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ARCTOS
ACTA PHILOLOGICA FENNICA
VOL. XLVI
_________________________________
2012
ARCTOS
VOL. 46
ARCTOS
ACTA PHILOLOGICA FENNICA
VOL. XLVI
HELSINKI 2012
ARCTOS – ACTA PHILOLOGICA FENNICA
Arctos has been published since 1954, annually from vol. 8 (1974). The Editorial Board of
Arctos welcomes submissions dealing with any aspect of classical antiquity, and the reception
of ancient cultures in mediaeval times and beyond. Arctos presents research articles and short
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IN MEMORIAM
JUHA SIHVOLA
UNIVERSITATIS HELSINGIENSIS ALUMNI
HISTORIAE IN UNIVERSITATE JYVÄSKYLÄENSI
PROFESSORIS
(29 VIII 1957 – 14 VI 2012)

ANNE HELTTULA
LINGUAE LATINAE
IN UNIVERSITATE JYVÄSKYLÄENSI LECTRICI
SEPTUAGENARIAE
AMICI COLLEGAE DISCIPULI
19 I 2012
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elencano rimedi per guarire le ferite profonde e pulite: l'erba citata per prima
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soprattutto in allevamento.12 Qualunque pianta essa sia, quindi, il ƭƣƥƿƱƶƲưƳ è
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per tutti i cereali coltivati dall'uomo.14
&
qSRLGDFRQVLGHUDUHFKHVHLOƭƣƥƿƱƶƲưƳ fosse effettivamente il trifo-
glio, non si capirebbe come mai il medico ippocratico usi un termine tanto raro
(tanto da sentirsi poi costretto a spiegarlo) invece che uno più comune, come
poteva essere ƵƲɛƷƶƭƭưƳ che nel FRUSXV +LSSRFUDWLFXP è attestato otto volte
(0RUE,,0RUE,,,1DW0XO0XO. 78) e in una occasione
anche dallo stesso autore di 6XOOHXOFHUD]LRQL (c. 11). Si tenga presente inoltre
FKHLOWULIRJOLRFRPXQHQRQVHPEUDDYHUHQHVVXQDTXDOLWjFXUDWLYDGHOOHIHULWH
PHQWUHLQJHQHUHF
qXQDIRUWHFRUULVSRQGHQ]DWUDJOLXWLOL]]LPHGLFLGHOOHSLDQWH
RI¿FLQDOLFRVuFRPHLPPDJLQDWLGDLSURIHVVLRQLVWLLSSRFUDWLFLHTXHOOLGHOODHUER-
risteria moderna, che quasi sempre li conferma, anche sulla base dell'analisi delle
componenti chimiche delle piante stesse.
1RQqTXHVWDO
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14 La lepre esce all'aperto, durante il crepuscolo o di notte, ad alimentarsi di vegetali freschi e

succosi (cavoli o barbabietole); tuttavia, nelle stagioni primaverile e estiva, preferisce numerosi
tipi di erbe di prato (dalle graminacee alle leguminose), come il trifoglio, la festuca, il loglio e
LOWDUDVVDFRPHQWUHVLFLEDDQFKHGLFHUHDOLJUDQRRU]RDYHQDVHJDOHQHOSHULRGRDXWXQQDOH
TXDQGRVLQXWUHDQFKHGHLUHVWLGHOODWUHEELDWXUDGHOPDLVROWUHFKHGHLJHUPRJOLGHOODFRO]DH
GLDOFXQLRUWDJJLWDUGLYL'XUDQWHLOSHULRGRLQYHUQDOHULHVFHDGXVDUHWXWWRLOSRWHQ]LDOHWUR¿FR
DGLVSRVL]LRQHFRVWLWXLWRDGHVGDVHPLVSDUVLPDDQFKHGDFRUWHFFH
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YHUELĮǰƮƪƩƭəƱƶƲưƳ͑ ǰƮƪƧʴ. ǰƮƪəƴƧƫ).
L'ononide (2QRQLVDQWLTXRUXP), secondo il /6-.
17 Secondo il /6-, la pianta sarebbe citata anche da Teofrasto (HP,,PDVLWUDWWDGLXQ
errore.
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DOODFRQL]]D18 e ad una imprecisata erba profumata,19 come un'erba da foraggio

pregiata per un vitello.20/DPDJJLRUSDUWHGHLOHVVLFRJUD¿21 tuttavia, fa ritenere
che il termine ƣȜƥɛƱƶƲưƳ, o piuttosto la sua variante ƣȜƥɛƱƶƲƲưƳ22FGTKXKRKWVVQ-
UVQFCNN CIIGVVKXQƱƶƲƲɝƳURVVDVWURO
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fatto di essere rossastra (o forse, come è possibile anche nel caso dell'ƣȜƥɛƱƶƲưƳ,
GLDYHUH¿RULURVVDVWUL6HFLzIRVVHYHURFRVWLWXLUHEEHXQDPRWLYD]LRQHLQSL
per distinguere ƭƣƥƿƱƶƲưƳ da ƭƣƥƿƱưƶƳ.
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1959, 92). Si tratta infatti di una confera che con il suo odore uccide scarafaggi e pulci (ma il
suo nome potrebbe essere dovuto piuttosto al fatto che i suoi semi sono molto piccoli, come
pulci). L'uso antico di questa pianta, testimoniato nel &RUSXV KLSSRFUDWLFXP ed anche da
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che anche N ƣȜƥɛƱƶƲưƳ sia un'erba dal forte odore. Non è improbabile allora che la sua
GHQRPLQD]LRQHYHQJDSURSULRGDTXHVWDVXDTXDOLWjGXQTXHQRQVDUHEEHODFDSUDDFLEDUVHQH
ma l'erba stessa ad avere un odore simile a quello dell'animale, che notoriamente non è affatto
profumato.
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violaceo in spighe, ovali-subsferiche, completamente pelose e pure le sue brattee
sono lanose.
TXHVWDSLDQWDLOFXPLQRGHOOHOHSULưȜƦɖƭƣƥư˃ƬƾvƫƮưƮƬƣƭư˃ƴƫƮ), espressione che potrebbe

ricordare appunto il sostantivo ƭƣƥƿƱƶƲưƳFRQJUDQRDOSRVWRGLFXPLQR'LRVF
(YLGHQWHPHQWH IRUVH WUD OH GXH SLDQWH TXDOFXQR VL FRQIRQGHYD DQFKH LQ DQWLFKLWj WXWWDYLD
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piante leporine, ma ad un'altra pianta sconosciuta che indica con il nome di ǴvƧƺƳ(ƎƟƯƧƫƳ
ƤưƵƞƮƺƮXQDOWURKDSD[ÊLPSRVVLELOHULFRVWUXLUHFRQVLFXUH]]DDTXDOHSLDQWDPDLVL
riferisse il glossario galenico, dato che con un nome simile si conosce solo l'Ǵvƫ (o Ǵvvƫ).
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dipendono strettamente da VLPSOPHG
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3VRUDOHD ODJRSXV, 8UDULD ODJRSXV, 2[\WURSLV ODJRSXV, tutte con caratteristiche simili. In
particolare, la 'DOHD ODJRSXV q FRQRVFLXWD DQFKH FRPH FRGD GL YROSH LQ LQJOHVH IR[WDLO
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È attestata, del resto, anche nelle lingue moderne, l'abitudine linguistica di

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le: in italiano, ad es., sono attestati il piede di colombo, il piede di leone (che
è peraltro più comunemente conosciuto come stellaria) e il piede di vitello (noto
anche come gichero o iaro). È da osservare, inoltre, che del piede di leone sono
QRWHTXDOLWjDVWULQJHQWLHQHOODFXUDGHOOHIHULWHqLQWHUHVVDQWHFKHODVWHVVDSLDQWD
DFFRPXQHUHEEHLGXHFDPSLGLXWLOL]]RGHOOHGLYHUVHSLDQWHOHSRULQHFRQRVFLXWH
GDOOD*UHFLDDQWLFD/DVWHOODULDIXFKLDPDWDSLHGHGLOHRQHSUREDELOPHQWHSHU
il fatto che i suoi otto angoli sono dentati (in effetti, quando le fronde sono bene
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DFHUWHHWLPRORJLHSRSRODULWDQWRPHQRVHVLSUHQGRQRLQFRQVLGHUD]LRQHGHQRPL-
QD]LRQLDQWLFKH
La botanica popolare italiana comprende almeno tre piante denominate
SLHGHGLOHSUHVLWUDWWDGHOFDULFHSLpGLOHSUH&DUH[ODJRSXV), della piantaggine
SLpGLOHSUH3ODQWDJRODJRSXV) e del trifoglio piede di lepre, detto anche sem-
plicemente piede di lepre (7ULIROLXPSUDWHQVH). Quest'ultima pianta, e in parte an-
che la piantaggine, ha lo stesso nome anche in altre lingue europee: in spagnolo,
qSLHGHOLHEUHLQLQJOHVHKDUH
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WHUDSHXWLFKH QHOO
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HUED VL XWLOL]]D FRPH UL-
medio contro la tosse spasmodica (ad es. per la cura delle bronchiti) o contro la
che l'erba sia nutrimento tipico della lepre, quanto al fatto che essa presenta, come la stessa
coda di volpe, una qualche peluria. Si osservi che anche il /6- interpreta ƭƣƥƿƱưƶƳ in questo
PRGRDGRZQ\SODQWLGHQWL¿FDQGRORSRLFRQLO7ULIROLXPDUYHQVH (vedi oltre, per le mie
conclusioni): tuttavia, ritiene che il ƭƣƥƿƱƶƲưƳVLDODVWHVVDHUEDSHUODYHULWjLOOHVVLFROHJJH
ƭƣƥƺƱ˃ƲưƳ), ciò che si è dimostrato essere impossibile.
6L WUDWWD GL XQD SLDQWD FKH SURGXFH FRSSLH GL ¿RUL FHOHVWL H SLXWWRVWR FRPXQH QHL WHUUHQL
incolti.
Effettivamente, anche la piantaggine ha una grande fama nella medicina popolare,
testimoniata anche dal fatto che era considerata una pianta benedetta che rendeva felici e amati
da tutti. In erboristeria moderna, per via del fatto che contiene emulsina, mucillagine, acido
FLWULFRVDOLPLQHUDOLHVRVWDQ]HDPDUHSDUWLFRODUPHQWHDWWLYHSHUODUHJROD]LRQHGHOOHIXQ]LRQL
RUJDQLFKH VL ULWLHQH FKH DEELD XQR VSHFL¿FR SRWHUH DVWULQJHQWH FLFDWUL]]DQWH HPROOLHQWH
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la gotta. Ma è molto più rilevante che per il suo alto contenuto di tannini essa
VLDXWLOHFRPHDQWLGLDUURLFRFKHqDQFKHXQDGHOOHTXDOLWjFKHVRQRSURSULHGHO
ƭƣƥƿƱưƶƳ, come è lo stesso Dioscoride a ricordare. È possibile dunque che il
ƭƣƥƿƱưƶƳ sia effettivamente un trifoglio, ma possa essere più convenientemente
WUDGRWWRFRPHSLHGHGLOHSUH
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tore del trattato 'HFLELV 'HDOLPHQWLV 9) tra gli alimenti che sono in grado
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8QLYHUVLWjGHJOL6WXGLGL*HQRYD
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di questa pianta (il trifoglio in genere) e che sono note anche oggi, tanto che esso viene usato
per attrarre la buona sorte, soprattutto se presenta, come raramente succede, non tre foglioline,
ma quattro o addirittura cinque.
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CHRISTER BRUUN
7KHLPSUHVVLYHYROXPHFKDUWLQJDQFLHQWDUFKDHRORJLFDO¿QGVLQWKHWHUULWRU\RI
9HOOHWULQHDU5RPHE\0DQOLR/LOOL1FRQWDLQVVRPHSUHYLRXVO\XQNQRZQGDWDRI
SURVRSRJUDSKLFQDWXUH,QSDUWLFXODUWKHZRUNSUHVHQWVWKUHHSUHYLRXVO\XQSXE-
lished inscriptions on lead pipes (¿VWXODH), which all merit further comment.
1. The woman [---]lia Calligone
7KHOHDGSLSHLQVFULSWLRQ>@/,$(&$//,*21(6RIZKLFKDJRRGSKRWRLV
published by Lilli,2LVSUHYLRXVO\XQNQRZQ7KH¿VWXODRQZKLFKWKHWH[WDSSHDUV
LVODEHOOHGPDWHULDOHVSRUDGLFRLHLWODFNVDVHFXUHO\UHFRUGHGSURYHQDQFHEXW
WKHSLSHDSSDUHQWO\FRPHVIURPDVLWHQHDU9LD$SSLD1XRYDFDOOHG/D3LODUD
DQGLVQRZLQSULYDWHRZQHUVKLSFRQVHUYDWDGDXQDELWDQWHGHOOD]RQD7KH
piece of lead pipe is only 90 cm in length, the diameter is given as 0.25 m (which,
3DUWRIWKHUHVHDUFKIRUWKLVSDSHUZDVFRQGXFWHGZKLOH,HQMR\HGD6WDQGDUG5HVHDUFK*UDQW
DZDUGHG E\ WKH 6RFLDO 6FLHQFHV DQG +XPDQLWLHV 5HVHDUFK &RXQFLO RI &DQDGD 66+5&&
ZKLFKLVJUDWHIXOO\DFNQRZOHGJHG7KH¿QDOVWDJHWRRNSODFHZKLOHKROGLQJD)HOORZVKLSDWWKH
,QVWLWXWHIRU$GYDQFHG6WXG\LQ3ULQFHWRQLQDXQLTXHO\VWLPXODWLQJDQGKHOSIXOHQYLURQPHQW
WKDQNVWRDPXFKDSSUHFLDWHGJUDQWIURPWKH*ODG\V.ULHEOH'HOPDV)RXQGDWLRQ,ZLVKWRWKDQN
0DULD/HWL]LD&DOGHOOLZKRNLQGO\DOHUWHGPHWRWKHSXEOLFDWLRQE\0/LOOL0LND.DMDYDDQG
+HLNNL6ROLQIRUKHOSIXOFRPPHQWVRQWKHFRQWHQWDVZHOODV.DUHQ.ODLEHU+HUVFK7HPSOH
8QLYHUVLW\ZKRDOVRLPSURYHGWKH(QJOLVKODQJXDJH5HPDLQLQJHUURUVDQGLQIHOLFLWLHVDUHP\
own.
1 M. Lilli, 9HOOHWUL&DUWD$UFKHRORJLFD9HOOHWUL±/H&DVWHOOD,*0,,62±,91(,
Roma 2008.
2/LOOLFLWQQR
20 &KULVWHU%UXXQ
LIPHDVXUHGFRUUHFWO\PHDQVWKDWWKHSLSHLVRIHQRUPRXVVL]H while the letters

