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1
 INDEX

Unit – I ............................................................... 3
Lesson 1: Fabrics formed from Non Fibrous
material .............................................................. 4
Lesson 2: Fabrics formed from fibrous material 11
Lesson 3: Fabrics formed from the yarns .......... 25
Unit - II............................................................. 34
Lesson 4: Knitting ............................................. 35
Unit – III .......................................................... 58
Lesson 5: Loom types........................................ 59
Lesson 6: Basic Weaves .................................... 71
Unit – IV ........................................................... 93
Lesson 7: Woven Fabrics ................................... 94
UNIT-V ............................................................ 113
Lesson 8: Finishing of fabrics .......................... 114
Books for Further References.......................... 143
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 Unit – I

Lesson 1: Fabrics formed from non- fibrous

material
Lesson 2: Fabrics formed from fibrous
material
Lesson 3: Fabrics formed from the yarns

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Lesson 1: Fabricsformed from
Non Fibrous material

Objective:
To study the structure of fabrics made with the
help of non fibrous materials or chemicals.

Structure:
1.1 Film fabrics
1.2 Types of film fabrics
1.3 Suede like fabrics

1.1 Films
Definition: Films are made directly from a polymer
solution by meltextrusion or by casting the solution
onto a hot drum. Film solutions are similar to fiber
spinning solutions. There are two types of
chemicals used for most apparel and furnishings:
1. Vinyl chloride
2. Polyurethane solutions.
The two types are similar in appearance, but they
vary in the care they require. Vinyl films are
washable but become brittle and stiff in dry-
cleaning solvents
Urethane films are both washable and dry cleanable
they are soft in cold weather
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There are several structures of films.

1. Plain films
2. Expanded films
3. Supported films

Plain films or nonreinforced films are firm, dense,

and uniform. They are usually impermeable to air
and water and have excellent soil and stain
resistance and good recovery from deformation.
Plain films such as latex, chloroprene, vinyl and
nitrile are used in disposable gloves for health-care
workers.

Expanded films are spongier, softer, and

plumper. They are not as strong or as abrasion-
resistant as plain films. Expanded films are
impermeable to air and water. Nonporous films,
used for inexpensive upholstery, are
uncomfortable, especially in hot weather and in
direct contact with skin.

Supported films are more durable, more

expensive, easier to sew, and less likely to crack
and split than nonreinforced films. Because plain
films and expanded films are seldom durable
enough to with stand normal use, they are usually
attached to a woven, knit or fiber web support
fabric or substrate. The end result is a supported,
coated or reinforced film.

Plastic films and coated fabrics are more waterproof

than any other material. The finishing process can
make them resemble almost any other textile.
They vary in thickness from the very thin
transparent film used to make sandwich bags to
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the heavy leatherette used to cover a dentist‟s

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chair. As compared with leather, films are uniform

in appearance and quality, available in uniformly
wide lengths, and much cheaper and easier to
make into products.

Process

Solution is extruded through narrow slits into

warm air or cast onto a revolving drum.
Molding powders may be pressed between
hot rollers.

Properties
Films are waterproof, impermeable, stiff, low
cost, resistant to soil, and nonfibrous.
Films have poor drapeability and are weak
unless supported by a fabric back.
Films can be finished to look like many other
fabrics or to have their own characteristics
appearance.
Films are used for shoes, shower curtains,
upholstery, and plastic bags.
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 Films made from solutions

Film End uses for Film

Acetate Photographic film, projection

film

Nylon Cooking bags

Mylar* Packaging, metallic yarns,

novelty balloons, computer
disks
Polyethylene Packaging, garment and
shopping bags, squeeze
bottles.

Polyurethane Leather like fabrics.

Vinyl Packaging, garment bags,

leather like fabrics for
apparel and upholstery, seed
tapes, water-soluble bags

Saran Wrap* Packaging for food

Cellophane Glitter weaving yarns –

mostly in hand-woven
textiles

Composite Fabrics
Composite fabrics are fabrics that combine several
primary and/or secondary structures, at least one
of which is a recognized textile structure, into a
single structure. This broad category includes such
diverse fabrics as coated fabrics, tufted and flocked
structures, laminates, and stitch-bonded structures.
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1.2 Ultra-Suede Construction
Suede like Fabrics
Suede has beautiful texture.It is "fuzzy" on both
sides. Suedelike fabrics have been developed as
care for natural suede is difficult. Suede like fabrics
are needle-punched fabrics made from micro denier
fibers combined with a resin coating and non-
fibrous polyurethane. The micro denier fibers are
arranged in a manner that reproduces the
microscopic structure of natural suede‟s. The fabric
is dyed and finished. The process was developed
by Toray Industries in Japan.
Suede like fabrics are being manufactured under
two main trade names which are registered trade
names of Springs Industries, are used in apparel
and furnishing.

1. Ultra suede®
2. Ultra leather®

Ultra suede® is made of 60 percent micro fine

polyester and 40 percent polyurethane foam. It may
be backed with a woven fabric when used for
upholstery. Ultra leather® is 100 percent
polyurethane with a knit back of 70 percent rayon
and 30 percent nylon. The embossed fabric is
lightweight, soft, and water-repellent and it has a
comfort stretch.

Belleseime® is a similar fabric made from 65

percent polyester/20 percent nylon matrix fiber.
Suede like and leather like fabrics are used in
apparel, upholstery, wall coverings, and accessories.
These fabrics are made in various ways. The
process can be summarized as follows:
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Fibers and polyurethane solution are mixed
together, cast on a drum, or forced through a slit to
make the fabric, and then napped on both sides.
Properties
The fabric looks and feels like suede, but is uniform
in thickness, appearance, and quality, it is sold by
the yard or meter.
The fabric is machine-washable and dry-cleanable.

Construction Characteristics Trade Name

Technique

Composite fabric – Washable, dry- Ultrasuede®

polyester fibers and cleanable
Ultraleather®
polyurethane
Looks like leather
mixed, cast on
or suede
drum, napped or
embossed.
Composite fabric Easy care, Looks
like suede
Woven Dry-cleanable,
cotton/polyester Washable
Substrate, surface
coating of
polyurethane.
100% polyester- Dry-cleanable,
pile fabric with Washable
suedelike finish
Flocked cotton Least expensive
and least
effective imitation
Flock may wear
off at edges.
100% polyester Washable, dry- Super-suede®
warp-knit, napped cleanable
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10
 Lesson 2: Fabrics formed
from fibrous material

Objective:
To study the structure of fabrics made with the
help of fibrous materials

Structure:
2.1 Nonwoven fabrics
2.2 Examples of nonwovens
2.3 Felt fabrics

2.1 Nonwoven Fabrics

Nonwovens are textiles which are neither woven
nor knit, such as felt. Nonwoven fabrics are defined
as textile materials made directly from fibers and
held together as a fabric by adhesives, heat fusion
(if thermoplastic fibers) or through entanglement of
the fibers. Non-woven fabric is typically
manufactured by putting small fibers together in
the form of a sheet or web, and then binding them
either mechanically (as in the case of felt, by
interlocking them with serrated needles such that
the inter-fiber friction results in a stronger fabric),
with an adhesive, or thermally (by applying binder
(in the form of powder, paste, or polymer melt)
and melting the binder onto the web by increasing
temperature).
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The first fiberweb, tapa cloth, is made from fibrous
inner bark of the fig or paper mulberry tree. It was
used for clothing by people in many areas of the
Pacific Islands and Central America. The cloth is
made by soaking the inner bark to loosen the
fibers, beating them with a mallet, smoothing them
out into a paper like sheet, and decorating them
with block prints.
The first nonwovens are introduced in
1942.Suppliers now include Freudenberg,
Nonwoven Ltd. Partnership (formerly Pellon
Corporation), Burlington Industries, Chicopee
Manufacturing Company, Kendall Company,
Kimberly Clark Corporation, Monsanto Corporation,
and E.I. du Pont de Nemours, Inc.Today, fabrics
made from fibers are the fastest growing area of
the textile industry. These fabrics most often have
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industrial uses, but some are used in apparel and

furnishing items.
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Properties
These materials are generally flat, flexible, porous
sheet structures with high surface areas-to-weight
characteristics. Non-wovens are typically not strong
(unless reinforced by a backing or densified).
The input materials to produce nonwoven fabrics
are:
The fibers
The specialty chemicals such as bonding agents
to provide strength
The auxiliary agents which can be used, for
example, to control flexibility, enhance surface
texture, or alter moisture transport.
The production rates of nonwoven machinery far
exceed those of modern weaving and knitting, and
are approaching those of high-speed papermaking.
A scrim fabric, sandwiched between the layers
making the nonwoven material, can be used for
added strength. However, the term nonwoven
creates confusion because knits are nonwovens as
well. Nonwoven refers to a wide variety of fabric
structures. In the textile industry, nonwoven
usually refers to a fiberweb structure. Nonwovens
are often application-designated as either durable
and disposable.
Durable
These materials are not manufactured or intended
to be thrown away after a single or limited number
of applications. Examples include apparel
interlinings, carpet backings, subsoil covers for
road beds, and tiles on a space shuttle. DURABLE
NONWOVENS used as house wraps to prevent
water infiltration.
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 Disposable
These materials are manufactured with the
intention of being thrown away after a single or
limited number of applications. They are important
when the convenience of throwing them away
overcomes additional costs or when cost of the
products are less than the cleaning expense.
Examples include disposable diapers, headrests,
surgical gowns, and filters. Some items might be
considered semi-durable, like Handy Wipes. The
Major Fiber used in nonwovens for the disposables
is rayon, while the major fibers for durables include
rayon, polyester and olefin. Others used are nylon,
vinyon, acrylic, cotton and acetate.
Perhaps the most promising growth in nonwoven
fabrics utilization is the field of Geotextiles.
'''Geotextiles''' are permeable [[fabric]]s which,
when used in association with [[soil]], have the
ability to separate, filter, reinforce, protect, or
drain. Typically made from [[polypropylene]] or
[[polyester]], Geotextiles fabrics come in three
basic forms: woven (looks like mail bag sacking),
needle punched (looks like felt), or heat bonded
(looks like ironed felt). Geotextiles usage involves
incorporation of a fabric as a portion of a civil
engineering structure. Application include subsoil
covers for construction roads, waterfront soil
stabilization, railroad beds, and pipeline trenches.
In all Geotextiles applications, the nonwoven fabric
must perform one or more of the following
functions: reinforcement, separation, filtration, and
drainage.

Applications
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Non-woven materials are nowadays mainly

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produced from man-made fibers. Two synthetic

polymers dominate the market: polypropylene (PP)
and polyesters (mainly PET). For example,
nonwovens. Nonwovens used as facings on baby
diapers are disposable or single-use nonwovens.

Non-woven materials are used in numerous

applications, including:
Hygiene
baby diapers
feminine hygiene
adult incontinence products
wipes
bandages and wound dressings
Medical
isolation gowns
surgical gowns
surgical drapes and covers
surgical scrub suits
caps
Filters
gasoline, oil and air - including HEPA
filtration
water, coffee, tea bags
Geotextiles

soil stabilizers and roadway underlayment

frost protection
pond and canal water barriers sand
infiltration barrier for drainage tile
There are three major manufacturing methods
used to produce nonwoven materials. Each differs
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as to fiber, utilization, range of properties, and

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capitalization requirements. They are dry laid, wet
laid and polymer laid.

2.2 Examples of nonwoven materials,

made by the systems named above:

Fig. 4b: Needle action

1. Needle Punched Nonwovens
Needle punched nonwovens are sometimes called
mechanical felt or needle punched left. Unlike felt
(which is made primarily from wool), needle
punched nonwovens can be made from any staple
fiber: mechanical intertwining of fibers by needles.

2. Bonded Web Nonwovens

Bonded web nonwovens were the first nonwovens.
Bonded nonwovens are used extensively in
disposable items, such as cook‟s hats, hospital and
beauty parlor protective gowns, disposable bed
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sheets, towels tablecloths and draperies.

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 3. Spunlaid Nonwovens
Spunlaid non-wovens are made in one continuous
process. Fibers are spun and then directly
dispersed into a web by deflectors or can be
directed with air streams. This technique leads to
faster belt speeds, and cheaper costs. Several
variants of this concept are available, but the
leading technology is the REICOFIL
machinery.Spunlaid is bonded by either resin or
thermal.
4. Spunbonded Nonwoven
PP(POLYPROPYLENE)spunbonds run faster and at
lower temperatures than PET(POLYESTER)
spunbonds, mostly due to the difference in melting
points. Spunbond has been combined with
meltblown nonwovens, conforming them into a
layered product called SMS (spun-melt-spun).
Spunbonded nonwovens are made in a wide variety
of weights, degrees of softness and drapability.
They are used in an equally wide variety of end
uses, including geotextiles (major end use),
clothing interliners, backing for wall papers and
vinyl films, carpet backing and shoe linings. one
unusual polyamide spunbond (Cerex) is self-bonded
with gas-phase acid.

5. Melt Blown Nonwovens

Meltblown nonwovens have extremely fine fiber

diameters but are not strong fabrics. SMS fabrics,
made completely from PP are water-repellent and
fine enough to serve as disposable fabrics.
Meltblown is often used as filter media, being able
to capture very fine particles. y. meltblown is very
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weakly bonded from the air attenuated fibers

tangling with themselves during web formation as
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well as the temporary tackiness when they are
forming.

6. Slit Extrusion
This type of nonwoven is used in food packaging,
reinforcing scrim, adhesive networks, and
disposable cover stock.

7. Fusible Nonwovens
They are used more widely in clothing than any of
the other varieties. The fusible, nonwovens are
used primarily as interlining for clothing and so
have two major functions; to provide shape to cut
parts of garments; and to hold garment parts, such
as skirt hem or shirt facing, together. Shape is
provided since these nonwovens are rigid.

