CBLM Raising Large Ruminants

COMPETENCY BASED
LEARNING MATERIALS
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Raise Large Ruminants
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Sector:
AGRICULTURE AND FISHERY SECTOR

Qualification:
ANIMAL PRODUCTION NC II
Unit of Competency:
RAISE LARGE RUMINANTS
By: JULIUS Z. CARDINES Instructor 1
Module Title:
RAISING LARGE RUMINANTS
Technical Education and Skills Development

Authority
KINOGUITAN NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL
SCHOOL
Kinoguitan Misamis Oriental
How to use this Competency- Based Learning Material
Welcome to the learner’s guide for the module: Raising Large

Ruminants. This learning material contains activities for you to complete.
The unit of competency “Raise Large Ruminants” contains the

knowledge, skills and attitudes required for ANIMAL PRODUCTION NC II as
CORE Unit of Competency.
You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order to

complete each learning outcomes of the module. In each learning outcome
there are Instruction Sheets to help you better understand the required
activities. Follow these activities on your own and answer the self-check at the
end of each learning outcome. You may remove a blank answer sheet at the
end of each module (or get from your facilitator/trainer) to write your answers
for each self-check. If you have questions, don’t hesitate to ask your facilitator
for assistance.
Instruction sheets:
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 Information Sheet – This will provide you with information (Concepts,
principles and other relevant information) needed in performing certain
activities.
 Job Sheet – This is designed to guide you how to do job that will
contribute to the attainment of the learning outcome.
 Assignment Sheet – The assignment sheet is a guide used to

enhance (follow up) what you have learned in the information sheet,
operation sheet or job sheet.
 Worksheet – are the different forms that you need to fill up in certain
activities that you performed
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)
You may already have some or most of the knowledge and skills
covered in this learner’s guide because you have:
 Been working for some time
 Already completed training in this area
If you can demonstrate to your trainer that you are competent in a

particular outcome, you don’t have to do the same training again.
Talk to your trainer about having them formally recognized. If you have
a qualification or certificate of competence from previous training, show it to
your trainer. If the skills you acquired are still current and relevant to the unit/s
of competency they may become part of the evidence you can present for
RPL. If you are not sure about the accuracy of your skills discuss this with
your trainer.
After completing this module ask your trainer to assess your

competency. Result of your assessment will be recorded in your competency
profile. All the learning activities are designed for you to complete at your own
pace.
Inside this learner’s guide you will find the activities for you to complete
and at the back are the relevant information sheets for each learning
outcome. Each learning outcome may have more than one learning activities.
At the back of this learner’s guide is a Learner’s Diary. Use this diary
to record important dates, jobs undertaken and other workplace events that
will assist you in providing further details to your trainer or an assessor. A
Record of Achievement is also provided for your trainer to complete once
you complete the module.
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UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Raise Large Ruminants
MODULE TITLE : Raising Large Ruminants
CODE : AGR621304
MODULE DESCRIPTION : This module covers the skills, knowledge and

attitudes required to raise large ruminants.
NOMINAL DURATION : 90 hours
CERTIFICATE LEVEL : NC II
PREREQUISITE :
INSTRUCTIONS
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PRE-REQUISITE MODULES. Before you start this Module, you must already
have finished the Module on Tool competencies and Common competencies;
In his module you will learn and practice how to Raise Swine, you
must do the following activities;
1. Follow the Instructions/ Learning Steps of each Activity Sheet found

before each learning outcome of this module and read the information
sheet.
2 Follow these activities on your own and self-check at the end of each
learning outcome. If you have questions, please don’t hesitate to ask
your facilitator for assistance.
2. When you are ready, ask your facilitator for an evaluation.
INTRODUCTION:
This module was prepared to help you achieve the required

competency in Raising Large Ruminants. This will be the source of
information for you to acquire knowledge and skills in this particular trade, with
minimum supervision or help from your instructor. With the aid of this
materials you will acquire the competency and at your own pace.
After going over the Module on RAISING LARGE RUMINANTS, you
are now ready to learn how to Raise Swine; go over the reading materials and
Reference Materials for further reading.
MODULE DESCRIPTOR:
This unit covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes required to produce
large ruminants such as beef, dairy and buffaloes. It includes selection of animals
for breeding, appropriate care and management at various physiological stages
of the herd, maintaining records, monitoring and implementing appropriate herd
health program, including waste management.
SUMMARY OF LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Upon completion of this module, the trainee/student must be able to:
1. select and manage breeder cattles and buffaloes

2. provide feed and implement feeding practices
3. manage the general herd
4. provide life support facilities
5. implement health herd program
6. maintain and analyze records
LO1. Select and manage breeder cattles and buffaloes

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ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
1.1 Suitable and superior breeds of cattle and buffaloes are identified and selected
based on industry and BAI standards
1.2 Breeding objectives are identified and formulated to which selected cattle and
buffaloes will be raised
1.3 Breeding systems for cattle and buffaloes are identified and implemented
according to enterprise procedures
1.4 Breeders are properly fed, managed and provided appropriate support activities
for efficient rearing of bulls and cows
1.5 Reproductive physiology of large ruminants is discussed according to
enterprise procedures
1.6 Natural or synchronized estrus among heifers/cows is observed
LO2. Provide feed and implement feeding practices
2.1 Feed resources appropriate for cattle and buffaloes at various
physiological stages are identified based on industry and BAI standard
2.2 Feed additives and mineral supplements are given according to
enterprise procedures
2.3 Appropriate feeding system is implemented
LO3. manage the general herd
3.1 Claves, growers and fatteners are reared according to enterprise
requirements
3.2 Sound stocking rate is ensured and general herd is managed
appropriately
3.3 Breeding cows and bulls are reared according to enterprise
requirements
LO4. Provide life support facilities
4.1 Areas and support system for pasture establishment and
maintenance, housing and infrastructure facilities and tools and
equipment are identified based on industry and BAI standards
4.2 Pasture grasses and legumes suited for general herd are identified
4.3 Housing system and related infrastructures for general herd is
identified\
4.4 Natural mating or artificial insemination in cattle and buffaloes are
used according to enterprise procedures
LO5. Implement health herd program
5.1 Immunization program is adopted in accordance with industry
standards\
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5.2 Medication program is implemented based on industry and farm
requirements
LO6. Maintain and analyze records
6.1 Records are kept, updated and analyzed according to organization standard
6.2 Economic viability of the project is analyzed
LO1. Select and Manage Breeder Cattles and Buffaloes
Learning Steps Resources
Read Info Sheet on Types and breeds Info Sheet 1: Types and breeds of
of cattle and buffaloes cattle and buffaloes
1. Perform Self Check Self Check Questionnaire 1.

Questionnaire.
Answer Key 1.
2. Refer to Answer Key.
3. After finishing this Learning

Activity, proceed to the next one.
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LO1. Information Sheet No. 1
Types and Breeds of Cattle and Buffaloes
Breeds of Dairy Cattle:
1. Sahiwal
The Sahiwal originated in the dry Punjab region which lies along the Indian-
Pakistani border. They were once kept in large herd by professional herdsmen
called "Junglies.
The Sahiwal is one of the best dairy breeds in India and Pakistan. It is tick-
resistant, heat-tolerant and noted for its high resistance to parasites, both
internal and external.
Cows average 2270 kg of milk during a lactation while suckling a calf and
much higher milk yields have been recorded. Due to their heat tolerance and
high milk production they have been exported to other Asian countries as well
as Africa and the Caribbean.
As oxen they are generally docile and lethargic, making them more useful for
slow work.
Their color can range from reddish brown through to the more predominant
red, with varying amounts of white on the neck, and the underline. In males
the color darkens towards the extremities, such as the head, legs and tails.
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The Sahiwal in Australia
Sahiwal arrived in Australia via New Guinea in the early 1950’s. In Australia,
the Sahiwal was initially selected as a dual-purpose breed.
It played a valuable role in the development of the two Australian tropical dairy
breeds, the Australian Milking Zebu and the Australian Fresian Sahiwal.
Sahiwals are now predominately used in Australia for beef production, as

crossing high grade Sahiwal sires with Bos taurus animals produced a
carcass of lean quality with desirable fat cover.
The Sahiwal is the heaviest milker of all Zebu breeds and display a well
developed udder. Sahiwals demonstrate the ability to sire small, fast-growing
calves and are noted for their hardiness under unfavorable climatic conditions.
2. Holstein Friesian
The Holstein (US and Canada) or Friesian (UK, Australia, Europe) is a breed
of dairy cow known today as the world's highest production dairy animal.
Originating in Europe, Holsteins were developed in what is now the
Netherlands and more specifically in the two northern provinces of North
Holland and Friesland (not from Holstein, Germany[citation needed]). The original
animals were the regional cattle of the Batavians and Frisians, two tribes who
settled in the coastal Rhine region around 2,000 years ago.
In Europe, the breed is used for milk in the North, meat in the South - Since
1945, European development has led to cattle production becoming
increasingly regionalized. Over 60% of the cattle herd and under 50% of the
usable agricultural area, but over 80% of dairy production, is to be found to
the north of a line joining Bordeaux and Venice. This change led to the need
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for specialized animals for dairy (and beef) production. Until this time, milk
and beef had been produced from dual-purpose animals, and the leading
breeds, national derivatives of the Dutch Friesian, had become very different
animals from their American counterparts. It was the obvious choice to import
superior production animals to cross with the European black and whites. For
this reason, in modern usage of the word Holstein is used to describe North
American stock and its use in Europe. Friesian, denotes animals of a
traditional European ancestry. Crosses between the two are described by the
term Holstein-Friesian.
3. Jersey
A Jersey cow in the western United States.
Jersey cattle are a small breed of dairy cattle. Originally bred on the British
Channel Island of Jersey, the breed is popular for the high butterfat content of
its milk and the lower maintenance costs incurred by its lower bodyweight, as
well as its genial disposition. Possibly the best known example of the breed
outside the United Kingdom is Elsie the Cow, the famous mascot of Borden,
Inc., in the United States. Her face appears on cans of Eagle Brand
Sweetened Condensed Milk, cheeses, fresh and shelf stable milk.
The Jersey cow is quite small, ranging from only 360 to 540 kg (800 to 1200
pounds). The main factor contributing to the popularity of the breed has been
their greater economy of production, due to:
 the ability to carry a larger number of effective milking cows per unit
area due to lower body weight, hence lower maintenance requirements
 high butterfat conditions, 6% butterfat and 4% protein and to thrive on
locally produced food.[1] Bulls are also small, ranging from 540 to 820
kg (1200 to 1800 pounds), and are notoriously aggressive.
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Castrated males can be trained into fine oxen which, due to their small size
and gentle nature make them popular with young teamsters. Jersey oxen are
not as strong as larger breeds however and are generally out of favor among
competitive teamsters.
Due to the small size, docile and inquisitive character and attractive features
of the Jersey cow, small herds were imported into England by aristocratic
landowners as adornment for aesthetically landscaped parks.
Jerseys are adaptable to hot climates and are bred in the hottest parts of
Brazil.
Jerseys come in all shades of brown, from light tan to almost black. All
purebred Jerseys have a lighter band around their muzzle, a dark switch (long
hair on the end of the tail), and black hooves, although in recent years color
regulations have been relaxed to allow a broadening of the gene pool.
4. Red Sindhi
Red Sindhi cattle are the most popular of all Zebu dairy breeds. The breed
originated in the Sindh province of Pakistan. They are widely kept for milk
production across India, Pakistan, Bangla Desh, Sri Lanka, and other
countries. They have been used for crossbreeding with temperate (European)
origin dairy breeds in many countries to combine their tropical adaptations
(heat tolerance, tick resistance, disease resistance, fertility at higher
temperatures, etc.) with the higher milk production found in temperate
regions. It has been crossed with Jerseys in many places, including India, the
United States, Australia, Sri Lanka, etc. Other breeds it has been crossed with
include Holstein-Friesian, Brown Swiss and Danish Red. It has also been
used to improve beef and dual purpose cattle in many tropical countries, as it
is sufficiently meaty to produce good beef calves in such crosses and the high
milk production helps give a fast growing calf which is ready for market at one
year. It is somewhat smaller than the very similar Sahiwal and produces a little
less milk per animal as a result. This has caused it to lose favor with some
commercial dairies in India and Pakistan, which have been phasing out their
Red Sindhi herds by breeding to Sahiwal bulls for a few generations. The
resulting cows, which are three-quarters Sahiwal and one-quarter Red Sindhi,
can not be distinguished from pure Sahiwal cattle. The Red Sindhi range in
color from a deep reddish brown to a yellowish red, but most commonly a
deep red. They are distinguished from the other dairy breed of Sindh, the
Tharparkar or White Sindhi, both by color and form, the Red Sindhi is smaller,
rounder, with a more typical dairy form, and with short, curved horns, while the
Tharparkar are taller with a shape more typical of Zebu draft breeds, and with
longer, lyre shaped horns.
Red Sindhi cattle are also used for milk production in Brazil, but this race of
zebu is not popular as others.
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In Gauriakarma, in Hazaribagh in the Indian state of Jharkand, a farm was
established to maintain the germplasm of Red Sindhi cattle. Here, bulls are
given free of cost to the villagers of the state.
Beef Breeds:
1. Brahman
Origin: Several breeds of cattle exist in India. Most of them have been named
after the Indian province in which they were developed. In Europe and South
America they are known collectively as Zebu, and in the United States they
are called Brahman. They are the oldest existing breed of domestic cattle.
Brahman cattle are characterized by a large hump over the shoulders