are said to measure only 0.7 cm in height.4
The name &DOOLJRQHLVVRPHZKDWXQXVXDOLQWKDW+HLNNL6ROLQ
VDXWKRULWD-
WLYHLQYHQWRU\VKRZVRQO\WKUHHRFFXUUHQFHVRIWKLV*UHHNFRJQRPHQ in Rome.5
,QWKHLQGH[WR&,/;ZKLFKLQFOXGHV9HOOHWULWKHQDPHGRHVQRWDSSHDUDWDOO
nor is it present in &,/;,9ZKLFKFRYHUVWKHUHJLRQDURXQG5RPH7ZRRIWKH
FDVHVUHFRUGHGE\6ROLQDUHIRXQGLQODWHDQWLTXH&KULVWLDQLQVFULSWLRQV,&85
ZKLOHRQHVHHPVWREHHDUOLHU&,/9,.DOOLJRQHWL). None of
WKHVHZRPHQEHDUDIDPLO\QDPHZKLOHRXUFDVHIURP9HOOHWULGRHVVR7KHQDPH
is fragmentary and there are several ways in which to complete it, though for sta-
WLVWLFDOUHDVRQVWKHH[WUHPHO\FRPPRQ,XOLDZRXOGEHWKHVWURQJHVWFDQGLGDWH$V
for dating this stamp, the style of lettering in ¿VWXOD inscriptions must be consid-
ered even less of a reliable dating criterion than when interpreting inscriptions on
VWRQH<HWWKHTXDOLW\RIWKHZHOOH[HFXWHGOHWWHUVDQGWKHLUVTXDUHDSSHDUDQFH
would seem to point to sometime in the late second or early third century.
$VDOZD\VZKHQGHDOLQJZLWKDQDPHRQDOHDGSLSHDFHQWUDOFRQFHUQLV
WRGHWHUPLQHWKHVWDWXVDQGIXQFWLRQRIWKHSHUVRQLQTXHVWLRQ,QWKHFRQWH[WRI
inscribed ¿VWXODH, one may note that women's names are occasionally found on
OHDGSLSHVIURPWKH&DVWHOOL5RPDQLUHJLRQZLWKVXUURXQGLQJVZKLFKLVDGMD-
FHQWWR9HOOHWUL,QSDUWLFXODUIURP9HOOHWULLWVHOIWKHUHLVWKHLQFRPSOHWHVWDPS
>@4XDUWLOODH(JQDWLDH7DXULQDH>@ (6XSSO,WQR AE
in which it may well be that two women are recorded.7$OWRJHWKHU LQ FHQWUDO
,WDO\RXWVLGH5RPHDQG2VWLDIHPDOHQDPHVLQWKHJHQLWLYHDUHIRXQGRQ¿VWXODH
in some twenty cases, including women of the imperial family twice.8 There is a
&%UXXQ7KH:DWHU6XSSO\RI$QFLHQW5RPH$6WXG\RI5RPDQ,PSHULDO$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ,
+HOVLQNL±RQWKHPD[LPXPVL]HRINQRZQOHDGSLSHV,VXVSHFWDW\SRJUDSKLFDO
HUURUPD\KDYHLQÀDWHGWKHQXPEHUDVJLYHQ
4/HWWHUVRIVXFKPLQXVFXOHVL]HDUHSUDFWLFDOO\XQKHDUGRIRQOHDGSLSHV
5 H. Solin, 'LHJULHFKLVFKHQ3HUVRQHQQDPHQLQ5RP(LQ1DPHQEXFK%HUOLQ±1HZ<RUN
2, 95 (cf. p. 1445 for a possible fragmentary instance).
+'UHVVHO)LVWXODHXUEDQDHHWDJULVXEXUEDQL&,/;9±HVS
7 6HH 07K 5DHSVDHW&KDUOLHU 3URVRSRJUDSKLH GHV IHPPHV GH O

RUGUH VpQDWRULDO ,er±,,e
VLqFOHV,/RYDQLLQR(JQDWLD7DXULQD
8 The references are (only one reference per stamp is given): &,/;9
±AE,QVFU,W
,9(SLJUDSKLFD(SLJUDSKLFDNSAQR,
LQWHQGWRSUHVHQWDIXOOVWXG\RIWKHVHLQVWDQFHVLQP\:RPHQDQG:HDOWKLQ5RPDQ,WDO\LQ
progress).
1HZ3URVRSRJUDSKLFDO'DWD'HULYHGIURP5RPDQ/HDG3LSH,QVFULSWLRQV 21
clear pattern in these names, in that for the most part these women can clearly be
LGHQWL¿HGDVEHLQJRIVHQDWRULDOUDQNEHDULQJJRRGWUDGLWLRQDOVHQDWRULDOQDPHV
&ULVSLQD5X¿QD$JULSSLQD3ULVFLOODHWF7KHUHDUHVRPHH[FHSWLRQVKRZHYHU
such as the stamp $HOLDH$VWH (&,/;9RU&ODXGLDH$XJO$FWHV (&,/;9
,QWKHODWWHULQVFULSWLRQZH¿QGERWKD*UHHNFRJQRPHQ and the designa-
WLRQRILPSHULDOIUHHGZRPDQEXW$FWH1HUR
VPLVWUHVVZDVDZRPDQRIQRWH9).
2QHIXUWKHU*UHHNFRJQRPHQ occurs in this group, in the stamp $WULDH0RVFKDUXV
FI (&,/;9± EE,;D±E$WULD0RVFKDURDSSHDUVWRKDYHEHHQ
RIVHQDWRULDOUDQNVLQFHFODULVVLPDIHPLQDLVDPRUHOLNHO\UHDGLQJWKDQ*DL
ILOLDWKH¿OLDWLRQW\SLFDOO\EHLQJLQVHUWHGEHWZHHQJHQWLOLFLXP and FRJQRPHQ.
7KHUHIRUHZHFDQQRWUXOHRXWWKDW,XOLD&DOOLJRQHZDVDOVRDZRPDQRIPHDQV
and that in our stamp she appears in the capacity of owner of the conduit, regard-
OHVVRIKHUFDUU\LQJD*UHHNFRJQRPHQ. (The alternative would be that she was a
manufacturer and that the complete stamp read >H[RII,X@OLDH&DOOLJRQHV.)10
2. Ti. Claudius Liberalis, likely a plumbarius
$QRWKHUGLVFRYHU\E\0DQOLR/LOOLDW9HOOHWULFRPHVIURPDVLWHFDOOHG&ROOHGH

0DUPLDORQJWKH9LD$SSLD$QWLFD$PRQJWKHLWHPVIRXQGRQWKHVLWHWKHUHLVLQ
WKHSRVVHVVLRQRIWKHYHFFKLRSURSULHWDULRGHOO
DELWD]LRQHDSLHFHRIOHDGSLSH
EURNHQDWERWKHQGVDQGFPLQOHQJWKZLWKDGLDPHWHURIFPZKLFKFDU-
ULHVWKHLQVFULSWLRQ7,&//,%(5$>@OHWWHUVL]HFP7KHHGLWRUFRPSOHWHG
the reading of this inscription as 7L&ODXGL/LEHUD>OLVFHQWXULRQLVFRK9SU.@,
with reference to &,/;9DQGWRWKHKLVWRULDQ)ODYLXV-RVHSKXVZKRPHQ-
WLRQVDFHQWXULRQFDOOHGȁȚȕİȡȐȜȚȠȢ%-7KLVUHFRQVWUXFWLRQLVGLI¿FXOWWR
accept, for a variety of reasons.11
The lead pipe stamp &,/;9LVQRWDSDUWLFXODUO\JRRGSDUDOOHOEH-
FDXVHWKDWLQVFULSWLRQLVRQO\NQRZQIURPDPDQXVFULSWWKDWJLYHVWKHEHJLQQLQJ
RIWKHWH[WDV&//,%(IROORZHGE\DJDSZKHUHWKHOHWWHUVDUHPLVVLQJIROORZHG
92QWKHOLWHUDU\VRXUFHVDQGULFKHSLJUDSKLFHYLGHQFHIRU&ODXGLD$FWHVHH$0DVWLQR±3
5XJJHUL &ODXGLD $XJXVWL OLEHUWD $FWH OD OLEHUWD DPDWD GD 1HURQH DG 2OELD /DWRPXV 54
±
107KHIHPDOHJHQGHURI>@OLD&DOOLJRQHE\QRPHDQVUXOHVRXWWKDWVKHPLJKWKDYHEHHQD
SOXPEDULD, a manufacturer of the lead pipe. For a list of female manufacturers, see Bruun (cit.
Q±
11/LOOLFLWQQRV±7KHOHWWHUVDUHWLJKWO\VTXHH]HGWRJHWKHUDQGWKHKRULVRQWDO
bars of L and E are very short.