8. Spunlaced
Hydro-entanglement: mechanical intertwining of
fibers by water jets (called spunlace)

2.3 Felts
The construction of fabric directly from fibers is
both the oldest and the newest method of making
cloth. The ingenuity of human beings in forming
flexible covering materials first expressed itself in
felts. Felt manufacture depends upon special
characteristics of wool, hair, or fur fibers. The most
practical fiber for felt making is wool, but fur fibers
are used in hat bodies and are sometimes blended
with wool when certain properties are desired.
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Felt made wholly or partly of wool is defined by the
American Society for Testing Materials as:
1. A structure built up by the interlocking of
fibers by a suitable combination of
mechanical work, chemical action, moisture
and heat without spinning, weaving, or
knitting. It may consist of one or more
classes of fibers: wool, reprocessed wool or
reused wool, with or without the mixture of
animal, vegetable and synthetic fibers.

2. The ability of wool fiber to coil upon itself,

interlock, and shrink when subjected to heat,
moisture, and pressure (including friction
and agitation) is responsible for the felting
action. In ancient times, long before
recorded history, it was somehow discovered
that when heat and water were applied to
wool fibers and the resultant mass was
pounded with rocks, it would create a cloth
that would hold together and conform to the
general outlines of the body or add warmth
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to floors.
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Today the manufacture of felt is highly
mechanized.
Wool fibers are cleaned, blended, and carded.
After carding, two or more layers of fibers are
arranged at right angles to one another. The
number of layers depends on the planned
ultimate thickness of the felt, but every layer
alternates in fiber direction to the one
immediately beneath it. The final thickness
can vary from 1/32 inch to 3 inches or more.
Apparel felt are usually between 1/16 inch
and 1/18 inch thick.
The layers or batts of carded fibers are
passed through machines, where they are
trimmed and rolled. Moisture and heat
applied, and the batts are placed between
heavy plates. The top place vibrates,
producing friction, agitation and pressure,
which cause the fibers to become entangled
and pressed tightly together. The machinery
is controlled automatically, so it stops when
the desired thickness and hardness is
attained.
Fulling is the next step. This consists of
shrinking the felt into a compact mass by the
application of soap or sulfuric acid and then
pounding with wooden hammers. Finally, felt
is neutralized, scoured, rinsed, dried, and
then stretched to the desired width.
Wool from the sheep is the animal fiber most
frequently used in making felt because it
possesses the best felting properties. Until, the
mid-20th century, felts were composed only of
animal fibers; however, the increased popularity
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of felts has encouraged the blending of

nonfelting fibers with wool to produce lower-cost
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products. For example, rayon fibers are

 frequently blended with wool to make felts.
Acceptable felt fabrics can be produced with up
to 50 percent nonfelting fibers.

CHARACTERISTICS
Felts have many industrial and domestic
applications. Felt fabrics characteristics are:
1. show good to excellent resilience
2. are good shock absorbers
3. are easy to shape
4. will not travel, so edges need no finish
5. are sound absorbent
6. have good insulating properties, with
resultant warmth
7. will not tear, though fibers may pull apart
8. can be finished to be mothproof, water-
repellent, fire proof and fungi-resistant.
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PROPERTIES
The breaking load of felts is low when compared
with many woven or knitted fabrics. However, with
intelligent selection of type and thickness, the
consumer can obtain a felt that will be satisfactory
for almost any end use. The shopper seeking felts
for apparel must remember that, because of low
breaking elongation, felt garments should be loose
to be durable. Other properties that may cause
dissatisfaction include the fact that holes cannot be
mended invisibly and that there is little or no elastic
recovery. Felt will not return to shape after
deformation cause by stretching or other forces.

USES
Felt fabrics are used for wearing apparel, home
furnishing items, crafts and decorative accents, and
industrial purposes. The method of construction
permits considerable variation in the thickness of
the completed fabric and, therefore, enables the
manufacturer to produce both flexible fabrics and
comparatively stiff products. Flexible felts are
desirable for apparel, such as skirts and jackets, as
well as for tablecloths, pillow covers, and similar
items. The thick fabrics are more appropriate to
such products as rug pads and insulating materials.

CARE
Proper care procedure for felts are similar to those
required for any wool fabric. However, because of
the absence of yarn formation, the softer, thinner
felts have comparatively low tensile strength;
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therefore, they should be handed carefully and

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never subjected to strenuous pulling or twisting.

Dry cleaning is recommended for most felt
products.

FABRICS FORMED FROM THE FIBERS

DIRECTLY
Nonwoven (Tapa cloth from Samoa)
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FABRICS FORMED FROM THE FIBERS
DIRECTLY

Felt (Numdah felt rug)

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 Lesson 3: Fabrics formed
from the yarns

Objective:
To study about the fabrics formed from the
interlacing of yarns.

Structure:
3.1 Braids
3.2 Lace
3.3 Netting

The construction of decorative fabrics began as a

handicraft of intertwining yarns in whatever
directions suited the maker‟s purpose. While
braiding and netting have always had practical
applications, they are also used for decorative
fabrics and are the precursors to the more
elaborate lace fabrics and embroidery decorations.

3.1 Braid
Braiding is a simple form of narrow fabric
construction. Strands are plaited together by
crisscrossing them diagonally and lengthwise.
Braids are narrow fabrics in which yarns interlace
lengthwise and diagonally.
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PROPERTIES
They have good elongation characteristics and are
very pliable, curving around edges nicely. They are
used for trims, shoelaces, and coverings on
components in industrial products such as wiring
and hoses for liquids like gasoline and water.

TYPES
Braids are divided into two types; both types of
braiding are produced from any of the textile fibers,
as well as from metal threads, tinsel, straw, wire or
leather. Types are
1. Flat braids, in the form of strips or narrow flat
tapes
2. Round braids, tubular in form, this may be
hollow or have a center core of some
material.
USES
Used for making shaped articles, such as straw
hats and small rugs; narrow fabrics. Such as
ribbons and braids for millinery and accessory dress
materials; cords and tapes, such as fish lines,
shoelaces, wicks, parachute and glider cords, and
elastic of various types; and cord coverings for
tires, tubing, hose, wires and cables.
CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics of braid include the following:-
Yarns are interlaced both diagonally and
lengthwise.
Braid is stretchy and easily shaped.
Flat or three-dimensional braid is used for
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trim and industrial products.

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3.2 Lace
Lace is another basic fabric made from yarns.
Lace, which is derivative of netting, has its origin in
antiquity. In fact, the word for lace is derived from
the Latin loquens, a noose or snare. The
techniques of lace-making involve looping,
knotting, braiding, twisting, or stitching thread into
decorative, open-work patterns. Yarns may be
twisted around each other to create open areas.
Lace is an open-work fabric with complex patterns
or figures, handmade or machine-made on special
lace machines or on raschel knitting machines.
Quality in lace is based on the fineness of yarns,
number of yarns per square inch or closeness of
background net, and intricacy of the design.
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Lace was very important in men‟s and women‟s
fashion between the 16th and 19th centuries, and
all countries in Europe developed lace industries.
The names given to lace often reflect the town in
which the lace was originally made. For example,
the best quality needlepoint lace was made in
Venice in the 16th century – hence the name
Venetian lace.

There are two types of laces:

1. Handmade lace
2. Machine-made lace

3.3 Parts of Lace Construction

In identifying various kinds of lace, references have
been made to their designs. These patterns are
constructed of different parts, each having a
particular designation.
Bride, or reseau, is the fine yarn that forms
the mesh which provides the sheer ground
(background) between the prominent parts
of the pattern.
Cordonnet is the heavy yarn that outlines the
pattern.
Picto is a decorative loop used both in the
pattern and on the edge of the lace.
Toile represents the predominant parts of the
pattern made by braiding, knotting, looping,
or twisting the yarns.
Uses of Laces
All over lace has the design spread over the width
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of the fabric and repeated in its length. Many kinds

of design motifs and colors are used. The fabric
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comes in bolt form and is used for blouses, dresses,

and evening wears. These design motifs can be
classified as:
Flouncing is used for ruffles. It has a
straight top edge and is scalloped at the
bottom.
Galloon has scalloped edges on top and
bottom is used either as a banded appliqué
on a fabric or as an insertion between two
pieces of fabric.
Insertion may be sewn either between two
pieces of fabric or to the top or bottom edge
of a single piece of fabric.
Beading is a narrow galloon, insertion, or
edging lace that has openings through which
ribbon can be interlaced.
Edging is used to trim such garments as
dresses, blouses and lingerie.
Medallion is a single-lace design that is
used as an appliqué on a ground fabric for
dresses, blouses, lingerie and napkins.

Quality and Care of Lace

Whatever the quality, the construction of lace
requires care in handling. It can snag and tear
easily. Lace should either be laundered by hand or
dry cleaned, depending upon its nature. If it is to
be laundered, lace should be either washed by
hand, squeezing suds through it without rubbing or
by pressing should be done carefully by placing a
cloth over the lace to avoid tearing.

3.3 Netting
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Netting is an open-mesh form of fabric construction

that is held together by knots or fused
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thermoplastic yarns at each point where the yarns

cross one another. There are several types of
mesh; they are square, hexagonal, and octagonal.
The ranges of mesh sizes is from coarse and open
to fine and shear. Net fabrics are relatively fragile
and require care in handling and cleaning.
Bobbinet is a thin to medium weight
hexagonal netting. A typical use is for bridal
veils.
Malines is a very thin, diaphanous diamond-
shaped net named after the city of Belgium,
its origin.

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Summary:
Films are made up of polymer solution by melt
extrusion or by casting the solution onto a hot
drum. These are made from. These are made from
vinyl or polyurethane solution. Three types of films
are main, expanded and supported. Supported
films are more durable, experience, easier to sew,
comfortable & less likely to crack and split than
non-reinforced films. Suede like fabrics are needle
punched. Fabrics with a resin coating and non
fibrous polyurethane. The fabric is machine
washable or dry cleanable.
Some Fabrics are made directly from fibers thus
no. processing of fibers into yarn is required. Non
wovens are textile material manufactured from
fibers & held together as a fabric by adhesive heat
fusion or through entanglement of the fiber. Felt is
a non woven fabric made wholly or party of wool
fibers. It do not ravel is easy to shape, low
strength. No stretch recovery & do not have grain.
Fabrics formed directly from yarns are braids, laces
& nets. Braids are made by inte4r lacing yarns both
diagonally & lengthwise. They are of two types
tubular and flat Laces are used to decorate the
garment. It can be handmade or machine made.
Lace has different parts, bride, cordoned, picot and
toile. It can be used as gallon, insertion, beading,
edging or medallion. It should be either laundered
by hand or dry cleaned depending upon its nature.
Netting is an open mesh form of fabric. It can be
square, diamond, hexagonal or octagon al in shape.
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Review Points:
- Fabrics are made up of either solution, fibers
or yarns.
- Fabrics made up of solution are films, ultra
suede construction
- Films are of three types – plain film,
expanded film & supported film
- The trade names of suede like fabrics are
ultra suede & ultra leather
- Non woven are of 2 types – disposable &
durable
- There are 3 major manufacturing methods –
dry laid, wet laid & polymer laid, wet laid, &
polymer laid. Examples are needle punched,
bonded web, spun laced, spun bonded, melt
blown, slip extrusion, fusible and felt.
- The decorative fabrics made from
interlacement of yarns are braids, laces and
nets.

Intext Question:
1. What do you understand by „Films‟?
2. Name the end uses for films made from nylon
and vinyl
3. Define non – woven fabrics.

Terminal Exercise:
1. Describe the process of making Suede like
and leather like fabrics.
2. Distinguish between durable and disposable
32

materials.
3. What is felt? What are its characteristics?
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Assignments:
Collect the Swatches of non woven fabrics, braids,
laces and nets.

Key words:
Reinforced – to strengthen, giving support
Impermeable – do not allow to permitted anything
inside
Substrate – Base fabric
Mallet – wooden hammer
Scrim Fabric – Lining cloth
Geo textiles – textiles fibers used as subsoil cover
for construction of roads or railway beds.

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 Unit - II

Lesson 4: Knitting

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 Lesson 4: Knitting

Objective:
To learn the basic concept of knitting.

Structure:
4.1 Important definitions of Knitting Terms
4.2 Wales and Courses
4.3 Knits
4.4 Stitches used
4.5 Weft Knitting
4.6 Knitted Terry
4.7 Knitted Velour
4.8 Warp Knitting
4.9 Tricot Knit
4.10 Raschel Knit
4.11 Milanese Knit

4.1 Important definitions of Knitting

Terms
Knitted fabrics may be described as structures
produced by the interloping of yarns. In actual
construction of the fabric, loops are formed; then
new loops are drawn through those previously
formed. The continuing addition of new loops
creates the knitted fabrics. Knitted loops are
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usually referred to as stitches when they are pulled

through another loop.
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A knitted fabric structure illustrating knitting
stitches formed by the interloping of yarns.
Vertical columns are Wales and horizontal
rows are courses.

4.2 Wales and Courses

Vertical columns of stitches in a knitted fabric are
called wales. Wales run lengthwise through the
entire fabric, and in that sense are similar to the
warp in a woven fabric.
Horizontal rows of stitches are called courses.
Courses run widthwise, from side to side of the
cloth, and in that sense are similar to the filling in a
woven fabric.

3
Wale
2

1 2 3 4
Course
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4.3 Knits
Knitting is a fabrication process in which needles
are used to form a series of interlocking loops from
one or more yarns or from a set of yarns.

Classification of knitted fabrics

Knitted fabrics are divided into two general

types:-
1. Those produced by weft knitting, where one
continuous yarn forms courses across the
fabric. Yarn run horizontally in the fabric.
2. Those produced by warp knitting, where a
series of yarns forms wales in the lengthwise
direction of the fabric. Yarns run vertically in
the fabric.
The names warp knitting and weft knitting were
borrowed from weaving and refer to the direction
the yarns move in the fabric.
For both these knits, different kinds of machinery
are used in producing fabric. Each uses different
kinds of machinery and each produces different
types of fabrics. Examples of weft knit fabrics are
those used in sweaters and hosiery; example of
warp knit fabrics are those used in tricot for
lingerie.

