Stiffness

Stiffness is the extent to which it(an

object) resists deformation in response to
an applied force.[1]

The complementary concept is flexibility

or pliability: the more flexible an object is,
the less stiff it is.[2]
Calculations
The stiffness, k, of a body is a measure of
the resistance offered by an elastic body
to deformation. For an elastic body with a
single degree of freedom (DOF) (for
example, stretching or compression of a
rod), the stiffness is defined as

where,

F is the force on the body

is the displacement produced by the
force along the same degree of freedom
 (for instance, the change in length of a
stretched spring)

In the International System of Units,

stiffness is typically measured in newtons
per meter. In Imperial units, stiffness is
typically measured in pounds(lbs) per
inch.

Generally speaking, deflections (or

motions) of an infinitesimal element
(which is viewed as a point) in an elastic
body can occur along multiple DOF
(maximum of six DOF at a point). For
example, a point on a horizontal beam can
undergo both a vertical displacement and
a rotation relative to its undeformed axis.
When there are M degrees of freedom a M
x M matrix must be used to describe the
stiffness at the point. The diagonal terms
in the matrix are the direct-related
stiffnesses (or simply stiffnesses) along
the same degree of freedom and the off-
diagonal terms are the coupling
stiffnesses between two different degrees
of freedom (either at the same or different
points) or the same degree of freedom at
two different points. In industry, the term
influence coefficient is sometimes used
to refer to the coupling stiffness.

It is noted that for a body with multiple

DOF, the equation above generally does
not apply since the applied force
generates not only the deflection along its
own direction (or degree of freedom) but
also those along with other directions.

For a body with multiple DOF, in order to

calculate a particular direct-related
stiffness (the diagonal terms), the
corresponding DOF is left free while the
remaining should be constrained. Under
such a condition, the above equation can
be used to obtain the direct-related
stiffness for the degree of freedom which
is unconstrained. The ratios between the
reaction forces (or moments) and the
produced deflection are the coupling
stiffnesses.

A description including all possible stretch

and shear parameters is given by the
elasticity tensor.

Compliance
The inverse of stiffness is flexibility or
compliance, typically measured in units of
metres per Newton. In rheology, it may be
defined as the ratio of strain to stress,[3]
and so take the units of reciprocal stress,
e.g. 1/Pa.

Rotational stiffness
A body may also have a rotational
stiffness, k, given by

where

M is the applied moment

θ is the rotation

In the SI system, rotational stiffness is

typically measured in newton-metres per
radian.

In the SAE system, rotational stiffness is

typically measured in inch-pounds per
degree.
Further measures of stiffness are derived
on a similar basis, including:

shear stiffness - the ratio of applied

shear force to shear deformation
torsional stiffness - ratio of applied
torsion moment to angle of twist

Relationship to elasticity
The elastic modulus of a material is not
the same as the stiffness of a component
made from that material. Elastic modulus
is a property of the constituent material;
stiffness is a property of a structure or
component of a structure, and hence it is
dependent upon various physical
dimensions that describe that component.
That is, the modulus is an intensive
property of the material; stiffness, on the
other hand, is an extensive property of the
solid body that is dependent on the
material and its shape and boundary
conditions. For example, for an element in
tension or compression, the axial stiffness
is

where

A is the cross-sectional area,

 E is the (tensile) elastic modulus (or
Young's modulus),
L is the length of the element.

Similarly, the torsional stiffness of a

straight section is

where

"J" is the torsion constant for the

section,
"G" is the rigidity modulus of the
material
Note that in SI, these units yield

. For the special case of

unconstrained uniaxial tension or

compression, Young's modulus can be
thought of as a measure of the stiffness of
a structure.

Applications
The stiffness of a structure is of principal
importance in many engineering
applications, so the modulus of elasticity
is often one of the primary properties
considered when selecting a material. A
high modulus of elasticity is sought when
deflection is undesirable, while a low
modulus of elasticity is required when
flexibility is needed.

In biology, the stiffness of the extracellular

matrix is important for guiding the
migration of cells in a phenomenon called
durotaxis.

Another application of stiffness finds itself

in skin biology. The skin maintains its
structure due to its intrinsic tension,
contributed to by collagen, an extracellular
protein which accounts for approximately
75% of its dry weight.[4] The pliability of
skin is a parameter of interest that
represents its firmness and extensibility,
encompassing characteristics such as
elasticity, stiffness, and adherence. These
factors are of functional significance to
patients.[5] This is of significance to
patients with traumatic injuries to the skin,
whereby the pliability can be reduced due
to the formation and replacement of
healthy skin tissue by a pathological scar.
This can be evaluated both subjectively, or
objectively using a device such as the
Cutometer. The Cutometer applies a
vacuum to the skin and measures the
extent to which it can be vertically
distended. These measurements are able
to distinguish between healthy skin,
normal scarring, and pathological
scarring,[6] and the method has been
applied within clinical and industrial
settings to monitor both
pathophysiological sequelae, and the
effects of treatments on skin.

See also
Elasticity (physics)
Elastic modulus
Mechanical impedance
Hardness
Hooke's law
Moment of inertia
Stiffness (mathematics)
 Young's modulus
Compliant mechanism
Shore durometer
Elastography
Tactile Imaging

References
1. Baumgart F. (2000). "Stiffness--an
unknown world of mechanical science?" .
Injury. Elsevier. 31. doi:10.1016/S0020-
1383(00)80040-6 . Retrieved 2012-05-04.
"“Stiffness” = “Load” divided by
“Deformation”"
2. Martin Wenham (2001), "Stiffness and
flexibility", 200 science investigations for
young students, p. 126, ISBN 978-0-7619-
6349-3
3. V. GOPALAKRISHNAN and CHARLES F.
ZUKOSKI; "Delayed flow in thermo-reversible
colloidal gels"; Journal of Rheology; Society
of Rheology, U.S.A.; July/August 2007; 51
(4): pp. 623–644.
4. Chattopadhyay, S.; Raines, R. (August
2014). "Collagen-Based Biomaterials for
Wound Healing" . Biopolymers. 101 (8):
821–833. doi:10.1002/bip.22486 .
PMC 4203321 .
5. Ferriero, Giorgio; Di Carlo, Silvia; Salgovic,
Ludovit; Bravini, Elisabetta; Sartorio,
Francesco; Vercelli, Stefano (2015). "Post-
surgical scar assessment in rehabilitation: a
systematic review" (PDF). Physical Therapy
and Rehabilitation. 2 (1). doi:10.7243/2055-
2386-2-2 .
6. Nedelec, Bernadette; Correa, José; de
Oliveira, Ana; LaSalle, Leo; Perrault, Isabelle
(2014). "Longitudinal burn scar
quantification". Burns.
doi:10.1016/j.burns.2014.03.002 .

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