and loose skin in the area of the dewlap. They have drooping ears, and
instead of the “moo” of other cattle they produce a sound resembling a grunt.
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The most prevalent color is some shade of grey, although red is very
acceptable.
2. Simbrah
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Simbrah has been described as "The All Purpose American Breed".
Developed in America, Simbrah genetics may be called on to infuse superior
maternal traits into a herd.
Or, due to their rapid growth, vigor, and heat tolerance, Simbrah may be the
answer in a terminal cross program. In the final analysis, Simbrah will produce
a lean, high quality beef product.
Originally developed in the hot, humid areas of the Gulf Coast, Simbrah have
shown they can Thrive in the Northwest and Northeast regions of the United
States where temperatures may range 115 degrees in the summer to 25
degrees below zero in the winter.
There is great interest in the breed worldwide. Simbrah are being developed
in many areas where Zebu breeding predominates as well as other areas
where Simbrah’s unique blend of features is desired.
Breeds of Simbrah know the importance of producing practical cattle with

economic advantages. Simbrah have been developed to be as functional and
trouble free as possible.
Breeders stress structurally sound underlines, i.e. a clean sheath teamed with
large scrotal size on the bulls and a well-attached udder with small teats on
the cows. Many also put emphasis on pigmented eyes, thick muscling, and
reasonable dispositions. Some programs produce polled Simbrah.
Commercial operators appreciate the long and productive life span of Simbrah
cattle. Frequently, well beyond 10 years of age, unpampered cows are still
weaning heavy calves and bulls are still breeding. This can mean a significant
savings in replacement costs for the rancher.
After weaning, most Simbrah calves will perform well if placed directly in the
feedlot. At this phase in their lives, they are growing rapidly and will gain very
efficiently. They can produce a very desirable carcass at 12-15 months of age.
Enthusiastic Simbrah breeders are utilizing all the tools, animal science and
technology available to modern animal breeders.
3. Philippine Native
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Originating from Chinese and Mexican cattle the Philippine Native is used
primarily for milk and as a draft animal. The males of this breed will exhibit a
small hump. The mature body weight in the females is 280 - 300 kg.
4. Santa Gertrudis
Origin: The Santa Gertudis breed of beef cattle was developed on the King
Ranch in southeast Texas. The breed gets its name from the Santa Gertudis
divisions of the famed King Ranch.
The breed was developed by crossing Brahman beef-type bulls on
beef-type Shorthorns. The Santa Gertudis is approximately three-eights
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Brahman and five eights Shorthorn. It is a large beef animal, with its mature
cows attaining weights of 1,600 pounds and mature bulls 2,000 pounds on
pasture. It is solid, cherry-red in color, and horned. The ears are somewhat
pendulant. It is smoother and more compact than the Brahman, but it retains
the loose hide and underline skin folds characteristics of its Brahman
ancestry.
The breed is especially adapted to subtropical climates and semiarid
grazing conditions. They are noted for their ability to make large gains on
grass, to rustle for a living on areas of sparse forage, and to tolerate heat and
insects.
5. Brangus
Origin: Brangus is a breed of cattle developed by blending Brahman blood

with that of the Aberdeen-Angus. The term Brangus refers to animals that
have three-eight Brahman and five-eight Aberdeen-Angus breeding.
The tolerance of the Brahman to heat, insects, and poor grazing
conditions has been successfully blended with the winter hardness and
excellent beef qualities of the Angus to produce a fast gaining good – quality
beef animal adapted to a wide variety of climatic conditions.
Brangus is black, hornless, somewhat less compact than the Angus, but much
smoother and more compact than the Brahman. The bred has shown up very
well in feed-lot tests with other breeds.
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6. Beef master
Origin: The beefmaster breed of beef cattle had its beginning on the ranch of
E. C. Lasater at Falfurrias, Texas. Mr. Lasater was interested in developing a
breed of beef cattle capable of withstanding the hot, humid climate, the pest,
and the diseases of his area. He wish to eliminate caner eye, which had been
troublesome problems in his herd.
Beefmasters have no specific color. They may be dun, brown, reddish
brown, red, and red with white extensions and spots. They are large and
horned and have rapid growth rates.
Breeds of Buffalos
1. Nili Ravi
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The Nili-Ravi buffalo is a milk type of buffalo breed. They are found mainly in
Lahore, Sheikhupura, Faisalabad, Sahiwal, Multan and Bahawal Nagar
districts in Punjab Province. Their color is black and their average weight at
maturity is 800 kg for the male and 525 kg for the female.
They have a wedge shape, massive frame, small curly horns, and wall eyes.
They often have white markings on the forehead, face, muzzle and legs and
white switch of tail (buffaloes with such markings highly desired and popularly
called "Panj Kalian"). They have a large, strong udder and are generally
docile. Average age at maturity is 30 months in males and 36 months in
females. Longevity of production is good. White markings extending above
hock and knee and over the neck and body, constitute a serious
disqualification.
2. Murrah Buffalo
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The Murrah breed of Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is the premier milking
buffalo. It is originally from Haryana and Punjab states of India/Pakistan, but
has been used to improve the milk production of dairy buffalo in other
countries, such as Italy, Bulgaria, Egypt and Pakistan. In Italy, it is the basis of
Mozzarella cheese production, and therefore Italian Pizza. By Italian law,
Mozzarella may only be made from buffalo milk, which is preferred for its very
high butterfat content, up to 16% compared with 4% for European (Bos
taurus) dairy breeds such as Jersey cattle and 8% for Zebu (Bos indicus)
breeds such as Sahiwal.
Other Breeds of Buffalo :
1. Native Carabaos
2. American Buffaloes
3. Cambodian Buffaloes
4. Crosses
Self Check Questionnaire No. 1:
1. What are the breeds of Cattle?
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2. What are the breeds of buffalo?
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Answer Key No. 1:
1. Breeds of Cattle
1. Philippine Native
2. Brahman
3. Sahiwal
4. Holstein Friesian
5. Beef Master
6. Brangus
7. Santa Gertudis
8. Jersy
9. Red Sendhi
10. Simbrah
2. Breeds of Bufallo
1. Nili-Ravi
2. Murrah Buffalo
3. Native Carabaos
4. Canbodian Bufallo
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LO1. Information Sheet No.2
Criteria for Selection of a Good Replacement Breeder Stocks
a. Bull
b. Heifers
c. Cows
Beef cattle criteria
When judging beef cattle, the judge looks for
 A good head carriage- how the head is held on the cow. This also has
a lot to do with the neck on the cow—the neck should be broad, sit
evenly on the shoulders, and the base must be in line with the spine.
 A long body is also desirable to the judge, as this means that the cow
will hold much more meat than a cow with a shorter body.
 The cow must also have strong, sturdy legs that show no signs of cow-
hock, bow-leg, or sickle-hock. If the cow has any of these structural
problems, there could be a risk of permanent injury. They must also be
well muscled, and everything must be as large as possible, but all
limbs must still remain in proportion to the size of the body.
 As much muscle as possible in order to maximize the profit to the
farmer. However, as a beef cow is much heavier than a dairy cow and
puts much more weight on the hooves, it is very important that there
are no signs of irregular wearing of hooves, as this may be a sign of
structural problems in the leg.
The head
On cows, the judge usually cannot check their teeth without using a head bail,
as cattle are sensitive around the mouth area. When checking their teeth, the
teeth must sit evenly- if the cow has overshot or undershot teeth (much like an
overbite or an underbite) then this could cause problems for the cow later.
These may include soreness in the mouth, and the cow will not be able to eat
as well, and will therefore not be as muscled.
Since the teeth in a cow can't be checked, the judge must look for other
symptoms in the jaw. The judge usually goes through the following system:
 They check that the muzzle is as broad as possible, but still in

proportion.
 They then stand a bit further back and look at the entire head. The
judge is looking for proportion in the head and whether it 'matches' the
rest of the body.
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When looking at the head of a cow, most judges believe that it is not
necessary to look at the ears. Some breeds may have big ears, some may
have small ears, but that will have no effect on the meat produced by the cow.
When looking at the head, there are a few key things that the judges are
looking for. One of the main things the judge looks for when judging any
animal is the structure. In most animals, if one joint is set incorrectly, there is a
good chance that others are also set incorrectly. The judges must check that
the head is in proportion to the rest of the body. It should also be held
naturally high- if the head is set naturally below the shoulders of the cow,
there is a likely chance that there is something structurally incorrect there, and
also there may be some other structure faults throughout the rest of the body.
However, the head shouldn't be held too high- this can suggest some
aggressive and bold nature in the cow. However, this will also have no effect
on the quality of meat produced, and in most competitions it would not matter
if a cow was more active than other cows, provided that it wasn't causing
harm to other people and their livestock. If the cow is causing excessive
damage, the judge will have to ask for that cow to leave the ring, and the cow
would be promptly disqualified from the event.
Topline
The term 'topline' refers to the back of the cow being judged in the showing.
On a cow, it should be straight, however, the cow is not a board, and should
therefore have a slight bend in the back, as well as having a relaxed back. As
a bull gets older, he develops a hump on his neck. This is a normal
characteristic of bulls from all breeds, and it is only worrying to the judge if the
hump, or crest, is not there. When the bull is young, the crest will not be as
noticeable, but as he gets older, it will become a lot more obvious. With some
breeds, such as the Brahman, the hump will be above the shoulder. Once
again, breed characteristics are important aspects of judging, and the judge
hired for the event will have a lot of knowledge on the breed characteristics of
that breed he or she is judging, and usually the judges specialize in only a few
breeds because of this reason. The shoulder blades on a cow should be neat-
they should be the same on either side of the back, and they shouldn't stick
out too much- on a beef cow, this area should have some muscle. The
shoulder blades should also be set in line with the spine- if they are not, the
cow could be structurally incorrect. As with the shoulder blades, all joints in
the back should be level with the spine, from the shoulder blades to the hip
and the pins of the cow. However, some cows' pins do sit slightly lower than
the spine. This is acceptable, but it is undesirable for any of the joints to drop
off from the spine too much. If joints are set too low from the spine, this will
affect the angle of the spine, as well as the angle of the ribs and pelvis, and
may cause the animal to walk with a slight waddle. This is not desirable in a
beef cow. This can also cause problems with the legs, which means that the
hooves do not wear evenly on the ground. This can cause permanent
lameness and other conditions at some point in the animal's life.
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The legs
When looking at the legs in an animal, the judge is looking mainly at the
structure, and for some muscle. As mentioned before, when one joint is set
incorrectly on an animal, there is a high chance that the other joints will be set
incorrectly as well. When looking at the legs, the cow should be standing
squarely on the hooves. This means that the cow will have to also stand
squarely on the leg- therefore, the leg must have some bend in it. If the bend
is too much, this is referred to as having too much angle in the leg. If the
cow's leg is straight, this means that it is post-legged. The cow must have
some bend in the hock, however, but not too much. If the cow has too much
or too little bend in the legs, the bones in the shoulder blade will be set at
either too sharp or too flat of an angle. The bones in the shoulder meet
together in an L shape, tilted to the right. We want this angle to be about
roughly 90 degrees.
The legs on a cow should be long and well muscled. In is inadvisable to have
short, but heavily muscled cattle, as it is preferable for the cow to be larger,
have a lot of muscle, but also have some fat. The fat, however, must be
minimal- the cow should have some fat, but not a lot.
Looking at the legs of cattle, just like on any other animal, it is one of the most
important areas to look at. If the joints in the leg are not set correctly, then it
as immediate area of concern. When looking at the legs of cattle, the first
areas the judge will look at are the shoulder blades and the hocks, the joint in
the middle of the leg. When looking at the shoulder blades, they must be in
line with the spine, not above or below. However, it is common to see animals
with their shoulders set slightly above the spine, however, this is still an area
of concern, as this is not where the shoulder is supposed to be set. When
looking at the hocks, they should have a bit of bend in them, however not too
much or too little. If the angle is too straight, we call that post-legged. If the
angle is too bent, we call that hocked. Both of these conditions are very
serious, as they will affect the angle the hoof strikes the ground. This means
that there will be irregular wearing of the hooves, and can lead to permanent
lameness.
A lot of the potential in beef cattle lies in structure, and how the muscle is set
along the body.
Main body and ribs
When looking at the body, the judge wants to see as much rib extension as
possible- this means having a large chest area, adding more muscle to the
animal. The amount of muscle must be consistent throughout the animal, all
the way from neck to the rump. The body should also be as long as possible,
but everything must remain in proportion to the rest of the body.
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The spine should be as heavily muscled as possible, as this is where most
steaks come from. However, there MUST remain a consistent amount of
muscling on the body- it is not desirable to have an animal who is heavily
muscled in the front shoulders, but not much muscle on the back. Also, when
looking under the body, although there should be a dip in the middle, the dip
should definitely not be right at the front- this can also suggest having too
much muscle. In general, the most muscle is at the back of the animal,
however, we must keep in mind when judging that there is consistency.
Rump
When standing behind an animal, there are a few things the judge looks for.
 When standing directly behind a her, they should see only the rump,
and none of the body. This means that there is a good amount of
muscle on the rump.
 If there is a wide rump, the feet should be set apart wider, as well.
 Like above, if the rump is smaller, the feet should be set closer
together- if they are not, the cow could have an incorrect structure.
The judge will step backwards again and have another look at the legs from
behind. The legs should look straight going all the way down.
 If the legs are bent inwards, this is called cow-hocked. This means that
the hocks are pointing inwards, towards each other.
 If the legs are bent outwards, this is called bow-leg. This is a condition
that can affect almost any animal.
In general, a lot of muscle should be on the rump.
 The widest part of the rump should be the stifle- about halfway down.
The rump should also be round, and not bony. When standing behind the cow,
the rump should obscure any of the body except for the back of the head, as
this means there is a lot more meat on the animal.
Hooves and pasterns
After looking at leg structure, the judge then wants to look at the hooves and
pasterns. The pasterns are the bones that run from the top of the hoof to the
fetlock. As the leg structure affects much of the hoof structure, the hooves are
very vulnerable. If the animal does not step on them correctly, lameness, even
permanent lameness, may occur in the animal's life. Although in the judging
ring it will be hard to see the cow's feet, there are a few things the judge must
know, and look out for along the way.
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 There are two claws on a cow's feet.
 These "dew claws" need to be of equal length, and shouldn't curve
around too much.
 However, there should be a slope from the pastern joint down the hoof
to the ground.
 The heel of the hoof needs to be sitting above the ground, but not too
far above the ground- we do need some bend in the pastern.
 The skin that is attached to the hoof needs to be above the ground as
well.
 When the pastern is too straight, it may appear as if the cow is walking
on tip-toes, but this is a problem, as it means that the hoof is not
striking the ground properly.
 Hooves need to be of equal size and correct shape. Hooves shouldn't
curl in, under, or be to small. This is the foundation of the animal.
Walking
In a judging ring, the animals will be walking. When the animal is walking
freely, the back hooves should step into the front hooves' footprints.
 If an animal is sickle-hocked, there will be some overstepping, which

means he is stepping over his footprints.
 When the animal is post-legged, under-stepping will occur. Under-
stepping means the cow is not reaching his footprints.
 If the judge sees any overstepping or under-stepping, they would then
take another look at the leg structure of that particular cow.
 If he or she sees uneven footprints in the ground, this may also
suggest some structure problems in the animal, and they would
therefore have another look at the leg structure of the cow.
Fat and muscle
When animals are around the same size, in general, the bones will be the
same size. However, there could be two cows of the same size, and their
weights will be completely different, as one would have more muscle than the
other. On a beef animal, we want as much muscle as possible. However, we
do want some fat on the animal- just not too much.
 In general, anything below the point of the elbow is fat.

