because their field lines
do not meet, but run parallel, pushing on each other. The rigorous form of this concept is
the electromagnet stress-energy tensor.

Magnetic Fields and Permanent Magnets

The magnetic field of permanent magnets can be quite complicated, especially near the
magnet. The magnetic field of a small straight magnet is proportional to the
magnet's strength (called its magnetic dipole moment m). The equations are non-trivial and
also depend on the distance from the magnet and the orientation of the magnet. For simple
magnets, m points in the direction of a line drawn from the south to the north pole of the
magnet. Flipping a bar magnet is equivalent to rotating its m by 180 degrees.
The magnetic field of larger magnets can be obtained by modelling them as a collection of a
large number of small magnets called dipoles each having their own m. The magnetic field
produced by the magnet then is the net magnetic field of these dipoles. And, any net force
on the magnet is a result of adding up the forces on the individual dipoles.
There are two competing models for the nature of these dipoles. These two models produce
two different magnetic fields, H and B. Outside a material, though, the two are identical (to
a multiplicative constant) so that in many cases the distinction can be ignored. This is
particularly true for magnetic fields, such as those due to electric currents that are not
generated by magnetic materials.

Magnetic Field Model and H-Field

It is sometimes useful to model the force and torques between two magnets as due to
magnetic poles repelling or attracting each other in the same manner as the Coulomb
force between electric charges. This is called the Gilbert model of magnetism, after William
Gilbert. In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by magnetic charges that are
'smeared' around each pole. These magnetic charges are in fact related to the magnetization
field M.
The H-field, therefore, is analogous to the electric field E, which
starts at a positive electric charge and ends at a negative electric
charge. Near the North Pole, therefore, all H-field lines point
away from the North Pole (whether inside the magnet or out)
while near the South Pole (whether inside the magnet or out)
all H-field lines point toward the South Pole. A north pole, then,
feels a force in the direction of the H-field while the force on the
South Pole is opposite to the H-field.
In the magnetic pole model, the elementary magnetic
dipole m is formed by two opposite magnetic poles of pole
strength qm separated by a small distance vector d, such
that m = qm d. The magnetic pole model predicts correctly the field H both inside and
outside magnetic materials, in particular the fact that H is opposite to the magnetization
field M inside a permanent magnet.
Since it is based on the fictitious idea of a magnetic charge density, the Gilbert model has
limitations. Magnetic poles cannot exist apart from each other as electric charges can, but
always come in north/south pairs. If a magnetized object is divided in half, a new pole
appears on the surface of each piece, so each has a pair of complementary poles. The
magnetic pole model does not account for magnetism that is produced by electric currents.

American loop model and B-Field

After Ørsted discovered that electric currents produce a magnetic field and Ampere
discovered that electric currents attracted and repelled each other similar to magnets, it
was natural to hypothesize that all magnetic fields are due to electric current loops. In this
model developed by Ampere, the elementary magnetic dipole that makes up all magnets is a
sufficiently small Amperian loop of current I. The dipole moment of this loop
is m = IA where A is the area of the loop.
These magnetic dipoles produce a magnetic B-field. One
important property of the B-field produced this way is that
magnetic B-field lines neither start nor end (mathematically, B is
a solenoidal vector field); a field line either extends to infinity or
wraps around to form a closed curve. To date no exception to this
rule has been found. (See magnetic monopole below.) Magnetic
field lines exit a magnet near its north pole and enter near its
south pole, but inside the magnet B-field lines continue through
the magnet from the South Pole back to the north. If a B-field line
enters a magnet somewhere it has to leave somewhere else; it is
not allowed to have an end point. Magnetic poles, therefore, always come in N and S pairs.
More formally, since all the magnetic field lines that enter any given region must also leave
that region, subtracting the 'number' of field lines that enter the region from the number
that exit gives identically zero. Mathematically this is equivalent to: where the integral is
a surface integral over the closed surface S (a closed surface is one that completely
surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines escape). Since dA points outward, the
dot product in the integral is positive for B-field pointing out and negative for B-field
pointing in.
Force between Magnets
The force between two small magnets is quite complicated and depends on the strength and
orientation of both magnets and the distance and direction of the magnets relative to each
other. The force is particularly sensitive to rotations of the magnets due to magnetic torque.
The force on each magnet depends on its magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the
other.
To understand the force between magnets, it is useful to examine the magnetic pole
model given above. In this model, the H-field of one magnet pushes and pulls on both poles
of a second magnet. If this H-field is the same at both poles of the second magnet then there
is no net force on that magnet since the force is opposite for opposite poles. If, however, the
magnetic field of the first magnet is non-uniform (such as the H near one of its poles), each
pole of the second magnet sees a different field and is subject to a different force. This
difference in the two forces moves the magnet in the direction of increasing magnetic field
and may also cause a net torque.
This is a specific example of a general rule that magnets are attracted (or repulsed
depending on the orientation of the magnet) into regions of higher magnetic field. Any non-
uniform magnetic field, whether caused by permanent magnets or electric currents, exerts a
force on a small magnet in this way.
The details of the Amperian loop model are different and more complicated but yield the
same result: that magnetic dipoles are attracted/repelled into regions of higher magnetic
field. Mathematically, the force on a small magnet having a magnetic moment m due to a

