Self-powered cardiac pacemaker: the viability of piezoelectric energy harvester

Sanjana Gururaj Alexis Applequist Sujata Bhattarai

Department of Medical Electronics Department of Biomedical Engineering Department of Engineering
B.M.S. College of Engineering University of Arkansas CBEAS, Purbanchal University
Bangalore,India Fayetteville, USA Kathmandu, Nepal
sanjana.gururaj8@gmail.com lexiapplequist@gmail.com suzata.bhattarai330@gmail.com

Abhishek M Appaji Vijayrajan.A Pooja Kadambi

Department of Medical Electronics Founder,CTO Lead System Designer,Project Manager
B.M.S. College of Engineering InnAccel Techonologies Pvt Ltd. InnAccel Techonologies Pvt Ltd.
Bangalore,India Bangalore,India Bangalore,India
abhishek.ml@bmsce.ac.in avr@innaccel.com pooja@innaccel.com

Abstract— Cardiovascular disease causes 2.75 million deaths in
India annually [1]. Despite major flaws, 20,000 pacemakers are
implanted in patients with bradycardia each year in India.
These pacemakers contain batteries which must be replaced
every 7-8 years [2]. Battery replacement surgeries overall
increase cost, patient discomfort and recovery time, and intra-
op and post-op complications.
This project aims to design an affordable pacemaker that
eliminates surgeries due to battery replacement in patients
suffering from bradycardia by incorporating a piezoelectric
crystal in order to recharge the pacemaker capacitor with each
beat of the heart. Experimental outcomes and analysis show that
it is possible to harness enough energy in one year to sustain a
rechargeable pacemaker for over 20 years. This could
potentially improve outcomes for 40,000-50,000 people in India
annually.
Keywords— Cardiovascular disease, affordable, battery
replacement, intra-op, post-op
I. BACKGROUND
Heart Failure—Heart failure occurs when the heart muscle
does not pump the appropriate amount of blood at the ideal
rate. To pump blood throughout the body, the muscles of the
heart must be coordinated perfectly, squeezing the blood in the
right direction, at the right time, with the correct pressure [3].
The heart's activity is directed entirely by electrical impulses.
[3].The electrical signal begins at the Sino-atrial (SA) node —
the heart's natural pacemaker, positioned at the top of the right
atrium. This signal causes the atria to contract, pushing blood
down into the ventricles. This electrical impulse travels
through the Bundle of His located in the center of the heart
and eventually radiates through the ventricles causing them to
contract, shooting blood out. One of the most common forms
of heart failure stems from the ventricles not contracting in
sync. This is called an arrhythmia. A common method of
treatment is the insertion of a pacemaker.
II. INTRODUCTION
An artificial cardiac pacemaker is a small device placed in the
chest or abdomen to help control abnormal heart rhythms
called arrhythmias. A heartbeat that is too fast is called
tachycardia, while a heartbeat that is too slow is called
bradycardia. This device generates electrical impulses which
are delivered by electrodes to contract the heart muscles and
regulate the electrical conduction system of the heart [4]. With
a pacemaker, patients are advised to avoid direct contact
sports as well as close or prolonged exposure to electrical
devices or devices that have strong magnetic fields such as cell
phones, MP3 players, household appliances, high-tension
wires, metal detectors, industrial welders, and electrical
generators [5].
A. CURRENT PACEMAKERS
Current pacemakers are composed of three components:
the pulse generator, leads, and electrodes [5]. The pulse
generator houses the battery and electrical circuitry which
sends electrical signals to the heart [6]. It is implanted just
under the skin of the chest, on the collar bone [6]. It is the
main body of the pacing system. Leads are insulated wires
which deliver the pulse to the electrode located at the end
of the wire [6] .The electrodes are implanted into the heart
muscle. Depending on the type of pacemaker, the device
will have one, two or three leads. Single chamber
pacemakers have one lead, dual-chamber pacemakers
have two leads, and biventricular pacemakers have three
leads [6]. Electrodes are the termination of leads
consisting of an anode and cathode. They are in direct
contact with the heart and contain pulse sensors that detect
heart rhythm and send data through the leads to the pulse
generator. The generator then sends electrical pulses to the
heart through the leads as needed [7].
B. CURRENT PACEMAKER BATTERIES
Current pacemakers most commonly use Lithium-Iodide
batteries. Lithium Iodide batteries have increased the life-
span of a pacemaker as compared to the previously used
mercury-zinc batteries. They have low-drain current and
voltage characteristics [8].Since 1972, lithium iodine-
polyvinylpyride has been studied extensively in order to
improve design, chemistry, and performance. [8] While
great improvements have been made, there are still flaws.
Case studies have reported the corrosive nature of the
battery’s compound can result in pacemaker failure causing
major patient complications, re-surgeries, and sometimes
death [8].Without major flaws, the batteries must be
replaced typically every seven to eight years. Battery
replacement surgeries increase overall cost, patient
discomfort, recovery time, and intra-op and post-op
complications. before or immediately following the
equation.
 C. CURRENT IMPLANTATION SURGERY and measured using a force gauge. The force and voltage over
time was measured using a multimeter. The second phase of
The most common pacemaker implantation requires a testing, shown in Figure 2(A), consisted of force application
fluoroscope used by a cardiovascular surgeon assisted by a to the piezo plate via linear actuator. The force and voltage
radiologist and anaesthesiologist [9]. The surgery includes a over time was measured by force gauge and multimeter
one to two-inch incision below the collarbone forming a respectively.
pocket where the pulse generator can be inserted [10]. The
leads are threaded through a large vein into the heart where
they are fixed onto the surface [10]. The leads are then
attached to the pulse generator [10] .Post-procedure, the
patient is typically given pain medication as well as an
antibiotic to prevent infection [10] .The overall procedure
takes approximately one to three hours (assuming there are no
major complications) [10] .The device and procedure typically
cost between 45,000 to 3 lakh [11].