4.4 Stitches used

There are four possible stitch types. Each is
controlled by the selection of cams, or guides, that
control the motion of the needle.
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 1. The first stitch is the knit stitch. This is the
basic stitch used to produce the majority of
filling-knit fabrics. These fabrics have greater
elongation cross-wise and less elongation
lengthwise. The sides of the stitches appear
on the face of the jerry; the back is
comprised of the tops and bottoms of the
stitches.
Plain knit stitch Purl knit stitch
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Note: The underside (back) of the plain

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stitch is same as the purl stitch.

When jerseys are printed, they are printed on the
face since that is the smoothest and the most
regular surface. However, many jerseys, especially
the pile types, are used with the technical back as
the fashion side becomes of the loop formation.

2. The tuck stitch is used to create a pattern in

the fabric. It is a variation of the plain knit
used to create special effects. In the tuck
stitch, the old stitch is not cleared from the
needle. Thus, there are two stitches on the
needle.
Tuck stitch. Note the elongated wale
appearance in this diagram of a fabric back.
The tuck stitch appears in a fabric as an
inverted “V”.

In a knit fabric with tuck stitches, the fabric is

thicker and slightly less likely to stretch cross-wise
than a basic-knit fabric with the same number of
stitches. Tuck stitches create bubbles, blisters or
puckers for visual interest, which may be
incorporated in a pattern or added randomly to
create texture. These are usually referred to as
jacquard jerseys.
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Single needle, single course tuck

stitch.
3. The miss, or float stitch is another variation,
which is created when one or more needle
are deactivated and therefore, do not move
to knit the yarn. As no loop is formed, the
yarns form a float on the back of the fabric.
The float stitch can be used when yarns of
different colours are used to create
thepattern. A knit fabric with float stitches is
much likely to stretch crosswise than a basic
knit fabric with the same number of stitches.

Float stitch (Miss Stitch)

4. The purl, or reverse stitch (links and links

stitch) forms a fabric that looks same on both
sides and resembles the back of the basic knit
(plain knit). The fabric is reversible. Purl knit
fabrics are relatively slow fabrics to make and
expensive to produce. The purl knit fabric will
not curl at the edges. Like the plain knit
fabric, the purl knit will run up and known if a
loop is broken. Because the purl stitch has
crosswise stretch and excellent lengthwise
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stretch, it is widely used in infants‟ and

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children‟s wear.
Purl stitch looks the same on both sides

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4.5 Weft Knitting
Weft knits are made as either flat or open width
fabrics (like woven fabrics) on flat knitting
machines, or as tubular fabrics (like a seamless
stecking) on circular knitting machines.
There are three fundamental stitches in weft
knitting:
1. Plain-knit stitch
2. Purl stitch
3. Rib stitch.
Novelty stitches are variation of these three
stitches. The hand method of knitting is weft
knitting. On a machine, the individual yarn is fed to
one or more needles at a time. Thus, all stitches in
a course are made by one yarn.

1. Plain Knit Stitch

The plain knit is the basic form of knitting. It can be
produced in flat knit or in tubular (or circular) form.
The flat knit is also jersey stitch because the
construction is like that of the turtleneck sweaters
originally worn by English sailors from the Isle of
Jersey; it is sometimes called Balbriggan stitch
after the hosiery and underwear fabrics made in
balbriggan, Ireland. Plain flat knits may be shaped
or full fashioned.
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 2. Purl Stitch

1 x 1 purl knit fabric. Note

that each succeeding course
alternates as 1 purl, 1 plain, 1 purl,
etc.

This construction is also referred to as the link and

link stitch (after the German word “links” or on the
left). It is made on flat bed and circular machines
by needles using hooks on both ends to alternately
draw loops to the front of the basic in one course
and to the back in the next course. It is a slower
and more costly technique.
Purl knit fabrics tend to lie flat and do not curl as
plain-knits (jersey knits) do. Although purl knit
fabrics have good elasticity in all directions, their
greatest elasticity is in the length direction. This
property makes purl knits so widely used in infants
43

and children wear.

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 3. Rib Stitch
Fabrics of these types are made with alternate
wales of plain stitches and purl stitches on both
sides of the fabric. (The plain stitch configuration is
the same as the stitches on the face of jersey
fabric, the purl stitch the same as the back of
jersey fabric.) These materials actually have some
stitches drawn to the fabric face and others to the
fabric back. Each wale in a rib knit fabric contains
either all plain stitches or all purl stitches.

2 x 2 Rib Knit fabric.

Rib knit fabrics lie flat and do not curl at the edges
as jersey knits do. Also, rib knits have greater
elasticity in their width than their length. For this
reason, they are often utilized for sweater bottoms,
knit cuffs, knit hats, men‟s hosiery and similar
applications.
Besides the above three stitches, there are few
more variations of the above. Some of them are as
under:
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4.6 Knitted Terry
Knitted terry fabrics are jersey knit materials which
are knitted with two yarns feeding simultaneously
into the same knitting needles. When the fabric is
knitted, one yarn appears on the face, the other on
the back. This is called plating. One of the yarns is
called loop yarns, the other a ground yarn.
Knitted terry fabrics are softer, more flexible and
usually more absorbent than woven terry fabrics.
They are used in robes, beachwear etc.

4.7 Knitted velour

Knitted velour fabrics are made in the same way as
knitted terry. After the fabric is knitted, the loop
pile is cut by a process called shearing, and then
brushed.
Knitted velours have a soft, downy, suede like
texture, somewhat resembling velveteen. They are
however, softer and more flexible than velveteen
and are used in dresses, pantsuits, and similar
applications.

4.8 Warp Knitting

Warp knitting differs from weft knitting basically, in
that each needle loop its own thread. The needle
produce parallel rows of loops simultaneously that
are interlocked in a zigzag pattern.

Stitch formation with a spring-beard needle on

warp knitting machine: (a) the needle returns after
drawing off a loop; (b) the thread guide lays the
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thread over the needle stop; (c) the needle draws
that thread to hook it; (d) the thread is pulled
through the first loop to form another one.
The stitches on the face of the fabric appear
vertically, but at a slight angle; and the stitches on
the back appear horizontally as floats at a slight
angle. These floats called laps, or under laps, are a
distinguishing identification of warp knits.
Warp knitting may be flat or tubular and can be
produced in many varieties of patterns. It can yield
cloth with a dimensional stability almost equal to
that of woven fabric. Yet, a modern 28 gauge
machine (74 needles/100 mm) can produce a cloth
168 inches (428 cm) wide at a rate of 1,000
courses per minute – that is 4,700,000 stitches per
minute, or more than 40 square feet (2.7 m2) of
fabric per minute. This speed coupled with the use
of yarns of manmade fibers has resulted in a great
production of warp-knitted fabrics that enjoy
popularity.
Consumers like warp knits because of their
smoothness, possible sheerness, wrinkle and shrink
resistance, strength, and abrasion resistance.
Warp-knit fabrics, as compared with weft knits,
also have certain other advantages. Warp knits will
not ravel or run and are less susceptible to
snagging. Quality is usually better; stitch definition,
texture and fabric cover are generally better than
in weft knits. Warp knits have superior dimensional
stability.
Products ranging from hairnets to rugs may be
produced by warp knitting, depending upon the
machine and technique employed. The seven types
of warp knitting are tricot, Milanese, simplex,
46

raschel, ketten raschel, crochet, and weft-insertion

warp.
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Warp-knitting machines.
TRICOT RASCHEL SIMPLEX MILANESE
Single bed One or two Two sets of Flat-spring
needle beds needles beard
needles
Spring beard Latch needles Spring
needles or beard Circular –
compound Coarse gauge needles. latch needles.
needles

2-3-4 bars Yarns travels

indicate May have as diagonally
number of many as 78 from one side
sets of warp guide bars. of material to
yarns. the other

Complex fabric
Simplex Fabric
Great design Seldom used.
High Speed, possibilities
high-volume
Usually spun
Usually or spun and Seldom
filament filament yarns. used
yarns.
End Uses

Wider fabric, Narrower

170 inches fabric, 100
inches.
Plain,
patterned, Sheer laces
stripped, and nets
brushed Draperies Warp double Underwear
fabric. Power net knits Outerwear
Thermal cloth Gloves

Outerwear
Upholstery
47

Underwear
Outerwear
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Upholstery
4.9 Tricot Knit
The word “tricot” comes from the French word
“tricot”, which means to knit. The tricot production
began between 1775 to 1780 with the invention of
the warp loom by an Englishman named Crane.
The machine has one or more warp beams
mounted above it. Each set of yarns from a warp
beam is fed to a row of needle arranged across the
width of the machine and is controlled by yarn
guides set in a guide bar that is also laid across the
machine. Since one guide bar is used for each set
of warp yarns, the number of warp beams
determines the number of guide bars employed.
Consequently, the term of one-bar tricot, two-bar
tricot, etc. indicate the number of guide bars used
to produce the fabric. The greater the number of
bars, the greater the design flexibility. The
movement of the guide bars is controlled by chains
with links of various heights. As the guide bar is
raised and moved sidewise, it lays the warp yarns
in their respective needle hoops to form a course of
loops simultaneously when the needle are drawn
down through the loops of the preceding course.
The gauge in tricot knit is expressed in terms of the
number of knitting elements per bar inch (in metric
terms, number of needles/100 mm.). They range
from the coarsest of 14 (55 needles/100 mm) to
the finest of 44 (173 needles/100 mm), with the
most popular being 28 gauge (75 needles/100
mm). The higher the gauge, the lighter the fabric
and the greater its strength per ounce (or mass)
In order to achieve the high gauge and very high
speeds of the tricot machine, exceptionally uniform
yarns of high quality are required. Therefore,
48

filament yarns and textured filament yarns are

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usually used in order to obtain the high degree of

uniformity in stitch definition, appearance, and
weight.
Tricot fabrics have many good attributes. They are
porous and permit passage of water vapor and air
for body comfort. They also offer bulk without
undue weight. Tricot fabrics are soft, wrinkle-
resistant, and have good drapeability. They have
controllable elasticity, and they do not run or fray.
Tricot construction contributes to good abrasion
resistance and high bursting and tearing strength.
Other factors that contribute to the fabric‟s
strength are the fiber and yarn structure.
Tricot knits are used for a wide variety of fabric
weights and designs. Typical uses of tricot fabrics
are lingerie, lounge-wear, sleepwear, blouses,
shirts, dresses, slacks, uniforms for nurses, and
waitresses, bonded fabric material, outerwear, and
automobile upholstery. These fabrics may be
identified by type.
Plain tricot, or tricot jersey, is the basic fabric using
two-bar construction. It is used for the widest
range of applications.
Satin tricot is a variation of the plain tricot and is
made with long underlaps of up to 6 wales wide,
which provides an extremely smooth hand. The
fabric does not curl and has excellent stability in
the width.
Mesh and fancy open effect tricot also refers to a
range of fabrics. The mesh or open effects are
produced either by eliminating needles and yarns at
certain points or by threading certain guides with
two or three yarns. The fabrics are generally of fine
gauge and are light to medium weight.
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Clipped dot tricot is a variation of the two-bar tricot

jersey that has a third bar knitting a different kind
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of yarn at intervals on the face and floating the

yarn on the back between the dots. The floats are
then clipped off.
Outerwear tricot is not really a specific fabric; the
term represents a wide variety of fabrics
constructed for specific purposes. They are
frequently made with textured yarns of three and
four-bar constructions. They often have interesting
color and surface effects. Sometimes the fabrics
are made with inlay yarns, which are additional
yarns from a separate warp beam caught into the
knit stitches to add texture, design and stability.
Upholstery tricot is often a two-bar jersey made of
relatively heavy filament yarn and rather tightly
knitted. There are many variations, including
three- and four-bar constructions with interesting
surface and color effects.
Napped, or brushed, tricot is a plain tricot that has
been given a napped finish.

50

a) Double-warp (two-bar) tricot.

b) Single-warp (one-bar) tricot
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4.10 Raschel Knit
The raschel knit ranks in importance of production
with tricot, but it surpasses it in variety of
products, which range from veilings and laces to
powernets for foundation garments to such pile
fabrics as carpets. The raschel knit is made with
latched needles rather than the bearded type used
for tricot, Milanese, and simplex. The raschel
construction are made, with heavy yarns and
usually have an intricate, lacklike pattern whereas
tricot constructions are made with fine yarns and
are either flat or have a simple geometrical pattern.
The gauge of raschel knits is measured in terms of
the number of needles per 2 inches.
Raschel machines are extremely versatile. They
can knit every type of yarn made of any kind of
fiber, including metallic and glass 1 and in filament,
standard or novelty.
Raschel knits are used industrially for a variety of
products including laundry bags, fish nets, dye
nets, safety nets and covers for swimming pools.
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Raschele mesh knit

Raschel fabrics have rows of chainlike loops called
pillars, with laid-in yarns in various lapping
configurations, windows treatment fabrics and
outerwear fabrics are knitted on this standard-type
machine.

Raschel knit

4.11 Milanese Knit

The Milanese stitch, though accomplished by a
different technique, produces a fabric very similar
in appearance to tricot. It can be identified by the
fine rib on the face and a diagonal pattern on the
back. Milanese is knitted on the flat bed machine
with spring-beard needles and on the circular
machine with latch needles. It is usually knitted
from filament yarn into fine light weight fabrics.
Milanese fabrics are superior to tricot in
smoothness, elasticity, regularity of structure, and
split and tear resistance. But the production is
limited due to the costly low production rates of
Milanese machines and their limitations in scope of
52

patterns.
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Milanese knit fabrics are run-proof and are used for
gloves and lingeric.
Diagram of the Milanese stitch

Back warp set

Front warp set

Assignment # 1
To distinguish between weft knitted and warp
knitted fabrics.
Materials
Set of swatches – Pick Glass – Worksheet
Procedure
Examine the assigned fabrics from the swatch set
and determine whether each is a weft knit or a
53

warp knit.
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Assignment # 2
To Determine Knitted Fabric Structure
Materials
Set of swatches, pick glass, pick needle, worksheet

Examine each of the fabrics assigned by the

instructor and determine the following:
1. Knit type: warp or weft knit. How did you
identify:
2. Stitch types: plain, purl, miss, tuck
3. Stitches per inch: wales and courses per inch
4. Most stretch direction: lengthwise or
widthwise.
5. End use

Swatch Fabric Warp/ Stitch Stitches Most End

Number Name weft Types per Inch Stretch Use
Direction

Name: Class: Date:

54Page
Summary:
Knitting is the interloping of yarns. There are 4
basic stitches
1) Knit stitch – This is the basis stitch used to
produce the majority of filling – knit fabrics. The
sides of the stitches appear on the face of the
jersey, the back is comprised of tops and bottoms
of the stitches. 2) in tuck stitch, the old stitch is not
cleared from the needle. Thus there are two stitch
on the needle) 3) the miss or float stitch is another
variation, which is created when one or more
needle are deactivated and .. do not move to knit
the yarn. Thus yarn forms a float on the back of the
fabric 4) pure or reverse stitch forms a fabric that
looks same on both sides and resembles the back
of the basic knit. The fabric is reversible.