 The brisket (the flap on a cow's neck) is only fat and skin. If the brisket
is small, the animal carries more muscle. If the brisket is larger, there
will generally be more fat on the animal. Another way of saying how
much fat is in the brisket is looking at how many folds of skin there is.
 The flank of an animal is generally only a flap of skin, just under where
the joints of the leg and hip are. If this is just a small fold ok skin, the
animal is better muscled. If this is large, then the animal is carrying
more fat.
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 Once looking at the brisket and flank of the cow, the judge looks at the
tail-head. If this is large, this should confirm that the animal is carrying
more fat than it should. If this is not large, then the animal is leaner,
and is carrying more muscle.
 The ribs, point of the shoulder and the spine have no muscle- if this
area seems 'muscly', it is really fat. The judge must keep in mind that
all breeds are different on where fat is deposited. Before people judge
cattle, they should know a lot about the breed to be judged, and where
the fat is usually deposited in that breed.
 Also, the judge must keep in mind that that the rump of an animal is
where the most muscle will be, and less fat.
There are also a number of places on the animal that a lot of muscle should
be.
 On either side of the spine- this is where a lot of steaks come from.
 Between the knee and the elbow of an animal- the forearm.
It will also be very obvious looking at some cows where a lot of muscle is,
because of the high muscle definition.
Bulls
When looking at bulls, there are a few things that differ from normal cattle
judging that the judge will be looking out for.
 There will be a crest above the neck- the judge mustn’t get this
confused with the shoulder. On big bulls, the crest may even be higher
than the head, creating the illusion that the head is set too far down on
the bull. This may not be true.
 If the head really does look like it is set too low on the bull, the judge
will ignore the crest and look at all of the structure on the animal,
especially on the front half, just to make sure the head is set correctly.
 The greater size of the testicles, the more cows the bull can service.
 The sheath on a bull should be firmly attached and not pendulous. If
the sheath is pendulous, the bull is of more risk to grass seed problems
or injury.
Cows
As there are differences when judging bulls, there are also differences when
judging cows that are very important.
 The udders on females should not be pendulous.

 Teat size and placement is critical, but keep in mind that everything
should still remain in proportion.
 Coarse hair indicates low fertility.
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 The navel should not be pendulous.
 If the navel does appear pendulous, there is a chance that her brothers
or sons may have the same problem.
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Self Check Questionnaire No.2:
1. When judging beef cattle, the judge looks for?
2. What is Cattle judging?
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Answer Key No.2
1. When judging beef cattle, the judge looks for
 A good head carriage- how the head is held on the cow. This also has
a lot to do with the neck on the cow—the neck should be broad, sit
evenly on the shoulders, and the base must be in line with the spine.
 A long body is also desirable to the judge, as this means that the cow
will hold much more meat than a cow with a shorter body.
 The cow must also have strong, sturdy legs that show no signs of cow-
hock, bow-leg, or sickle-hock. If the cow has any of these structural
problems, there could be a risk of permanent injury. They must also be
well muscled, and everything must be as large as possible, but all
limbs must still remain in proportion to the size of the body.
 As much muscle as possible in order to maximize the profit to the
farmer. However, as a beef cow is much heavier than a dairy cow and
puts much more weight on the hooves, it is very important that there
are no signs of irregular wearing of hooves, as this may be a sign of
structural problems in the leg.
2. Cattle judging - is the process of judging a series of cattle and

pronouncing a first, second and third place animal based on each
animal's qualities.
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Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology of Cattle and Buffaloes
Concepts of reproductive physiology
Anatomy of the reproductive organs in the cow
It is important you learn the anatomy of the organs that are involved in the
reproductive physiology of the cow. This information will help you to
understand the various processes involved in reproduction. The ovary and
uterus are shown in Figure 1. For detailed descriptions of these parts consult
veterinary books in your library.
Figure1. Reproductive tract of a cow showing uterus and ovaries.
Cycles of reproduction
Most cattle in SSA breed all year round. It is important to understand the
basics of the reproductive stages so that management can be applied to
attain high productivity. We have divided the life of the cow in four cycles. It is
important to understand these cycles because this knowledge is important to
formulate strategies to achieve higher productivity.
The life cycle
The three main phases in the lifetime of a cow are pre-puberty (before
cycling), puberty (initiation of cycling) and the reproductive periods. This
module will describe these periods briefly.
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Pre-puberty. This is the period before cycling starts. During this period the
ovaries are small. Incomplete cycles where ovulation does not occur are
detected first. The onset of ovulatory cyclic activity follows and is a gradual
process. The luteinising hormone (LH) can be detected in blood plasma at
normal adult basal levels and peaks as early as 6 weeks of age and continues
up to puberty. In the bull calf, the size of the testicles indicates the approach
to puberty and production of viable semen. The changes are associated with
androgen rather than LH.
Puberty. Puberty (initiation of cycling) may be defined as ‘the time when the
reproductive organs become functional’. In the female, it is defined as the time
when the first functional oestrus occurs and the earliest age at which
reproduction can occur. Usually genotype or breed, nutrition, season and
other environmental factors (e.g. climate) determine the age at which puberty
is attained. As a consequence, large variations occur between and within
breeds. The age at first calf delivery may also vary as a result.
 Puberty is a more dramatic change in the female (heifer) than in the

male (bull).
 It is associated with increase in the ovarian size.
 In the 2 months preceding puberty there is no change in follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH). However, once the initiation of cycling is
attained, eggs develop in the follicle under the stimulation of FSH/LH.
 Sometimes one or two silent cycles precede first oestrus.
Under-nutrition results in delay of the onset of puberty in heifers. Heifers that

are well fed grow faster and attain puberty at an earlier age.
Reproductive period. Breeding activities in cattle can continue for many

years. A cow is born with a full supplement of ova; at the age of 15 to 20
years, a cow will have no primordial follicles. Testicular size is a good indicator
of sperm production and reproductive activity and is easy to estimate (Figure
3.2). Males produce sperm continuously. Even though efficiency of sperm
production peaks at 11 months, total production continues to increase with
increase in testicular size. Both cow and bull reach senescence at about age
15 years but this is of no practical value, as cattle are usually not kept to this
age.
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Figure 2. Measuring testicular size.
The annual breeding cycle
Even though cattle in the tropics can breed all year round, the efficiency of
cows and bulls is affected by many environmental factors.
 Bulls show seasonal variation in fertility due to the effect of

temperature.
 In zebu cattle (Bos indicus) other environmental factors, such as
temperature and rainfall assume more importance.
 Pubertal heifers conceive during the dry season and calve during the
rainy season when there is enough pasture. This synchronization
enables the heifer to build up its body condition during the late phase of
pregnancy and before calving.
The estrous cycle
Estrus, or heat, is defined as the time when the female is receptive to the
male. It occurs in cycles.
Duration of estrus
The length of the estrous cycle is 20 days in heifers and 21 days in cows.
Estrus is short, 6–30 hours, but it varies among breeds and the range is
considerable. The first day of estrus is usually designated as day zero.
Ovulation occurs after the end of estrus.
Events in the estrous cycle
The events in estrus follow a specific timed sequence (Figure 3.3).
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Figure 3.3. Events in the estrous cycle of the cow.
Luteal phase. A corpus luteum is formed under the influence of pituitary LH.
The function of the corpus luteum is to secrete progesterone, which reduces
the amount of the hormone estrogen produced. As long as the corpus luteum
is functional, estrogen is unable to trigger formation of the follicle (a large
fluid-filled sac containing the egg). By day 18 the corpus luteum degenerates
due to prostaglandin (released from the uterus) and goes through a
regression phase. Associated with corpus luteum regression is a decline in
progesterone (Figure 3.3).
Follicular phase. Following the decline in progesterone, an increase in

estrogen (mainly oestradiol-7) takes place and peaks before the onset of
estrus (Figure 3). Estrogen stimulates the release of gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. GnRH stimulates the release of
FSH and LH from the pituitary gland. LH rises to a peak at the beginning of
estrus. FSH and LH stimulate the development of follicles in the ovary. One
follicle predominates which secretes estrogen and triggers a wide range of
anatomical and physiological changes in the cow [see Signs of estrus, p. 25].
All the changes ensure that if the cow is mated, the sperm will stay alive until
one of the spermatozoa will effect fertilization. The follicle ruptures and
releases the egg (ovulation).
Conception. Mating may take place followed by conception. The luteal phase
of the cycle starts again (Figure 3.3). In this case the embryo develops and
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the corpus luteum does not regress but continues to secrete progesterone
and remains active throughout the pregnancy. If there is no mating or
fertilization fails to occur, progesterone secretion ceases abruptly on day 17
or 18 of the luteal phase. This is brought about by the uterus releasing
uterine luteolysin which initiates the regression of the corpus luteum. The
regression is followed by growth and maturation of another follicle and the
cycle starts again (Figure 3).
Example: How to assess progesterone during oestrous cycles
The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique can be used to

assess progesterone levels during the estrous cycle (Boland et al. 1985).
Mukasa-Mugerwa et al. (1990) assessed progesterone with a commercially
available ELISA technique in 20 Ethiopian Menz ewes. In their experiment the
estrous cycle averaged 17.2 ± 1.0 days (range 15–20 days). Progesterone
values were under 1.0 ng/ml from 2 days before to 4 days after estrus.
Hormone concentrations rose steadily to peak at 5.0–5.6 ng/ml on days 10 to
14. This was followed by a rapid decline to 3.0 ng/ml (53% of day 14 peak
value) on day 15; 0.8 ng/ml (15% of peak value) on day 16; and 0.2 ng/ml
(3.7% of peak value) on the day before estrus. It was concluded that ELISA
method can be used for progesterone determination in Ethiopian sheep, and
also, that progesterone level of under 1.0 ng/ml are indicative of either
anoestrus or the follicular and early luteal phases of the estrous cycle.
Signs of estrus
The major signs shown by a cow on heat are:
 The cow stands to be mounted (Figure 3.4).

 Ruffled hair and mud on the rump and flanks of the cow on heat can be
seen due to mounting by other cows or bulls.
 The cow tends to mount other cows.
 The cow is restless and noisy.
 The cow nudges and butts other cows.
 The cow exhibits chin resting, sniffing and licking other cows.
 The cervix produces clear mucus, which is seen at the vulva.
 The vulva is swollen and pink.
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Figure4. Hetrosexual/homosexual behaviour: A major indicator of estrus in
cows.
Factors affecting cycling in animals
Cycling in animals is affected by physiological, pathological and

environmental factors (e.g. high temperature) (Figure 3.5). Prolonged
suckling, pregnancy and mummification (foetal death without abortion or
resorption) delay estrus leading to a condition known as anoestrus. Diseases
that affect the ovary can lead to a long anoestrus or failure to come to heat.
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Figure 3.5. Possible causes of anoestrus in cows.
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1. What are the signs of estrous in cattle?

2. What is estrus cycle?
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Answer Key No. 3:
1. The major signs shown by a cow on heat are:
1. The cow stands to be mounted (Figure 3.4).