III. METHOD

Figure 2: (A) Phase one testing set up - manually applied, continuous force,
( B) Phase two testing set up - linear actuator applied, periodic force. [14,15]

IV. CALCULATIONS

One can calculate the power output of the heart using the
following derived equations. [16]

Power can be calculated by the following formula:

Figure 1: Flow of energy through current pacemakers vs. FlexPacer

While current pacemakers utilize a fully charged, non- Power = work/time (1)
rechargeable battery to supply electrical pulses to the heart,
Work can be calculated by the following formula:
the new generation of pacemakers being developed
incorporate a rechargeable aspect. The FlexPacer uses a
piezoelectric crystal stimulated by the heart’s muscle Work = force*displacement (2)
movement. As shown in Figure 1, the mechanical energy of
the heart can be converted to electrical energy which can then It is known that force = pressure*area. Using this fact,
Equation (2) can be rewritten as the following:
be stored in the capacitor within the microprocessor
preventing the number of re-surgeries.
Work = pressure*area*displacement (3)
PMN-PT has been used as a nano-generator in the biomedical
field to collect infinite mechanical energy and convert to It is known that pressure = height*density*gravity.
electrical signals. The piezoelectric material is an Using this fact, Equation (3) can be rewritten as the
encapsulated lead zirconate titanate (PZT), a ceramic following:
commonly used for transducers. [12]
Work=height*density*gravity*area*displacement (4)
The mechanical motion of internal organs produces enough
energy to charge a 3.8-volt battery. [13] In theory, placing the
It is known that volume = area*displacement. Using this
device on the heart’s left ventricle at an angle would provide
fact, Equation (4) can be rewritten as the following:
the piezo with the most power due to the thickness of the
muscle, power output of the heart, and maximum surface area
Work = height*density*gravity*volume (5)
in contact.
To show the piezoelectricity generation in response to Equation (1) and Equation (5) can be combined and
mechanical stress applied, the breadboard circuit shown in rewritten as the following:
Figure 2 was connected. The breadboard connection consisted
of one piezo plate, a bridge rectifier and a 10 microfarad
Power = (height*density*gravity*volume)/time (6)
capacitor in order to store the charge. The process was divided
into two parts. During the first phase of testing, shown in
Figure 2(B), stress on the piezo plate was applied manually
 To calculate the work done by the heart, one can use the
following derived equation. [16]

Since it is known that displacement = volume, this can be

substituted into Equation (2).

Work = force*Δ volume (7)

Since it is known that force = pressure *area, this can be

substituted into Equation (7).