The fabrics produced from knitting are.

1) Plain knit fabric – it can be produced in flat knit
or in tubular (or circular) from 2. pure fabric- it is
made on flat bed and circular machines by needles
using looks on both ends to alternately draw loop
to the front of the basic in one course and to the
back in the next course 3, rib fabric these types are
made with alternate wales of plain stitch & purl
stitches on both sides of the fabric. These materials
actually have some stitches drawn to the fabric
face and other to the fabric back. Each wale in a rib
knit fabric contains either all plain stitches or all
purl stitches. 4) knitted terry – these are firesey
knit materials which are knitted with two yarns
feeding simultaneously into the same knitting
needles. When the fabric is knitted, one yarn
55

appears on the face, the other on the back. 5)

knitted velour-these are made in the same way as
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knitted terry. After the fabrics is knitted, the loops

pile is cut by a process called shearing and them
brushed. Warp knitting is classified or the bases of
machine used.

Revision Points:
- Knitted fabrics are interloping of yarns.
- Vertical columns are known as wales and
horizontal rows are known as courses.
- Knits are classified into two categories- warp
& weft knits.
- There are four basic stitches which create
design on knitted fabric – knit switch, purl
switch, tuck stitch and miss stitch.
- Weft knitting is the formation of loop in
horizontal direction
- The different fabrics in knitting are plain,
purl, rib, knitted terry and knitted velour.
- Warp knitting is classified accsuding to
machines tricot, rashel, simples and
Milanese.

Intext Question:
1. Describe the miss-stitch.
2. Distinguish between measuring and knitting.

Terminal Exercise:
1. What is knitting? Discuss the classification of
knits.
2. Differentiate between warp knit and weft
56

knit.
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Keywords:
Gauge – no of needles per inch
Needle – basic element of knitting
Guides – yarn feeder
Teusey- name of the fabric
Novelty stitches – fancy stitches

57
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 Unit – III

Lesson 5: Loom types

Lesson 6: Basic weaves

58
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 Lesson 5: Loom types
Objective:
To study the parts and types of loom.

Structure:
5.1 Parts of a Loom
5.2 Dobby
5.3 Jacquard

Definition
Loom can be defined as an instrument used to
make fabrics. Looms are divided into various
categories. The two major ones are based upon
the method of filing insertion.
Looms that use shuttles are called
conventional shuttle or fly shuttle looms.
Looms that use other devices to bring the
filling yarn through the shed are called
shuttle less looms. The source of yarn for
shuttle less looms are cones placed at the
sides of the loom. Once the filling yarn is
inserted completely (through the shed) the
yarn is cut, leaving a little fringe at the edge
of the fabric.

Device used
59

The device used are a missile (also called a

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projectile and is the size of a pocket knife), a

rapier (which is like hand that pulls the yarn), and
a jet nozzle (which uses either forced air or water
to carry a pre-cut length of yarn across the loom).

Each method used with shuttle less looms has

advantages and disadvantages. For example, while
the projectile type is used on the widest looms (i.e.
18 foot carpeting), the water jet provides the
fastest production, but only for limited fabric types.
Looms on which weaving is done manually are
called handlooms. Thus, handloom is a weaving
loom operated manually as compared to a machine
operated loom. Some of them can be described as
the following types:-
1. Throw shuttle loin loom
2. Throw shuttle loom
3. Throw shuttle portable table loom
4. Fly shuttle frame loom
5. Fly shuttle sley on pit loom

1. Throw shuttle loin loom

One end of the circular warp is fastened to the wall
of a house and the other end is attached to the
waist of the weaver mostly female, with a cotton or
leather belt. No reed is used, shedding is effected
by half heald process. In the warp various colour
schemes are adopted (plate No.3).

2. Throw shuttle loom

These looms are fitted on four posts of bamboo or
local wood dug in and fixed in the earth with or
without a pit underneath. These are composed of
warp and cloth beams, heralds‟ and reed. A hand
60

shuttle is thrown through the shed by a slight and

quick wrist movement of the hand from one side of
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the cloth and caught by the other hand on the

opposite side of the cloth. As soon as the shuttle is
out of the shed, the weft thread is beaten to the fell
of the cloth with the reed fitted in the sley hung for
to and fro motion.

3. Throw-shuttle portable table loom

All parts of the loom may be dismantled and carried

in a bag and fitted any where, preferably on a small
table. It has warp and cloth beams. They are
tightened to the frame with pins. One shed is
formed by lifting the heald or reed by hand and the
other by lifting the lease rod and pressing the
frame by the thumb of the same hand. When the
heald frame is lifted the warp threads are tapered
by the flat point of the wooden sword in one run
across the warp from left to right to make the loose
series of warp ends down for the formation of the
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shed at once. The wooden sword is to be inserted

in each shed flat wise and then to be turned up to
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make the shed full then the shuttle is thrown

through it by hand. The trail of weft is beaten up
with the sword to the fell of the cloth.

4. Fly shuttle frame loom

Fly shuttle loom can be defined as a loom in which
shuttle used for weaving on wide looms is
supported by a shuttle race and moves across the
loom by pulling a cord. It is made of wood in such a
way as to be fitted and dismantled easily. The size
of the loom is indicated by the length of the reed
used, for instance a 60 inches loom implies that a
60 inches reed is used. Warp beam, cloth beam,
back rest, front rest, sley, sley bones, sley swords
are used.

5. The shuttle sley on pit loom

In this type of a loom, an ordinary throw shuttle
loom may be fitted with a fly shuttle sley with a box
on either side. The posts are below the ground.

5.1 Parts of a Loom

Looms are the instrument or machines on
which weaving is done.
In a typical loom, the warp ends being
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 contained on the weavers beam at the back
of the loom.
From this point each end passes through the
eye of a drop wire(which is essential part in
stopping the loom in the event of a break in
any of the warp ends), through the eye of a
heald (with groups of healds mounted within
heald frames) and through the gapes (known
as dents) between the wires of reed, which is
basically a closed comb.
In front of the reed, the warp and weft
combine at the fell to form fabric which is
drawn forward to be stored on the cloth
roller.

There are different parts of loom.

a) Warp beam: It is a circular beam on which

the warp yarns are wounded.it holds the
warp yarns.it is located at the back of the
loom and is controlled so that it releases
yarn to the loom as it is needed.

Warp threads wounded

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 If the beam consists of 1000 warp thread
and each 1 inch has = 100 threads
Then the width of cloth = 10 inches.
b) Harness or heddle: A heddle is an integral
part of a loom. Each thread in the warp
passes through a heddle, which is used to
separate the warp threads for the passage of
the weft. The average heddle is made of cord
or wire, and is suspended on a shaft of a
loom. Each heald is nothing more than a
series of words for holding warp threads.
Large no. of heald eyes together are called.
Heddles and a set of heddles is called
harness. Thread, wire, metal or Teasel
polyester loops held by the shaft sticks with
eyes for threading warp ends.

c) Heald: A heald is the wire or metal strips

with an eye located in the centre through
which the warp ends are threaded. Only one
warp is passed through 1heald eye. A set of
these healds was originally called a heddle or
leaf.

d) Heald eye: Each heddle has an eye in the

center where the warp is threaded through.
64

As there is one heddle for each thread of the

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warp there can be near a thousand heddles

 used for fine or wide warps. It is a needle
like structure with a hole in the center
through which a single warp yarn passes.
Only 1 warp yarn is passed through one heald
eye.

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 e) Reed: A comb with both sides closed which
fits into the beater. It spaces the warp
threads evenly and beats the weft into place.
This is a comblike structure and through the
gap the warp yarns pass. In a reed through
a single gap 1 to 6 approximate yarns can
pass depending upon the thickness of the
yarn and the gap in between. The teeth of
the reed are called dents.

30’s Count 10’s Count

Passing of the yarn through the reed depends on

the thickness of the yarn and the gap of the reed.
If the no. of yarns passing per dent is more, the
fabric made is compact. If the no. of yarns is less
than the fabric is loosely woven.
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f) Shaft: A frame or two sticks with heddles
which moves up and down to form sheds.

g) Shuttle: This is a device to pass the weft

through the shed formed by the warp yarns.
For one design, you can have as many
shuttles as the no. of colors‟ being used in
the weft. For each colour we have one
shuttles.

Shuttle
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 h) Winding Beam: On this beam the woven
fabric is wounded.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF A LOOM

Batten: It is also called the lathl, or working part,

because it is that part of the loom which makes the
cloth. Driven to and fro by the left hand of the
weaver, the batten beats up the weft and regulates
the movement of the whole loom.
5.2 Dobby
Small figured designs, which require fewer
than 25 different yarn arrangements to complete
one repeat of the design, are made on a loom with
a dobby attachment usually referred to as a dobby
loom.
Two methods are used to create a pattern. In the
older method, the weave pattern is controlled by a
plastic tape with pounched holes. The roles control
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the position of each warp yarn in forming a shed.

The newer method of creating a simple geometrical
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pattern in the fabric uses a computer to control the

position of the warp yarns. This system is faster
and allows for easy and quick pattern changes in
the fabric.
Many designs made on either type of dobby loom
are small geometrical figures. Dobbies may be of
any weight or compactness, with yarns ranging
from very fine to coarse and fluffy. Standard
dobby fabrics are usually flat and relatively fine or
sheer. Some heavyweight dobby fabrics are
available for home furnishings and for heavy
apparel. Two example are shirting madras, waffle
cloth. Waffle cloth is used for blankets, dish and bar
cloths, upholstery and apparel.

5.3 Jacquard
Large-figured designs, which require more than 25
different arrangements of the warp yarns to
complete one repeat design, are woven on a
jacquard loom.
Two types of looms are used to produce jacquard
weaves. In the older types of loom, each warp is
controlled independently by punched cards that are
laced together in a continuous strip. The position
of the warp yarns is controlled by rods attached to
them. When the rod hit the cards, some go through
the holes raise the warp yarns; others remain
down. Thus, a shed is formed for the passage of
the filling yarn. The newer method for producing
those large patterns in the fabric uses a computer,
often designed to be used with an air-jet loom and
referred to as an electronic jacquard. This system
is very fast and allows for easy and quick pattern
changes.
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Fabrics produced on a jacquard loom include

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damask, brocade, tapestry and a variety of other

patterns.
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 Lesson 6: Basic Weaves

Objective:
To study the various types of weaves.

Structure:
6.1 Weaving
6.2 Basic weaves
Plain
Twill
Satin

6.1 Weaving
Weaving is performed on modern looms, which
contain similar parts and perform similar operations
to simple hand-operated looms. Fabrics are formed
from weaving by interlacing one set of yarns with
another set oriented crosswise. Satin, plain and
twill weaves are the most commonly used weave
patterns .
In the weaving operation, the lengthwise
yarns that form the basic structure of the
fabric are called the warp .These threads run
along the length of the loom across which
threads are woven.
The crosswise yarns are called the filling,
also referred to as the weft. These are the
threads which are woven crosswise to the
warp to form the web.
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While the filling yarns undergo little strain in

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the weaving process, warp yarns undergo

much strain during weaving and must be
 processed to prepare them to withstand the
strain (Corbman, 1975).

Another term for warp and weft are:

Ends :Individual warp threads
Filling : An industry term for weft.
Float :A weft or warp thread passing over two or
more threads
There are three basic weaves:
1. Plain
2. Twill
3. Satin

All other weaves are a variation or a

combination of these weaves.
The type of weave used in a fabric depends
upon the desired effect. Such factors as
luster, strength, pattern, color effect and
cost are considered before the fabric weave
is chosen.

1. PLAIN WEAVE
The plain weave is the simplest and the most used
weave. It is found in a wide range of fabrics from
the sheerest to the heaviest. There is only one
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plain weave, but there are many different twill and
satin weaves. Fabrics with a plain weave are
reversible unless one side is made the face by
finishing or printing.In a plain weave, each warp
yarn passes alternately over one and the under one
filling yarn, for the whole length of the fabric. Two
succeeding warp yarns interlace the exact opposite.
One warp yarn goes under the same filling yarn
that the next warp yarn goes over. The third and
fourth warp yarns weave the same as the first and
second, respectively.
Each filling yarn passes alternately over one, then
under one warp yarn, for full width of the fabric.
Two succeeding filling yarns weave the exact
opposite. When once filling yarn passes over a
warp yarn, the next filling passes under the same
warp yarn. The third and fourth filling yarns weave
the seem as the first and second. The plain weave,
therefore, makes one complete cycle on two ends
and two picks. By definition, we say the repeat of
this weave is on two ends and two picks. More
complex weaves have large repeats.
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Plain weave fabrics require only two harnesses
because the weave repeats every two ends. When
one harness is raised, the other is lowered, and
then the sequence is reversed for the next pick

Important Features

Favorable
Plain weave fabrics have firm constructions.
They tend to wear well and ravel less than
comparable fabrics with other weaves. Since
the surface is plain, it offers a good back-
ground for printed and embossed designs.
Unfavorable
Plain weave fabrics tend to wrinkle more
than fabrics of other weaves.
They also have no surface interest unless
colored yarns are used to make designs (for
example, a plaid) or special yarns or finishes
result in texture.
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The tearing strength of a plain weave is

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lower than any other weave. Since this

 weave has no floats, when tearing a plain
weave fabric, the yarns break one at a time.
When tearing other woven fabrics, however,
the yarns break one group at a time, which
means two or more yarns at a time.