2. Ruffled hair and mud on the rump and flanks of the cow on heat can be
seen due to mounting by other cows or bulls.
3. The cow tends to mount other cows.
4. The cow is restless and noisy.
5. The cow nudges and butts other cows.
6. The cow exhibits chin resting, sniffing and licking other cows.
7. The cervix produces clear mucus, which is seen at the vulva.
8. The vulva is swollen and pink.
2. Estrus, or heat, is defined as the time when the female is receptive to the
male. It occurs in cycles.
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Breeding Systems for Cattle and Buffaloes
Crossbreeding
Types of crossbreeding systems
In deciding among crossbreeding systems, primary considerations are

sources of replacement females, amount of heterosis expressed by the
offspring (individual heterosis), amount of heterosis expressed by the dam
(maternal heterosis), possible breed complementation or potential for using
specialized sire and dam lines, and management issues.
If crossbred replacement females are readily available, many other

considerations are overcome. Crossbred replacement females yield maximum
maternal heterosis, and when mated to a bull of another breed, maximum
individual heterosis will result. Choosing a bull of a terminal sire breed also
results in breed complementation. Management in a single- or multiple-sire
situation is straightforward. This situation is ideal but unfortunately seldom
available or economically feasible.
In choosing a crossbreeding system, primary consideration must be given to a

source of replacement females. It generally is desirable to produce
replacement heifers within herd. Possibilities for within herd production of
crossbred replacement heifers include the use of AI on a fraction of the cows,
something not always within the management capabilities of some producers;
use of a breed of bull on purchased purebred heifers to produce cows for a
terminal cross, which also involves purchase of a fraction of the replacements
plus use of at least two breeds of sire; or use of a rotational crossing system
either in combination with a terminal sire or as a stand-alone system.
Crossbreeding systems fall into four categories: specific or terminal systems,

rotational systems, rotaterminal systems and composite or synthetic systems.
Each has advantages and disadvantages in the amount of heterosis obtained,
potential for breed complementation, source of replacement females and ease
of management. Small herd size presents extra limitations on suitability of
particular systems. No one system is optimum for all beef cattle producers.
Characteristics and examples of each type of system are presented.
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Specific crossbreeding systems
Two Breed Specific
Specific crossbreeding systems use a specific pattern of consistently mating a

particular breed of bull to a particular breed or breed-cross of cow. The
resulting offspring are not brought back into the system. An example of a two-
breed specific cross would be mating Angus bulls to Hereford cows. The
resulting black-baldy calves are sold. This system is used frequently in
Western range states.
Two-breed specific systems are often referred to as terminal systems because

the progeny are not returned to the herd. This system provides maximum
individual heterosis because the sire and dam have no common breed
composition. No maternal heterosis is provided, since cows are purebred.
Opportunity exists for breed complementation because maternal and paternal
breeds can be chosen for favorable characteristics which contribute to the
cross. Most important, these breeds will be used consistently in their role as a
maternal or paternal breed in this particular crossing system. The source of
replacement heifers is the major obstacle for using the two-breed specific
crossbreeding system.
Three Breed Specific
A three-breed specific or terminal cross results from mating Charolais bulls to

the black-baldy cows. In the three-breed cross, both individual and maternal
heterosis are maximized. Maternal heterosis is maximized because the
breeds crossed to produce the maternal line (the black-baldies) have no
common composition. Individual heterosis is maximized because the maternal
line (Angus and Hereford) has no common breed composition with the
terminal sire (Charolais).
Again, breed complementation is available because the sire and dam lines
can be chosen for their strengths in contribution to the cross. With this and all
other specific crossbreeding systems, source of replacement heifers is a
potential problem. A dependable supply is needed if they are to be purchased.
Management considerations are important if the producer is to provide
replacement heifers from within his own herd.
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Backcross
In a backcross system, heifers from a first cross are mated to a bull from one
of the breeds in their own breed makeup. For example, a black-baldy heifer
might be mated to a Hereford bull. The backcross is most often used when a
particular breed is well suited to the production environment such as
indigenous breeds in tropical areas. Backcrosses yield maximum maternal
heterosis but only 50 percent of maximum individual heterosis. The reduction
in individual heterosis is due to the common breed makeup between bull and
cow in the backcross.
Rotational crossbreeding systems
Two-breed rotation or criss-cross (Figure 1). Rotational systems involve a

specific cyclical pattern of mating breeds of bulls to progeny resulting from a
preceding cross. The simplest example of a rotational system is the two-breed
rotation or criss-cross system.
Figure 1
Breeding scheme for a
two-breed rotational
A series of alternating backcrosses are used in the two-breed rotation. In a

Hereford-Angus rotation, progeny resulting from an initial Hereford-Angus
cross would be backcrossed to one of the parental breeds, say Angus. The
resulting backcross progeny, 3/4 Angus and 1/4 Hereford, are mated to
Hereford bulls. Progeny resulting from this third generation are mated to
Angus bulls and this cyclical pattern continues.
After three generations, breed composition stabilizes at approximately 2/3 the

breed of the sire and 1/3 the remaining breed. In this example, generation four
calves are sired by an Angus bull and are approximately 2/3 Angus and 1/3
Hereford.
The primary advantage of rotational crosses is that replacement heifers are

provided within the system. Both individual and maternal heterosis is less than
maximum because of the common breed composition of sire and dam. Since
cows share approximately 1/3 of their breed composition with the bull with
which they are mated, a third of potential heterosis is lost. No breed
complementation is obtained from a rotational cross. Sire breeds alternate
between generations. Therefore, using specialized sire and dam breeds is not
possible.
Management of matings for this system can also be somewhat complex.

Additional heterosis is lost if improper matings are made. Since generations
overlap in cattle, females from both breeds of sire will simultaneously be
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present in the herd requiring at least two breeding pastures to ensure correct
use of the system if natural mating is used.
Three-breed rotation (Figure 2). Three-breed rotations simply add a third

breed of bull to the cycle of matings used in a two-breed rotation. Cows are
mated to the breed of bull that makes up the smallest proportion of their own
composition. A three-breed rotation increases use of individual and maternal
heterosis to 86 percent of maximum. Again, no breed complementation is
available.
Figure 2
Breeding scheme for a
three-breed rotational
Management is more
complex than for the two-
breed rotation. Choice of
breeds becomes an
important consideration, as
the number of breeds included in a rotation is increased.
First, breeds used to initiate the rotation should be the best available for your
production system. The heterosis gained from adding an additional breed
must be greater than the loss of average genetic merit due to adding a breed
which is poorer than those used to initiate the system. Second, breeds used in
a rotation should be somewhat similar in characteristics such as mature size
and milk production. Diverse breeds may lead to calving difficulty and
problems associated with feeding and marketing heterogeneous calves.
Pure breeding System
Straight breeding or pure breeding. With a straight breeding program, only

one breed is used. It is the obligation of management to make progress
through selection and at the same time provide an optimal environment that
will allow the animals selected to express their genetic potential. Any trait to
be improved must be improved in the context of the breed that is being
worked on within a herd.
Breeding herds
Establishing a breeding herd is a long-range program. It also requires more

land than a simple steer or heifer feeding program. Consider how your
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available resources match your long-term objectives. There must be adequate
feed, water, and fences to accommodate a year-round operation.
Decide whether to have registered pure-bred cattle or commercial cattle.

Income from a commercial beef herd comes mainly from the sale of calves
and old or cull animals. Sale of breeding stock is the main source of income
from registered cattle. Care and management of registered cattle is more
intensive than for commercial cattle.
Managing a cow-calf herd
The major concern of cattle producers is profit. For a cow-calf herd, profits are
determined by the percent calf crop (the number of calves weaned per cows
bred), the weaning weight of the calves, the costs of maintaining breeding
animals, and, ultimately, the sale price of the calves.
Because your entire program depends on the fitness of the breeding animals,
it is essential to maintain good herd health by not allowing the cattle to
become too fat or too thin. Cows do not milk as well and may have problems
calving or getting bred if they are overweight or underweight. Bulls that are not
in good condition may perform poorly during the breeding season.
Selection of Cattle for Feeding

The key to successful feeding lies in the makeup of the cattle which
constitute a pen. The cattle should be as uniform as possible in weight, body
type, age, breeding, and in previous nutritional background. When these
conditions are met, the cattle feeder can feed and sell the cattle to achieve
optimum feed efficiency and market worth of the cattle. When this careful
control is started on the producing ranch or county, the uniformity in the cattle
can almost always be expected to achieve a five to ten percent advantage in
efficiency over less uniform cattle.
Steers or heifers can be fed, but usually not in the same pen. Heifers
are often discounted more as feeder calves in marketing channels than they
should be, and custom feeding may be a means to realize better prices for the
rancher. In recent years, the value of fed heifers has improved compared to
steers, with both selling for the same price.
1. What is the primary importance of rotational crosses?

2. What is straight breeding?
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Answer Key No. 4:
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1. The primary advantage of rotational crosses is that replacement
heifers are provided within the system. Both individual and
maternal heterosis is less than maximum because of the
common breed composition of sire and dam. Since cows share
approximately 1/3 of their breed composition with the bull with
which they are mated, a third of potential heterosis is lost. No
breed complementation is obtained from a rotational cross. Sire
breeds alternate between generations. Therefore, using
specialized sire and dam breeds is not possible.
2. Straight breeding or pure breeding. With a straight breeding
program, only one breed is used. It is the obligation of
management to make progress through selection and at the
same time provide an optimal environment that will allow the
animals selected to express their genetic potential. Any trait to
be improved must be improved in the context of the breed that is
being worked on within a herd.
LO2. Provide Feed and Implement Feeding Practices
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1. Read Info Sheet on Kinds of 1. Info Sheet 5: Kinds of grasses

grasses

Questionnaire.
3. Refer to Answer Key. Answer Key 5.
LO2. Information Sheet No.1

Kinds of Grasses, Crop Products and by Products as Feeds, Different
Feed Additives, Feeding system
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Kinds of Grasses
Grasses
There are many different kinds of grasses in the tropics. Every climatic
region has grasses which are adapted to the region. Sometimes it
can be profitable, if you have some extra money and labour available,
to improve your grassland by introducing better grasses. Buy the seeds
and sow them in a prepared field, or sow extra grass among your
existing pasture. Discuss with your local extension worker whether it
is likely to be worthwhile resowing the grass. The extension worker
can help you work out what the benefits are likely to be, but also how
much they will probably cost you. A better quality of grass also means
extra inputs such as manure or fertilizer to maintain this quality. In a
zero-grazing unit you need to be especially aware of the danger of a
mineral deficiency in the soil of potassium, nitrogen or phosphorus.
You need to be able to take appropriate preventive measures.
There are a few easy ways to measure the quality of the grass (see Table
4). If the grass is old and dry it contains a lot of dry matter, and the quality will
be very low.
Table 4: Quality of grasses.

Good feed Bad feed
Dark green & juicy grass Light green & dry
grass
↓ ↓
Tasty for the cow Less tasty for the cow

↓ ↓
High quality: Low quality:
less needed for maintenance requirement more needed for maintenance
requirement
higher production potential lower production potential
Note: Grass production during flowering is zero. By way of man- agreement

you can prevent flowering by cutting the grass before flowering or by keeping
the optimal number of animals on the grassland.
1. Grasses or Non-legume – is any crop that does not have the

capacity to harbor nitrifying bacteria in nodules on it's rots and so
must depend on outside sources for it's nitrogen supply.
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HUMIDICOLA SIGNAL GRASS
SETARIA PARAGRASS
GUINEA GRASS NAPIER GRASS
Grasses and Scientific names
Grasses Scientific names
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1. Gamba Andopogon gayanus
2. Carpet Grass Axonopus comrpesus
3. Pinhole Grass Bathriochloa insculpta
4. Signal Grass Brachiaria brizantha
5. Para grass Brachiaria mutica
6. Kennedy ruzi Brachiaria ruziziensis
7. Giant star grass Cynodon plectostachyus
8. Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon
9. Guinea grass Panicum maximum
10. Napier Pennisetum purpureum
11. Golden timothy Setaria sphcelata/Setaria splendida.
12. Guatemala grass Tripsacum laxum
13. Corn Zea mays
14. Rice Oriza sativa
Different feed additives
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Supplements
Supplements are products given in addition to the roughage in the
cow’s diet, if the roughage alone cannot satisfy the requirements for
maintenance and production. During the dry season in particular, the
roughage (straw) provided is usually not enough to cover maintenance
requirements, or the animals are unable to eat enough to survive. Also during
the rest of the year if you want to maintain a certain level of production, it
could be wise to supplement your animals.
Supplementation can take the form of an extra dose of nitrogen (for
protein) by treating straw with urea (contains nitrogen) or by providing
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extra urea (nitrogen) and molasses (energy rich) in a solidified lick-block. You
can treat straw by adding 4 kg of urea to every 100 kg of air dry straw.
Dissolve the urea in water and spray this over the straw. Then cover the straw
with some plastic sheets. Use the treated straw as soon as possible. As this
involves quite a lot of work it is best to make enough to last for several days to
a week. The first time the animals may refuse to eat the treated straw
because of the ammonia smell, but if this happens it will only last a few days.
Be sure that the benefits obtained from this treatment are higher than the
costs (the price of urea).
Another possibility is to make a lick-block containing urea and
molasses. The block is given in addition to the roughage. These blocks are
attractive and palatable to ruminants because of the smell and taste of
molasses. Cows can consume up to 0.5 kg per day per animal, depending on
the size of the animal.
The processing of crops leaves waste products for which there is no further
direct use. These are sometimes called concentrates because they contain a
lot of nutrients and hardly any fibre in comparison with roughage. This feed
(concentrate) alone is not sufficient for the animal. Cows need roughage to
maintain the condition of the rumen. A minimum of one third (1/3) of the feed
supplied should be roughage. You can improve production with supplements
but it is costly. Supplements require extra labour and money. Therefore they
should only be used in the more intensive systems such as the grazing-with
supplementary- feeding or zero-grazing systems, and when you are
sure there is a market for your products. Supplements can be divided into
three groups. Depending on the purpose of production of your cows you can
choose a different supplement.
Feeding system
Farming systems or feeding system
There are many ways of keeping animals for production. The one you choose
depends very much on the circumstances in your area: climate, type of
vegetation, market for selling the product, availability of labor and, last but not
least, local traditions. For this reason we describe three examples of farming
systems in this chapter. These will give an idea of possible options. Many
existing cattle keeping systems can be compared with the systems described
here. These systems are not completely different from each other, but overlap
partly. Combinations are also possible. We give a description of the three
systems, together with the limitations of each. This should help you to choose
the system that best fits your situation.
The three cattle farming systems

The three systems discussed are the grazing-system, the grazing-with
supplementary- feeding-system and the zero-grazing-system (see Figure
1-3). These systems are defined according to the way the animals are fed,
because this is one of the most important aspects of cattle raising.
The type of feeding determines the most possibilities and constraints
in a system, for example labour use and production potential.
Here follows a description of each system:
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1 Grazing system.
In this system the animals graze on natural or improved pasture. This may be
on communal or on private grazing lands. Animals that graze along the
roadside are also included under this system. This system could be used if
you have enough land, but not much time for more labour intensive milk or
beef production. It is also suitable if you have sufficient time, together with a
small area of land, and you are happy with a fairly low level of production.
Grazing with supplementary feeding.

