Turboexpander

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Schematic diagram of a turboexpander driving a compressor

A turboexpander, also referred to as a turbo-expander or an expansion turbine, is a

centrifugal or axial-flow turbine, through which a high-pressure gas is expanded to produce work
that is often used to drive a compressor or generator.[1][2][3]

Because work is extracted from the expanding high-pressure gas, the expansion is approximated
by an isentropic process (i.e., a constant-entropy process), and the low-pressure exhaust gas from
the turbine is at a very low temperature, −150 °C or less, depending upon the operating pressure
and gas properties. Partial liquefaction of the expanded gas is not uncommon.

Turboexpanders are widely used as sources of refrigeration in industrial processes such as the
extraction of ethane and natural-gas liquids (NGLs) from natural gas,[4] the liquefaction of gases
(such as oxygen, nitrogen, helium, argon and krypton)[5][6] and other low-temperature processes.

Turboexpanders currently in operation range in size from about 750 W to about 7.5 MW (1 hp to
about 10,000 hp).

Contents
 1 Applications
o 1.1 Electric Turbo Compound (ETC)
o 1.2 Power generation
o 1.3 Refrigeration system
o 1.4 Power recovery in fluid catalytic cracker
o 1.5 Extracting hydrocarbon liquids from natural gas
 2 History
 3 Types
 4 See also
 5 References
 6 External links

Applications
Although turboexpanders are commonly used in low-temperature processes, they are used in
many other applications. This section discusses one of the low-temperature processes, as well as
some of the other applications.

Electric Turbo Compound (ETC)

Electric Turbo Compound (ETC) cross section

Main article: Electric turbo compound

Electric Turbo Compounding (ETC) is a technology solution to the challenge of improving the
fuel efficiency of gas and diesel engines by recovering waste energy from the exhaust gases.[7]

Power generation

Schematic diagram of power generation using a turboexpander

Main articles: steam turbine, rankine cycle, and organic Rankine cycle

The figure depicts an electric power generation system that uses a heat source, a cooling medium
(air, water or other), a circulating working fluid and a turboexpander. The system can
accommodate a wide variety of heat sources such as:

 geothermal hot water,

 exhaust gas from internal combustion engines burning a variety of fuels (natural gas,
landfill gas, diesel oil, or fuel oil),
 a variety of waste heat sources (in the form of either gas or liquid).

The circulating working fluid (usually an organic compound for organic Rankine cycle) is
pumped to a high pressure and then vaporized in the evaporator by heat exchange with the
available heat source. The resulting high-pressure vapor flows to the turboexpander, where it
undergoes an isentropic expansion and exits as a vapor–liquid mixture, which is then condensed
into a liquid by heat exchange with the available cooling medium. The condensed liquid is
pumped back to the evaporator to complete the cycle.

The system in the figure implements a rankine cycle as it is used in fossil-fuel power plants,
where water is the working fluid and the heat source is derived from the combustion of natural
gas, fuel oil or coal used to generate high-pressure steam. The high-pressure steam then
undergoes an isentropic expansion in a conventional steam turbine. The steam turbine exhaust
steam is next condensed into liquid water, which is then pumped back to steam generator to
complete the cycle.

When an organic working fluid such as R-134a is used in the Rankine cycle, the cycle is
sometimes referred to as an organic Rankine cycle (ORC).[8][9][10]

Refrigeration system

Schematic diagram of a refrigeration system using a turboexpander, compressor and a motor

A refrigeration system utilizes a compressor, a turboexpander and an electric motor.

Depending on the operating conditions, the turboexpander reduces the load on the electric motor
by 6–15% compared to a conventional vapor-compression refrigeration system that uses a
throttling expansion valve rather than a turboexpander.[11] Basically, this can be seen as a form of
turbo compounding.

The system employs a high-pressure refrigerant (i.e., one with a low normal boiling point) such
as:[11]

 chlorodifluoromethane (CHClF2) known as R-22, with a normal boiling point of −47 °C;
 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (C2H2F4) known as R-134a, with a normal boiling point of
−26 °C.