VARIATIONS OF PLAIN WEAVE

1. Basket

Plain Weave
Varations

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2. Rib

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2. TWILL WEAVE

A balanced fabric would have the warp and

filling yarns, as well as the yarns per inch of
both warp and filling yarns, about the same.
Twill weaves produce diagonal lines on the
cloth. In a right hand twill, the diagonal run
upward to the right. In a left hand twill, the
lines run upward to the left. A herringbone
weave has verticals stripes of both right and
left hand twills.
The direction of the twill on the back of the
cloth is opposite to what it is on the face.
There are many twill weaves. The simplest is
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a 2/1 twill (referred to as two up, one down)

or a ½ twill (one up, two down) which repeat
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on three ends and three picks. (Only three

 harnesses are required). Twill in this
category are frequently referred to as three
leaf twills. Most twills are made on less than
six harnesses.
A twill weave with a diagonal line greater
than 45 is also referred to as a steep twill. If
the diagonal line is less than 45, it is some
times referred to as a reclined twill.

2/1 Twill Weave (450 Right Hand

Twill)

Left Hand Right Hand Twill

Twill

Herringbone
Twill
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Plain Weave
This most basic of all fabric styles provides a clean,
simple look.

Bird's-Eye
Somewhat more textured than plain weave, bird's-
eye fabrics feature a fine diamond pattern with a
tiny dot in the center of each diamond.
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Twill
The diagonal ribs of twill fabrics make for a tight
and durable material with only a hint of texture.

Herringbone
A variation of the twill weave in which the angle of
the ribbing reverses direction at regular intervals.
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Houndstooth
Another variation on the basic twill weave in which
contrasting colors of yarn create a jagged
checkerboard pattern. The introduction of more
than two colors of yarn makes for some highly
attractive combinations for sportcoats and casual
suits.

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Important Features:
The twill lines can be made prominent by
using:(a) plied yarns; (b) high-twist yarns;
(c) twill weave with longer floats; (d) high
yarn per inch; and (e) yarn twist opposite to
the twill line direction. Fabrics with these
prominent lines may become flattened by
wear by and pressure, and thus become
shiny (e.g., gabardine).
Twills are widely used for work clothes (e.g.,
serge) and dress fabrics (e.g., surrah) Twill
weaves have fewer interlacings than the
plain weave, heavier and more durable than
plain, rib and basket weave Fabrics in Twill
Weave.
Although there are lightweight twills, the
majority of fabrics in twill weave are medium
weight, and there is a substantial variety of
bottom-weights. Depending upon fiber,
yarn, construction, and finish, they are used
for a wide range of apparel, such as dresses,
suits and coats, and home furnishing, such
as drapery and upholstery.
Cloth made of staple yarns are usually left-
hand twill. They include canton flannel,
covert cloth, coutill, drill gabardine, hickory
shirting or hickory stripe, jean, khaki, middle
twill, outing flannel, Silesia, ticking, venetian
cloth, and whipcord.
The twill weave is not used much in the
production of linen, as linen yarns make a
naturally strong fabric. However, it may be
found in linen ticking, twill toweling, and
towel drills.
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Wool-type fabrics are usually right-hand

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twills, such as broadcloth, kashmere,

 cheviot, covert, flannel, gabardine,
mackinaw, Melton, pilot cloth, serge, tweed,
whipcord, worsted cheviot.
Fabric made of filament yarns are also right-
hand twills. They include foulard,
merveilleusx, silk serge, and surah.

3. SATIN WEAVE
In the true stain weave, there is only one
interlacing for each for each warp yarn, and only
one interlacing for each filling yarn in each repeat
of the weave. Also, no two interlacing ever touch
or are adjacent. Thus, the satin weave have
relatively long floats.

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One set of yarns forms most of the face, the other
set forms most of the back. In a warp face satin,
the face is predominantly warp yarns. A filling face
satin has filling yarns predominate on the face.
There are no balanced satins comparable to the
balanced twills.
There are many satin weaves. They may be
designated by the number of harnesses they
require in weaving, as a five harness satin or five
shaft satin. Five is the lowest possible number of
harnesses usable for a regular satin weave. Stains
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can be made from five from seven or from any

number beyond seven, up to the harness capacity
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of the loom. (No regular satin weave can be made

with six harnesses). Most satins are made on five
harnesses. Some seven harness and some eight
harness satins are also produced, but beyond eight
is not very common.

Satin Weave Fabrics

Satin is also the name of a fabric with that weave.
Satin fabric is made from filament yarns, with the
warp yarns predominant on the face. Satin fabrics
are smooth and lustrous for a number of reasons;
(a) lustrous filament yarns are used; (b) the weave
has few interfacings, and thus, long floats; (c) the
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face yarns are very fine and closely packed. Since

the greatest lustre is in the lengthwise fabric
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direction (the direction of the floats), garments

using this fabric are made so this direction is
vertical in the garment. Thus, the lustre is
maximized.
Satin fabric is a durable cotton fabric with a
satin weave. It is not as lustrous as satin
fabric, since spun yarns are used.
In a crepe-back satin, the warp yarns are
fine with little or no twist, while the filling
yarns and highly twisted. The face of the
fabric is almost entirely warp yarns, while
the back is almost entirely filling yarns.
Because of the high twist, the filling gives
the back a crepe or rough appearance, while
the face is smooth. Most crepe-back satin
materials are much more drapable than satin
fabrics.

Important Features
Satin weaves produce a very even surface because
of the many warp or filling float (satin have the
minimum number of interlacing, which are widely
distributed).
Although the long floats of the yarns provide luster
to the satin weave fabrics, they are also
responsible for the poor wearing quality of many of
these cloths. The floats cause the yarns to be
greatly exposed to abrasive force. Also, with
filament yarns common these fabrics, the floats
catch on rough surfaces and the filament break.
Thus, satin weave fabrics are usually used for end
uses which are not subject to hard wear, such as
evening dresses and draperies.
Under certain conditions, however, good abrasion
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resistance and strength can occur satin weave

fabrics. The long floats found in this weave enable
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the yarns to slide under one another, thus allowing

more yarns per inch than if woven with shorter
floats of non of all. If the fabric is made with very
high yarns per inch, an extremely durable fabric
result because the fiber density will be high. With
yarns tightly packed, and using spun yarns
snagging is no longer a serious problem. An
example of such a fabric, which also be satisfactory
drapability, is the satin material used for military
combat uniforms.

Warp-Face Satin Weave

Warp-faced sating is woven so that the warp may
be seen on the surface of the fabricFor e.g., in a 5
shaft construction, the warp may pass over 4 filling
yarns and under one. Since the warp his on the
surface and interlaces only one filling at a time, the
lengths of warp between the filling are called floats.
These floats lie compactly on the surface with very
little interruption from the yarns going at right
angles to them. Reflection of light on the floats
gives satin fabric its primary characteristic of
luster, which appears in the direction of the warp.
The long floats found in the satin weave might be
considered a disadvantage because they represent
a minimum of interlacing and therefore a potential
weakness in the fabric. Furthermore, to increase
the smoothness and luster of the fabric, the yarns
are given a minimum of twist and are therefore
relatively weak. The longer the float, the greater
the chance that the surface of the fabric will snag,
roughen, and show signs of wear. However, the
luster makes the fabric suitable for dressy wear and
the smoothness, for use as lining.
Satin-weave fabrics drape well because the weave
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is heavier than the twill weave, which, in turn, is

heavier than the plain weave. More harnesses are
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used for satin weave, thus compressing a greater

amount of fine yarn into a given space of cloth.
This compactness gives the fabric more body as
well as less porosity, which makes the fabric
warmer. The quality of drapability also make satin
fabric preferable for evening wear, and the warmth
contributes to its value as lining material.
Fabrics in Warp- Face Satin Weave. Most fabrics
made with the Satin weave are medium weight; a
lesser number are heavier weight. Both staple
fiber and filament yarns are used.
The staple fibers most frequently used are cotton
and rayon for such fabrics as damask, sateen,
ticking, and venetian cloth for use in apparel and
home furnishings.
Linen is used for damask home furnishings,
principally table cloths. Silk, rayon, acetate, and
nylon filament yarns are usually used for such
material as brocade, damask merveilleux, and
Satin.

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WEFT FACE SATIN WEAVE
(SATEEN WEAVE)
Filling-Face Satin Weave
The filling-face satin weave is also called the sateen
weave; however, this sometimes causes confusion
because some cotton and rayon fabrics are also
identified as sateen. In this construction, the filling
yarn lies on the surface of the fabric as it passes
regularly over and under the warp yarns. For
instance, a filling yarn may pass over four warp
yarns and under one. The floats are consequently
made up of the filling yarns, and the luster appears
in the filling direction.

Assignment # 1:
To determine which fabrics have a plain or twill
weave.
Material:
Set of swatches, pick glass, worksheet.
Procedure:
Examine the woven fabric in the swatch set with a
pick glass. Determine which have a plain or twill
weave.
On the worksheet, list in numerical order ten
fabrics having a plain weave and all the fabrics
having a twill weave.
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Summary:
Looms are the machines on which fabric is woven.
Conventional loom use shuttle for the insertion of
filling yarn where shuttle less loom use various
devices like rapier, missible, jet nozzle. Handloom
is of five type based upon the structure & working
process. Some of them can be dismantled & carried
in a bag & fittled any where preferably on a small
table. Various parts of loom are warpleam on which
warp yarns are rolled, harness which consists of
healdes from which warp yarns are passed
according to the weave, reed is used to push the
filling yarn back to its place, shuttle is used for the
insertion of filling yarn & cloth beam rolls the
woven cloth on it. Dobby loom is used for weaving
small geometrical figure which require less than 25
yarn arrangement to complete one repeat of a
design. Large figured design, which require more
than 25 different arrangement of warp yarns to
complete one repeat design are woven on a
jacquard loom.
The basic weaves are plain, twill and satin weave.
Plain weave is simplest & reawise only 2 set of
harness each filling yarn passes alternately over
one, then under one warp yarn, for full width of the
fabric. It is of two types- basket weave and rib
weave. Twill weave produces diagonal lines.
Number of harness vary from 3 to 6. the simplest is
2/1 twill or ½ twill. Right hand, left hand, zig zag
and herringlione are the types of twill weave. In
satin weave, one set of yarn forms most of the
face, the other set forms most of the back. Sateen
weave is warp face weave and satin in weft face
weave. No of harness varies from 5 to 8.
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Review Points:
- Looms are used for weaving the fabric.
- there are two types of loom – conventional &
shuttle less looms
- Handloom is of 5 types – throw shuttle lion
loom, throw shuttle loom, throw shuttle
portable table loom, fly shuttle frame loom,
fly shuttle sley on pit loom.
- Parts of a loom are warp beam, harness with
heald & eye, reed winding beam and shuttle.
- To weave geometric design – dobby loom is
used and for floral & intri cate patterns,
jacquard loom is used.
- There are basic 3 types of weave- plain
weave, twil weave and satin weave.
Intext Questions:
1. Name the different parts of a loom.
2. What are the basic weaves? Explain any one
in detail.

Terminal Exercise:
1. Distinguish between Throw shuttle loin loom
and Throw shuttle loom.
2. Distinguish between
a) Satin and sateen
b) Left hand twill & right hand twill
c) Zigzag & Herringbone weave
d) Shuttle looms & shuttle less looms
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Keywords:
Warp – lengthwise yarns in the fabric
Weft – width wise yarn in the fabric
Shuttle – devise used to insert filling yarn in looms
Staple fiber – short length fibers measured in inches
Filament- continuous strands of long length
measured in meters or kilometers.

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 Unit – IV
Lesson 7: Woven Fabrics

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 Lesson 7: Woven Fabrics

Objective:
To study the various types of woven fabrics
Structure:
7.1 Bonded Material
7.2 Form Laminated Material
7.3 Coated Fabrics
7.4 Flocked Fabrics
7.5 Quilted Fabrics
7.6 Braids
7.7 Lace
7.8 Parts of Lace Construction
7.9 Uses of Laces
7.10 Quality and Care of Lace
7.11 Netting

Fabrics formed from combinations (Muti-

component fabrics)

7.1 Bonded Material

It is made from two fabrics which have been

adhered together. The backing fabric is usually
acetate or nylon tricot, while the face fabric may be
almost of any conceivable type of cloth.
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7.2 Foam Laminated Material
It consists of 3 layers adhered together to a
face fabric; a middle foam layer & a backing
fabric. These fabrics are often called sandwich
laminates.
There are 2 basic methods to produce bonded
fabrics; the west adhesive process and the
foam flame bonding process.
The bonded fabric is not one, but three
products combined in one (face, adhesive and
backing). The three must be combined under
carefully conditions or they will delaminate
(separate). Different rates of shrinkage of
the face and back fabrics will cause puckering
of the fabric when dry cleaned or laundered.
Also the incorrect adhesive or improper
appreciation of adhesive will result in the
separation of the face & back components.
Foam laminated fabrics are similar to the
foam flame bonded materials, except that a
thicker layer of foam is utilized. The foam
remains as the laminate when the process is
completed.
Team laminated fabrics are primarily intended
for clothing insulation. They are relatively
light in weight in proportion to their
thickness; their cellular structure entraps
dead air. They may be laminated directly to
an outer fabric or the foam laminate may be
used as a garment interlining. Laminating
directly to an outer fabric is a more
economical method of producing garments,
although, the garments produced in this
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manner appear stiff and boardy. When the

foam laminate is used as an interliner, the
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garment outer shell retains all of its

 drapability, so the coat does not take on an
unsightly appearance.
7.3Coated Fabrics
A coated fabric combines the characteristics
of a textile fabric with a polymer film. The
woven knit, or nonwoven fabric substrate
provides such characteristics as strength and
elongation control. The coating or film
provides protection from environmental
factors such as water, chemicals, oil and
abrasion.
A coated fabric is produced by applying semi-
liquid material to a fabric substrate.
Neoprene, polyvinyl chloride, and
polyurethane are usual coating materials.
The coating is added to the fabric substrate
by several methods. The most common
method is lamination. Other methods are
calendaring, coating, rotary screen, slot die,
foam, spray and transfer coating. Coated
fabrics are also called supported films. They
can be printed or embossed. Coated fabrics
are stronger and more stable than
unsupported films. They are used for
upholstery, luggage and bags, and apparel.