22 &KULVWHU%UXXQ
by the name Restitutus, which must belong to the manufacturer, the SOXPEDULXV.
In &,/;9'UHVVHOUHVWRUHGWKH¿UVWSDUWRIWKHVWDPSDV&ODXGLDH/LEH>UDOLV@,
though why he thought that the name of a woman appeared in the stamp is not
clear.12 /LEHUDOLV is a common Latin FRJQRPHQ, and although it can be borne by
both men and women, it is much more common among men. The name is also
the most common one beginning with /LEH>@DVFDQEHVHHQLQ.DMDQWR
V/DWLQ
&RJQRPLQD ZKLFK LV ZK\ LW PDNHV VHQVH WR UHVWRUH WKH FRJQRPHQ /LEHUDOLV
in both &,/;9DQGWKHQHZOHDGSLSHVWDPSIURP&ROOHGH
0DUPL,WLV
KRZHYHUXQZDUUDQWHGWRDGGDQ\WKLQJPRUHWRWKHWH[WVLQFHWKHUHLVQRWKLQJWR
LQGLFDWHWKDW&ODXGLXV/LEHUDOLVIURPWKHUHJLRQRI9HOOHWULZDVDSUDHWRULDQRI-
¿FHURULQGHHGDVROGLHUDWDOO
,IRQHZHUHWRORRNIRUKRPRQ\PRXVSHUVRQVWKHUHDUHPRUHOLNHO\FDQGL-
GDWHVDWWHVWHGPXFKFORVHUWR9HOOHWULDOWKRXJKLQQRFDVHLVWKHUHDVWURQJUHDVRQ
IRULGHQWLI\LQJDQ\RIWKHRWKHU&ODXGLL/LEHUDOHVZLWKWKHPDQPHQWLRQHGRQWKH
¿VWXOD)URPWKHWHUULWRU\RI7LEXU7LYROLVRPHNPWRWKHQRUWKDVWKHFURZ
ÀLHVE\URDGWKHGLVWDQFHLVPXFKJUHDWHUFRPHVDQLQVFULSWLRQZKLFKPHQWLRQV
WKH5RPDQNQLJKW7L&ODXGLXV7LI4XLULQDWULEX/LEHUDOLV$HEXWLDQXVZKR
WDNHVFUHGLWIRUKDYLQJKHOGWKHRI¿FHVRISUDHIHFWXVIDEUXP, WULEPLOOHJ,,,
&\UHQDLFDH and GHFXULDOLV&DHVDUXPFRQVXOXPSUDHWRUXP (&,/;,9 ,/6
,QVFU,W,9)URP7LEXUGHULYHVDOVR&,/;,9 9,
WKHHSLWDSKRIWKHVL[WHHQ\HDUROG7L&ODXGLXV/LEHUDOLVSUDHIIDEUXP and en-
MR\LQJWKHULJKWWRDQHTXXVSXEOLFXVOLNHO\WKHEURWKHURIWKHIRUPHU14$EHW-
WHUFDQGLGDWHPD\EHDWKLUGPDQEHDULQJWKHVDPHQDPHZKRDSSHDUVLQDEULFN
stamp in the formula H[¿JOLQLV&ODXGL/LEHUDOLV6XOSLFLDQLV, accompanied
E\WKHFRQVXODUGDWHIRU&(&,/;90DQ\H[DPSOHVRIWKHVWDPSZHUH
NQRZQWR'UHVVHOWKHHGLWRURIWKH&,/HQWU\¿YHRIZKLFKKDGDVHFXUHSURY-
127KXVDOVR:(FN'LH¿VWXODHDTXDULDHGHU6WDGW5RP=XP(LQÀXGHVVR]LDOHQ6WDWXV
DXIDGPLQVWUDWLYHV+DQGHOQLQ,GHP'LH9HUZDOWXQJGHV5|PLVFKHQ5HLFKHVLQGHU+RKHQ
.DLVHU]HLW$XVJHZlKOWHXQGHUZHLWHUWH%HLWUlJH%DVHO±%HUOLQ¿UVWSXEO
7KH¿UVWOLQHVLQ&,/;IURP)HUHQWLQXPUHDG'0&ODXGLDH/LEHUDOLV«, but there is
no reason why this woman should be the person mentioned in the lead pipe inscription from
Rome.
,.DMDQWR7KH/DWLQ&RJQRPLQD+HOVLQNLGXULQJWKHLPSHULDOSHULRGWKUHHPHQ
RIVHQDWRULDOVWDWXVDUHNQRZQWRKDYHFDUULHGWKHQDPHDPRQJFRPPRQHUVPHQDQG
women.
14 Thus H. Dessau, DG &,/;,9ZKRDOVRLELGVXJJHVWVWKDWWKHVHPHQZHUHVRPHKRZ
UHODWHGWR$HEXWLXV/LEHUDOLVWRZKRP6HQHFDGHGLFDWHGKLV'HEHQH¿FLLV.
1HZ3URVRSRJUDSKLFDO'DWD'HULYHGIURP5RPDQ/HDG3LSH,QVFULSWLRQV
HQDQFH)RXUZHUHIURP5RPHZKLOHWKH¿IWKZDVIURPWKHDJHU9HOLWHUQXV (&,/
;9LHWKHVDPHDUHDDVRXU¿VWXOD.15
2QHPD\DOVRQRWHWKDWWKHIUDJPHQWDU\QHZVWDPSGRHVQRWGLUHFWO\DOORZ
XVWRGHWHUPLQHWKHIXQFWLRQLQZKLFK7L&ODXGLXV/LEHUD>OLV@DSSHDUVRQWKH¿V
WXOD, since the grammatical case in which the name stands cannot be determined.
$VLVZHOONQRZQWKHVLPSOHJHQHWLYHPRVWO\DOWKRXJKQRWDOZD\VLGHQWL¿HV
the owner of the conduit and, hence, the owner of the property supplied by the
FRQGXLW7KHQRPLQDWLYHFDVHFDQYHU\RFFDVLRQDOO\IXO¿OOWKHVDPHIXQFWLRQ17
but normally it indicates the SOXPEDULXV and is followed by the term IHFLW or some
shortened version of this verb.18$VLWKDSSHQVDYHUEZRXOGKDYHEHHQTXLWHD
useful component in this stamp, since the nominative and the genitive of /LEHUDOLV
have the same form. The case of the JHQWLOLFLXP &ODXGLXV is different; had it been
written out in full one would immediately be able to distinguish between nomina-
WLYHDQGJHQLWLYH$VPDWWHUVVWDQGQRZRQO\DYHUEDWWKHHQGRIWKHVWDPSFRXOG
have made the situation clear, and, assuming that a ¿VWXOD stamp served a practi-
FDOIXQFWLRQRQHZRXOGWKHUHIRUHH[SHFWIHFLW, IHF or simply I to have completed
WKHVWDPS7KLVEHLQJWKHFDVHRQHFDQQRWDYRLGWKHVXVSLFLRQWKDW7L&ODXGLXV
Liberalis was in fact a SOXPEDULXV and not the owner of the lead conduit. There is
nothing to preclude this interpretation.19-XGJLQJIURPWKHSKRWRRIWKHLQVFULEHG
¿VWXOD (which does not include a centimetre scale which would directly allow
the viewer to determine the length of the fragmentary stamp), the preserved part
RIWKHVWDPSPHDVXUHVVRPHFP,IWKHVWDPSRULJLQDOO\UHDG7L&O/LEHUDOLV
IHFWKLVZRXOGEULQJWKHWRWDOOHQJWKWRDERXWRQH5RPDQIRRWFPZKLFK
LVDYHU\FRPPRQVL]HIRUDQLQVFULSWLRQRQD¿VWXOD.20 Thus, until evidence to the
15 , DP QRW DZDUH RI DQ\ GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKLV &ODXGLXV /LEHUDOLV E\ H[SHUWV RQ 5RPDQ EULFN
stamps.
%UXXQFLWQ±±&%UXXQ9HOLD4XLULQDOH3LQFLRQRWHVXSURSULHWDULGL
GRPXV e su SOXPEDULLArctos±HVS±

17 $PRQJ WKH ¿VWXODH discovered at Rome, see, for instance, &,/ ;9 Į Į DQG
ȖȖ
18 In addition, the term RI¿FLQDWRU RU DQ DEEUHYLDWLRQ WKHUHRI RFFDVLRQDOO\ LGHQWL¿HV D
manufacturer.
197KHUHZRXOGGH¿QLWHO\KDYHEHHQVSDFHWRLQFOXGHWKHYHUESRVVLEO\DEEUHYLDWHGWRMXVWWKH
letter F, at the end of the stamp. Furthermore, in lead pipe stamps the use of the SUDHQRPHQ is
common both among those individuals whose name appears in the genitive and who thus are
considered owners, and among the SOXPEDULL. For SOXPEDULL bearing a SUDHQRPHQ, see, e.g.,
&,/;9
207KHVXJJHVWHGWH[WZRXOGDGGVHYHQOHWWHUVWRWKHQLQHWKDWFDQEHUHDGDOPRVWQRWKLQJ
24 &KULVWHU%UXXQ
FRQWUDU\VXUIDFHVWKHPRVWOLNHO\LQWHUSUHWDWLRQLVWKDWDW9HOOHWULZHDUHGHDOLQJ
with a SOXPEDULXVFDOOHG7L&ODXGLXV/LEHUDOLV7KHKRPRQ\PRXVSHUVRQRQWKH
¿VWXOD found in Rome (&,/;9LVSUREDEO\DGLIIHUHQWSHUVRQVLQFHWKHVH
WULDQRPLQD are quite common, as we have seen, and nothing new can be said
about the function in which he appears on the Roman lead pipe.
3. The senator Asellius Rufus Aemilianus
7KHPRVWVLJQL¿FDQWQHZLQVFULSWLRQSUHVHQWHGE\/LOOLLVPHQWLRQHGLQDGRFX-
PHQWIURPLQWKH/LEHU&RQVLODUHRI9HOOHWUL$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVORFDOUHFRUG
LQORFRYXOJRGLFWROD3LODUDGHOOD)DJLRODPDQ\OHDGSLSHVZHUHIRXQGRIZKLFK
VRPHFDUULHGWKHLQVFULSWLRQ%&$6(//,59),$(0,/,$1,21
Numerous inscribed Roman lead pipes were found and recorded in earlier
centuries,22DQGVXUYLYLQJREMHFWVRUFRUURERUDWLQJLQIRUPDWLRQKDYHVKRZQWKDW
VXFKHDUO\UHSRUWVDUHTXLWHRIWHQWUXVWZRUWK\7KLVLVOLNHO\WKHFDVHKHUHWRRIRU
LWVHHPVWKDWZHDUHGHDOLQJZLWKDSUHYLRXVO\NQRZQSHUVRQDOWKRXJKWKHOHDG
SLSHLQVFULSWLRQLQWHUHVWLQJO\HQRXJKHQDEOHVXVWRFRPSOHWHKLVQDPH$VHOOLXV
5XIXV$HPLOLDQXVLVWKHRQO\SHUVRQDPRQJWKRVHUHYHDOHGE\WKHVHQHZ¿VWXOD
VWDPSVIURP9HOOHWULZKRLVOLNHO\WREHDVHQDWRUDFRQFOXVLRQZKLFKLVEDVHGRQ
his onomastic formula. Lilli did not dwell further upon this discovery, but a con-
sultation of 3,52WXUQVXSWKHHQWU\$XQGHUZKLFKLVUHJLVWHUHGDVHQDWRU
FDOOHG$VHOOLXV$HPLOLDQXV5HIHUHQFHVWRKLPRFFXULQ&DVVLXV'LR+HURGLDQ
and the +LVWRULD$XJXVWD, as well as in a few epigraphic and numismatic sources.
+HPXVWKDYHEHHQVXIIHFWFRQVXOLQWKHSHULRG&(IRUKHLVNQRZQWR
have been OHJ$XJSUSU6\ULDH c.±,*5,,,DQGSURFRV$VLDH in
+HURG±ZKRVLPSO\FDOOVKLPƄȜvƫƭƫƣƮƽƳ).
RIWKH$LVSUHVHUYHG7KDWVWDPSVRIFpes in length were quite frequent is shown in my

8QLIRUPLWj H SUDVVL TXRWLGLDQD QHOOD PDQXIDWWXUD GHJOL VWDPSL SHU OH ¿VWXOH SOXPEHH QHOOD
]RQDGL5RPDHD2VWLD%ROO0RQ0XV*DOO3RQW(forthcoming).
21/LOOLFLWQQR
22 2QH PD\ QRWH WKDW DERXW RQH WKLUG RI WKH HQWULHV LQ &,/ ;9 ± ZKHUH 'UHVVHO
published the ¿VWXODVWDPSVIURP5RPHNQRZQDURXQGWKH\HDUGHSHQGVRQDPDQXVFULSW

tradition; see further my forthcoming Introduction to the edition of the lead pipe stamps in the
9DWLFDQ0XVHXP
* $OI|OG\ .RQVXODW XQG 6HQDWRUHQVWDQG XQWHU GHQ $QWRQLQHQ 3URVRSRJUDSKLVFKH
8QWHUVXFKXQJHQ ]XU VHQDWRULVFKHQ )KUXQJVVFKLFKW %RQQ ± VXJJHVWHG WKDW WKH
FRQVXOVKLSEHORQJLQFRQVLGHULQJWKDWWKHSURFRQVXOVKLSLVGDWHGWR('ąEURZD
$V(GZDUG'ąEURZDQKDVUHPDUNHGLWLVWREHH[SHFWHGWKDW$VHOOLXV