Work = pressure*area* Δ volume (8)

The coverage of the piezoelectric sensor on the heart is

calculated in the following equations: Figure 5: Testing phase one results: time versus force applied to the piezo
(via manual application) and voltage stored in the capacitor
Surface area of the piezoelectric crystal can be calculated using the
following equation:

𝑆𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑧𝑜 = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑟 2 (9)

Percent of the heart’s surface area covered by the piezoelectric crystal

can be calculated using the following equation:

𝑆𝐴ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡
𝑆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑆𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑧𝑜
∗ 100% (10)
The power the piezo is capable of producing in one year can be calculated
with a 10% loss using the following equation:
Figure 6: Testing phase two results: time versus force applied to the piezo
Power per year = (max power per hour 0.1) *(24 hours/day) (via linear actuator) and voltage stored in the capacitor with linear trendline
*(365 days/year) (11)

The expected battery life of the pacemaker is calculated in the Table 1: Known values of blood moving through human arteries, the heart, and
following: piezoelectric sensor properties needed for calculating power output and work done by
human heart. [16-17]

Estimated battery life=

(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑀 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛) 𝑥 (𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒) Variable Given
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑀 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
(12) height of blood per minute 4*10^3 m3
through arteries

V. RESULTS height 0.13 m

density 13.6*10^3 kg/m3

average blood pressure 100 mm Hg

(generally varies between
120 and 80)

psi per 1 mm Hg 0.02 psi

N per 1 lb 4.4 N

cm per 1 in 2.54 cm

average volume of heart 576 cm3

surface area of large, adult 2.2 m2

Figure 4: Testing phase one results: continuous, increasing force applied heart
to the piezo (via manual application) versus voltage stored in the capacitor
diameter of piezo 35 mm

thickness of piezo 0.5 mm

maximum voltage produced 2 mW per hour

by piezo
The power output of the heart can be calculated using
Equation (6) and the givens shown in Table 1 [16]:
Power = (0.13 m13.6103 kgm-39.8 m/s2410-3 m3)/60 s
= 1.155 W (6)
The coverage of the piezoelectric sensor on the heart is
calculated in the following equations:
Knowing the diameter of the piezoelectric sensor is 35 mm
(ergo, the radius is 17.5 mm), the surface area can be
calculated using Equation (9):
𝑆𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑧𝑜,𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝜋 ∗ (17.5 𝑚𝑚)2 = 962.113𝑚𝑚2 =
9.62𝑥10−4 𝑚2 (9)
Knowing the surface area of the heart and piezo, Equation
(10) can be used to calculate the percent of the heart surface
area covered by the piezo.(10)
𝑆𝐴ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡 9.62𝑥10−4 𝑚2
𝑆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = ∗ 100% = *100%=0.0437%
𝑆𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑧𝑜 2.2𝑚2
(10)
Given the maximum voltage produced by the piezoelectric
sensor is 2 mW/hour, the power produced in one year
considering a 10% loss in efficiency can be calculated
using Equation (11).
Power per year = (.002 W/hour0.1) * (24 hours/day) *(365
days/year) = 15.768 W/year (11)
The expected battery life of the pacemaker is calculated in the
following equations:
It is known that current pacemakers most commonly use a 1.5V
to 2.5 V battery and typically lasts between seven and 8 years.
Considering an average of 7.5 years and a 10% efficiency loss
in the battery, the considered voltage is now 2.25 V. According
to Figure 6 where the FlexPacer capacitor was tested for
maximum voltage capacity, the maximum voltage was
approximately 4 V. If we assume a 10% loss, the maximum
voltage of the FlexPacer is approximately 3.6 .Taking this into
consideration, one can estimate the battery life of FlexPacer using
Equation (12).
The expected battery life of the pacemaker is calculated in the
following equations:
It is known that current pacemakers most commonly use a 1.5 V to
2.5 V battery and typically lasts between seven and 8 years.
Considering an average of 7.5 years and a 10% efficiency loss in
the battery, the considered voltage is now 2.25 V. According to
Figure 6 where the FlexPacer capacitor was tested for maximum
voltage capacity, the maximum voltage was approximately 4 V. If
we assume a 10% loss, the maximum voltage of the FlexPacer is
approximately 3.6 V. Taking this into consideration, one can
estimate the battery life of FlexPacer using Equation (12).
(7.5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠)𝑥(3.6𝑉)
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 = = 12 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
2.25𝑉
(12)
If we use all the same assumptions from the above equation,
but use a 1 V battery in the device considering a 10% loss (0.9
V), the expected battery life of the pacemaker without
recharging can be calculated using Equation (12).
(7.5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠)𝑥(0.9𝑉)
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 = = 3 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
2.25𝑉
(13)
V. DISSCUSSION
The results from phase one of testing (manually applied,
continuously increasing force) can be seen in Figure 4 and
Figure 5. Though these graphs help identify the
relationship between force and voltage, they do not show
the build-up of voltage stored in the capacitor to its
maximum capacity. Figure 4 shows a direct relation
between force and voltage; as the force applied to the
piezoelectric sensor increases, the voltage stored in the
capacitor also increases. Figure 5 shows the same
relationship over time also with the dissipation of voltage
in the capacitor once force has stopped being applied.
Figure 6, the results from phase two of testing, used a
linear actuator with a tapping motion applying the force.
In this trial, the maximum voltage of the capacitor was
found to be approximately 4 V.
The results from phase two of testing (linear actuator
applied, alternating force) can be seen in Figure 6. The force
alternated between 0 N and .85 N continuously completing
cycles approximately every 2.5 s for the first 30 s of the
trial.
As shown by the calculations in Equation (10), the
piezoelectric sensor only covers .0437% of the heart’s outer
surface. While all calculations consider only one piezoelectric
sensor, since one sensor covers such a miniscule portion of
the heart’s surface, multiple sensors could be incorporated
into the device in order to harness more power if needed.
The current pacemaker batteries range between 1.5 V-2.5 V
and usually lasts for seven to eight years. The FlexPacer,
based on approximation from Equation (12), can function
efficiently for 12 years with a 4V battery, or three years with
a 1 V battery even if the rechargeable aspect fails. This is a
sufficient amount of time for medical professional
intervention. A 1 V battery was considered in this case due to
the larger size of the 4 V battery used in testing. A 1 V battery
would most likely be used in the final device design to
conserve space.
Since the current of our system is .27 A, and the voltage
needed in one year is 0.3V (Equation (12) shows 0.9 V
supplies the piezo for three years), one can conclude the
power needed to sustain the FlexPacer for one year is only
0.081 W. Based on Equation (11), FlexPacer is capable of
outputting 1.752 W/year even considering a 10% efficiency
loss. Furthermore, since the FlexPacer only needs 0.081
W/year to sustain itself, this means it would need 1.62 W to
sustain for 20 years. As mentioned above, the FlexPacer is
theoretically able to harness this much power in only one VII. REFRENCE
year. Ergo, less than one year of a beating heart will supply
the FlexPacer with enough power to sustain for 20 years.