7.4 Flocked Fabrics

Flocked fabrics are those in which very short
surface fibers are applied to the base fabric with an
adhesive to produce an imitation of pile
appearance. Thus, flocked fabrics imitate pile
fabrics.
The commonly used fibers (short fibers) are rayon,
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nylon, acrylics, polyester and olefins. Fibers for

flocking must be straight, not crimped, fibers that
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are cut square at the ends anchor more firmly in
the adhesive.
Some of the major end uses of flocking include
velvet upholstery fabrics, draperies, bedspreads,
blankets, design or apparel fabrics, carpets, wall
coverings for aesthetics and noise reduction,

automotive fabrics, toys, shoes, books, hats, and

industrial uses like conveyor belts and air filters.
The two basic methods of applying the flock
fibers are mechanical and electrostatic. In both the
processes the flock is placed in an erect position
and, after flocking, the adhesive is oven dried.

7.5 Quilted Fabrics

Quilted fabrics are composite fabrics consisting of
three layers: face fabric, fiber or batting, and
backing fabric. The three layers are stitch bonded
with thread, chemical adhesive, or fusion by ultra-
high frequency sound. The bonding connects the
layers in a pattern. The actual area physically
bonded together is a very tiny percentage of the
fabric‟s surface so that the high loft and bulky
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appearance desired in quilted fabrics are not

sacrificed.
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THREAD AND TYPE OF STITCH

Most quilted fabric is made by stitching with

thread. The thread and type of stitch used in
quilting are good indicators of the quality and
duration of the finished fabric. A durable quilt
will have a lock-type stitch with a durable
thread.

Twist less nylon-monofilament thread is

sometimes used because of its strength and
abrasion resistance and because it is
transparent and becomes hidden in the
colours of the face fabric.

Almost any thread can be used, but those

designed for quilting have different
performance characteristics compared to
regular sewing thread. Quilting threads must
be durable. The disadvantage of thread
stitches in quilting is that the threads may
break from abrasion or snagging. Broken
threads are insightly and the loose fiberfill is
no longer held in place.

Any fabric can be used for the shell or

covering. A fashion fabric is used on one side.
If the article is reversible or needs to be
durable or beautiful on both sides, two
fashion fabrics are used. If the fabric is to be
lined or used as upholstery or a bedspread,
the under layer is often an inexpensive fabric
like cheese cloth, tricot, or a nonwoven
fabric.
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The batting may be foam, cotton, dawn, or fiberfill.
Fiberfill is a manufactured fiber modified so that the
loft is maintained.
Quilting is usually done in straight or curved lines.
In upholstery, quilts, and comforters or bedspread,
the stitching may outline printed figures. This is a
hand process in which the machine quilting is
guided by hand. These fabrics are more costlier.
Beauty of fabric is important for all end users. For
ski jackets and snowsuits, a closely woven water-
and wind-repellent fabric is desirable, for
comforters, resistance to slipping off the bed is
important; for upholstery, durability and resistance
to soil are important.
Chemical adhesive quilts seldom are used
at present. Chemical adhesives can be
applied in a pattern, but these fabrics are
neither as appealing nor as durable as those
produced by the other quilting methods.
Ultrasonic quilting requires thermoplastic
fibers. Heat generated by ultra-high
frequency sound or ultrasonic vibrations
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melts thermoplastic fibers, fuming several

layers. Figure 15-28 shows a pinsonic
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Thermal Joining machine that heat seats

 thermoplastic materials by ultrasonic
vibrations. The machine quilts seven times
as fast as conventional quilting machines.
This process is used on some mattress pads
and lower priced bedspreads. It eliminates
the problem of broken threads – a boon for
institutional bedding in the hospitality
industry. However, the outer layer may tear
along the quilting lines.
Quilted fabrics can be summarized as follows:-
One or two fabrics and wadding, batting, or
foam are stitched together by machine or
hand or welded by sonic vibrations.
Quilted fabrics are bulky, warm, and
decorative. However, stitches may break.
Quilted fabrics are used in ski jackets, robes,
comforters, quilts and upholstery.

7.6 Braids
Braiding is a simple form of narrow fabric
construction. Strands are plaited together by
crisscrossing them diagonally and lengthwise.
Braids are narrow fabrics in which yarns interlace
lengthwise and diagonally.

PROPERTIES
They have good elongation characteristics and are
very pliable, curving around edges nicely. They are
used for trims, shoelaces, and coverings on
components in industrial products such as wiring
and hoses for liquids like gasoline and water.
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TYPES
Braids are divided into two types, Both types of
braiding are produced from any of the textile fibers,
as well as from metal threads, tinsel, straw, wire or
leather
i. flat braids, in the form of strips or narrow flat
tapes; and
ii. round braids, tubular in form, which may be
hollow or have a center core of some
material.

USES
Used for making shaped articles, such as straw
hats and small rugs; narrow fabrics. Such as
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ribbons and braids for millinery and accessory dress

materials; cords and tapes, such as fish lines,
shoelaces, wicks, parachute and glider cords, and
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elastic of various types; and cord coverings for
tires, tubing, hose, wires and cables

CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics of braid include the following:-
Yarns are interlaced both diagonally and
lengthwise.
Braid is stretchy and easily shaped.
Flat or three-dimensional braid is used for
trim and industrial products.

7.7 Lace
Lace is a fabric made from yarns. The techniques
of lace-making involve looping, knotting, braiding,
twisting, or stitching thread into decorative, open-
work patterns. Yarns may be twisted around each
other to create open areas. Lace is an open-work
fabric with complex patterns or figures, handmade
or machine-made on special lace machines or on
raschel knitting machines.
Quality in lace is based on the fineness of yarns,
number of yarns per square inch or closeness of
background net, and intricacy of the design.
Lace was very important in men‟s and women‟s
fashion between the 16th and 19th centuries, and
all countries in Europe developed lace industries.
The names given to lace often reflect the town in
which the lace was originally made. For example,
the best quality needlepoint lace was made in
Venice in the 16th century – hence the name
Venetian lace.
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There are two types of laces:

1. Handmade Lace
Handmade laces have always been highly prized as
trimming for apparel and as decorative pieces for
the home.
Until the sixteenth Century, all laces were made
essentially in the same manner with a bone pin or
needle.
Linen yarn had been generally used for expensive
laces, but cotton, silk, rayon, and other yarns are
now used for various qualities and types.

i. Needlepoint Lace

Needlepoint lace is made by drawing a pattern on

paper, laying down yarns over the pattern, and
stitching over the yarns with a needle and thread.
The thread network forming the ground is called
rescau or brides. The solid part of the pattern is
called toile. Needlepoint designs may include birds,
flowers, and vases.

There are various types of needlepoint laces:

a. Alencon
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b. Milan lace
c. Rose point
d. Venetian lace
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 ii. Bobbin (Pillow) Lace

Bobbin lace is made on a pillow. The pattern is

drawn on paper and pins are inserted at various
points. Yarns on bobbins are plaited around the
pins to form the lace. Some of the examples of
bobbin lace are:
a. Binche lace
b. Chantilly lace
c. Cluny lace
d. Duchesse lace
e. Honiton lace 104
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iii. Crocheted Lace

Crocheted lace is hand-made with a hook to form a

series of loops, each one of which is finished with a
fine stitch. Examples are Irish lace and Syrian lace.

iv. Darned Lace

Darned lace has a design darned by a chain stitch
onto a mesh background. There are two principal
types of darned lace:-
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a. Antique lace
b. Filet lace
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 v. Battenberg Lace
Battenberg lace is a handmade lace with loops of
woven tape caught together by yarn brides in
patterns. Contemporary pieces are imported from
Asia, especially China, for apparel and furnishing
accessories.

vi. Tatting Lace

Tatting lace is a knotted lace made with the aid of a
small shuttle. Clover leaf and wheel designs are the
most popular, but other patterns are also made.

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vii. Macrame Lace
Macrame differs from other laces inn texture and
appearance. It is generally made of heavy yarn
knotted into relatively large designs (See Figure 8-
6). Unlike most other laces, it is used for such
purposes as women‟s hats, hand-bags, belts, and
vests.

2. Machine Made Laces

In 1802 in England, Robert Brown perfected a
machine that made nets on which lace motifs could
be worked by hand. In 1808 John Heathcoat made
the first true lace machine by developing brass
bobbins to make bobbinet. In 1813, John Leavers
developed a machine that made patterns and
background simultaneously. A card system, similar
to the technique used on card jacquard looms,
made it possible to produce intricate designs with
the Leavers machine.
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i. Leavers Lace: It is fairly expensive,

depending on the quality of yarns used and
the intricacy of the design. On some fabrics,
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 a yarn or cord outlines the design. These are
called Cordonnet, or reembroidered.,
The Leavers lace machine can produce the
most intricate patterns from any type of yarn
into fabrics upto 10 yards (9m) wide).
ii. Raschel Lace: Raschel knitting machines
(see chapter 14) are used to make patterned
laces that look like Leaver lace. Raschel
laces can be made at much higher speeds
and thus are less expensive to produce.
Filament yarns are commonly used to make
coarser laces that are suitable for
tablecloths, draperies, and casement fabrics.
iii. Ratine Lace: Ratine lace is a machine-
made lace that has a ground of heavy loops
resembling that of terry cloth.
iv. Schiffli Lace: Produces fine and intricate
designs in appliqués and embroideries on all
kinds of fabrics, particularly sheer fabrics
such as batiste, lawn, and organdy.

7.8 Parts of Lace Construction

In identifying various kinds of lace, references
have been made to their designs. These patterns
are constructed of different parts, each having a
particular designation (see figure 8-12).
Bride, or reseau, is the fine yarn that forms the
mesh which provides the sheer ground
(background) between the prominent parts of the
pattern.
Cordonnet is the heavy yarn that outlines the
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pattern.
Picto is a decorative loop used both in the pattern
and on the edge of the lace.
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Toile represents the predominant parts of the
pattern made by braiding, knotting, looping, or
twisting the yarn.
7.9 Uses of Laces
Allover lace has the design spread over the width of
the fabric and repeated in its length. Many kinds of
design motifs and colours are used. The fabric
comes in bolt form and is used for blouses, dresses,
and evening wear.
Flouncing is used for ruffles. It has a straight top
edge and is scalloped at the bottom.
Galloon has scalloped edges on top and bottom is
used either as a banded appliqué on a fabric or as
an insertion between two pieces of fabric.
Insertion may be sewn either between two pieces
of fabric or to the top or bottom edge of a single
piece of fabric.
Beading is a narrow galloon, insertion, or edging
lace that has openings through which ribbon can be
interlaced.
Edging. It is used to trim such garments as
dresses, blouses and lingerie.
Medallion is a single-lace design that is used as an
appliqué on a ground fabric for dresses, blouses,
lingerie and napkins.

7.10 Quality and Care of Lace

Whatever the quality, the construction of lace
requires care in handling. It can snag and tear
easily. Lace should either be laundered by hand or
dry cleaned, depending upon its nature. If it is to
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be laundered, lace should be either washed by

hand, squeezing suds through it without rubbing or
by putting it into a mesh or cloth bag and machine
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washing at a gentle cycle. Ironing or pressing

should be done carefully by placing a cloth over the
lace to avoid tearing.

7.11 Netting
Netting is an open-mesh form of fabric construction
that is held together by knots or fused
thermoplastic yarns at each point where the yarns
cross one another. There are several types of
mesh; they are square, hexagonal and octagonal.
The range of mesh sizes is from coarse and open to
fine and shear. Net fabrics are relatively fragile
and require care in handing and cleaning.
Bobbinet is a thin to medium weight hexagonal
netting. A typical use is for bridal veils. Malines is a
very thin, diaphanous diamond-shaped net named
after the city of Belgium, its origin.

7.12 Assignment
1. Visit some local department stores (dealing
with home furnishing and apparels).
Compile a listing of clothing or articles made
from bonded or laminated fabric, felt, non-
woven materials or any other material types
discussed in this until. Mention the name of
the article, the selling price and the name of
the store where it is being sold.
2. Note the care label or other special
instructions with each article.
3. Repeat assignments 1, 2, 3 for compiling
trims or components other than the whole
article. For example, belt backing,
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interlining, appliqué trim, etc.

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Summary:
Bonded and foam laminated material consists of 2
to 3 layers joined together with an adhesive or
foam. Bonded fabrics can be produced by met
adhesive process or by flame bonding process.
Coated fabrics are produced by applying semi –
liquid material to a fabric substrate. Flocked fabrics
are those in which very short surface fibers are
applied to the base fabric with an adhesive to
produce on imitation of pile fabric. They cab be
produced either by mechanical or electrostatic
process. Quilted fabric are composite fabrics
consisting of 3 layers face fabric, fiber file and
backing fabric – stitch bonded with thread,
chemical adhesive or fusion by ultra high frequency
sound nylon monofilament thread is used for
stitching. Other woven fabrics are liquids, lace &
nets used mainly for decoration (already discussed
in chapter 3).

Revision Points:
- Bonded fabrics and form laminated fabrics
are formed from culmination. Form
laminated fabrics are produced in two ways –
wet adhesive process and flame bonding
process.
- Colleted fabrics are also known as supported
films
- Flocked fabrics can be produced either by
mechanical or by electrostatic process.
- Quilted fabrics are composed of three layer –
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face fabric, fiber file and backing fabrics.

Thread used is nylon
Other woven articles are braids, laces and
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-
nets.
Intext Question:
1. What do you understand by Coated Fabrics?
2. What are different types of laces?