KHOGVRPHRI¿FHVLQWKHV&(DIWHUWKHFRQVXOVKLSDQGEHIRUHWKHJRYHUQRU-
ship of Syria. There is numismatic evidence that he was OHJ$XJSUSU7KUDFLDH,
EXWWKLVWDVNRISUDHWRULDQUDQNQHFHVVDULO\GDWHVWREHIRUHWKHFRQVXOVKLSLQWKLV
FRQWH[WKHDSSHDUVDVǸƴƟƭƭƫưƳƄȜvƫƭƫƣƮƽƳ.24
$VVXPLQJWKDWWKHOHDGSLSHLQVFULSWLRQIURP9HOOHWULFRQFHUQVWKHVDPH
25
man, the new information about his name now adds some new possibilities
WR RXU LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW WKH FDUHHU RI$VHOOLXV$HPLOLDQXV 3,52 S 951 (from
UHJLVWHUVDFHUWDLQ>@HOOLXV5XIXVZKRZDVJRYHUQRULQ0RHVLD,QIHULRU
at some point during the period 184/192 (AE 7KH FRPPRQ YLHZ
among scholars today is that the name should be restored as [Su]ellius Rufus
DQGWKDWWKHPDQEHORQJHGWRDZHOONQRZQVHQDWRULDOIDPLO\IURP%HQHYHQWXP
LQ,WDO\6RPHWLPHDJR*LXVHSSH&DPRGHFDVXJJHVWHGWKDWWKHJRYHUQRUnot be
LGHQWL¿HGZLWKWKHFODULVVLPXVLXYHQLV&Q6XHOOLXV5XIXV0DUFLDQXVNQRZQIURP
another inscription (AEIURP3XWHROLVHH3,526$FFRUGLQJWR
&DPRGHFDWKHLXYHQLV&Q6XHOOLXV5XIXV0DUFLDQXVLVLGHQWLFDOZLWKDPDQZKR
appears as Suellius Marcianus and OHJ$XJSUSULQ7KUDFHXQGHU&RPPRGXVc.
&(ODWHULQ&(KHLVWKRXJKWWRKDYHEHHQFXUDWRURSHUXPSXEOLFRUXP
in Rome; see 3,52 S 950).,Q&DPRGHFD
VYLHZWKHJRYHUQRURI0RHVLD,QIHULRU
called [---]ellius Rufus is the father of the LXYHQLV and indeed ought to have been
FDOOHG&Q6XHOOLXV5XIXVLQRUGHUWRH[SODLQWKHFRJQRPHQ Rufus born by the
young man).27
7KH*RYHUQRUVRI5RPDQ6\ULDIURP$XJXVWXVWR6HSWLPLXV6HYHUXV$QWLTXLWDV,%RQQ
±SUHIHUVWRGDWHKLVFRQVXOVKLSWRc. 179/180, and places him in Syria c. 187 to c.
%ULHÀ\PHWLRQHGLQ3/HXQLVVHQ.RQVXOQXQG.RQVXODUHLQGHU=HLWYRQ&RPPRGXVELV
6HYHUXV$OH[DQGHU±Q&KU$PVWHUGDP)+XUOHW/HSURFRQVXOHWOH
SULQFHG
$XJXVWHj'LRFOHWLHQ3HVVDF
24 Thus 3,52 $ &I QRZ FRQYHQLHQWO\ : /HVFKKRUQ /H[LNRQ GHU $XIVFKULIHQ DXI
JULHFKLVFKHQ 0Q]HQ II. (WKQLND XQG
%HDPWHQQDPHQ
gVWHUU$NDG :LVV 3KLOKLVW .O
'HQNVFKU:LHQ
25,QSULQFLSOHRQHFDQREYLRXVO\QRWH[FOXGHWKDW$VHOOLXV5XIXV$HPLOLDQXVFLWHGRQWKH
¿VWXODLVGLIIHUHQWIURPWKH$VHOOLXV$HPLOLDQXVZKRLVNQRZQIURPOLWHUDU\HSLJUDSKLFDQG
numismatic sources.
*&DPRGHFD4XDWWURFDUULHUHVHQDWRULHGHO,,H,,,VHFROR(SLJUD¿DHRUGLQHVHQDWRULR I,
5RPD±HVS±2QHPD\QRWHWKDW3,52 S 950 disagrees somewhat about the
GDWHIRUWKHJRYHUQRUVKLSRI7KUDFHGDWLQJLWEHWZHHQDQGDQGKDUERXUVVRPHGRXEWV
as to whether the governor and later FXUDWRURSHUXPSXEOLFRUXP is identical with the FODULVVLPXV
LXYHQLVRQWKLVVHHIXUWKHU0+RUVWHU6WDWWKDOWHUYRQ7KUDNLHQXQWHU&RPPRGXV=3( 147
±HVS±
27&DPRGHFDFLWQ±
&KULVWHU%UXXQ
To the discussion of this family tree and the somewhat hypothetical attri-
EXWLRQVRIJRYHUQPHQWRI¿FHVFDQQRZWKDQNVWRWKH¿VWXOD inscription, be added
WKHSXWDWLYHVHQDWRU$VHOOLXV5XIXV$HPLOLDQXV)URPDSXUHO\RQRPDVWLFSRLQW
of view, it is possible that the governor of Moesia Inferior instead was called
>$V@HOOLXV5XIXVDQGWKDWLWZDVRXUPDQZKRLQWKHSHULRG&(ZDVOHJ
$XJSUSULQWKDWSURYLQFHEHIRUHPRYLQJRQWR6\ULD7KLVLGHQWL¿FDWLRQZRXOG
be in accord with a certain administrative pattern which meant that the gover-
norship of Moesia Inferior usually came earlier in a senator's career than that of
Syria, which, with its three legions, was one of the most important provinces.28
)LQDOO\VRPHWKRXJKWPLJKWEHGHYRWHGWRWKHWZROHWWHUV%DQG&RQWKH
lead pipe, which in the manuscript tradition precede $VHOOL 5X¿$HPLOLDQL, ap-
SDUHQWO\ ZLWK VRPH VSDFH EHWZHHQ WKHP :KLOH WKH OHWWHU % FXUUHQWO\ GH¿HV
H[SODQDWLRQ29WKHPRVWQDWXUDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQLVWRWDNHWKHOHWWHU&DVVWDQGLQJIRU
the SUDHQRPHQ *DLXV, although there is nothing in particular that supports this
VXJJHVWLRQ7KHVHQDWRULDOIDPLO\RIWKH$VHOOLLLVRWKHUZLVHYHU\SRRUO\NQRZQ
7KHUHIHUHQFHWRDVHQDWRUFDOOHG$VHOOLXV&ODXGLDQXVZKRDFFRUGLQJWRWKH+LV-
WRULD$XJXVWDSept. Sev.IHOOYLFWLPWRWKHSXUJHVRI6HSWLPLXV6HYHUXVLQ
WKHV&(KDVOHGWRWKHVXJJHVWLRQWKDWZHPD\KHUHEHGHDOLQJZLWKDFORVH
UHODWLYHSHUKDSVDEURWKHURI$VHOOLXV$HPLOLDQXV)RUYDULRXVUHDVRQVWKLVSLHFH
of information is problematic, and in any case the SUDHQRPHQRI$VHOOLXV&ODX-
GLDQXVUHPDLQVXQNQRZQ
Thus, we are entirely dependent on onomastic evidence provided by com-
PRQ$VHOOLL%HDUHUVRIWKLVJHQWLOLFXP are absent from &,/;,9ZKLOHWZR$VHO-
287KXVIRULQVWDQFH$5%LUOH\7KHFastiRI5RPDQ%ULWDLQ2[IRUG±
29 Lead pipe stamps sometimes contain symbols or abbreviations, but they are normally placed
after the name. It is impossible to read >VX@EFXUD, since the term FXUD is never abbreviated;
FXUD is written out in full in some seventy instances on lead pipe stamps in &,/;9±
passim. The reading >VX@E&$VHOOL5X¿$HPLOLDQL is evidently impossible because the name
VWDQGVLQWKHJHQLWLYH$IHZFDVHVRIsubDEODWLYHRQLQVWUXPHQWXPGRPHVWLFXPDUHNQRZQ
(see the two lead pipe stamps &,/;9DQGAE 1995, 249b, and &,/;9DEURQ]H
plaque).
0RVWUHFHQWO\RQWKHLVVXHVHH'2NRQ6HSWLPLXV6HYHUXVHWVHQDWRUHV6HSWLPLXV6HYHUXV'
3HUVRQDO3ROLF\WRZDUGV6HQDWRUVLQWKH/LJKWRI3URVRSRJUDSKLF5HVHDUFK±$',
6]F]HFLQ±7KHGLVFRYHU\LQWKHVRID5RPDQVHQDWRUFDOOHG6HOOLXV&ORGLDQXV
(AE &,/9,FDVWVXVSLFLRQRQWKHSUHVHQFHRI$VHOOLXV&ODXGLDQXVLQWKH
OLVWRISURVFULEHGVHQDWRUVJLYHQE\WKH+LVWRULD$XJXVWDRQWKHGLVFXVVLRQVHH*$OI|OG\'LH
.ULVHGHV5|PLVFKHQ5HLFKHV+$%(66WXWWJDUW±&%UXXQ'LH+LVWRULD
$XJXVWD GLH 3URVNULSWLRQHQ GHV 6HYHUXV XQG GLH FXUDWRUHV RSHUXP SXEOLFRUXP Arctos 24
±HVS±
lii are found in &,/;ERWKIURP3XWHROLDQGHLJKWLQ5RPHLQ&,/9,$PRQJ

these individuals, /XFLXV is the overwhelmingly most common SUDHQRPHQ with
WKUHHDWWHVWDWLRQVDW3XWHROLDQGWZRDW5RPHLQDGGLWLRQAulus appears once.
6RPHVFKRODUVKDYHFRQVLGHUHGLWSRVVLEOHWKDWWKH$VHOOLLRULJLQDWHGIURP1RUWK
$IULFD in &,/9,,,DPRQJDKDQGIXORIEHDUHUVRIWKLVJHQWLOLFLXP, the SUDHQR
PHQ *DLXVLVIRXQGRQFHEXWVRLV4XLQWXV (8985) and Publius
$OOLQDOO,VHHQRUHDVRQIRUQRWLQFOXGLQJWKLV¿VWXOD stamp among the
JHQXLQHRQHVZKLFKDOVRPHDQVWKDW$VHOOLXV5XIXV$HPLOLDQXVFDQEHLQFOXGHG
DPRQJWKHODQGRZQHUVRIWKHUHJLRQOLNHO\DWWKHWXUQRIWKHVHFRQGFHQWXU\&(
4. Furius Placidus vir clarissimus, from Italy to France
In a recent publication, a team of three French archaeologists discuss the water

supply of the Roman town of Durocortorum (Reims). The only epigraphic evi-
GHQFHXVHGLQWKHVWXG\LVWKHVWDPSRQD¿VWXODZKLFKUHDGV)95,3/$&,',9&
DQGLVSUHVHUYHGLQWKHORFDO0XVpH6DLQW5HPL4XLWHULJKWO\WKHWKUHHVFKRODUV
conclude that the inscription refers to a YLUFODULVVLPXV, a senator called Furius
3ODFLGXV'LGKHRZQDEXLOGLQJLQ'XURFRUWRUXPZKLFKEHQH¿WHGIURPSLSHG
ZDWHU"7KHDXWKRUVKDYHVRPHGRXEWVLQWKLVUHJDUGDQGZLWKUHDVRQDVZLOOEH
VKRZQEHFDXVHWKHRQO\WKLQJWKDWLVNQRZQDERXWWKHOHDGSLSHLVWKDWLWZDVDF-
TXLUHGE\WKHPXVHXPORUVG
XQYHQWHSXEOLTXHjO
KRWHO'URXRWj3DULV
$OWKRXJK OHDG SLSHV DW 'XURFRUWXP ZHUH QRW XQNQRZQ LQ 5RPDQ WLPHV
(the authors, ibid., refer to one or two anepigraphic pieces found LQVLWX), it seems
KLJKO\XQOLNHO\WKDWWKH¿VWXODFDUU\LQJWKHVWDPSRI)XULXV3ODFLGXVFRXOGEHRI
ORFDORULJLQ,QWKHHDUO\VDGLVFRYHU\ZDVPDGHLQ&DPSDQLDLQWKHUHJLRQ
RIWKH%D\RI1DSOHVUHSRUWHGO\QHDU3RPSHLLRIDQLQVFULEHG¿VWXODFDUU\LQJWKH
stamp )XUL3ODFLGLY>F@2QHQRWHVWKDWWKH,WDOLDQVWDPSDVUHSRUWHGGLGQRW
For Rome, see &,/9,&,/;JLYHVWKHWZR/XFLL$VHOOLLIURP3XWHROL2QHRIWKHP

FLWHVDWKLUG/$VHOOLXVDVKLVSDWURQ
/HXQLVVHQFLWQQ
0$UGKXLQ ±$ %DOPHOOH ± < 5DEDVWp /

HDX j 'XURFRUWRUXP 5HLPV j WUDYHUV OHV
DPpQDJHPHQWVK\GUDXOLTXHVLQ&$EDGLH5H\QDO±63URYRVW±39LSDUGHGV/HVUpVHDX[

G
HDXFRXUDQWHGDQVO
DQWLTXLWp$FWHV&ROO1DQF\5HQQHV±HVSWKH
PXVHXPLQYHQWRU\QRLV7KHQDPHLVVRPHZKDWPLVWDNHQO\JLYHQDV)XULXV3ODFLGLXV
See the previous note.
See $WWL&RPP7HUUDGLODYRUR&DVHUWD NSc
28 &KULVWHU%UXXQ
SUHVHUYHWKHFRPSOHWH5DQJ]HLFKHQYLUFODULVVLPXV, but one might be inclined