magnetic field B is: where the gradient ∇ is the change of the quantity m · B per unit distance
and the direction is that of maximum increase of m · B. To understand this equation, note
that the dot product m · B = mBcos (θ), where m and B represent the magnitude of
the m and B vectors and θ is the angle between them. If m is in the same direction as B then
the dot product is positive and the gradient points 'uphill' pulling the magnet into regions
of higher B-field (more strictly larger m · B). This equation is strictly only valid for magnets
of zero size, but is often a good approximation for not too large magnets. The magnetic
force on larger magnets is determined by dividing them into smaller regions each having
their own m then summing up the forces on each of these very small regions.
Magnetic Torque on Permanent Magnets
If two like poles of two separate magnets are brought near each other, and one of the
magnets is allowed to turn, it promptly rotates to
align itself with the first. In this example, the
magnetic field of the stationary magnet creates
a magnetic torque on the magnet that is free to
rotate. This magnetic torque τ tends to align a
magnet's poles with the magnetic field lines. A
compass, therefore, turns to align itself with Earth's
magnetic field.
Magnetic torque is used to drive electric motors. In
one simple motor design, a magnet is fixed to a
freely rotating shaft and subjected to a magnetic
field from an array of electromagnets. By
continuously switching the electric current through
each of the electromagnets, thereby flipping the
polarity of their magnetic fields, like poles are kept next to the rotor; the resultant torque is
transferred to the shaft.
As is the case for the force between magnets, the magnetic pole model leads more readily to
the correct equation. Here, two equal and opposite magnetic charges experiencing the
same H also experience equal and opposite forces. Since these equal and opposite forces are
in different locations, this produces a torque proportional to the distance (perpendicular to
the force) between them. With the definition of m as the pole strength times the distance
between the poles, this leads to τ = μ0mHsinθ, where μ0 is a constant called the vacuum
permeability, measuring 4π×10−7 V·s/(A·m) and θ is the angle between H and m.
The Amperian loop model also predicts the same magnetic torque. Here, it is the B field
interacting with the Amperian current loop through a Lorentz force described below. Again,
the results are the same although the models are completely different.
Mathematically, the torque τ on a small magnet is proportional both to the applied
magnetic field and to the magnetic moment m of the magnet:

𝛕 = m x B = µ 0m x H
where × represents the vector cross product. Note that this equation includes all of the
qualitative information included above. There is no torque on a magnet if m is in the same
direction as the magnetic field. (The cross product is zero for two vectors that are in the
same direction.) Further, all other orientations feel a torque that twists them toward the
direction of magnetic field.

Magnetic Field and Electric Currents

All moving charged particles produce magnetic fields. Moving point charges,
such as electrons, produce complicated but well known magnetic fields that
depend on the charge, velocity, and acceleration of the particles.
Magnetic field lines form in concentric circles around a cylindrical current-
carrying conductor, such as a length of wire. The direction of such a magnetic
field can be determined by using the "right hand grip rule" (see figure at right).
The strength of the magnetic field decreases with distance from the wire. (For an
infinite length wire the strength is inversely proportional to the distance.)
Bending a current-carrying wire into a loop concentrates the magnetic field
inside the loop while weakening it outside. Bending a wire into multiple closely
spaced loops to form a coil or "solenoid" enhances this effect. A device so formed
around an iron core may act as an electromagnet, generating a strong, well-controlled
magnetic field. An infinitely long cylindrical electromagnet has a uniform magnetic field
inside, and no magnetic field outside. A finite length electromagnet produces a magnetic
field that looks similar to that produced by a uniform permanent magnet, with its strength
and polarity determined by the current flowing through the coil.
The Biot-Savart Law relates magnetic fields to the currents which are their sources. In a
similar manner, Coulomb's law relates electric fields to the point charges which are their
sources. Finding the magnetic field resulting from a current distribution involves the vector
product, and is inherently a calculus problem when the distance from the current to the
field point is continuously changing.
Force on Moving Charges and Current
A charged particle moving in a B-field experiences a sideways force
that is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, the
component of the velocity that is perpendicular to the magnetic
field and the charge of the particle. This force is known as
the Lorentz force, and is given by:

F = qE + qV x B
where F is the force, q is the electric charge of the particle, v is the
instantaneous velocity of the particle, and B is the magnetic field
(in tesla).
The Lorentz force is always perpendicular to both the velocity of
the particle and the magnetic field that created it. When a charged
particle moves in a static magnetic field, it traces a helical path in
which the helix axis is parallel to the magnetic field, and in which
the speed of the particle remains constant. Because the magnetic
force is always perpendicular to the motion, the magnetic field can do no work on an
isolated charge. It can only do work indirectly, via the electric field generated by a changing
magnetic field. It is often claimed that the magnetic force can do work to a non-
elementary magnetic dipole, or to charged particles whose motion is constrained by other
forces, but this is incorrect because the work in those cases is performed by the electric
forces of the charges deflected by the magnetic field.

Force on a Current Carrying Wire

The force on a current carrying wire is similar to that of a moving charge as expected since a
charge carrying wire is a collection of moving charges. A current-carrying wire feels a force
in the presence of a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on a macroscopic current is often
referred to as the Laplace force. Consider a conductor of length ℓ, cross section A, and
charge q due to electric current i. If this conductor is placed in a magnetic field of
magnitude B that makes an angle θ with the velocity of charges in the conductor, the force
exerted on a single charge q is

F = qvBsinφ
Direction of Force
The direction of force on a charge or a current can be determined by a mnemonic known as
the right-hand rule. Using the right hand and pointing the thumb in the direction of the
moving positive charge or positive current and the fingers in the direction of the magnetic
field the resulting force on the charge points outwards
from the palm. The force on a negatively charged particle is
in the opposite direction. If both the speed and the charge
are reversed then the direction of the force remains the
same. For that reason a magnetic field measurement (by
itself) cannot distinguish whether there is a positive charge
moving to the right or a negative charge moving to the left.
(Both of these cases produce the same current.) On the
other hand, a magnetic field combined with an electric field can distinguish between these.
An alternative mnemonic to the right hand rule Flemings's left hand rule.

Relation between H and B

The formulas derived for the magnetic field above are correct when dealing with the entire
current. A magnetic material placed inside a
magnetic field, though, generates its own bound
current, which can be a challenge to calculate. (This
bound current is due to the sum of atomic sized
current loops and the spin of the subatomic particles
such as electrons that make up the material.) The H-
field as defined above helps factor out this bound
current; but to see how, it helps to introduce the
concept of magnetization first.
Magnetization-The magnetization vector
field M represents how strongly a region of material
is magnetized. It is defined as the net magnetic
dipole moment per unit volume of that region. The
magnetization of a uniform magnet is therefore a
material constant, equal to the magnetic
moment m of the magnet divided by its volume.
Since the SI unit of magnetic moment is A⋅m2, the SI
unit of magnetization M is ampere per meter,
identical to that of the H-field.
The magnetization M field of a region points in the
direction of the average magnetic dipole moment in
that region. Magnetization field lines, therefore,
begin near the magnetic south pole and ends near the magnetic north pole. (Magnetization
does not exist outside of the magnet.)
In the Amperian loop model, the magnetization is due to combining many tiny Amperian
loops to form a resultant current called bound current. This bound current, then, is the
source of the magnetic B field due to the magnet. Given the definition of the magnetic
dipole, the magnetization field follows a similar law to that of Ampere's law:

∮M.dl = Ib
where the integral is a line integral over any closed loop and Ib is the 'bound current'
enclosed by that closed loop.
In the magnetic pole model, magnetization begins at and ends at magnetic poles. If a given
region, therefore, has a net positive 'magnetic pole strength' (corresponding to a north pole)
then it has more magnetization field lines entering it than leaving it. Mathematically this is
equivalent to:

∮s µ0M.dA = -qM
where the integral is a closed surface integral over the closed surface S and qM is the
'magnetic charge' (in units of magnetic flux) enclosed by S. (A closed surface completely
surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines escape.) The negative sign occurs
because the magnetization field moves from south to north.