Terminal Question:
1. Describe briefly the use of laces?
2. Define Braiding?
3. Write a short note on Quilted Fabrics?

Keywords:
Bonded fabric - Fabric which are joined with foam
Laminated fabric – fabrics which are joined with an
adhesive
Monofilament – single filament Review Questions

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 UNIT-V
Lesson 8: Finishing of fabrics

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 Lesson 8: Finishing of fabrics

Objective:
To learn different types of fabric finishes
Structure:
8.1 Production Sequence for Textile Fabrics
8.2 Preliminary Preparation
8.3 Important Finishes
8.4 Mercerization
8.5 Embossing Process

A finish is any process that is done to fiber yarn or

fabric either before or after fabrication to change
the appearance (what is seen), the hand (what is

Fiber Processing-- Yarn Processing -- Preparation

Fabrication----- Preparation ------ Whitening

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Coloration--- Finishing ------ Reworking

felt), or the performance (what the fabric does).
All the finishing adds to the cost of the end product
and the time to produce the item. Finishing, in
other words, can be described as a multitude of
processes and treatments which a fabric may
undergo after it has made (woven or knitted) and
coloured (dyed or printed). It is the final
processing of the cloth and its purpose is to make
the fabric suitable for its intended end use. For
example, the fabric may be made shrink proof,
softer, stiffer, water repellent, crease resistant, or a
combination of these properties. But, all the
finishes do not produce only positive results on
treated fabrics. Making some fabrics crease
resistant, for example, also cause stiffening of
some types of cloth.
Certain finishes as finishes are also categorical by
their degree of permanence. These finishes are
called:
Permanent
Durable
Semi-durable
Temporary
Permanent finishes usually involved a chemical
change in fiber structure and will not change or
alter throughout the life of a fabric.
Durable finishes usually last throughout the life of
the article, but effectiveness becomes diminished
after each cleaning and near the end of the normal
use life of the article, the finish is nearly removed.
Semi-durable finishes last through several
launderings or dry cleanings and many are
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renewable in home laundering or dry cleaning.

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Temporary finishes are removed or substantially
diminished the first time an article is laundered or
dry cleaned.

8.1 Production Sequence for Textile

Fabrics
Temporary that they completely like their
effectiveness after on laundering, therefore
understanding textile finishes are the properties
they import, the fiber and fabrics toile which they
are applied, and their limitations and shortcomings
is important to an overall understanding of textiles.
Textile finishes are classified in several ways.
Persons concerned with end products (designers,
merchandisers and sales personnel) usually
categorize finishes as aesthetic finishes and
functional finishes. The former modifies the
appearance and/or hand of the fabrics, while the
latter improves the permanence of a fabric under
specific and use condition.

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Persons concerned with textile processing
(chemists and finishers) categorize finishes into
chemical finishes and mechanical finishes. These
are also called wet finishing and dry finishing
respectively.

8.2 Preliminary Preparation

The preliminary preparation or the pre-treatment
process consists of cleaning operations to rid the
fabric of all soil and additions used during the
weaving or knitting process. These processes are
usually the first treatments a fabric undergoes after
leaving the loom or fitting machine and are
required before any dying, printing or finishing can
be accomplished. The specific fabric preparation
steps will vary depending on the fibers from which
the cloth is made.
Cotton and cotton blends
i. Singeing
ii. Desizing
iii. Scouring
iv. Bleaching

Silk
i. Degumming

Wool
ii. Carbonizing
iii. Scouring
iv. Fulling
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v. Bleaching
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The basic pretreatment processes are discussed in
detail as under:-
a. Boil-off/Scouring
Textile grey goods contain warp starches (or other
sizing), oils, waxes and other foreign matter (both
natural and additive), as well as floor dirt or other
oils picked up during processing. Complete removal
of the soil and additives yields a textile consisting
of pure fiber. The processes consist of various
types of cleaning actions, depending upon the fiber,
the impurities present and the fabric construction.
In cotton, cotton blend, silk and man-made fibers,
the processes are known generally as the boil-off.
In woolens and worsteds, it is called a scour or
scouring.
b. Carbonizing
With woolens and worsted fabrics, part of the
pre-treatment processing may include carbonizing.
This process removes leaf particles and bits of
grass or other cellulosic impurities which may have
become embedded in the wool while the sheep
were grazing. The treatment consists of steeping
the wool fabric in sulphuric acid which destroys the
cellulose, but leaves the wool unharmed.
c. Singeing
One important part of pre-treatment process is
an operation called singeing. This is the burning off
of projecting fibers or filament splinters from the
surface of the fabric. Improper singeing or
elimination of this operation results in unclear print
patterns, mottled fabric surface or premature pilling
of fabrics.
d. Bleaching
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Pre-treatment processes may also include

bleaching. Fabrics to be dyed in light shades as well
as most prints are first bleached. Bleaches are
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required to obtain pure whites because natural

fibers are rarely pure white in their natural state.
They are usually slightly yellowish or greyish.
Bleaches are chemical agents which react with the
color compounds in the fiber and render them
colourless. Our eyes see the fabric as pure white.
8.3 Important Finishes
Anti Static Finish
Antiseptic Finish
Calendering
o Single Calendering
o Glaze Calendering
o Embossing Calendering
o Moire Calendering
o Schreiner Calendering
Crease Resistance Finish
Durable Press Finish
Flame Resistance Finishes
Fulling
Mercerization
Moth Proof Finishes
Napping
Plisse
Shearing
Shrinkage Control Finishes
Soil Release Finishes
Water and Stain Repellants
Waterproof Fabric
Waterproof/Breathable Laminated Fabric
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Finishing Imperfections
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8.4 Mercerization
Mercerization is the process of treating a cellulosic
fabric or yarn with an alkali (caustic soda).
Mercerization was little used until H.Lowe
discovered in 1897 that fabrics under tension
become lustrous and silky.
Mercerization is used on cotton, linen and some
rayon fabrics. In fact, it is one of the most
important finishes for cotton. It increases the
luster and softness, gives greater strength, and
improves the fabrics affinity for dyes and
waterborne finishes. Cotton is mercerized for
lustre in both yarn and fabric form. Mercerization
can be categorized as:
a. Yarn mercerization.
b. Fabric mercerization
The finish consists of treating the material
while under tension with cold, concentrated
sodium hydroxide solution (20%) for usually
4 minutes. The alkali is washed off and any
excess alkali is neutralized. The sodium ions
in the solution displace the hydrogen on the
cellulose. The natural convolutions of cotton
are largely lost, and the fiber retains a fuller,
rounded diameter.
The strength of the fiber is increased to
almost 20%. The cotton becomes more
absorbent and has greater affinity for
moisture and for dyestuff.
1. Slack mercerization
Slack mercerization consists of dipping cotton
fabric in a weaker caustic soda solution for a shorter
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time before neutralizing and washing. The cloth

shrinks and the yarn crimp increases. The
straightening of the crimp when stress is applied
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produces stretch slack mercerization increases the

absorbency and improves the dyeability of cotton
yarns and fabrics.
Mercerization is both inexpensive and permanent
and for these reasons it is widely used on cotton
goods. Linen can also be mercerized, and since it
has a natural lustre and good strength, the major
advantage of mercerizing linen is to improve the
dyeability and receptivity of linen to other finishes.

2. Bleaching
As discussed above in the pre-treatment
processes for finishing, bleaching is the
process of whitening fibers, yarns or fabrics
by removing colour. Most bleaches are
oxidizing agents; the actual bleaching is
done by active oxygen. A few bleaches are
reducing agents and are used to strip colour
from poorly dyed fabrics. Bleaches may be
either acid or alkaline in nature.
The goals of bleaching are a uniform removal
of hydrophobic impurities, in the fabric and a
high uniform degree of whiteness of the
fabric in order to get clear uniform colours
when dyeing.
The same bleaches is not suitable for all kinds of
fibers. Because fibers vary in their chemical
reaction, bleaches must be chosen with regard to
fiber content. Also the temperatures and
concentration must be carefully controlled as any
bleach will damage fibers.
The natural fibers are an off-white colour
because of the impurities they contain. Most
cotton gray goods are bleached without
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damage. The bleaching step may be omitted

with wool because it has a good affinity for
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dyes and other finishes even if not bleached.

 Most bleaches used by the industry are
either chlorine bleaches or oxygen bleaches.
The cellulose gray goods are peroxide
bleached at 180-200ºF in an alkaline
solution.
In the peroxide cold bleach procedure, the
fabric soaked overnight or for 8 hours
(approx.). This procedure is often done on
cotton-knit goods and wool to preserve a soft
hand. Traditionally, wools were bleached by
stoving, which exposed the fabric to surface
dioxide, current processes use hydrogen
peroxide. Silk is also usually bleached with
dilute solutions of hydrogen peroxide.

3. Embossing
Embossed designs (including three-
dimensional) are create using an embossed
calendar that produces either flat or raised
designs on the fabric.
The embossing calendar consists of two rolls,
one of which is a heated hollow, engraved
metal roll. The other is a solid paper roll
exactly twice the size of the engraved roll.
The fabric is drawn between the two rollers
and is embossed with the design. Embossing
can be done to both flat and pile fabric.
The process differs for the production of flat
and raised designs.
Raised embossed designs are not so simple to
produce as flat embossed designs
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EMBOSSING PROCESS

Embossed brocades are an example of that

embossed designs. The effect can be seen as a
difference in luster but the design cannot be
detected by touch. Embossed fabric can be
distinguished by careful examine with a pick glass.
Embossed fabrics reveal a regular, consistent
weave (plain or twill) while Jacquard or dabble
fabrics have yarn floats in the design area.
Embossed designs are temporary and will wash out
of fabric unless resins are used to make them
durable. If the fiber is thermoplastic, however, the
embossed effect is permanent since the metal roll
will heat set the fabric design.

4. Moiré

A moiré finish produces a wood grain or

water-marked appearance on the face side of
the fabric. Two techniques are used to
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produce a moiré pattern on a fabric. The

first uses an engraved cylinder roller on the
calendar which flattens one part of the fabric
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more than another, causing the different

 light reflectance which we see as moiré. In
this method, definite repeat pattern moiré is
produced.
In the second method, also the traditional
method, two fabrics, each face to face, are
placed. Enormous pressure is put on the
fabrics by the smooth moiré rollers, and the
ribs of one fabric press down on those of the
other, flattening each other in some areas
and causing the fabrics to reflect light
differently across the surface of the fabric.
This method produces a completely random,
non-repetitive moiré. The fabrics required
for achieving an effective moiré pattern are
ribbed fabrics, such as taffeta, faille, or
bengaline moiré finishes may be either
temporary, durable or permanent. A cotton
or rayon finish is temporary, unless the
fabric has been resin treated and then cured
after moiré calendaring to make a durable
finish. Moiré finishes on thermoplastic fiber
fabrics are permanent if a heated roller is
used.

5. Napping
Napping is chiefly used to obtain a relatively
deep hairy surface, but the degree of depth
depends upon the technique used.
Napping was originally a hand operation.
Now it is done by rollers. The fabric is passed
under a roller that has fine steel wires with
small hooks on the ends. The hooks scrape
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the surface of the fabric pulling up fiber ends

out of the yarn. The fuzzy finish, produced
by napping makes a soft fabric, which
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provides warmth because of the isolative air

cells in the nap. The thicker the nap, the
more air cells, and the warmer the fabric. In
men‟s suiting, where long wear is desired, a
napped surface acts as a protection against
objectionable lustre. Stains can be removed
easily from a napped surface. The fabric is
soft and attractive. Napping may also serve
to cover up weaving imperfections.
Excessive napping tends to weaken the fabric
sometimes.
The amount of nap does not indicate the
quality of the fabric. The amount may vary
from the slight fuzz of flannel to the thick
nap of imitation fur short compact nap on a
fabric with firm yarns and a closely woven
ground wears best.
Napped fabrics must be made from specially
constructed gray goods in which the filament
yarns are made of low-twist staple fibers.
Fabrics can be napped on either or both
sides. The nap may have an upright position
or it may be laid down or brushed.
Worsted flannels are made of long-staple
wool. The short staple yarns used in woolen
flannels have more fiber ends per inch and
thus, can have a heavier nap. The short nap
in the worsted flannels makes it suitable for
men‟s suits and coats.
Cotton flannels have shorter fibers and are
used in robes, nightwear, baby clothes, and
sweat shirts.
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 Yarns before and after napping

6. Flocking
Flocking refers to the application of very
short surface fibers to a fabric with an
adhesive to produce an imitation pile
appearance. Flocked fabrics thus, imitate
pile fabrics. In flocked fabrics a surface fiber
is applied to the fabric after the base fabric
has been produced.
Flock fibers are very short fibers attached to
a fabric surface by an adhesive to create at
inexpensive pile. Flock can be applied to
man base materials-cloth, foam, wood, metal
and concrete-or it can be applied to an
adhesive film and laminated to a base fabric.
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Rayon fibers are inexpensive and easy to

cut, and are used in large quantities. Nylon
has excellent abrasion resistance and
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 durability. Acrylics, polymers and olefins are
also used.
Fibers for flocking must be straight, not
crimped fibers that are cut square at the
ends anchor more firmly in the adhesive.

Flock with square-cut ends is attached more

firmly.
Some of the major end uses of flocking
include velvet upholstery fabrics, draperies,
bedspreads, blankets, design on apparel
fabrics, carpets, wall coverings for aesthetics
and noise reduction, automotive fabrics,
toys, shoes, books, hats, and industrial uses
like conveyor belts and air filters.
The two basic methods of applying the flock
fibers are mechanical and electrostatic. In
both the processes the flock is placed in an
erect position and, after flocking, the
adhesive is over dried.