Here we find the same way of grazing as above, but the animals’ diet is
supplemented with fodder crops and/or with concentrates (see Chapter 3).
The supplements can be produced on your own land or can be bought on the
market. Supplementary feeding is usually done when the animals are brought
home, for instance to stay the night in a pen or in a shelter, or when they are
being milked.
Supplementary feeding is only possible if the milk price is high enough and
supplements are not too expensive.
Zero grazing.
Within this system the animals stay in one place only and all the feed is
brought to them. This means that not only the supplementary feed has to be
bought or cultivated, and brought to the animal, but also the roughage (grass,
hay etc.) and the water for drinking has to be brought to the animal (see
Chapter 3). The grass can be cultivated (e.g. Pennisetum, Napier, elephant
grass, Panicum, see Chapter 3) or cut from natural pastures. This system is
mostly only used with dairy cows and only if the milk fetches a good price.
Meat is not usually produced under this system as it can never be sold for a
high enough price.
System 1 requires the least financial investment, labour and specialized

knowledge. System 3 requires the most of each, and system 2 falls in
between. With intensification the potential production level rises and needs
less land. The land, however, will be used more intensively and thus needs to
be manured in order to keep grass production at an acceptable and stable
level. This will be discussed later in this chapter in more detail. First we
provide a description of the physical appearance of the systems.
Calaculations of feed requirement
Calculate forage demand. To calculate forage demand one must know the
average weight of the animals in a herd or flock and the number of days in the
planned grazing period. The amount of forage each animal will eat daily
can be estimated by multiplying the average body weight times 2.5%. When
forage is green and growing, animals can consume as much as 3.5% of body
weight and in the dormant season intake generally falls to about 1.5%. A
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yearly average of 2.5% is usually acceptable. Studies comparing calculated
forage demand with actual long-term stocking rates reveal that using the
figure of 2% of body weight results in excessive stocking rate estimates.
Therefore, calculating forage demand as 2.5% of body weight results in a
stocking rate closer to proper stocking. This higher figure accounts for
rejection of some usable forage by the animal, use of forage by wildlife, and
some trampling of plants. For example, a big old range cow that weighs 1200
pounds requires 30 pounds of forage per day (1200 lbs * 2.5%). If cattle are
grazed year-round, each cow would require 10,950 pounds (30 lbs * 365
days) of forage per year.
Horses and rabbits are common range herbivores that ferment forage in an
enlarged cecum rather than a rumen. This digestive morphology is less
efficient than the rumen but it allows for greater consumption. Therefore, non-
ruminants are estimated to consume about 3% of body weight per day.
Calculate stocking rate. The number of livestock that can be grazed on the
management unit surveyed for the desired grazing period equals the pounds
of usable forage divided by the forage demand. For example, 315,000 lbs of
usable forage divided by 10,950 pounds of forage demand equals 29 bison
cows that can graze on the management unit year-round.
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1. Enumerate different Grasses and Scientific names.

2. What is supplements?
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Answer Key No. 5:
1. Grasses and Scientific names
Grasses Scientific names
1. 1. Gamba Andopogon gayanus

2. 2.Carpet Grass Axonopus comrpesus
3. Pinhole Grass Bathriochloa insculpta
4. .Signal Grass Brachiaria brizantha
5. Para grass Brachiaria mutica
6. Kennedy ruzi Brachiaria ruziziensis
7. Giant star grass Cynodon plectostachyus
8. Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon
9. Guinea grass Panicum maximum
10. Napier Pennisetum purpureum
11. Golden timothy Setaria sphcelata/Setaria splendida.
12. Guatemala grass Tripsacum laxum
13. Corn Zea mays
14. Rice Oriza sativa
2. Supplements
Supplements are products given in addition to the roughage in the
cow’s diet, if the roughage alone cannot satisfy the requirements for
maintenance and production. During the dry season in particular, the
roughage (straw) provided is usually not enough to cover maintenance
requirements, or the animals are unable to eat enough to survive. Also during
the rest of the year if you want to maintain a certain level of production, it
could be wise to supplement your animals.
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LO3. Manage the General Herd
1. Read Info Sheet on Care and 1. Info Sheet 6: Care and

management of herd, Stocking rate management of herd, Stocking rate
2. Perform Self Check Questionnaire. Self Check Questionnaire 6.
3. Refer to Answer Key. Answer Key 6
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Care and Management of Herd, Stocking Rate, Management of

Breeding Cow, Caracows, Bulls and Carabulls
Rearing Growing Heifers

Calves six to eight months of age will obtain many nutrients from
pasture but should be supplied additional hay and grain. At about the age of
one year heifers live entirely on good quality pasture with supplemental salt
and ample supply of water. Care should be taken that there is adequate
forage available. If pasture dry up or are in short supply, supplementary
forage or grain should be fed.
In some herds, feeding for faster growth and early breeding may be
desirable and provide an economic advantage. Care should be taken to
prevent heifers from becoming overly fat, which frequently accompanied by
excessive fat deposition on the udder. This interferes with the normal
development of secretory tissues and results in lower milk production.
Good management of growing heifers includes frequent checking of
growing progress and adjusting feed accordingly. If facilities for weighing are
not available, weight can be estimated by measuring the heart girth with the
tape especially designed for this purpose.
Rearing Bulls
Since the sire contributes 50% of the genetic make-up of the offspring,
it should be managed well. Use these guidelines:
1. Teach the bull to lead when 6 months old or eight months old.
3. The bull of a six months should have a nose ring to make
handling easier.
4. After the ring has been affixed in the nasal septum, attach the
staff to it when handling the bull.
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5. House the bull in separate shed but allow daily exercise in an
open yard.
Rearing Pregnant Cow

During early pregnancy the animals can be managed together with the
herd. In the last two months of pregnancy, the animals may be separated from
the herd. Avoid stress factor, do not make pregnant animals walk long
distance, run fast, or fight with other animals.
WHAT IS A "PROPER" STOCKING RATE FROM AN ANIMAL POINT OF

VIEW?
Overstocking results in lower individual animal performance (weaning
weights, conception rates, wool production, etc.). During the growing season,
ample green forage is usually available and animals on overstocked ranges
may produce as well as animals on moderately or lightly stocked range
(Fig. 1). However, as the season progresses, animals on heavily
grazed ranges often lose weight while those on moderate or lightly grazed
ranges maintain or gain weight. Decreased animal production observed at
high stocking rates occurs for several reasons. As the amount of land and
forage allocated to each animal decreases the animal has less forage to
choose from and diet quality decreases. At high stocking rates animals may
not be able to meet daily dry matter requirements and searching for adequate
forage increases energy requirements. Also, the consumption of toxic plants is
more common on heavily than lightly stocked pastures so death or weight
losses often occur. Low stocking rates favor high individual animal
performance. However, profits in livestock systems are not made on how
much individual animals weigh; they are based on how many pounds of
animal can be produced per acre. As stocking rate increases the number of
pound gained per animal decreases. On the other hand, when the number of
animals on a piece of land is increased the pounds of gain produced per acre
increases. At very high stocking rates, however, individual animal
performance is severely limited and increasing the number of AUs will
decrease gain per acre (Fig. 2). An optimal stocking rate for livestock
production is somewhere above the maximum production per animal and
below the maximum number of pounds produced per acre.
Most stocking rate studies reveal that the economically optimal stocking rate
is moderate, not heavy. A commonly held misconception about ranching is
that the profit motives of ranchers lead to overgrazing of privately owned
rangelands. In fact, the opposite is true. Ranchers that are profit-motivated
and have the information necessary to evaluate the production effects of
various stocking rates would actually select a stocking rate below the carrying
capacity of the land. Overgrazing, therefore occurs due to ignorance or
optimism about range production, not aggressive economic goals
GETTING A "BALL PARK" FIGURE FOR

HOW MANY ANIMALS TO GRAZE
The virtues of a moderate stocking rate can be extolled on the basis of
ecosystem stability, or animal health and production. However, that still leaves
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us with the question "how many animals should be grazed?" Next, I will
outline a general four-step method for determining roughly how many animals
a piece of land can sustain. In reality, most land managers set stocking rate
based on knowledge of historic production rates. These experience-based
decisions result in proper stocking provided the manager: 1) is not overly
optimistic about the prospects of rain; 2) has a way to evaluate and remember
previous year's production; and, 3) recognizes the signs of overgrazing.
FOUR-PART PROCEDURE FOR SETTING

BASIC STOCKING RATE
Calculate total usable forage. The first step to determining how many
animals a piece of land can carry is to get an idea of how much forage the
land produces. To set stocking rate at the end of the growing season one
must estimate the ungrazed standing crop. To set stocking rate at the
beginning of the growing season one must predict the peak amount of forage
that will be reduced during the season. These predictions should be based on
historic production data and probabilities of receiving significant precipitation.
However, in reality, predictions on the weather and forage production are
seldom more than educated guesses. Estimates of biomass can be obtained
by mapping the management area into units of land that are about equally
productive. Most commonly, these units are range sites or habitat types that
differ in soil type and productivity. Once these units are recognized, surveys of
each unit can be made to estimate production per acre. These biomass
surveys can take many forms: 1) mowing or clipping very small areas; 2)
referring to picture guides to visually estimate amount of forage; or, 3)
referring to site guides (i.e., those produced by the Natural Resource
Conservation Service) to estimate the average productivity of the site based
on precipitation. These biomass surveys should account for only the
vegetation likely to be consumed by livestock or wildlife. Estimates of forage
production on each site can be multiplied by the acres of each site on the
management unit to obtain the total amount of forage available. Amount of
usable forage equals total available forage multiplied by the percent allowable
utilization (Table 2). For example, if a person owns 1,000 acres of land in the
shortgrass prairie that produces 700 lb/acre of forage the total amount of
usable forage on the management unit equals 315,000 pounds (1,000 acres *
700 lbs/acre * 45%).
Adjust total usable forage.

The amount of forage usable by livestock and wildlife depends on
pasture characteristics such as distance from water and topography. Areas of
a pasture that are more than 2 miles from water are
essentially unusable. The forage in areas 1 to 2 miles from water is generally
considered only 50% accessible (Table 3 in Holechek 1988). Very rough or
steep topography can also decrease the amount of forage accessibility (Table
4 in Holechek 1988). Thus, the amount of usable forage must be adjusted
downward to account for pasture characteristics. The amount of forage
available for one species (livestock or wildlife) must also take into account the
amount of forage used by other species on the range. For example, if stocking
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rates for bison are being set the usable forage must be reduced by the
amount of forage that deer and other wildlife (including insects) will consume.
These amounts can be estimated if the number of other deer (or other
herbivores) is known, otherwise the manager is forced (once again) to make a
good guess.
Calculate forage demand.

To calculate forage demand one must know the average weight of the
animals in a herd or flock and the number of days in the planned grazing
period. The amount of forage each animal will eat daily
can be estimated by multiplying the average body weight times 2.5%. When
forage is green and growing, animals can consume as much as 3.5% of body
weight and in the dormant season intake generally falls to about 1.5%. A
yearly average of 2.5% is usually acceptable. Studies comparing calculated
forage demand with actual long-term stocking rates reveal that using the
figure of 2% of body weight results in excessive stocking rate estimates.
Therefore, calculating forage demand as 2.5% of body weight results in a
stocking rate closer to proper stocking. This higher figure accounts for
rejection of some usable forage by the animal, use of forage by wildlife, and
some trampling of plants. For example, a big old range cow that weighs 1200
pounds requires 30 pounds of forage per day (1200 lbs * 2.5%). If cattle are
grazed year-round, each cow would require 10,950 pounds (30 lbs * 365
days) of forage per year. Horses and rabbits are common range herbivores
that ferment forage in an enlarged cecum rather than a rumen. This digestive
morphology is less efficient than the rumen but it allows for greater
consumption. Therefore, non-ruminants are estimated to consume about 3%
of body weight per day. Calculate stocking rate. The number of livestock
that can be grazed on the management unit surveyed for the desired grazing
period equals the pounds of usable forage divided by the forage demand. For
example, 315,000 lbs of usable forage divided by 10,950 pounds of forage
demand equals 29 bison cows that can graze on the management unit year-
round.
MANAGING STOCKING RATES WITH VARIABLE RAINFALL

One of the greatest challenges to setting a “proper” stocking rate is that
precipitation and forage availability vary immensely from year to year.
Management strategies to address a variable forage supply can be either
fixed or flexible. Fixed stocking strategies are based on the reality that
precipitation on rangelands varies from year to year in an abnormal pattern
creating a situation in which most years have below average precipitation.
Research in southern Idaho exemplifies this property; annual precipitation and
forage production in the last 43 yrs were below average in 63% of the years.
Meeting animal forage demand while maintaining a fairly stable herd size
requires that stocking rates be set at least 10% below the rate that would yield
proper use in an average year. Flexible stocking practices are generally
accomplished by keeping, buying, or leasing extra animals in years of above
average forage production. Conversely, strategies such as heavy culling or
early weaning can be used to reduce the nutritive demand in years of low
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forage production. The costs associated with retaining, buying, or selling
animals limit the economic feasibility of highly flexible approaches. Therefore,
a combination of fixed and flexible stocking strategies will usually maximize
economic returns of most livestock operations.
WAYS TO DECREASE STOCKING RATE