WRDVFULEHWKLVGLIIHUHQFHWRDVXSHU¿FLDOVWXG\RIDSRRUO\SUHVHUYHGREMHFW7KH
VLWXDWLRQ LV KRZHYHU VRPHZKDW PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG ,Q IDFW LQ WKH ¿UVW UHSRUWV
the stamp was read as (XUL3ODFLGLXV(!). The contribution in the 1RWL]LHGHJOL
6FDYL from 1895 further stated that the lead pipe was deposited in the Museo
$UFKHRORJLFR1D]LRQDOH DW 1DSOHV DQG WKHUH *LXVHSSH &DPRGHFDZDV DEOH WR
study it some time ago, after which the correct reading given above could be es-
tablished.
,QWKHPXVHXPDW5HLPVZHDUHGHDOLQJZLWKGHX[IUDJPHQWVGHHW
FPGHORQJHXUHSRXUFPGHODUJHVVHDSSDUWHQDQWjODPHPHFRQGXLWH
while measurements of the lead pipe in the Naples museum are not currently
DYDLODEOH2EYLRXVO\WKH¿VWXODZKLFKZDVWKHVXEMHFWRIWKHRULJLQDOUHSRUWFDQ-
not have ended up in Reims. The same Italian site may, however, have yielded
VHYHUDOSLHFHVRIOHDGSLSLQJRQHRIZKLFKFDUULHGDFRPSOHWHVWDPS2QHPD\
DOVRQRWHWKDW&DPRGHFDUHSRUWHGWKDWWKHUHFRUGVRIWKH1DSOHVPXVHXPUHJLV-
WHUHGXQDOWURHVHPSODUHIUDPPHQWDULRZKLFKKHFRXOGQRORQJHU¿QG
2QWKHZKROHLWLVQRWVXUSULVLQJWKDWD¿VWXODIURP&DPSDQLDVKRXOGKDYH
HQGHGXSDWDQDXFWLRQLQ3DULV,QWKHSDVWOHDGSLSHVZHUHSDLGOLWWOHDWWHQWLRQ
E\H[FDYDWRUVDQGPXVHXPVWDIIHYHQZKHQWKH\FDUULHGLQVFULSWLRQV,WLVZHOO
NQRZQWKDWWKHUHKDVEHHQDWHQGHQF\IRUOHDGSLSHVWRGLVDSSHDUHYHQDIWHUKDY-
ing been placed in a museum storage,40 and some inscribed pieces have ended
See the previous note.
*&DPRGHFD6XOOHSURSULHWjVHQDWRULHLQ&DPSDQLDFRQSDUWLFRODUHULJXDUGRDOSHULRGR
GD$XJXVWRDO,,,VHFROR&&*±HVSQZKRDOVRVXJJHVWHGWKDW

the ¿VWXODPD\LQIDFWKDYHLWVRULJLQLQWKH3KOHJUHDQUHJLRQQHDUPRGHUQ3R]]XROL&I*
&DPRGHFD5LFHUFKHVX3XWHROLWDUGRURPDQD¿QH,,,±,9VHFRORPuteoli±±
± HVS EHIRUH KLV FDUU\LQJ RXW WKH DXWRSV\7KH ¿VWXOD stamp was registered in
& %UXXQ ,QVWUXPHQWXP GRPHVWLFXP H VWRULD URPDQD /H ¿VWXOH LVFULWWH GHOOD &DPSDQLD
LQ/&KLRI¿HG,O0HGLWHUUDQHRHOD6WRULD(SLJUD¿DHDUFKHRORJLDLQ&DPSDQLDOHWWXUH
storiche1DSROL±HVS
$UGKXLQ±%DOPHOOH±5DEDVWpFLWQ
&DPRGHFDFLWQQ
40 The publisher of &,/ ;9 +HLQULFK 'UHVVHO LQ DW OHDVW RQH LQVWDQFH DG &,/ ;9
FRPSODLQHGIUXVWUDTXDHVLYLWKDWVRPHLQVFULEHGOHDGSLSHVIURP5RPHFRXOGQRORQJHUEH
found in the storage where they had been placed. From a somewhat later period, one notices
that a series of inscribed ¿VWXODHGLVFRYHUHGLQWKHUHJLRQRI9HOOHWULLQWKHHDUO\VDQG
GHSRVLWHGLQWKHORFDOPXVHXPFRXOGQRWEHIRXQGGXULQJDQLQYHQWRU\VRPHVL[W\\HDUVODWHU
VHH+6ROLQ±59ROSH5HJLR,/DWLXPHW&DPSDQLD9HOLWUDH6XSSOHPHQWD,WDOLFD 2, Roma
±HVS±QRV
XSLQFROOHFWLRQVRXWVLGH,WDO\6SHFL¿FDOO\DQXPEHURI&DPSDQLDQ¿VWXODH, un-
earthed at the turn of the 20th century, were brought to the Kelsey Museum in
$QQ$UERU0LFKLJDQ41 while other inscribed ¿VWXODH, some of which certainly
KDGEHHQGLVFRYHUHGLQ&DPSDQLDFDQEHIRXQGLQWKH5R\DO2QWDULR0XVHXPLQ
Toronto.427KHWH[WGLVFXVVHGLQWKHQH[WVHFWLRQUHSUHVHQWVDQRWKHUH[DPSOHRI
this dispersal of Italian inscribed lead pipes.
$JDLQVWWKLVEDFNJURXQGLWLVKLJKO\OLNHO\WKDWWKHLQVFULEHG¿VWXOD now
LQWKH0XVpH6DLQW5HPLDW5HLPVLVRI&DPSDQLDQRULJLQ7KHUHLVQRVROLGHYL-
GHQFHIRURZQHUVKLSRISURSHUW\E\)XULXV3ODFLGXVLQ'XURFRUWRUXP
$V IRU WKH )XULXV 3ODFLGXV PHQWLRQHG LQ WKH ¿VWXOD IURP &DPSDQLD KH
ZRXOGVHHPWREHLGHQWLFDOZLWK00DHFLXV0HPPLXV)XULXV%DEXULXV&DHFLOL-
DQXV3ODFLGXVFY, wo is honoured by the UHJLR3DODWLQDRI3XWHROLLQ&,/;
,/6$PRQJWKHDGPLQLVWUDWLYHRI¿FHVPHQWLRQHGLQWKLVLQVFULSWLRQLV
that of SUDHIDQQRQDHVDFUDHXUELV, SUDHISUDHWRULR and FRQVXORUGLQDULXV
&(ZKLOHODWHULQ&(KHKHOGWKHSRVLWLRQRISUDHIHFWXVXUELV5RPDH.44
5. A new plumbarius from Rome, via Gothenburg45
,QWKHVSULQJRIDSLRQHHULQJLQLWLDWLYHE\9LOKHOP/XQGVWU|P3URIHVVRURI
/DWLQDW*|WHERUJV+|JVNRODWKHSUHFXUVRUWRWRGD\
V*|WHERUJV8QLYHUVLWHWLQ
*RWKHQEXUJ6ZHGHQEURXJKWDJURXSRIHLJKWVWXGHQWVDOOZLWKDUHFHQWGHJUHH
LQ &ODVVLFDO 3KLORORJ\ WR 5RPH$V FDQ EH VHHQ LQ WKH UHSRUW SXEOLVKHG DW WKH
conclusion of almost two months in Rome, the program was demanding and re-
416HH6/7XFN/DWLQ,QVFULSWLRQVLQWKH.HOVH\0XVHXP7KH'HQQLVRQDQG'H&ULVFLR
&ROOHFWLRQV$QQ$UERU±EDFNJURXQG±QRV±OHDGSLSHV

42&LWHGLQ%UXXQFLWQ
6HH&DPRGHFD±FLWQ±DQG3/5(,3ODFLGXVQRDQHQWU\ZKLFKGRHV
not cite the ¿VWXOD stamp, nor does the 3/5(DWWULEXWHLWWRDQ\ERG\HOVH)XULXV3ODFLGXVGRHV

not have an entry in the 3URVRSRJUDSKLD,PSHULL5RPDQL.
44)RUDQH[WHQVLYHGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHVRXUFHVVHH$&KDVWDJQRO/HVIDVWHVGHODSUpIHFWXUH
GH5RPHDX%DV(PSLUH3DULV±2Q)XULXV3ODFLGXV
IDPLO\UHODWLRQVVHHLQPRUH
GHWDLO&6HWWHSDQL&RQWLQXLWpJHQWLOLFHHWFRQWLQXLWpIDPLOLDOHGDQVOHVIDPLOOHVVpQDWRULDOHV
URPDLQHVDO'pSRTXHLPSpULDOH2[IRUG
45,ZLVKWRWKDQNWKH6ZHGLVKSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKH,QVFULSWDFRQIHUHQFHDWWKH6ZHGLVK,QVWLWLWH
LQ5RPHLQ$SULORUJDQL]HGE\$QQD%OHQQRZ8QLYHUVLW\RI*RWKHQEXUJZKRDOHUWHG

PHWRWKH¿QGVPDGHE\WKHWHDPRI9/XQGVWU|PDVZHOODVWKH)LUHVWRQH/LEUDU\LQ3ULQFHWRQ
ZKHUH,ZDVDEOHWRFRQVXOWWKHVHULHVLQZKLFKWKHWH[WVZHUHSXEOLVKHG
&KULVWHU%UXXQ
warding.$WWKHWLPHLWZDVSRVVLEOHWRDFTXLUHDQFLHQWDUWLIDFWVLQ5RPHZKLFK
the participants did. The same issue of *|WHERUJV+|JVNRODVcUVVNULIW (the annual
report of the college) which reported on the course program also published short
VWXGLHVRQWZHQW\WKUHH/DWLQLQVFULSWLRQVDQGRQDQXPEHURIREMHFWVEHORQJLQJ
to the category of LQVWUXPHQWXPGRPHVWLFXPZKLFKKDGEHHQEURXJKWEDFNIURP
5RPH$PRQJWKHVHHYHU\GD\REMHFWVODPSV$UUHWLQHSRWWHU\WZREULFNVWDPSV
also one inscribed lead pipe was presented.47 ,W LV VXPPDULO\ GHVFULEHG WZR
MRLQLQJSLHFHVRIDOHDGSLSHDQGWKHWH[WLVJLYHQDV
,9/,96)(/,;)(&,7
This SOXPEDULXV can be added to the comparatively large number of Iulii who
DUHIRXQGDFWLQJDVOHDGSLSHPDQXIDFWXUHUVLQ5RPHDQG&HQWUDO,WDO\VHYHQRI
WKHPIRXQGLQ5RPHIRXUDW2VWLDDQGWKUHHIURPWKHZLGHUDUHDVXUURXQGLQJWKH
capital.48
It is worth noting that a SOXPEDULXV&,XOLXV)HOL[ZKREHDUVDQLGHQWL-
cal combination of JHQWLOLFLXP FRJQRPHQ LV SUHYLRXVO\ NQRZQ IURP DQ LQ-
scription on a ¿VWXODZKLFKUHSRUWHGO\ZDVIRXQGDW9HOOHWUL49 This discovery is
reported in a letter from the 1880s and the current whereabouts of the lead pipe
DUHXQNQRZQLWZDVGHVFULEHGDVEHLQJGLPROWDHUWH]]DHGKDLOGLDPHWURQHO
VXRYXRWRGLTXDVLPH]]RSDOPRURPDQR50 The GXRQRPLQD,XOLXV)HOL[DUHH[-
tremely common, which is why it must remain uncertain whether we are dealing
with the same SOXPEDULXVLQWKHVHWZRFDVHV$VVXPLQJWKDWWKHUHSRUWIURPWKH
VDFFXUDWHO\UHSRUWHGWKH¿QGZHFDQLQDQ\FDVHH[FOXGHWKHSRVVLELOLW\WKDW
LWLVWKHOHDGSLSHIURP9HOOHWULZKLFKHQGHGXSEHLQJVROGWR*RWKHQEXUJVRPH
WZRGHFDGHVODWHU6LQFHZHODFNDPRUHGHWDLOHGSK\VLFDOGHVFULSWLRQRIWKH¿V
WXODEURXJKWWR6ZHGHQWKHUHSRUWWKDWWKH¿QGIURP9HOOHWULKDGDGLDPHWHURI
KDOIDSDOPRURPDQRRUFDFPZKLFKLVDFRQVLGHUDEOHVL]HGRHVQRWKHOS
WRGHWHUPLQHZKHWKHUWKHWZR¿QGVPLJKWKDYHEHORQJHGWRWKHVDPHFRQGXLW,W
9/XQGVWU|P*|WHERUJV+|JVNRODVNXUVL5RP5HGRJ|UHOVH*|WHERUJV+|JVNRODV
cUVVNULIWY±[[L

476HH+$UPLQL1\IXQQHQVWlPSHOSnEO\U|U*|WHERUJV+|JVNRODVcUVVNULIW
±
48%UXXQFLWQ
49 3XEOLVKHG LQ 6XSSO ,W QR UHJLVWHUHG LQ %UXXQ FLW Q DQG & %UXXQ
&RJQRPLQDSOXPEDULRUXP(SLJUDSKLFD±HVS

506HH+6ROLQLQ6ROLQ±9ROSHFLWQQR
1HZ3URVRSRJUDSKLFDO'DWD'HULYHGIURP5RPDQ/HDG3LSH,QVFULSWLRQV
ZRXOGDSSHDUWKDWWKHOHDGSLSHLQ*RWKHQEXUJKDVEHHQORVWDWOHDVWLWZDVQRW
LQFOXGHGZKHQLQDGHWDLOHGVWXG\RIDOOWKH/DWLQLQVFULSWLRQVDWWKH,QVWLWXWH
RI&ODVVLFDO6WXGLHVLQ*RWKHQEXUJZDVSXEOLVKHGDWZKLFKWLPHWKHRWKHUWH[WV
SXEOLVKHGE\9LOKHOP/XQGVWU|P
VSXSLOVLQ*|WHERUJV+|JVNRODVcUVVNULIW from
1910 were republished.51
3ULQFHWRQ, 1HZ-HUVH\
51 6HH % 0DWWVVRQ /DWLQ ,QVFULSWLRQV DW WKH ,QVWLWXWH RI &ODVVLFDO 6WXGLHV LQ *|WHERUJ
2SXVF5RP±1RULVRXUWH[WFLWHGLQ%(7KRPDVVRQ±03DYHVH$6XUYH\