As shown in the figure, refrigerant vapor is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher
temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then condensed into a liquid. The condenser is
where heat is expelled from the circulating refrigerant and is carried away by whatever cooling
medium is used in the condenser (air, water, etc.).

The refrigerant liquid flows through the turboexpander, where it is vaporized, and the vapor
undergoes an isentropic expansion, which results in a low-temperature mixture of vapor and
liquid. The vapor–liquid mixture is then routed through the evaporator, where it is vaporized by
heat absorbed from the space being cooled. The vaporized refrigerant flows to the compressor
inlet to complete the cycle.

Power recovery in fluid catalytic cracker

A schematic diagram of the power recovery system in a fluid catalytic cracking unit

The combustion flue gas from the catalyst regenerator of a fluid catalytic cracker is at a
temperature of about 715 °C and at a pressure of about 2.4 barg (240 kPa gauge). Its gaseous
components are mostly carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2).
Although the flue gas has been through two stages of cyclones (located within the regenerator) to
remove entrained catalyst fines, it still contains some residual catalyst fines.

The figure depicts how power is recovered and utilized by routing the regenerator flue gas
through a turboexpander. After the flue gas exits the regenerator, it is routed through a secondary
catalyst separator containing swirl tubes designed to remove 70–90% of the residual catalyst
fines.[12] This is required to prevent erosion damage to the turboexpander.

As shown in the figure, expansion of the flue gas through a turboexpander provides sufficient
power to drive the regenerator's combustion air compressor. The electrical motor-generator in the
power-recovery system can consume or produce electrical power. If the expansion of the flue gas
does not provide enough power to drive the air compressor, the electric motor-generator provides
the needed additional power. If the flue gas expansion provides more power than needed to drive
the air compressor, then the electric motor-generator converts the excess power into electric
power and exports it to the refinery's electrical system.[13] The steam turbine is used to drive the
regenerator's combustion air compressor during start-ups of the fluid catalytic cracker until there
is sufficient combustion flue gas to take over that task.

The expanded flue gas is then routed through a steam-generating boiler (referred to as a CO
boiler), where the carbon monoxide in the flue gas is burned as fuel to provide steam for use in
the refinery.[13]

The flue gas from the CO boiler is processed through an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) to
remove residual particulate matter. The ESP removes particulates in the size range of 2 to 20
micrometers from the flue gas.[13]

Extracting hydrocarbon liquids from natural gas

A schematic diagram of a demethanizer extracting hydrocarbon liquids from natural gas

Raw natural gas consists primarily of methane (CH4), the shortest and lightest hydrocarbon
molecule, along with various amounts of heavier hydrocarbon gases such as ethane (C2H6),
propane (C3H8), normal butane (n-C4H10), isobutane (i-C4H10), pentanes and even higher-
molecular-mass hydrocarbons. The raw gas also contains various amounts of acid gases such as
carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and mercaptans such as methanethiol (CH3SH)
and ethanethiol (C2H5SH).

When processed into finished by-products (see Natural-gas processing), these heavier
hydrocarbons are collectively referred to as NGL (natural-gas liquids). The extraction of the
NGL often involves a turboexpander[14] and a low-temperature distillation column (called a
demethanizer) as shown in the figure. The inlet gas to the demethanizer is first cooled to about
−51 °C in a heat exchanger (referred to as a cold box), which partially condenses the inlet gas.
The resultant gas–liquid mixture is then separated into a gas stream and a liquid stream.

The liquid stream from the gas–liquid separator flows through a valve and undergoes a throttling
expansion from an absolute pressure of 62 bar to 21 bar (6.2 to 2.1 MPa), which is an isenthalpic
process (i.e., a constant-enthalpy process) that results in lowering the temperature of the stream
from about −51 °C to about −81 °C as the stream enters the demethanizer.