WITHOUT SELLING ANIMALS
Decreasing animal numbers is not the only way to rectify an excessive
stocking rate. Improving animal distribution makes forage more available to
animals. Dividing large pastures into smaller pastures or adding water
sources improve the distribution of animals across the landscape. Changing
the breed, age or species of animal can also result in a decreased grazing
pressure. Young animals make better use of rough terrain, so if yearlings,
rather than mature animals, are grazed the amount of usable forage may be
increased in areas of great topographic relief. Grazing multiple species (i.e.,
sheep, goats, and cattle) also increases the amount of usable forage since
different species prefer different types of forage. Some breeds of animals may
even make better use of particular vegetation types than others. For example,
longhorns have long been noted for their ability to survive on low quality
forage. Selecting animals that can make the best use of the forage available
results in improved animal distribution and a greater amount of available
forage.
MIXED SPECIES GRAZING

Most rangelands are not grazed by a single species; they are grazed
by a combination of species. This multi-species grazing is often called
“common use” and is well-documented as a way to make greater use of
grazing resources. Grazing animals differ in the kinds of plants they prefer
and dietary choices they make. A manager must have a working notion of the
kinds of plants grazing animals select to make decisions about which animals
are most suited for the grazing resources or how much forage is available for
specific animals (Table 3).
Table 3. Forage selection by large

herbivores in North America (a summary of
Table 11.7 in Holechek et al. 1989)
Species Grass Forbs Browse
(%) (%) (%)
Cattle 61 18 21
Sheep 48 31 21
Goat 33 12 65
Horse 80 9 11
Bison 92 6 2
Moose 1 3 96
Bighorn Sheep 73 14 13
Elk 73 8 19
Mule Deer 8 43 49
Pronghorn
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Antelope 16 40 44
When animals select substantially different diets, they can often graze
the same area of range with complimentary effects. For example, in the
foothills of Idaho, cattle prefer mostly grass and they graze these areas mostly
in the spring. In the fall and winter, deer and elk move into these foothill
regions and primarily eat shrubs such as bitterbrush and sagebrush. If the
stocking rate of these lands is set for cattle, no reduction is necessary for the
amount of forage used by elk and deer because they do not consume the
forages used by cattle. One added benefit of this multispecies grazing is that
the removal of herbaceous forage by cattle in the spring improves the vigor
and biomass production of the winter browse species used by deer and elk. In
turn, the use of browse by wild ungulates improves grass production for cattle.
In the case above, little dietary overlap occurs between the cattle and the wild
ungulates, therefore grazing capacity is additive when both groups of animals
graze the same range. However, if dietary overlap between animals is
substantial, such as between cattle and bison, then the presence of both
species must be accounted for in forage demand estimates. There are
equations, worksheets, and computer models that improve stocking rate
estimates in multi-species situations. However, caution must be used when
interpreting diet “rules-of-thumb” such as those given in Table 3. The caution
is that animals are very flexible in their diet selection. For example, cattle
generally prefer grass and may select diets as high as 86% grass. However, if
grass becomes limited they may select diets as high as 74% browse.
Increased dietary overlap between species is often, therefore, observed in
periods of limited forage availability. Furthermore, diet overlap does not
necessarily indicate that animals are competing for forage. If there is enough
forage to go around, animals don’t compete for forage even if they are
selecting very similar diets.
Managing calves
When you purchase calves for a growing or feeding operation, keep them in
an area that allows you to observe them for 2 weeks. This enables you to
prevent the spread of disease.
Calves should have access to plenty of water and feed. Working the calves
requires a lot of patience, as they are easily excited and stressed. Your
veterinarian or Extension agent can help you develop a health program that
lowers the risk of disease for newly received calves.
Breeding herds
Establishing a breeding herd is a long-range program. It also requires more

land than a simple steer or heifer feeding program. Consider how your
available resources match your long-term objectives. There must be adequate
feed, water, and fences to accommodate a year-round operation.
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Decide whether to have registered pure-bred cattle or commercial cattle.
Income from a commercial beef herd comes mainly from the sale of calves
and old or cull animals. Sale of breeding stock is the main source of income
from registered cattle. Care and management of registered cattle is more
intensive than for commercial cattle.
Managing a cow-calf herd
The major concern of cattle producers is profit. For a cow-calf herd, profits are
determined by the percent calf crop (the number of calves weaned per cows
bred), the weaning weight of the calves, the costs of maintaining breeding
animals, and, ultimately, the sale price of the calves.
Because your entire program depends on the fitness of the breeding animals,
it is essential to maintain good herd health by not allowing the cattle to
become too fat or too thin. Cows do not milk as well and may have problems
calving or getting bred if they are overweight or underweight. Bulls that are not
in good condition may perform poorly during the breeding season.
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1. What are the guidelines in the use of bull?

2. How to rare growing heifers?
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Answer Key No.7:
1. Guidelines in the use of bull:

a. Teach the bull to lead when 6 months old or eight months old.
b. The bull of a six months should have a nose ring to make
handling easier.
c. After the ring has been affixed in the nasal septum, attach the
staff to it when handling the bull.
d. House the bull in separate shed but allow daily exercise in an
open yard.
2. Raring Growing Heifers
Calves six to eight months of age will obtain many nutrients from
pasture but should be supplied additional hay and grain. At about the age of
one year heifers live entirely on good quality pasture with supplemental salt
and ample supply of water. Care should be taken that there is adequate
forage available. If pasture dry up or are in short supply, supplementary
forage or grain should be fed.
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LO4. Provide Life Support Facilities
1. Read Info Sheet on Pasture Info Sheet 8: Pasture establishment,

establishment, Housing design and Housing design and facilites, Different
facilites, Different pasture, grasses pasture, grasses and legumes,
and legumes, Breeding management Breeding management

Questionnaire.
3. Refer to Answer Key. Answer Key 8.
4. After finishing this Learning

Activity, proceed to the next
one.
Date Date
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Pasture Establishment, Housing Design and Facilities, Different Pasture,

Grasses and Legumes, Breeding Management
Pasture – a pasture is an area of land on which there is a growth of forage

where designated livestock may graze at well.
Good pasture – is an area on which there is a growth of lush, green,

nutritious, actively growing forage from which designated livestock can
consume in a relatively short period of time.
Classification of Pastures
A. Annual versus Perennial
1. Annual – is a crop that must be propagated from seed each year it
is grown.
2. Perennial – is one that does not have to be reseeded each year but
will reestablish itself from It's roots.
B. Temporary versus Permanent
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1. Temporary pasture – is one that is seeded on freshly cultivated soil
for use through only one or a part of one grazing season. Usually it
consist of an annual.
2. Permanent pasture – is one that once established, remains as
pasture for at least a period of years and in some instances
continuously. It may consist of either perennial or reseeding
annuals.
C. Mixtures versus Pure seeding

1. Pasture mixtures – is a combination of two or more pasture crops
on the same area. They are usually crops that complement each
other from growth characteristics and nutritive value.
2. A Pure pasture – is a pasture that consists of only one species.
D. Native versus Improved pasture

1. Native pasture – is composed of the naturally growing vegetation
consisting of both beneficial and toxic species.
2. Improved pasture – this is an area where in the forage were
improved by planting improved grasses like guinea grass, star
grass, and legumes such as rensonii, flemingia etc.
E. Legumes versus Grasses or non-legumes.

2. Legume – is a crop that has the capacity to harbor nitrifying bacteria
in nodules on its roots and so can meet a part if not all, of it's own
nitrogen needs.
IPIL-IPIL
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KAKAWATE RENSONII
3. Grasses or Non-legume – is any crop that does not have the

capacity to harbor nitrifying bacteria in nodules on it's rots and so
must depend on outside sources for it's nitrogen supply.
HUMIDICOLA SIGNAL GRA
SETARIA PARAGRASS
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GUINEA GRASS NAPIER GRASS
Housing
There are several options for using the barn in a new type of system for
housing, feeding, or handling dairy beef cattle. These uses might include:
Weaned Calf Housing
Growing Cattle Housing
Finishing Cattle Housing
Cattle Handling Facility
General Housing Requirements
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As has been pointed out, cattle will be more efficient in the production
of milk and in reproduction if they are protected from extreme heat, i.e.
temperatures of 25 to 30°C, and particularly from direct sunshine. Thus in
tropical and subtropical climates shade becomes an important factor. If cattle
are kept in a confined area, it should be free of mud and manure in order to
reduce hoof infection to a minimum. Concrete floors or pavements are ideal
where the area per cow is limited. However, where ample space is available,
an earth yard, properly sloped for good drainage is adequate.
Sun Shade
With these needs in mind a shade structure allowing 2.5 to 3m: per
animal will give the minimum desirable protection for cattle, whether it be for
one animal belonging to a small holder or many animals in a commercial herd.
A 3x7m roof will provide adequate shade for up to X cows. The roof should be
a minimum of 3m high to allow air movement. If financially feasible, all the
area that will be shaded some time during the day should be paved with good
quality concrete. The size of this paved area depends on the orientation of the
shade structure. If the longitudinal axis is east and west, pan of the floor under
the roof will be in shade all day. Extending the floor approximately one third its
length on the east and on the west as shown in Figure 10. 3, a paved surface
will provide for the shaded area at all times.
If the longitudinal axis is north and south, the paved area must be 3 times the
roof area i.e. 1/3 to the east, 1/3 to the west and l/3 underneath. Obviously
this means an increase in the cost of paving. In deciding which orientation to
build, the following factors need be considered:
 1 With the east-west orientation the feed and water troughs can be
under the shade which will allow the cows to eat and drink in shade at
any time of the day. The shaded area, however, should be increased to
3 to 4m² per cow. By locating the feed and water in the shade, feed
consumption will be encouraged, but also more manure will be dropped
in the shaded area which in turn will lead to dirty cows.
 2 With the north-south orientation, the sun will strike every part of the
floor area under and on either side of the roof at some time during the
day. This will help to keep the floored area dry. A shaded area of 2.5 to
3m² per cow is adequate if feed and water troughs are placed away
from the shaded area.
 3 If it is felt that paving is too costly, the north-south orientation is the
best choice in order to keep the area as dry as possible.
 4 In regions where temperatures average 30°C or more for up to five
hours per day during some period of the year, the east-west orientation
is most beneficial.
Yards
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If space is severely limited and only 4 to 5m² per cow is available, then
concrete paving is highly desirable. If up to 40 to 60m² per cow is available,
then unpaved yards should be quite satisfactory as long as the feed and
shade areas are paved and the yard is graded for good drainage.
Bull Pens
A bull pen should have a shaded resting area of 12 to 15m² and a large
exercise area of 20 to 30m². The walls of the pen must be strong. Eight
horizontal rails of minimum 100mm round timber or 50mm galvanized steel
tubes to a total height of 1.5m and fixed to 200mm timber posts not more than
2m apart will be sufficient. The gate must be designed so that the bull cannot
lift it off its hinges and there should be at least two exits where the herdsman
can escape.
A service stall where the cow can be tethered prior to and during service is
usually provided close to the bull pen. The stall can have ramps at the sides
to support the bull's front feet.
Calf Pens
Calf mortality is often high in tropical countries, but proper

management and suitable housing that protects the calf from climatic stress,
infections and parasites can reduce this.
Individual pens for calves from birth to 2 to 3 months of age are often
built with an elevated slatted floor. This floor, which is best constructed from
37 to 50mm by 75 to 100mm sawn timber boards leaving a 25 to 30mm slat
between each board, will ensure that the calf is always dry and clean. The
required minimum internal dimensions for an individual calf pen are 1200 by
800mm for a pen where the calf is kept to two weeks of age, 1200 by l000mm
where the calf is kept to 6 to 8 weeks of age and 1500 by 1 200mm where the
calf is kept from 6 to 14 weeks of age. Three sides of the pens should be tight
to prevent contact with other calves and* to prevent draughts. Draughts
through the slatted floor may be prevented by covering the floor with litter until
the calf is at least one month of age. The front of the pen should be made so
that the calf can be fed milk, concentrates and water easily from buckets or a
trough fixed to the outside of the pen and so that the calf can be moved out of
the pen without lifting. The milk or milk substitute fed to the calf will not
provide it with enough liquid and therefore it should be given fresh, clean
water daily or preferably have continuous access to water in a drinking nipple.
All calves, but especially those which are weaned early, should have access
to good quality forage as soon as possible to stimulate rumen development.
Forage can be supplied in a rack placed above the side wall of the pen. This
construction with a feed alley will be rather expensive but can be cheaper if
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calves are fed from outside. Calf pens are recommended where the cows are
kept in a semi-zero grazing or zero grazing system.
Another system that works well is the use of individual hutches. The
hutch must be thoroughly cleanedset up in a new location each time a new
calf is housed in it. Plenty of litter is placed directly on the ground inside the
hutch. Protection from wind, rain and sun is all the calf requires, but always
moving the hutch to clean ground is the key to success.
Housing for the Small Herd
For the small holder who wants to make the very best use of his crop
land and to provide his cattle with good housing that will encourage high
production, a zero grazing system is recommended.
Gum poles may be used instead of the cedar posts and sawn rafters,
but any wood in contact with or within 5Ocm of the ground should be well
treated with wood preservative. It is desirable to pave the alley, but if that is
not possible, the distance between the free stalls (cubicles) and the feed
trough should be doubled or tripled.
A concrete pit or sloping slab in which to accumulate manure is

essential. If the alley is paved, the pit can also collect urine. In fact, paving the
alley not only saves space, but the value of the urine will help to pay for the
paving.
The circular manure tank has a volume of 10m³. This will be adequate
to store the manure produced during one month plus any rainfall collected in
the alley. If more stalls are added the capacity of the tank will need to be
increased or the interval between the emptyings shortened.
A water tank to collect water from the roof can be very useful unless
there is an abundant supply of water nearby.
Housing for the Medium to Large Scale Herds
For the farmer with up to about 30 cows a yard with paved shade and
feed area would be suitable. The yard and feeding area may alternatively be
combined with an open sided barn designed for deep bedding or equipped
with free-stalls and where the herd consists of high yielding cows the milking
shed may be equipped with a bucket milking machine. Some farmers with up
to 30 cows may even consider using an open sided tie-stall shed.
In general a medium or large scale dairy unit may include the following
facilities:
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1 Resting area for cows: a Paved shade, or b Deep bedding in an open sided
barn, or c Free-stalls in an open sided barn
2 Exercise yard (paved or unpaved)
3 Paved feed area:
 a Fence line feed trough (shaded or un-shaded), or

 b Self feeding from a silage clamp
4 Milking Centre:
 a Milking shed or parlor, and

 b Collecting yard (part of the exercise yard), and
 c Dairy including milk store, and
 d Motor room
5 Bull pen with a service stall

6 Calving pen(s)
7 Calf accommodation
8 Young stock accommodation (yard with paved shade and feed area)
9 Bulk feed store (hay and silage)
10 Concentrate feed store
11 Veterinary facilities:
 a Diversion pen with Artificial Insemination stalls, and

 b Isolation pen
12 Waste store:
 a Slurry storage, or
 b Separate storage of solids and effluents
13 Office and staff facilities
Each of the parts of the dairy unit may be planned in many different ways
to suit the production management system, and the chosen method of
feeding. Some requirements and work routines to consider when the layout is
planned are as follows:
 1 Movement of cattle for feeding, milking and perhaps to pasture.