VI. CONCLUSION

In summary, a high-performance, single-crystalline piezo plate

energy harvester was successfully fabricated and applied in a
practical demonstration of a self-powered, cardiac pacemaker.
The objective of these energy harvesters are to convert kinetic
energy into electrical energy wherein the capacitor connected
is constantly charged by the motion of the heart muscles. Based
on calculations shown, theoretically, it is possible to harness
enough energy from a human heart in minor distress using a
piezoelectric plate in order to continuously recharge a
pacemaker.

Many limitations were apparent in this study. The piezoelectric

sensor used was ceramic. Due to the difficulty level of attaching
the ceramic model to the heart, a flutter piezoelectric sensor
would most likely be used in the final FlexPacer device. The
calculations in this study were based on theoretical calculations
of the force output of the heart. The force application during
testing was also unidirectional and held fairly consistent.
Within the body, these factors may be more variable. A major
limitation of this device includes the risk of the piezo detaching
from the heart. In this case, the pacemaker would not have a
recharging source, and the dislodged piezo may cause other
internal complications. Another device limitation includes the
natural acceleration of heart failure leading to a lesser voltage
output resulting in the inability of battery recharge. Though
unlikely, without any sort of indicator to the patient, the
pacemaker battery may completely drain.

In the future, the design will need to be further created for the
full device. This design can be refined with pulse sensors and
miniaturized using biocompatible materials in order to be
implanted within bradycardic patients throughout India and
around the world. A custom piezo will need to be created to fit
the left ventricle, the piezo’s fatigue strength must be
investigated, an anatomical model for testing is needed, and
adhesive methods will have to be investigated to secure the
piezo to the heart. If created with flexible materials and
miniaturized into a cylindrical shape, it may be possible to
perform implantation via catheterization through the femoral
artery. [18]
A laparoscopic, intercostal approach may also be an option.
[19] These smaller incisions, in theory, should lead to less intra-
op and post-op complications as well as lower infection rates.
[19]

An additional safety feature worth investigating would be the

addition of some form of sensor that could detect battery level.
It would be convenient for the device to be capable of sending
a message to a partner app for the patient's phone, and the
doctor, alerting when the battery drops below a certain level
and further attention may be needed.