7. Plisse
Plisse is a fabric usually finished from cotton
print cloth or lawn by printing with a caustic-
soda (sodium hydroxide) paste on the cloth
in the form of stripes or designs. The alkali
causes the fabric to shrink in the treated
areas. As the treated stripe shrinks, the
untreated stripes pucker. This creates a
three dimensional effect. Shrinkage causes a
slight difference in count between the two
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stripes. The treated or flat stripe increases in

count as it shrinks.
In piece dyed fabrics, the flat treated area
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may be a deeper colour than the puckered

 area. The texture change is permanent but
can be flattened somewhat by steam and
pressure. Seersucker, plisse, and embossed
fabrics are very similar in appearance and
are frequently found in the same price range.

8. Opaque and Transparent Design

i. Crisp and Transparent

Transparent or parchment effects in cotton
fabrics are produced by treatment with
sulphuric acid. This fabric may be referred
to as parchmentized. Since acid dissolves or
damages cotton, this subtractive process
must be very carefully controlled. Split-
second timing is necessary to prevent
tendering or weakening of the fabric.
All over parchmentizing produces a
transparent effect and a sheer fabric of
combed lawn is used. The goods are singed,
desized, bleached and mercerized.
Mercerization may be repeated after the acid
treatment to improve the transparency. The
fabric is then dyed or printed with colours
that resist acid damage. The cloth is
immersed in the acid solution and partial
dissolution of the fiber surface takes place.
On drying, this surfaces re hardens as a
cellulosic film and gives permanent crispness
and transparency. After the acid treatment,
the cloth is neutralized in weak alkali,
washed, and calendared to give more gloss
to the surface. This allover treatment
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produces organdy fabric.

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 ii. Burned out
Burned-out effects are produced by printing
a chemical on a blend fabric made of fibers
from different groups such as rayon and
polyester. One fiber, usually the less
expensive or more easily dissolved fiber, is
dissolved, leaving sheer areas. This finish is
also known as etched or devour because part
of the fibers are removed by this subtractive
finish.

Assignment # 1
To test the performance of various fabric finishes.

Materials
Set of swatches.
A. Determination of the presence of crease
resistant finish.
Fold each of the assigned fabrics in 4 equal parts.
Hold in the folded position for 30 sec., then release
and unfold. Record which samples have been
treated with CRF and which have not.

Assignment # 2
Prepare a catalogue of fabrics with the following
finishes, on the basis of visual inspection and
textile markings:
Bleaching, mercerization, embossing, moiering,
napping, flocking, plisse, parchmentizing.
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Fabric Science Swatch Kit Assignment 24 /

Analysis of Fabrics
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To Produce Fabric Patterns
Materials:
Set of swatches, pick glass, pick needle, worksheet
There are various ways a fabric pattern can be
produced. These methods include the following:
a. Weaving
b. Knitting
c. Varying surface heights on materials, such as
ribbed or sculptured effects
d. Printing
e. Finishing, such as embossing
f. Grouping of colored yarns, such as plaids or
stripes.
From the swatch set select at least one example for
each method indicated above. Also include any
other methods, if observed.

Swatch Method of Producing Patterns

Number

Name: Class: Date:

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 SWATCH MOUNTING SHEETS

Fabric # Fabric # Fabric #

__________ _________ _________
____ _____ ____
Name Name Name
__________ _________ _________
______ ________ _______

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 WOVEN FABRICS
Swatch Fabric Purpose of Fiber Content
Number Description Swatch
0. Chiffon (blue) Plain weave Polyester
(sheer)
1. Ninon (Curtain) Plain weave Polyester
(sheer)
2. Chambray Plain weaving Polyester/cotton
(blue) shirting (blend)
3. Bengaline Plain weave Cotton and
(upholstery) (ribbed) polyester
(black and (mixture)
white)
4. Cord (blue and Plain weave Polyester
white) (cord effect)
5. Oxford (red and Rib weave Polyester/cotton
white) (blend)
6. Patterned Basket weave Wool
upholstery
7. Chino (khaki) Twill weave Cotton
8. Uinform twill Twill weave Polyester/cotton
(gray) (blend)
9. Herringbone Broken twill Polyester/wool
suiting (brown) weave (blend)
10. Sateen (olive Satin weave Cotton
green) (Spun)
11. Drapery sateen Satin weave Cotton
(print) (drapery)
12. Terry (white) Warp pile weave Cotton
(uncut)
13. Corduroy Filling pile weave Cotton and
(brown) (cut) polyester
(mixture)
14. Velveteen Filling pile weve Cotton.
(navy) (cut)
15. Velvet (black) Warp file weave Rayon
(cut)
16. Marquisette Leno weave Nylon
(blue)
132

17. Shirting (white) Multiple weaves Polyester

in same fabric
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18. Blouse fabric Dobby weave Polyester

(print)
 19. Dobby Dobby weave Cotton and
upholstery polyester
(mixture)
20. Drapery fabric Jacquard weave Polyester and
(green) cotton (mixture)
Swatch Fabric Purpose of Fiber Content
Number Description Swatch
21. Dress fabric Jacquard weave. Polyester
(red)

22. Matelasse One warp yarn Cotton.

(upholstery) and two filling
(green) yarn
construction
23. Hound‟s tooth Twill weave, Polyester/wool
suiting color effect in (blend)
weaving
24. Plain jersey knit Jersey (fine) Acrylic

25. Plain jersey knit Jersey (coarse) Acrylic

(dark blue)
26. Rib knit (light Rib knit (coarse) Acrylic
brown)

27. Rib knit Rib knit (fine) Acrylic/cotton

(blend)
28. Jersey jacquard Patterning with Cotton/polyester
miss stitches (blend)
29. Purl (with Patterning with Acrylic
pattern) (green tuck stitches
or brown)
30. Knit terry Loop-knit jersey Cotton and
(jersey) acrylic (mixture)
31. High pile knit High-pile knit Face: acrylic
(beige) Back: acrylic
32. Rib jacquard Jacquard knit Polyester
(double knit)
33. Tricot (white) Tricot Nylon

34. Brushed tricot Brushed tricot Polyester

133

(pastel)
35. Satin tricot Satin tricot Nylon
(blue) Raschel lace
Page

(see fabric #
76)
 36. Raschel (blue) Raschel curtain Cotton and
polyester
(mixture)
37. Raschel net Laid-in Acrylic and
(black) yarns(metallic) metallic
(mixture)

OTHER TYPES OF TEXTILES

Swatch Fabric Purpose of Fiber Content
Number Description Swatch
38. Bonded Bonded fabric Face: Polyester
Back: Polyester
39. Spundbonded Spundbond Polyester
(white) nonwoven
40. Nonwoven Web nonwoven Polyester
interlining
(black)
41. Fusible Fusible Polyester
nonwoven nonwoven
(white)
42. Felt (red or Felt Wool and rayon
yellow)
43. Needle punched Needle punched Rayon
nonwoven nonwoven
(white)
44. Casement Malimo Polyester
(gray)
45. Tufted Tufted fabric Face:nylon
upholstery Back:
(beige) cotton/polyeste
r
46. Rachel lace Raschel lace Polyester
(black)
47. Embroidered Embroidered Polyester/cotto
fabric fabric n (blend)
134
Page
 TEXTILE FINISHES
Swatch Fabric Purpose of Fiber Content
Number Description Swatch

1. Canton flannel Brushed Polyester/cott

(napped) on (blend)
finish
2. Lining fabric Glazed Polyester
(blue) calender
finish
3. Poplin Water Polyester/cott
repellent on (blend)
finish
4. Faille with Moire finish Warp: acetate
dobby design Filling: rayon
(blue)
5. Plisse (green Chemical Cotton
stripe) pucher
6. Tricot (green) Suede Microdenier
(brushed) polyester
finish

MISCELLANEOUS FABRICS
Swatch Fabric Purpose of Fiber Content
Number Description Swatch
1. Seersucker Seersucker Polyester/cotton
(green and (blend)
white)
2. Crystal pleat, Permanent Polyester
rib knit pleats (heat
set)
3. Quilted Quilted Face: polyester
material fabric Filler: polyester
fiberfill Back:
polyester
spunbonded
135

4. Double-faced Recycled Ecospun®

Page

brushed knit polyester polyester

 (recycled from
soda bottles)
5. Flocked Electrostatic Face: nylon
upholstery flock Back:
polyester/rayon

KEY TO FABRIC SWATCHES

Fabric Fabric Purpose of Fiber Content
Number Description Swatch
1. Corduroy Filling pile Cotton & polyester
(blue) weave
(uncut)
2. Velveteen Filling pile Cotton
(navy) weave
(cut)
3. Velvet (black) Warp pile Pile: Acetate
weave Ground: Nylon
(cut)
4. Marquisette Leno Polyester
(white) weave
5. Dress fabric Multiple Cotton
(blue & white) weaves in
same
fabric
6. Dobby faille Dobby Acetate & rayon
(white) weave
7. Brocade (red) Jacquard Acetate & rayon
weave
8. Jacquard Jacquard Acetate & rayon
dress fabric weave
(white)
9. Houndstooth Color effect Polyester/rayon
suiting (black in weaving
& white)
136Page
 KNITTED FABRICS
1. Jersey knit Jersey (coarse) Cotton
(white)
2. Jersey Knit Jersey (fine) Cotton
(print)
3. Rib knit Rib knit Cotton
(white) (coarse)
4. Rib knit Rib knit (fine) Acrylic & Cotton
(black)
5. Purl knit Purl knit Cotton
(white)
6. Patterned Pattern with Polyester/cotton
jersey miss stitches
7. Patterned Pattern with -
jersey tuck stitches
(salmon or
pink)
8. Knit terry Loop knit Acrylic
jersey
9. Pile knit High pile knit Acrylic
(green
(fake fur)
10. Tricot Tricot Nylon
(navy)
11. Brushed Brushed tricot Nylon
tricot (light
blue)
12. Dresswear Dresswear Nylon
tricot tricot (nurse
(white) uniform fabric)
137 Page
 PRINTED FABRICS
1. Sportswear Bloth print Polyester/cotton
fabric
(brown)
2. Heat transfer Heat -
Printed paper transfer
(unused) Print paper
(unused)
3. Interlock Fabric Polyester
(white) prepared for
printing
(PFP)
4. Interlock Heat Polyester
(printed) transfer
printed
fabric
5. Flocked Flock print Polyester rayon
sheer brown) dots

TEXTILE FINISHES
6. Printed flannel Napped finish Cotton
7. Printed chintz Glazed Cotton/polyester
calendered
finish
8. Poplin (navy) Water Cotton/polyester
repellent finish
9. Coated rip Coated fabric Nylon
stop fabric
(olive)
10. Sportswear Heavy resin Polyster/cotton
138

fabric (gray) add-on

11. Plisse type Chemical Cotton
(print) pucker
Page
 MISCELLANEOUS FABRICS
12. Seersucker Seersucker Cotton/polyeste
(blue/white) r
13. Drapery Sateen Filling effect Cotton
(khaki) sateen
14. Irregular ribbed Upholstery Rayon & cotton
upholstery fabric
(brown)
15. “No wale” Upholstery Cotton
corduroy (tan) fabric
16. Upholstery Latex coated Herculon®
fabric backing olefin

KNITTED FABRICS
17. Tulle (white) Raschel, sheer Polyester
18. Curtain fabric Raschel, coarse Acrylic
(white)
19. Raschel lace Raschel lace Nylon
(white)

OTHER TYPES OF TEXTILES

20. Bonded Bonded Face: cotton

jacquard (blue) material Back: acetate
21. Spunbonded Spunbonded Polyester
nonwoven nonwoven
(black)
22. Fusible Fusible Rayon web,
nonwoven nonwoven polyester dots
interlining
(black)
139

23. Nonwoven Web nonwoven Rayon

interlining
(white)
Page

24. Felt (maroon) Felt Wool & rayon

25. Needle Needle punched Polyester
 punched nonwoven
nonwoven
(white)
26. Casement Malimo Cotton &
polyester
27. Embroidered Embroidered Cotton/polyest
fabric (white) fabric er

DYED FABRICS
28. Greige goods Greige goods Polyester
(red tint) (with
temporary
yarn
identification
color-fugitive
tint)
29. Chambray Yarn dyed
(blue) cotton
30. Iridescent Cross dyed Acetate & rayon
taffeta
(purple)
31. Blouse fabric Union dyed Polyester/cotton/n
(blue) ylon
32. Sportswear Poor dye Cotton
fabric (rust) penetration

PRINTED FABRICS
33. Dress twill Pigment (dry) Rayon
(print) print)
34. Print cloth Direct print Cotton
(print)
35. Dress fabric Overprint Acetate
(print)
140Page
Summary:
Finish is the final processing of the cloth and its
purpose is to make the fabric suitable for its
intended end use. Designers classify finish as
aesthetic finish and functional finish. According to
textile processing it is classified as – chemical and
mechanical finish and on the bases of permanency
it is either permanent, durable, semi durable or
temporary. The preliminary steps for cotton and
cotton blends are singing, deigning, , bleaching. For
silk – degumming and for wool – carbonizing,
scowling, Fulling and bleaching. The other
important finishes are mercerization, embossing,
napping, flocking, plisse, moiré and
parchmentization.

Revision Points:
A finish is any process that is done to fiber, yarn or
fabric either before or after fabrication.
Finishes are divided on the bases of degree of
permanency, textile processing & designers.
Preliminary preparation depends on the fiber type
i.e. cotton, silk, wool or man made

Intext Question:
1. Describe in brief the pre-treatment process
for finishing.
2. Describe the following:
a. Mercerization
b. Embossing
141

c. Flocking
Page
Terminal Exercise:
1. What do you understand by finishing?

Keywords:
Pilling – balling up of surface fibers
Crimp – Wariness in the yarn
CRF – Crease resistant finish
Fuzz – very short fibers projecting on the fabric
Fulling – finish given to wool fabrics to improve the
appearance, hand, body & cover
Deguimming – Removal of gum from silk through
washing process.

142
Page
 Books for Further
References
1. Understanding textile by Phyllis Tortora.
2. Textiles by Sara T. Kadolph & Anna L.
Langford.
3. Encyclopedia to textiles, Fiber and Non-
woven Fabrics.
4. Textiles fiber to fiber – P Corbman
5. Fabric Science by Joseph Pizzuto
6. Modern Textiles by Rothy Siegert Lyle.

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