H-Fields and Magnetic Materials

In SI units, the H-field is related to the B-field by:

H = (B/µ0)-M
In terms of the H-field, Ampere's law is:

∮H.dl = ∮ [(𝑩/µ𝟎)-M].dl = Itot-Ib = If

where If represents the 'free current' enclosed by the loop so that the line integral of H does
not depend at all on the bound currents. Ampere's law leads to the boundary condition:

̂
(H1 + H2) = Kf x 𝒏
̂ points in the direction
where Kf is the surface free current density and the unit normal 𝐧
from medium 2 to medium 1. Similarly, a surface integral of H over any closed surface is
independent of the free currents and picks out the "magnetic charges" within that closed
surface:

∮s µ0H.dA = ∮s (B- µ0M).dA = qM

which does not depend on the free currents.
The H-field, therefore, can be separated into two independent parts:

H = H0 + Hd
where H0 is the applied magnetic field due only to the free currents and Hd is
the demagnetizing field due only to the bound currents.
The magnetic H-field, therefore, re-factors the bound current in terms of "magnetic
charges". The H field lines loop only around 'free current' and, unlike the magnetic B field,
begins and ends near magnetic poles as well.

Energy Stored in Magnetic Fields

Energy is needed to generate a magnetic field both to work against the electric field that a
changing magnetic field creates and to change the magnetization of any material within the
magnetic field. For non-dispersive materials this same energy is released when the magnetic
field is destroyed so that this energy can be modelled as being stored in the magnetic field.
For linear, non-dispersive, materials (such that B = μH where μ is frequency-independent),
the energy density is:

𝑩.𝑯 𝑩.𝑩 𝛍𝐇.𝐇

u= = =
𝟐 𝟐𝛍 𝟐
If there are no magnetic materials around then μ can be replaced by μ0. The above equation
cannot be used for nonlinear materials, though; a more general expression given below
must be used.
In general, the incremental amount of work per unit volume δW needed to cause a small
change of magnetic field δB is:

δW = H. δB
Once the relationship between H and B is known this equation is used to determine the
work needed to reach a given magnetic state. For hysteretic materials such as Ferromagnets
and superconductors, the work needed also depends on how the magnetic field is created.
For linear non-dispersive materials, though, the general equation leads directly to the
simpler energy density equation given above.

Important Uses and Examples of Magnetic Field

Earth’s Magnetic Field-The Earth's magnetic field is thought to be produced by
convection currents in the outer liquid of Earth's core. The Dynamo theory proposes that
these movements produce electric currents that, in turn, produce the magnetic field.
The presence of this field causes a compass, placed anywhere within it, to rotate so that the
"north pole" of the magnet in the compass points roughly north, toward Earth's North
Magnetic Pole. This is the traditional definition of the "north pole" of a magnet, although
other equivalent definitions are also possible.
One confusion that arises from this definition is that, if Earth itself is considered as a
magnet, the south pole of that magnet would be the one nearer the north magnetic pole,
and vice versa. The north magnetic pole is so-named not because of the polarity of the field
there but because of its geographical location. The north and south poles of a permanent
magnet are so-called because they are "north-seeking" and "south-seeking", respectively.
The figure is a sketch of Earth's magnetic field represented by field lines. For most locations,
the magnetic field has a significant up/down component in addition to the north/south
component. (There is also an east/west component, as Earth's magnetic and geographical
poles do not coincide.) The magnetic field can be visualised as a bar magnet buried deep in
Earth's interior.
Earth's magnetic field is not constant—the strength of the field and the location of its poles
vary. Moreover, the poles periodically reverse their orientation in a process
called geomagnetic reversal. The most recent reversal occurred 780,000 years ago.
 MAGNETIC DIPOLES

A very common source of magnetic field found in nature is a dipole, with a "South pole" and
a "North pole", terms dating back to the use of magnets as
compasses, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate
North and South on the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are
attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole
of another magnet. The Earth's North Magnetic Pole (currently in
the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it
attracts the north pole of a compass. A magnetic field
contains energy, and physical systems move toward configurations
with lower energy. When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic
dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the net field
strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic
dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic
domains.
Magnetic Monopoles-Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons
distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the
resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole
and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole—if
such a thing exists—would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It
would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles
would carry "magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic searches
since 1931, as of 2010, they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.
Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic
monopoles. Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a
certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that
individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing
charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum
theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the
quantization of electric charge—that is, why the observed elementary particles carry
charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron.
Certain grand unified theories predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary
particles, are solitons (localized energy packets). The initial results of using these models to
estimate the number of monopoles created in the big bang contradicted cosmological
observations—the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would
have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idea of inflation (for
which this problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem,
creating models in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with
current observations.
 UNITS

Others

 gauss – the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) unit of magnetic field (denoted B)

 oersted – the CGS unit of magnetizing field (denoted H)
 maxwell – the CGS unit for magnetic flux
 gamma – a unit of magnetic flux density that was commonly used before the tesla came
into use (1.0 gamma = 1.0 nanotesla)
 μ0 – common symbol for the permeability of free space (4π×10−7 newton/(ampere-turn)2)