 2 Movement of bulk feed from store to feeding area and concentrates
from store to milking shed or parlour.
 3 Transfer of milk from milking shed or parlour to dairy and then off the
farm. Clean and dirty activities, such as milk handling and waste
disposal, should be separated as far as possible.
 4 The diversion pen with Artificial Insemination stalls and any bull pen
should be close to the milking centre as any symptoms of heat or
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illness are commonly discovered during milking and cows are easily
separated from the rest of the herd while leaving the milking.
 5 Easy and periodical cleaning of accommodation, yards, milking
facilities and dairy, and transfer of the waste to storage and then to the
fields.
 6 The movements of the herdsman. Minimum travel to move cows in or
out of milking area.
 7 Provision for future expansion of the various parts of the unit.
Milking Parlor for the Medium Scale Herd
For the farmer with 10 to 30 cows and a yard with a paved shade and
feed area, the milking parlor is of suitable design. Two stands will be sufficient
where the herd number is 8 to 14, but more stands should be added as
indicated when the herd number increases. Hand milking would probably be
used for an operation of this size. If machine milking is installed the vacuum
pump and the engine, which powers it, can be put in the engine room, which
is indicated in outline in the plan view. This is arranged by closing off a portion
of the store room with a simple partition.
A milk cooler will be necessary to cool and hold the milk for pick up.
This and facilities for washing and storing the milking equipment will be
accommodated in the milk room, while concentrates are kept in the store
room.
A milk room should face the prevailing wind to ensure good ventilation
and to keep it as cool as possible, but any openings should be screened with
insect mesh.
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Self Check Questionnaire No.8
1. What is pasture?
2. What is Good pasture
3. What are the facilities in general a medium or large scale dairy
unit?
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Key Answer No. 8:
1. Pasture – a pasture is an area of land on which there is a growth of forage

where designated livestock may graze at well.
2. Good pasture – is an area on which there is a growth of lush, green,

nutritious, actively growing forage from which designated livestock can
consume in a relatively short period of time.
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3. In general a medium or large scale dairy unit may include the following
facilities:
1 Resting area for cows: a Paved shade, or b Deep bedding in an open

sided barn, or c Free-stalls in an open sided barn
2 Exercise yard (paved or unpaved)
3 Paved feed area
4 Milking Centre
5 Bull pen with a service stall

6 Calving pen(s)
7 Calf accommodation
8 Young stock accommodation (yard with paved shade and feed area)
9 Bulk feed store (hay and silage)
10 Concentrate feed store
11 Veterinary facilities
12 Waste stores
13 Office and staff facilities
LO5. Implement Health Herd Program
1. Read Info Sheet on Herd Info Sheet 17: Herd vaccination and
vaccination and medication program, medication program, Common pests
Common pests and diseases of large and diseases of large ruminants
ruminants
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2.Perform Self Check Questionnaire. Self Check Questionnaire 17.
3.Refer to Answer Key. Answer Key 17.
4.After finishing this Learning Activity,

proceed to the next one.
Herd Vaccination and Medication Program, Common Pests and Diseases

of Large Ruminants
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Vaccination and Medication Procedures for Cattle
A pre-weaning vaccination program may be hard to work into your

management system, but it is valuable because it "primes" the immune
system of the calf and allows the calf to still be "mothered and comforted"
during stressful periods of vaccinations. Post weaning vaccination then boosts
the immune system.
Remember, vaccination doesn't guarantee protection. A number of factors,
including stress, nutrition, weather and age can hinder a normal immune
response. However, a good vaccination program takes these into account and
can be used like an insurance program. Your best advice comes from a
veterinarian familiar with your locale and your farm. Your veterinarian is a key
player in a profitable beef enterprise. He will generally save you a lot more
dollars than he will charge.
Rules for proper vaccine use

• Only purchase vaccine or other drugs from reputable sources.
• Be sure products you buy are federally licensed and approved for the
intended use.
• Don't buy "second hand" or "bargain basement" products.
• Read label instructions.
• Products work effectively only when used as specified on the label.
• Instructions are given to get maximum immune response, reduce chance of
side effects and reduce risk of residues.
•
Always check these items:
o proper dosage
o proper timing (interval between dosages & frequency)
o product approval for pregnant cows or very young calves
o recommended route of administration
o warnings or indications
o withdrawal period
o how to reconstitute
o storage requirements (if package says to refrigerate, keep cold but don't
freeze; keep vaccines on ice in cooler while
using and protect from sunlight as much as possible)
o shelf life or expiration date
• Don't mix vaccines unless specifically told to do so. Look for combination
vaccines specifically designed to be used for types
of protection you need. Many vaccines will be inactivated (made useless) by
mixing. If a combination you want is not available - give separate injections.
o If label specifically instructs you to mix vaccine, or when
reconstituting a modified live vaccine, don't mix more
than you can use in 30 minutes.
o Large, multi-dose bottles may be false economy.
o Make sure mixing is thorough and shake bottle occasionally to keep it
mixed.
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o Don't keep leftover reconstituted vaccine. It is probably contaminated with
all sorts of bacteria and will not be effective.
• Be extra clean and sanitary. Put a new needle in bottle and use only that
needle to withdraw vaccine. Never stick a needle you have stuck into an
animal into a bottle.
o Use the following guidelines:

􀂃 change needles every 10 to 15 injections.
􀂃 change burred, bent or dropped needles immediately.
􀂃 keep separate syringes (label with masking tape or marker) for each
product.
􀂃 don't mix or alternate products in same syringe.
􀂃 use disposable syringes or sterilize properly.
􀂃 do not use disinfectant with syringes or needles used to give modified live
virus vaccines - boil in water only.
• Use correctly sized syringes and needles of appropriate gauge and length.
Be sure syringes are calibrated to deliver the desired dose. Be sure all air is
expelled from syringe. Air alters the dose delivered and causes leakage of
vaccine from the needle and the injection site.
• A proper sized needle will reduce wastage and ensure delivery to the
expected site. Use only 18- or 16-gauge needles. Use 1/2" or 3/4" for
administering SubQ (under the skin) and 1" or 1-1/2" for administering IM (in
the muscle). Base your choice of needle on product, equipment and size of
animal.
Routes for administration of vaccines and drugs

Methods of administration are important because they affect the speed a
vaccine enters the animal's system. Using the wrong route may not give
required response, and in fact, may result in no response.
• Oral
o Administration of boluses, tablets, liquids, or pastes through the mouth.
o For boluses and tablets, a balling gun is used with entry through the side of
the mouth and over the top of the tongue to the back of the throat, where the
trigger mechanism of the balling gun releases the bolus or tablet.
􀂃 The animal will usually swallow at this point, assuring consumption.
􀂃 Watch the throat area to determine if the material was swallowed.
o Caution should be used because rough handling with a balling gun can
produce tender areas in the mouth, making the animal go off feed or causing
problems of a more serious nature.
o Liquids and pastes can be administered with a dose syringe.
􀂃 The tip of the dose syringe should be inserted into the side of the mouth
between the teeth and over the tongue and directed into the back part of the
throat.
􀂃 The liquid should then be dispensed at a moderate rate so that the animal
has time to swallow the material, rather than causing an overload, which could
cause fluids to be aspirated into the lungs.
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􀂃 Another problem with dose syringes is that, in careless hands, severe
damage can be inflicted to the roof of the mouth when the tip of the syringe is
gouged rather than gently placed in the back of the throat.
• Intranasal
• This is a relatively rare system used to create local resistance to disease
affecting the respiratory tract.
o Most of the antibody protection will be in an animal's general system and
vaccine must be in small amounts to permit absorption into the respiratory
system.
• Intramuscular - IM
o Injection deep into the meaty area of the neck muscle, not in the round or
loin or hip.
o This may be difficult until you are familiar with this technique.
o However, we must all work to keep scar tissue (gristle) out of our
consumer's T-Bone and Round steaks!
o Absorption is rapid due to good blood supply.
o A 1-1/2" long needle should be used, allowing complete penetration of skin
and fat and partial penetration of muscle.
o Volume of injection should never be more than 10 ml.
• Subcutaneous - SubQ
o Injection under the skin.
o This route gives a slow but sustained absorption due to small blood supply.
o Injection site is where the skin is loose in the neck area.
o Loose skin is gathered and needle inserted through gathered area.
o A 1/2" to 3/4" long needle can be used.
o SubQ is always the preferred route of administration when label gives
a choice between IM and SubQ.
• Intravenous - IV
o This route is used when you need a quick response.
o Drugs are rapidly available to animal's system in larger volume and tissue
irritation is avoided.
o Best site is jugular vein, located between the neck muscles and throat on
the side of the neck (ideal site is approximately one-third of the distance
between jaw and chest).
o Site should be wet with alcohol, 1-1/2" to 2" long needle should be inserted
at a 30 degree angle pointing toward the body.
o Slight suction on the syringe should produce blood in the fluid and injection
should be slow and steady.
• Implanting
o The proper technique is to insert the needle approximately midway between
the tip and base of the ear, avoiding cartilage ribs and blood vessels.
o Once needle is inserted up to the hilt, withdraw needle one-half way and
deposit implant.
o You should be able to feel pellets under the skin.
o Improper implantation can lead to poor absorption, usually caused by
􀂃 gouging of the cartilage of the ear
􀂃 intradermal rather than subcutaneous implantation
􀂃 severing one of the veins of the ear, causing hemorrhage.
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o Observe the "Thumb Rule" when implanting.
􀂃 Always place implants at least a thumb's width away from ear tags, ear
notches, old implant sites, etc., to avoid lack of proper absorption of implant
material.
Implement Medication Program
Herd Health Management

 A good herd health program is essential to any operation
 Provides for healthier, better performing cattle
 Helps insure you are producing a safe, wholesome product
 Good herd health provides economic savings
 Decreased respiratory illness increases profitability and carcass quality
A high quality herd health program is essential to any cattle operation. Having
a good herd health program will decrease the number of sick cattle in most
operations, and generally healthy cattle are better performing cattle.
A good herd health management program will also encourage the production
of safe, healthy and wholesome products. A good herd health program
reduces the incidence of sickness and reduces treatment costs.
Studies have shown that cattle in the feedlot diagnosed with respiratory illness
will produce a carcass with a lower quality grade. Typically sick cattle are less
profitable than healthy cattle because of increased treatment costs and the
decreased value of their carcass.
Recommended Practices for Improving Herd Health
Recommended practices for Improving Herd Health include:
 A clean environment
 Adequate nutrition program
 Good reproduction (A.I. and Calving) practices
 Quality vaccination management
 Keeping records
Good herd health practices include a clean environment. A clean, well-drained

calving area with facilities to cope with calving problems is useful. Cattle will
perform better and will also be healthier overall if feeding and watering areas
are free of mud, excess manure and standing water. Minimizing these stress
factors will decrease the spread of disease, infection, and parasites.
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Your nutrition program determines the health and the ability of your cattle to
perform. Cows and heifers should have access to a good quality diet,
particularly when they are lactating. Females should be in good condition
(Body Condition Score of 5 or greater), at calving time. In addition, mineral
should be supplemented based on nutrient composition of the forages
available. Feeders and troughs should be free of moldy and/or stale feed, and
feedstuffs should be checked for nitrates, mycotoxins, and nutrient
composition. If medicated feed is fed, withdrawal times must be adhered to.
Proper reproductive management is essential to prevent the spread of

reproductive diseases and infections. Plastic sleeves should be used when
artificially inseminating cows or assisting with calving. Watch cows after
calving for retained placentas and treat all uterine, vaginal, and udder
infections according to veterinarian recommendations. Retain cull animals
long enough to meet withdrawal times of any drugs given.
Maintaining a good set of records is essential to the efficiency of any

operation. To keep a good set of records, cows need to individually identified.
Tag and record all calving information at birth. Producers need to be able to
inform potential buyers when vaccinations and other management practices
were performed.
Your Veterinarian's Role in Herd Health