The gas stream from the gas–liquid separator enters the turboexpander, where it undergoes an
isentropic expansion from an absolute pressure of 62 bar to 21 bar (6.2 to 2.1 MPa) that lowers
the gas stream temperature from about −51 °C to about −91 °C as it enters the demethanizer to
serve as distillation reflux.

Liquid from the top tray of the demethanizer (at about −90 °C) is routed through the cold box,
where it is warmed to about 0 °C as it cools the inlet gas, and is then returned to the lower
section of the demethanizer. Another liquid stream from the lower section of the demethanizer
(at about 2 °C) is routed through the cold box and returned to the demethanizer at about 12 °C. In
effect, the inlet gas provides the heat required to "reboil" the bottom of the demethanizer, and the
turboexpander removes the heat required to provide reflux in the top of the demethanizer.
The overhead gas product from the demethanizer at about −90 °C is processed natural gas that is
of suitable quality for distribution to end-use consumers by pipeline. It is routed through the cold
box, where it is warmed as it cools the inlet gas. It is then compressed in the gas compressor
driven by the turboexpander and further compressed in a second-stage gas compressor driven by
an electric motor before entering the distribution pipeline.

The bottom product from the demethanizer is also warmed in the cold box, as it cools the inlet
gas, before it leaves the system as NGL.

The operating conditions of an offshore gas conditioning turbo-expander/recompressor are as

follows[15]:

Turbo-expander Recompressor
Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet
Temperature °C 11.0 –13.0 22.0 40.0
Pressure barg 75.0 39.31 38.62 47.24
Flow kg/hr 27728 20658
Molecular weight 22.08 20.74
Energy recovered/used kW 345 345

History
The possible use of an expansion machine for isentropically creating low temperatures was
suggested by Carl Wilhelm Siemens (Siemens cycle), a German engineer in 1857. About three
decades later, in 1885, Ernest Solvay of Belgium attempted to use a reciprocating expander
machine, but could not attain any temperatures lower than −98 °C because of problems with
lubrication of the machine at such temperatures.[2]

In 1902, Georges Claude, a French engineer, successfully used a reciprocating expansion

machine to liquefy air. He used a degreased, burnt leather packing as a piston seal without any
lubrication. With an air pressure of only 40 bar (4 MPa), Claude achieved an almost isentropic
expansion resulting in a lower temperature than had before been possible.[2]

The first turboexpanders seem to have been designed in about 1934 or 1935 by Guido Zerkowitz,
an Italian engineer working for the German firm of Linde AG.[16][17]

In 1939, the Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitsa perfected the design of centrifugal turboexpanders.
His first practical prototype was made of Monel metal, had an outside diameter of only 8 cm
(3.1 in), operated at 40,000 revolutions per minute and expanded 1,000 cubic metres of air per
hour. It used a water pump as a brake and had an efficiency of 79–83%.[2][17] Most
turboexpanders in industrial use since then have been based on Kapitsa's design, and centrifugal
turboexpanders have taken over almost 100% of the industrial gas liquefaction and low-
temperature process requirements.[2][17] The availability of liquid oxygen revolutionized the
production of steel using the basic oxygen steelmaking process.

In 1978, Pyotr Kapitsa was awarded a Nobel physics prize for his body of work in the area of
low-temperature physics.[18]

In 1983, San Diego Gas and Electric was among the first to install a turboexpander in a natural-
gas letdown station for energy recovery.[19]
Types
Turboexpanders can be classified by loading device or bearings.

Three main loading devices used in turboexpanders are centrifugal compressors, electrical
generators or hydraulic brakes. With centrifugal compressors and electrical generators the shaft
power from the turboexpander is recouped either to recompress the process gas or to generate
electrical energy, lowering utility bills.

Hydraulic brakes are used when the turboexpander is very small and harvesting the shaft power
is not economically justifiable.

Bearings used are either oil bearings or magnetic bearings.

One should also notice the new Quasiturbine technology [20], which is a positive displacement
rotary turbine type.