RI*UHHNDQG/DWLQ,QVFULSWLRQVRQ6WRQHLQ6ZHGLVK&ROOHFWLRQV6WRFNKROPZKHUHLW
FRXOGQRWKDYHIRXQGSODFHDQ\ZD\EHLQJDWH[WRQDOHDGSLSH
Arctos±
RATIONAL MUTINY IN THE YEAR OF FOUR EMPERORS
ROBERT CONNAL
5RPDQZULWHUVWHQGHGWRVHHWKHPXWLQLHVDFFRPSDQ\LQJWKHFLYLOZDUVRI$'
± DV HYLGHQFH RI WKH XQUHOLDELOLW\ DQG HYHQ WKH GRZQULJKW LQVDQLW\ RI WKH
troops involved. Those troops were frequently critical of their leaders, suspicious
RI WKHLU RI¿FHUV DQG GDQJHURXV WR VROGLHUV DQG FLYLOLDQV DOLNH EXW WKLV LV QRW
TXLWHWKHZKROHVWRU\0XFKRIWKHLUVXSSRVHGLQVDQLW\LVH[SOLFDEOHLQWHUPVRI
VWUXJJOHV±DGPLWWHGO\QRWDOZD\VZLVH±RYHUJRDOVRQZKLFKWKHPHQLQYROYHG
were not always able to agree. Though some of their suspicions were wrong-
headed and might be disastrous in their consequences, others were well founded
and the resulting actions could be restrained and reasonable. Much of the sad tale
of repeated mutiny may be traced, in fact, to the attempts of ordinary soldiers to
DGMXVWWRWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVRIFLYLOZDUZLWKRXWJLYLQJXSZKDWWKH\FRQVLGHUHG
their own legitimate interests.
The art of mutiny
0XWLQ\IRUPRVWRIWKRVHLQYROYHGZDVQRWH[FHSWLRQDOO\GDQJHURXVQRUZDVLW
particularly rare. The idea that Roman armies were uniformly well disciplined
DQGREHGLHQWKDVDORQJKLVWRU\ZKLFK:60HVVHUWUDFHGWRWKH'HPLOLWLD
5RPDQD of Lipsius.17KHLGHDUHPDLQHGSRSXODUDPRQJKLVWRULDQVZKROLNHGWR
HPSKDVLVHWKHVXSUHPHHPSKDVLVSODFHGXSRQSURPSWDQGLPSOLFLWREHGLHQFH2
+RZHYHUZKLOHPLVGHPHDQRXUVWKDWFRXOGLQÀXHQFHWKHRXWFRPHRIDEDWWOH
ZHUHXVXDOO\GHDOWZLWKE\H[HFXWLRQÀRJJLQJRUPXWLODWLRQ it is far from clear
1 W. S. Messer, &3K±0HVVHUJLYHVDPXFKODWHUGDWHIRU/LSVLXV

ZRUNSUREDEO\EHFDXVHKHZDVUHIHUULQJWRDVHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\HGLWLRQRIWKH2SHUDRPQLD.
2 S. E. Stout, &-±
36RXWKHUQ7KH5RPDQ$UP\$6RFLDODQG,QVWLWXWLRQDO+LVWRU\6DQWD%DUEDUD&$
5REHUW&RQQDO
WKDWPXWLQ\LQRWKHUFLUFXPVWDQFHVZDVVRGDQJHURXV9HJHWLXVZULWLQJLQWKHODWH
IRXUWKRUHDUO\¿IWKFHQWXU\EXWHFKRLQJVRXUFHVGDWLQJIURPWKH¿UVWFHQWXU\DQG
earlier,4 thought that only the ringleaders need be severely punished and that the
threat of mutiny should be handled by quietly removing the potentially seditious.5
In practice, even the ringleaders stood a reasonable chance of surviving their
PLVEHKDYLRXU2QHPRGHUQVWXG\IRXQGRQO\WKUHHFDVHVRIPXWLQ\RXWRIWKLUW\
in the last half-century of the Republic, in which generals were able to impose ef-
fective punishments. The record of mutiny and the limited punishments applied
suggests that mutiny could be met with a degree of tolerance when it occurred
RIIWKH¿HOGRIEDWWOH7KHSULQFLSDOUHDVRQIRUVXFKWROHUDQFHPD\EHWKDW5RPDQ
generals were already aware of a factor suggested by Messer: that mutiny could
EHWKHH[DJJHUDWLRQRIDJRRGTXDOLW\WKHDELOLW\RIWKHSULYDWHVROGLHUWRWKLQN
DQG DFW IRU KLPVHOI7 ,W LV QRW D TXDOLW\ OLNHO\ WR RFFXU DPRQJ WURRSV WHUUL¿HG
by the possibly fatal consequences of getting it wrong, or for that matter among
troops who have been allowed, in peacetime, to lose the ability to improvise.8
&LYLOZDUKRZHYHUWLSSHGWKHEDODQFHKHDYLO\LQIDYRXURIWKHPXWLQHHU
:KHQ5RPDQDUPLHVZHUHPDUFKLQJDJDLQVWWKHLUHPSHURUVRU¿JKWLQJWRSUHVV
or uphold the doubtful claims of usurpers, they could not, at the same time, pre-
VHUYHWKHOHYHORIGLVFLSOLQHDSSURSULDWHLQSHDFHWLPHRULQZDUVDJDLQVWH[WHUQDO
HQHPLHV0LOLWDU\GLVFLSOLQHZDVDOZD\VWKH¿UVWYLUWXHWRÀ\RQWKHDSSURDFK
of civil war,9 as Tacitus recognised (Tac. hist. 1,51). Military commanders in the
ZDUVRI2WKR9LWHOOLXVDQG9HVSDVLDQOHDUQHGWRUXOHOLJKWO\RUVSHHGLO\OHDUQHG
WKHLUHUURU&ODXGLXV-XOLDQXVFRPPDQGLQJWKH0LVHQXPÀHHWVLPSO\DOORZHG
GLVFLSOLQHWRJURZOD[7DFhist0LQLFLXV-XVWXV)ODYLDQFDPSSUHIHFWRI
9,,*DOELDQDKDGWREHUHVFXHGIURPKLVRZQWURRSVDW3DGXDZKHQKHSURYHG

49HJHWLXVSUREDEO\ZRUNHGODUJHO\IURPH[LVWLQJHSLWRPHVGHULYHGXOWLPDWHO\IURPZULWHUV
VXFKDV)URQWLQXVDQGPRUHGLVWDQWO\&DWRWKH(OGHU
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the military history of the early Empire.

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70HVVHUDERYHQ
8)RUWKHLGHDWKDWSHDFHWLPHDUPLHVWHQGWRFUHDWHRUGHUZKLFKLQWXUQPDNHVWKHPLQHIIHFWLYH
LQWKHGLVRUGHURIWKHEDWWOH¿HOGVHH2-DFREV,QWURGXFWLRQWR6HFWLRQLQ5*DO±$'
Mangelsdorff (eds.) +DQGERRNRI0LOLWDU\3V\FKRORJ\&KLFKHVWHU±
9 B. W. Henderson, &LYLO:DUDQG5HEHOOLRQLQWKH5RPDQ(PSLUH$'±$&RPSDQLRQ
WRWKH+LVWRULHVRI7DFLWXV/RQGRQ
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too strict a disciplinarian for civil war (Tac. hist ,Q VXFK FLUFXPVWDQFHV
it is perhaps not surprising that mutiny was popular. If it was relatively safe at
other times, it was especially safe in the midst of civil war when even loyalty to
ZKDWHYHUHPSHURUWKH6HQDWHKDGEHHQSHUVXDGHGWRUHFRJQL]HFRXOGDVHDVLO\EH
DYLFHDVDYLUWXH7KHHIIHFWVRIWKHVHUHDOSUREOHPVVKRXOGQRWEHH[DJJHUDWHG
PHQPXWLQLHGGLVREH\HGRUGHUVDFFXVHGWKHLURI¿FHUVRIFRUUXSWLRQRUZRUVH
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camps, and fought battles.
For all his references to the inadequacies of ordinary soldiers, Tacitus was
aware that their leaders suffered from inadequacies of their own.10 The problem
RIPXWLQ\ZDVZRUVHQHGE\DJHQHUDOIDLOXUHLQOHDGHUVKLS7KHOHJLRQVRI8SSHU
*HUPDQ\ZHUHOHIWZLWKRXWHIIHFWLYHOHDGHUVKLSZKHQ*DOEDZLWKGUHZ9HUJLQLXV
Rufus, whom they had considered as a possible new emperor (Tac. hist. 1,8). The
9LWHOOLDQOHJLRQV,,WDOLFDDQG;;,5DSD[ZHUHGULYHQEDFNRQ&UHPRQDPRUHE\
WKHLUODFNRIOHDGHUVKLSWKDQE\WKHVWUHQJWKRIWKHLURSSRQHQWV7DFhist
7KHVDPHODFNRIOHDGHUVKLSFRQWULEXWHGWRWKHLUVXEVHTXHQWGHIHDWLQDGHFLVLYH
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ans were able to destroy (Tac. hist
The rational mutineer
The relative safety of mutiny, while it might encourage the mutineers of the civil
ZDUVGRHVOLWWOHWRH[SODLQHLWKHUWKHUHDVRQVIRUPXWLQ\RUWKHZD\VLQZKLFK
VROGLHUVXQGHUVWRRGWKHLUDFWLRQV3HUKDSVWKHJUHDWHVWGLI¿FXOW\VWDQGLQJLQWKH
ZD\RIXQGHUVWDQGLQJKRZHYHULVDQDWWLWXGHWRZDUGVPREEHKDYLRXUWKDWOLQNV
the ancient senatorial historians with modern ideas that have only recently been
seriously questioned. In their modern guise, those ideas derive from the social
troubles of late nineteenth century France; in their ancient guise, with the analy-
VHV RI 3OXWDUFK DQG 7DFLWXV ,Q WKH VLPSOHVW WHUPV ZKLOH 3OXWDUFK DQG 7DFLWXV
blamed the instability or insanity of the troops, a theory of crowd behaviour, now
PRUHWKDQDFHQWXU\ROGKLGWKHQDWXUHRIPXWLQ\±DQGRWKHUIRUPVRIFURZGEH-
KDYLRXU±XQGHUWKHVXSSRVHGUXOLQJSRVLWLRQRIDVLQJOHFURZGPLQG
$QFLHQWZULWHUVZHUHJHQHUDOO\LQFOLQHGWRSXWWKHEODPHIRUWKHPXWLQLHV
RI$'¿UPO\RQWKHVKRXOGHUVRIWKHPXWLQHHUVZKRVHPREEHKDYLRXUZDV
10 6HH * * 0DVRQ &% ± IRU ZD\V LQ ZKLFK7DFLWXV GUDZV DWWHQWLRQ WR WKH
absence or failure of leadership.