 Veterinarians play an important role in preventing, diagnosing, and
treating diseases.
 Definition of Valid Veterinary/Client/Patient Relationship (VCPR)
Your veterinarian plays an important role in preventing, diagnosing, and

treating diseases. Selecting the right treatment and prevention plan depends
on accurately diagnosing the problem. Work with your local veterinarian to
develop a healthcare program designed to fit your operations needs. It is
essential to develop a valid veterinarian/client/patient relationship (VCPR).
The American Veterinary Medical Association defines a VCPR as:
"An appropriate veterinarian/client/patient relationship will exist when (1) the

veterinarian has assumed the responsibility for making medical judgments
regarding the health of the animal(s) and the need for medical treatment, and
the client (owner or caretaker) has agreed to follow the instructions of the
veterinarian; and when (2) there is sufficient knowledge of the animal(s) by
the veterinarian to initiate at least a general or preliminary diagnosis of the
medical condition of the animal(s). This means that the veterinarian has
recently seen and is personally acquainted with the keeping and care of the
animal(s), and/or by medically appropriate and timely visits to the premises
where the animal(s) are kept; and when (3) the practicing veterinarian is
readily available for follow-up in case of adverse reactions or failure of
regimen of therapy."
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 86 of 98
Extra-Label Drug Use
 What is "extra label" drug use?
 Off-label drug use requires a veterinarian's prescription
 FDA criteria for off-label drug use
Exactly what is extra-label or off-label drug use? Extra-label drug use is using
animal health products in a manner not specified on the label. Examples
include using a product at higher doses or in different species than stated on
the label. A veterinarian's prescription is needed for extra-label drug use.
For a drug to be administered in an extra-label manner, the following criteria

set by the Food and Drug Administration must be met. The veterinarian must
make a careful medical diagnosis within the context of a valid veterinarian-
client relationship. The veterinarian takes responsibility for making judgments
regarding the health of an animal, and the client agrees to follow his or her
instructions. The veterinarian must have sufficient knowledge of the animal,
through recent personal visits to the premises, to make a diagnosis, and be
readily available for follow-up care or consultation. The veterinarian must
determine that there is no marketed drug specifically labeled to treat the
condition diagnosed, or that treatment at the recommended dosage would not
be effective. A record of any animal given extra-label treatment must be
maintained. The withdrawal time prior to marketing an animal that has been
treated off-label must be significantly extended, as determined by the
veterinarian. Extra-label drug use is not appropriate for production purposes,
such as increasing feed efficiency or milk production. Use in animal feeds is
prohibited. Finally, the FDA requires the prescribed drug be labeled with the
name and address of the veterinarian, name of the drug or its ingredients,
directions for use, cautionary statements and specified withdrawal time.
Some drugs are not currently approved for use in food-producing animals,
even under the extra-label criteria. The Animal Medicinal Drug Usage
Clarification Act (AMDUCA) provides that the FDA may prohibit an extra-label
drug use in animals if the agency finds that such use presents a risk to the
public health. Your veterinarian should be aware of current changes to the list
of non-approved products.
The current list of drugs includes:
Chloramphenicol
Clenbuterol
Diethylstilbestrol
Dimetridazole
Ipronidazole
Other nitroimidazoles
Furzolidone (except for topical use)
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 87 of 98
Nitrofurazone (except for topical use)
Sulfonamide drugs in lactating dairy cattle
Fluroquinolones
Glycopeptides
Understanding Drug Labels

 Information that must be on all drug labels
 Information that must be on prescription (Rx) drug labels
 Drugs used in an "extra-label" manner
 Instructions to look for and follow on each label
All drugs, whether over the counter (OTC) or prescription (Rx), must contain
the following information on the label: name of the drug; active ingredients;
instructions for use; withdrawal times; quantity of contents; name of
distributor, lot number and expiration date.
Prescription drugs not only must have the name of the drug, active
ingredients, instructions for use, withdrawal times, quantity of contents, and
name of distributor, but must also include name and address of the dispensing
veterinarian, not just the veterinary clinic; the statement "CAUTION: Federal
law restricts this drug to use by or on the order of a licensed veterinarian";
directions for use; prescribed withdrawal times, even if zero; and any other
cautionary statements.
Drugs to be used in an "extra-label" manner require additional caution. They

often have special instructions because they are prescribed for a particular
animal or particular herd by a veterinarian who is familiar with the animal or
herd. Labels for drugs used in an "extra-label" manner must have these
components: name, address, and phone number of the veterinarian who
prescribed the drug; active ingredients, indications and directions for use;
prescribed withdrawal time before slaughter; any cautionary statements; and
exact directions for use.
To reduce the chance of reactions and minimize the risk of residues, check
and follow these instructions on each label: dosage; timing; route of
administration; warnings or indications (for example, "not for use in pregnant
animals"); withdrawal times if any; storage; disposal; and shelf life or
expiration date.
Health problems
Cattle of all ages--but particularly young, growing cattle--are subject to a

variety of ailments. They range from mild conditions to severe infectious
diseases that may cause death within 24 hours.
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 88 of 98
The cost of caring for sick cattle can seriously reduce your profit margin. With
the increasing need to cut production costs, good herd health care is very
important for any beef operation.
Prevention is the easiest and cheapest method of disease control. Clean

sheds, lots, and feed and water troughs give disease less chance to get
started. A sound vaccination program, parasite control, and frequent
observation of the herd also help to reduce the occurrence of illness.
You can recognize a sick animal first by its abnormal behavior or physical
appearance. Droopy ears, loss of appetite, head down, scouring (diarrhea), or
inactivity may indicate illness. A high temperature usually indicates disease.
The best course of action is to find a sick animal quickly, treat it, and then
work to eliminate the cause of the sickness. If one or two animals come down
with a disease, the rest of the herd has been or will be exposed to it.
Health problems are more common during and after periods of stress,
including calving, weaning, shipping, working or moving the cattle, and
extreme weather conditions. Stress can reduce an animal's ability to resist
infectious agents. After a period of stress, give extra attention to your animals'
health.
Common cattle diseases
The following are five of the more common health problems that beef
producers encounter. You also need to be aware of other diseases that affect
the health of livestock in your region.
Respiratory diseases
Respiratory diseases are common in cattle. A number of factors contribute to

an outbreak: inadequate nutrition, stress, and viral or bacterial infection. Good
management and vaccination of cows and calves is the best way to prevent
outbreaks of respiratory disease. Your veterinarian or Extension agent can
help you develop a program to reduce losses on your ranch and in the feedlot.
White muscle disease
White muscle disease is a serious problem in many areas of the Pacific

Northwest. It is caused by a dietary deficiency of the trace mineral selenium. It
may cause paralysis of the skeletal muscles or may affect the heart muscle,
causing respiratory distress and death within a few hours.
If you are in an area where white muscle disease is likely to occur, supply
adequate amounts of selenium in the diet. In addition, injecting newborn
calves with a commercial selenium/vitamin E preparation is a short-term
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 89 of 98
solution. Your veterinarian can advise you regarding the incidence of disease
in your area.
Brucellosis (Bang's disease)
Brucellosis (Bang's disease) is a serious disease. It causes abortion and

sterility in cattle, bison, elk, and deer, and undulant fever in humans.
Federal and state laws effectively outline brucellosis control. Vaccination is

required for all heifers.
Brucellosis most commonly enters a herd through the purchase of infected

cattle. To help prevent brucellosis from entering your herd, vaccinate all
heifers between ages 4 to 10 months, and purchase only brucellosis-
vaccinated cattle.
External parasites
External parasites include horn flies, face flies, stable flies, heel flies, and lice.
The largest health problem comes from the additional stress these insects
cause to animals. When infested, cattle spend more time in the shade and
don't graze, which causes poor performance.
You can reduce these problems by using fly-repellent ear tags or another
parasite control treatment. Eliminating the areas where pests reproduce also
helps to reduce the severity of external parasites.
Internal parasites
Internal parasites such as roundworms, lungworms, and liver flukes

commonly occur in cattle. These hidden parasites cause poor performance
and occasionally kill young animals.
Cattle are likely to pick up internal parasites when they graze established
pastures. Internal parasites also can be a problem in confined areas.
Invasion of the stomach or intestinal wall by a parasite leads to poor digestion

of nutrients and damage to organs. Signs of parasite infestation include
scouring, rough hair coat, poor gains, and potbelly appearance.
Use dewormers at strategic times during the year to reduce the numbers of
internal parasites. Use fecal sampling to determine the severity of the
infestation and the type of dewormer that will be effective.
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 90 of 98
Disease control
Vaccinations and parasite controls are available for many of the diseases
affecting cattle. The choice of remedy and time of application depend on a
variety of things, including the animal's nutritional level, disease prevalence in
the herd, and the region in which the cattle are located.
1. What is the herd health management?
2. What are the recommended practices for improving herd
health?
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 91 of 98
Answer Key No. 9:
1. Herd Health Management include:

 A good herd health program is essential to any operation
 Provides for healthier, better performing cattle
 Helps insure you are producing a safe, wholesome product
 Good herd health provides economic savings
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 92 of 98
 Decreased respiratory illness increases profitability and carcass quality
2. Recommended practices for Improving Herd Health include:
 A clean environment
 Adequate nutrition program
 Good reproduction (A.I. and Calving) practices
 Quality vaccination management
 Keeping records
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : RAISE LARGE RUMINANTS
MODULE TITLE : RAISING LARGE RUMINANTS
PERFORMANCE TEST
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 93 of 98
Learner’s Name: ________________________________ Date: _____________
Directions: OVERALL EVALUATION
Call instructor, ask him/her Level PERFORMANCE LEVELS

to assess your Achieved
performance in the
following critical task and 4- Can perform this skill without supervision
performance criteria below and with initiative and adaptability to
problem situations.
You will be rated based on
the Right side 3- Can perform this skill satisfactorily
without assistance or supervision.
2- Can perform this skill satisfactorily but

requires some assistance and/or
supervision.
1- Can perform parts of this skills

satisfactorily, but requires considerate
assistance and/or supervision.
Instructor will initial level achieved.
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS YES NO N/A
For acceptable achievement, all items should receive a “Yes” or

“N/A” response, during the demonstration of skills, the
candidate:
select and manage breeder cattles and buffaloes

 provide feed and implement feeding practices
 manage the general herd
provide life support facilities
implement health herd program


Learner’s signature: Date:
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 94 of 98
Instructor Signature: Date:
Questions to prove the candidates underpinning Satisfactory

knowledge response
The candidate should answer the following questions: Yes No
1. How do you select and manage breeder cattles and
buffaloes?
2. How do you provide feed and implement feeding

practices?
3. Hoe do you manage the general herd?
4. How do you provide life support facilities?
5. How do you implement health herd program?
Learner’s Date:
signature:
Instructor Date:
Signature:
LEARNER’S DIARY
DIARY NOTES
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 95 of 98
LEARNER’S DIARY
DIARY NOTES
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 96 of 98
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 97 of 98
Date Date
Code No. Page no.
Developed: Revised:
AGR621304 June 15, 2007 June 2010 98 of 98

CBLM Raising Large Ruminants

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CBLM Raising Large Ruminants

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COMPETENCY BASED

AGRICULTURE AND FISHERY SECTOR

RAISING LARGE RUMINANTS

Technical Education and Skills Development

How to use this Competency- Based Learning Material

Welcome to the learner’s guide for the module: Raising Large

The unit of competency “Raise Large Ruminants” contains the

You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order to

 Assignment Sheet – The assignment sheet is a guide used to

Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)

If you can demonstrate to your trainer that you are competent in a

After completing this module ask your trainer to assess your

MODULE TITLE : Raising Large Ruminants

MODULE DESCRIPTION : This module covers the skills, knowledge and

NOMINAL DURATION : 90 hours

1. Follow the Instructions/ Learning Steps of each Activity Sheet found

This module was prepared to help you achieve the required

SUMMARY OF LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. select and manage breeder cattles and buffaloes

LO1. Select and manage breeder cattles and buffaloes

LO2. Provide feed and implement feeding practices

LO3. manage the general herd

LO4. Provide life support facilities

LO5. Implement health herd program

LO6. Maintain and analyze records

LO1. Select and Manage Breeder Cattles and Buffaloes

Learning Steps Resources

1. Perform Self Check Self Check Questionnaire 1.

3. After finishing this Learning

Breeds of Dairy Cattle:

Sahiwals are now predominately used in Australia for beef production, as

A Jersey cow in the western United States.

Brahman cattle are characterized by a large hump over the shoulders

Breeds of Simbrah know the importance of producing practical cattle with

Origin: Brangus is a breed of cattle developed by blending Brahman blood

Code No. Raise Large Ruminants Date Date Page no.

Other Breeds of Buffalo :

Self Check Questionnaire No. 1:

1. What are the breeds of Cattle?

Beef cattle criteria

When judging beef cattle, the judge looks for

 They check that the muzzle is as broad as possible, but still in

Main body and ribs

In general, a lot of muscle should be on the rump.

Hooves and pasterns

 If an animal is sickle-hocked, there will be some overstepping, which

Fat and muscle

 In general, anything below the point of the elbow is fat.

 The udders on females should not be pendulous.

1. When judging beef cattle, the judge looks for?

2. What is Cattle judging?

1. When judging beef cattle, the judge looks for

2. Cattle judging - is the process of judging a series of cattle and

Concepts of reproductive physiology

Anatomy of the reproductive organs in the cow

Figure1. Reproductive tract of a cow showing uterus and ovaries.

The life cycle

 Puberty is a more dramatic change in the female (heifer) than in the

Under-nutrition results in delay of the onset of puberty in heifers. Heifers that

Reproductive period. Breeding activities in cattle can continue for many

The annual breeding cycle

 Bulls show seasonal variation in fertility due to the effect of

The estrous cycle

Events in the estrous cycle