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the successive emperors and would-be emperors than to the greedy and licen-
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accusation of irrationality. Tacitus records several instances when the soldiers, as
he thought, gave way to impulses that had little or no connection with rationality,
or even sanity.11$W'LYRGRUXPFKLHIWRZQRIWKH0HGLRPDWULFL9LWHOOLDQWURRSV
KHFODLPVZHUHVHL]HGE\DVXGGHQSDQLFDQGEHJDQDPDVVDFUHRILQQRFHQWFLYLO-
ians. Tacitus rules out plunder as a motive and decides that the reason is a mystery,
WKRXJKLWLVHYLGHQWWKDWWKHVROGLHUVZHUHVHL]HGE\VRPHIRUPRIPDGQHVV7DF
hist )ODYLDQWURRSVRI9,,*DOELDQDVLPLODUO\IHOOLQWRDQHHGOHVVSDQLFRQ
sighting a cavalry force that later turned out to be their own; though they could
SURYHQRWKLQJDJDLQVWKLPWKH\FULHGIRUWKHH[HFXWLRQRIWKHXQSRSXODUOHJDWH
RI3DQQRQLD7DPSLXV)ODYLDQXV122WKHU)ODYLDQWURRSVVXSSRVHGO\LQIHFWHGE\
DVLPLODUPDGQHVVVKRUWO\DIWHUZDUGVDWWDFNHG$SRQLXV6DWXUQLQXVOHDGHURIWKH
Moesian army.
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V
theory of military mobs ruled by irrational impulse became the standard approach
WRFURZGEHKDYLRXU,Q*XVWDY/H%RQLQWURGXFHGWKHQRWLRQRIDFROOHF-
WLYH PLQG WKDW PDGH WKH PHPEHUV RI D FURZG IHHO WKLQN DQG EHKDYH LQ ZD\V
TXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPWKHZD\VLQZKLFKWKH\ZRXOGIHHOWKLQNDQGEHKDYHZKHQ
alone.14)RU/H%RQWKHUHIRUHWKHSV\FKRORJLFDOFURZGZDVDQHQWLW\ZKRVH
KXPDQSDUWVEHKDYHGOLNHFHOOVLQDERG\WRFUHDWHVRPHWKLQJTXLWHXQOLNHWKHVLQ-
gle cells. For a sociological theory, it has proved uncommonly resilient and still
colours perceptions of crowd behaviour.15 If anything, Le Bon reduced the crowd
WRVRPHWKLQJOHVVWKDQWKH7DFLWHDQPRE,WPD\EHWKDW7DFLWXVGHWHVWVDOOPREV
11+RZHYHUVHH5$VK2UGHULQJ$QDUFK\$UPLHVDQG/HDGHUVLQ7DFLWXV'+LVWRULHV, London
IRUWKHYLHZWKDW7DFLWXVXQOLNH3OXWDUFKVDZDVWHDG\GHWHULRUDWLRQZLWKWKHOHYHORI
LUUDWLRQDOLW\UHDFKLQJDSHDNZLWKWKH)ODYLDQV
12 Tac. hist )ODYLDQXV ZDV DFFXVHG RI KDYLQJ EHWUD\HG 2WKR DQG RI HPEH]]OLQJ D
GRQDWLYHPHDQWIRUWKHWURRSVEXW7DFLWXVHYLGHQWO\GRHVQRWH[SHFWHLWKHUDFFXVDWLRQWREH
WDNHQVHULRXVO\,QGHHGDFFXVDWLRQVRIWKLVNLQGZHUHIUHTXHQWDQGQHHGHGOLWWOHMXVWL¿FDWLRQ
Tac. hist7KLVWLPHWKHLPPHGLDWHFDXVHZDVWKHDSSHDUDQFHRIOHWWHUVVXSSRVHGO\
ZULWWHQE\6DWXUQLQXVWRWKHVLWWLQJHPSHURU9LWHOOLXV
14*/H%RQ3V\FKRORJLHGHVIRXOHV3DULV
15)RUWKHFRQWLQXLQJLQÀXHQFHRI/H%RQ
VYLHZVVHHHJ-'UXU\DQG65HLFKHU-RXUQDO
RI6RFLDO,VVXHV±'UXU\DQG5HLFKHUDOVRHPSKDVLVHWKHFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQ

crowd behaviour and power: the crowd may empower those who are individually powerless.
FLYLORUPLOLWDU\DQGWKH7DFLWHDQPREFDQRIWHQVHHPOLNHVRPHWKLQJOHVVWKDQ
the worst of its parts; but it remains a human mob nonetheless, however affected
by supposed insanity.17 Le Bon's approach quite literally gave the mob a mind of
its own, albeit not a very bright one, and effectively separated the behaviour of
WKHPREIURPWKHRUGLQDU\DLPVDQGEHOLHIVRILWVPHPEHUV$VORQJDVWKDWUH-
PDUNDEO\SHUVLVWHQWPRGHORIFURZGEHKDYLRXUZDVDFFHSWHGWKHUHFRXOGEHOLWWOH
reason to consider the values, aims, motives, or attitudes of its individual cells.
Recent theories of crowd behaviour, however, tend to restore the decision-
PDNLQJSRZHURIWKHLQGLYLGXDODQGHPSKDVLVHUDWLRQDODFWLRQRYHULUUDWLRQDOVXE-
mersion.18$GPLWWHGO\WKHUHVXOWVRIWKLVUDWLRQDODFWLRQDUHQRWDOZD\VUHPDUN-
DEOHWRWKHRXWVLGHUIRUWKHLUDSSHDUDQFHRIJRRGVHQVHEXWZLWKD¿UHEHKLQGDQG
a tunnel in front it is hardly irrational to choose the tunnel, especially if you have
¿UVWZHLJKHGWKHULVNRIEHLQJWUDPSOHGWRGHDWKDJDLQVWWKHFHUWDLQW\RIEXUQ-
LQJ 6HHQ LQ WKLV OLJKW DSSDUHQW GHPRQVWUDWLRQV RI H[WUHPH DQG XQFRQWUROODEOH
EHKDYLRXUPD\WXUQRXWWREHLIQRWOHVVH[WUHPHDWOHDVWOHVVXQFRQWUROOHG(YHQ
the worst mutinies may have their roots in the rational pursuit of the mutineers'
wishes.
7KRVHZLVKHVDGPLWWHGO\FRXOGEHLQVDOXEULRXVEXWPRUDOMXGJHPHQWLV
not in question here. It is unfortunate but evident that murder and pillage can be
WKH ZRUN RI VDQH SHRSOH IROORZLQJ FRXUVHV WKDW DUH HQWLUHO\ UDWLRQDO JLYHQ WKH
premises on which they operate. In the confused circumstances of civil warfare,
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be interpreted as a prelude to treason (Tac. hist. 1,80); the evident greed of a gen-
eral might lead to suspicions that he was hiding loot that should have been shared
with his troops (Tac. hist+RZHYHUHUURUVLQSUHPLVHV±RUGLVDJUHHPHQWV
RYHUYDOXHV±QHHGQRWVLJQLI\LUUDWLRQDOLW\197KHVROGLHUVRIDQG$'DFWHG
on the information available to them. The motives for their rational actions, while
R. Syme, 7DFLWXV2[IRUG
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DELOLW\WRVHHWKHVROGLHUVFRPSRVLQJWKH
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18 Discussion of these theories is beyond the scope of this article; however, a good introduction
WRWKHVXEMHFWPD\EHIRXQGLQ&0F3KDLO7KH0\WKRIWKH0DGGLQJ&URZG1HZ<RUN
For the present purpose, what matters is the general agreement of these theories on the basis
of crowd behavior in the interaction of rational people. See also R. Boudon, 7KHRULHVRI6RFLDO
&KDQJH$&ULWLFDO$SSUDLVDO%HUNHOH\&$IRUFULWLFLVPRIWKHWHQGHQF\WRVHHPDVVHG
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19 See, e.g., D. Davidson, 3UREOHPVRI5DWLRQDOLW\2[IRUG
5REHUW&RQQDO
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feelings were bound to run high.
Discerning motives
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neers is the recognition that they can no longer be treated necessarily as a single,
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VVLQJOH
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individual solders is recognised, their part in the crowd behaviour that forms a
mutiny becomes not only voluntary but also directed by individual and possibly
quite different concerns.
Some of the ordinary motives thought to govern the actions and attitudes of
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VELGIRUSRZHU20 There are dangers involved in the
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HVRIWKLVNLQGZHUHPDGHDQGFRXOGKDYHEHHQIDPLOLDUZLWKWKHDUJXPHQWVXVHG
,QWKHDEVHQFHRIEHWWHUHYLGHQFHWKHUHIRUHWKHVSHHFKUHFRUGHGE\-RVHSKXVPD\
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It may be doubted whether much persuasion was required, but the troops were
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might be.
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emperors in hope of gain, but it is hard to avoid the suspicion that the hope of
gain, while being condemned in others, is simultaneously offered as an induce-
ment. It would have been senseless not to mention the possibility. Safety is also
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they were all so virtuous; but concern for the fate of Rome is surely realistic, even if it is only
a minority interest.
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9LWHOOLXVZDVQRWGLI¿FXOWWRDUJXHDQGKLVSRVVHVVLRQRIDQDGXOWVRQ7LWXVDQ
effective commander capable of earning the support and affection of his troops
(Tac. histZDVDQDGGLWLRQDOEHQH¿WOLNHO\WREHLPSRUWDQWLQ5RPDQ
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are told that if they do not act, the Senate may impose another emperor, though
the Senate, in practice, had long been more imposed upon than imposing.22 Later,
DFFRUGLQJ WR7DFLWXV9HVSDVLDQ
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WKDW9LWHOOLXVLQWHQGHGWRPRYHWKH6\ULDQOHJLRQVWR*HUPDQ\7DFhist. 2,80), an
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and hoped to remain there. It hardly mattered whether there was any truth in the
assertion. If the soldiers, and the local people with whom they had formed close
ties over the years, could be made to believe it, they would have a personal inter-
HVWLQWKHZDUDJDLQVW9LWHOOLXV
7KHPRWLYHVVXJJHVWHGE\-RVHSKXVDQG7DFLWXVFRYHUDZLGHUDQJHIURP
the simple promise of loot, through references to safety and comfort, to pleas on
behalf of Rome and its need for good government. They thus suggest a range of
motivation and a diversity of wishes and opinions among ordinary soldiers, to
ZKLFKWKHVSHHFKHVZHUHVXSSRVHGWRDSSHDO6RPHZHUHH[SHFWHGWREHPRYHG
only by thoughts of looting, others by promises that this would be a relatively
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2WKHUVZRXOGEHPRVWLQWHUHVWHGLQWKHSURPLVHWKDWWKH\ZRXOGEHDOORZHGDIWHU
the fatigue of the campaign, to return to the familiar and comfortable quarters to
ZKLFKWKH\KDGEHFRPHXVHG2WKHUVVWLOOWKRXJKSHUKDSVRQO\DPLQRULW\ZHUH
H[SHFWHGWRUHDFWZHOOWRWKHSURPLVHWKDWWKH\ZRXOGVHUYH5RPHZHOOE\JLYLQJ
LWLQ9HVSDVLDQWKHEHVWHPSHURUDYDLODEOH
'LYHUVLW\RIRSLQLRQLVLPSOLHGDOVRE\WKHPDQQHULQZKLFKRI¿FHUVRIWHQ
VXUYLYHGDWWDFNVWKDWRXJKWWRKDYHEHHQPXUGHURXVLQFRQVHTXHQFHDVZHOODVLQ-
223$%UXQW&4±
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DQG ORFDO SHRSOHV DV ZHOO DV GRXEWV DERXW WKH H[LVWHQFH RI VLPLODU UHODWLRQV HOVHZKHUH )RU
VRPHSRVVLEOHHIIHFWVRIORFDOV\PSDWK\KRZHYHUVHH$VKDERYHQRQWKHSRVVLELOLW\
WKDWIDPLOLDULW\ZLWKWKHUHJLRQDQGZLWKQDWLYHRI¿FHUVZRXOGPDNHLWHDVLHUIRU5RPDQOHJLRQV
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KLVRZQWURRSVZKHQKLVVWDQGDUGRIGLVFLSOLQHH[FHHGHGZKDWZDVIHDVLEOHLQWKH
midst of a civil war (Tac. hist,I7DFLWXVUHDOO\PHDQVWKDWDOOWKHWURRSVLQ
WKHOHJLRQZHUHLQWHQWRQPXUGHURQHLVIRUFHGWRDVNKRZDQ\UHVFXHZDVSRV-
VLEOH+RZHYHULQFHQVHGWKHWURRSVPD\KDYHEHHQWKHDWWDFNRQ0LQLFLXV-XVWXV
ZDVVXUHO\WKHZRUNRIDVPDOOPLQRULW\HDVLO\GLVVXDGHGDQGSHUKDSVQRWGUHDG-
IXOO\PXUGHURXVWREHJLQZLWK$JDLQZKHQWKH9LWHOOLDQJHQHUDO9DOHQVZDVDW-
WDFNHGWKHWURRSV¿UVWVWRQHGKLPDQGWKHQFKDVHGKLPDVKHÀHGIURPWKHP7DF
hist$PDQZKRZDVVHULRXVO\VWRQHGE\HYHQDIUDFWLRQRIWKHWURRSVXQGHU
9DOHQV
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of his pursuers, and, when things calmed down, emerged unhurt from his hiding
SODFH,WLVGLI¿FXOWWREHOLHYHWKDWDGHWHUPLQHGDWWDFNE\DODUJHERG\RISURIHV-
sional soldiers could lead to such feeble results. It might be more accurate to say
WKDWDIHZVROGLHUVGURYH9DOHQVRIIZLWKVWRQHVSHUKDSVZLWKRXWHYHQLQWHQGLQJ
serious harm. If nothing else, such incidents suggest that statements apparently
UHIHUULQJWRODUJHERGLHVRIWURRSVFDQQRWDOZD\VEHWDNHQDWIDFHYDOXH
*LYHQWKHUDQJHRIPRWLYHVGHPRQVWUDWHGE\PXWLQRXVWURRSVLWZRXOGEH
unwise to assume that all mutineers, in a given situation, were necessarily acting in
consort. The most rational of people can disagree with each other, even violently,
when motives they consider evidently correct are resisted. Such a disagreement
SUREDEO\OLHVEHKLQGWKHPXWLQRXVRXWEUHDNWKDWIROORZHG2WKR
VVXLFLGH7KHPR-
WLYHVXSSOLHGE\7DFLWXVLVVLPSO\HPRWLRQDOWKHWURRSVZHUHVWULFNHQE\JULHIDQG
FRXOGQRWPDNHXSWKHLUPLQGVDERXWWKHLUGHPDQGV$WRQHPRPHQWWKH\ZDQWHG
WRPDNHDQHPSHURURI9HUJLQLXV5XIXVWKHQH[WPRPHQWWKH\ZDQWHGKLPWRQH-
JRWLDWHIRUWKHPZLWKWKH9LWHOOLDQJHQHUDOV9DOHQVDQG&DHFLQD7DFhist. 2,51).
,WVRXQGVOLNHH[WUHPHLQGHFLVLYHQHVVRUHYHQSDQLFLQLPSRVVLEOHFLUFXPVWDQFHV
+RZHYHU'LRDGGVWKHFXULRXVGHWDLOWKDWPDQ\VROGLHUVZHUHNLOOHGZKHQWKH\
WRRNWR¿JKWLQJZLWKHDFKRWKHU'LRE,I7DFLWXV
HVWLPDWHRIWKHWURRSV

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ever, rather than see a single mass of indecisive soldiers unable to decide between
VXUUHQGHUDQGWKHDFFODPDWLRQRIDQHZHPSHURULWPLJKWEHEHWWHUWRWKLQNLQ
WHUPVRIWZRRSSRVLQJJURXSVZKRVHGLIIHULQJYLHZVOHG¿UVWWRYHUEDODUJXPHQW
DQGWKHQWRYLROHQFH,QWKHHQG9HUJLQLXV5XIXVHQGHGWKHKRSHVRIWKRVHZKR
246HH3OXWSull.IRUWKHVWRQLQJWRGHDWKRIVRPHPLOLWDU\WULEXQHV$PRGHUQVWRQLQJVWLOO
legal in some parts of the world) can attract a large crowd, but a handful of active participants
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wished to follow a new emperor by leaving (Tac. hist. 2,51). His departure left
his supporters with no realistic candidate and agreement on surrender followed.
For better or worse, the incident demonstrates the level of enthusiasm that
might arise among the soldiers of the civil wars. Military enthusiasm sometimes
led troops to demand action in the face of their commanders' less aggressive ap-
SURDFK2WKR
VSUDHWRULDQVJUHZUHVWLYHDW3ODFHQWLDLQ0DUFKDQGWKUHDWHQHG
WRNLOOWKHLUJHQHUDO9HVWULFLXV6SXULQQDEHFDXVHWKH\WKRXJKWWKH\ZHUHZDVWLQJ
time that would be better spent in battle.25,QDVLPLODURXWEUHDN9LWHOOLDQWURRSV
XQGHU&DHFLQDPXWLQLHGEHFDXVHPDQ\RIWKHPUHPDLQHGXQXVHGLQWKHLQGHFL-
VLYHEDWWOHRI$G&DVWRUHV7DFhist,QERWKFDVHVWKHDFWLRQVWDNHQE\
the soldiers suggest that they acted out of enthusiasm, albeit an enthusiasm little
affected by appreciation of the military situation. It was strongly affected, how-
ever, by the soldiers' inability fully to trust their leaders.
Distrust and suspicion
In addition to the seemingly diverse views entertained by individual soldiers and

groups of soldiers, another element must be considered: the inability of those in-
YROYHGDOZD\VWRWUXVWHDFKRWKHU6RPHWLPHVVXVSLFLRQZDVMXVWL¿HGVRPHWLPHV
QRWLQWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVRIFLYLOZDULWZDVOLNHO\WREHSDUWLFXODUO\GLI¿FXOWWR
NQRZ-XVWL¿HGRURWKHUZLVHVXVSLFLRQDQGGLVWUXVWZHUHOLNHO\WRSURYLGHVRPH
of the premises on which the rational conclusions of the soldiery were based and,
in the midst of civil war, with its inevitable doubts about loyalty, it should not
FDXVH VXUSULVH WKDW VRPH GLVWUXVW H[LVWHG EHWZHHQ WKH WURRSV DQG WKHLU OHDGHUV
That problem was common among the forces directly involved in the struggles
EHWZHHQWKHHPSHURUVDQGZRXOGEHHPSHURUVWKRXJKLWZDV2WKR
VSUDHWRULDQV
who displayed it most convincingly, by murdering a tribune and offering to com-
SOHWHWKHLUZRUNE\PXUGHULQJVHQDWRUV7KHSUDHWRULDQWULEXQH9DULXV&ULVSLQXV
unfortunately decided to move some weapons at night from the praetorian bar-
UDFNV VHHLQJ ZKLFK VRPH YLJLODQW RU GUXQN 3UDHWRULDQV GHFLGHG WKDW KH ZDV
25 Tac. hist±,QVSLWHRIWKHLUHOLWHVWDWXVWKHJXDUGFRKRUWVKDGOLWWOHDFTXDLQWDQFHZLWK
warfare and the mutiny was easily quelled by introducing them to some practical soldiering: a
ORQJPDUFKIROORZHGE\WKHXQIDPLOLDUZRUNRIFRQVWUXFWLQJDFDPS
6HH*0RUJDQ$'7KH<HDURI)RXU(PSHURUV2[IRUG0RUJDQH[FXVHV
&DHFLQD EHFDXVH KH ZDV DWWHPSWLQJ WR ZLWKGUDZ IURP EDWWOH UDWKHU WKDQ WR FRQWLQXH LW
Enthusiastic soldiers, watching what must have seemed a worryingly slow movement of
reinforcements, evidently understood the situation differently.
42 5REHUW&RQQDO
DUPLQJPHQIRUDQDWWDFNRQ2WKRDQGSURFHHGHGWRNLOOKLPWRJHWKHUZLWKWZR
centurions who supported him.27)URPWKHYHU\EHJLQQLQJRI2WKR
VUHLJQWKH
VROGLHUV ZKR KHOSHG KLP WR VHL]H SRZHU KDG EHHQ DQ[LRXV WR NHHS KLP DZD\
IURPKLVRI¿FHUV28'LVWUXVWRIRI¿FHUVDQGRWKHUVRXUFHVRIDXWKRULW\SURYLGHG
WKHSUHPLVHVIRUWKHFRQFOXVLRQVDQGDFWLRQVWKDWIROORZHG&RQYLQFHGQRZWKDW
WUHDVRQZDVDIRRWWKH\DWWDFNHGWKHSDODFHZKHUHWKH\WKUHDWHQHGRI¿FHUVDQG
VHQDWRUV DOWHUQDWHO\ DQG ¿QDOO\ GHPDQGHG D IUHH KDQG WR GHDO ZLWK DOO RI WKHP
(Tac. hist 7KH GLVWUXVW IHOW E\ WKH 3UDHWRULDQV KDG EHFRPH D VLJQL¿FDQW
GDQJHUIURPZKLFKRQO\2WKR
VSHUVRQDOLQWHUYHQWLRQFRXOGUHVFXHWKHLQWHQGHG
YLFWLPV7KHIROORZLQJPRUQLQJ2WKRFRQ¿UPHGWKHEDQLVKPHQWRIGLVFLSOLQHE\
WKDQNLQJWKHVROGLHUVIRUWKHLUOR\DOW\RQO\WZRPHQZHUHSXQLVKHG7KHGLVWUXVW
XQGHUO\LQJWKHRXWEUHDNUHPDLQHG
Rational action does not cease to be rational because it is based upon false
premises, which the period abundantly offered. The selection of senators as vic-
WLPVUHÀHFWHGDQXQGHUVWDQGDEOHWKRXJKPLVWDNHQEHOLHIWKDWWKH6HQDWHUHSUH-
sented a real source of authority and a genuine threat to the emperor. Senators
ZHUHVLPLODUO\WKUHDWHQHGDIWHU2WKR
VGHIHDWDW%HGULDFXPZKHQWKH\ZHUHDJDLQ
LQGDQJHUIURPVROGLHUVZKRVXVSHFWHGWKHPRIKRVWLOLW\WR2WKRDQGZDQWHGRQO\
DQH[FXVHWRPDVVDFUHWKHP7DFhist. 2,52). In reality, they could neither support
nor oppose and were too frightened either to change sides openly or to seem un-
GXO\OR\DO,WZDVRQO\ZKHQWKH\ZHUHDVVXUHGRI2WKR
VSUHSDUDWLRQVIRUVXLFLGH
WKDW WKH\ IHOW UHDG\ WR GHFODUH WKHLU XQDQLPRXV VXSSRUW IRU9LWHOOLXV 7DF hist.
*LYHQWKDWWKH\VDZFDXVHWRVXVSHFWWKHVHQDWRUVWKHWURRSVZHUHQRWEH-
ing irrational; they were, however, led astray by a false premise about the power
of their intended victims. The Senate suffered from a split between reality and
perceptions. In reality, it was powerless, in the face of military events, to do much
PRUHWKDQMR\RXVO\SURFODLPHDFKQHZHPSHURUWKDWWKHZDUULQJDUPLHVWKUXVW
XSRQLW,WVUHSXWDWLRQKRZHYHUKDGQRWVXQNLQDOOTXDUWHUVWRWKHOHYHORILWV
WUXHLQÀXHQFH$WDVXLWDEOHGLVWDQFHLWFRXOGVWLOOORRNJUDQGHUWRRXWZDUGYLHZ
than it really was.292UGLQDU\VROGLHUVFRXOGEHH[FXVHGIRUEHOLHYLQJLQVHQDWRULDO
SRZHUZKHQWKHLUPRVWVHQLRURI¿FHUVFDPHIURPWKHVHQDWRULDOFODVVDQGZKHQ
WKHOHWWHUV6345RQWKHLUVWDQGDUGVFRQWLQXHGWRSURFODLPWKHHPSLUHRIWKH6HQ-
273OXWOtho±7KDWWKHVROGLHUVZHUHGUXQNLVVXJJHVWHGE\7DFLWXVZKRWKRXJKWWKDWWKH
prospect of looting also appealed to the worst among them (hist. 1,80).
28 Tac. hist7KHVROGLHUVPD\KDYHYDOLGUHDVRQVIRUDFWLQJVR6HPSURQLXV'HQVXVZKR
GLHGWU\LQJWRSURWHFWWKHRXWJRLQJHPSHURU*DOEDIURPKLVNLOOHUVZDVRQHRIWKHLUFHQWXULRQV
29 Brunt (above n. 22) 424.
DWHDQG3HRSOHRI5RPHHYHQDVWKH\IRXJKWIRUWKHHPSLUHRI2WKR9LWHOOLXVRU
9HVSDVLDQ
7KH WURRSV
H[DJJHUDWHG RSLQLRQ RI VHQDWRULDO SRZHU FRXOG EH XVHIXO DV
ZHOODVGDQJHURXV:KHQWKH*HUPDQOHJLRQVPXWLQLHGDJDLQVW*DOEDWKH\H[-
FKDQJHG WKHLU RDWK WR WKH HPSHURU IRU RQH WR WKH 6HQDWH DQG 3HRSOH ,W ZDV D
VKRUWOLYHGVROXWLRQDQGQRGRXEWLQWHQGHGDVVXFKDWOHDVWE\WKRVHRI¿FHUVZKR
supported the mutiny (Tac. hist. 1,55), but that need not imply that the troops did
QRWVHHLWDVDVHULRXVFRPPLWPHQW*DOEDKDGGHFODUHGKLPVHOIWKH*HQHUDORI
WKH6HQDWHDQG3HRSOHRI5RPHDQG9HUJLQLXV5XIXVDIWHUGHIHDWLQJWKH*DOOLF
UHEHO9LQGH[KDGDOVRPDGHXVHRIWKHULJKWVRIWKH6HQDWHZKHQKLVWURRSVWULHG
DJDLQVWKLVZLOOWRSXVKKLPLQWRWKHFRPSHWLWLRQIRULPSHULDOSRZHU3OXW*DOE.
10,2). With such encouragement, it was perhaps natural that the ordinary soldier
VKRXOGWUHDWWKH6HQDWHDVDSRZHUIXOERG\WREHWDNHQVHULRXVO\ERWKDVDOO\DQG
as potential enemy.
2QFHWKHVWUXJJOHIRU1HUR
VOHJDF\KDGEHJXQWKHVROGLHU\ZHUHERXQG
WREHFRPHWKHREMHFWVRISHUVXDVLRQRQDOOVLGHVZKLOHWKHGLYLGHGOR\DOWLHVLQ-
HYLWDEOH LQ FLYLO ZDU UHSHDWHGO\ JDYH WKHP UHDVRQ ± MXVWL¿HG RU RWKHUZLVH ± WR
doubt the loyalty and trustworthiness of supposed friends. Though it was evident
DPRQJWKH9LWHOOLDQVSULRUWRWKHLUGHIHDWE\9HVSDVLDQGLVWUXVWUDQSDUWLFXODUO\
GHHSDPRQJWKH2WKRQLDQVLQWKHDSSURDFKWRWKHLURZQHDUOLHUGHIHDW7KLVPD\
KDYHEHHQGXHDWOHDVWLQSDUWWRWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHWKDW2WKRRZHGKLVSRVLWLRQWRD
handful of well-bribed ordinary soldiers rather than to the ambitious commanders
who were the usual culprits behind the elevation of a new emperor. Tacitus is in-
GXOJLQJLQH[DJJHUDWLRQZKHQKHFODLPVWKDWWKHWUDQVIHURISRZHUZDVKDQGOHGE\
a pair of ordinary soldiers (Tac. histEXWWKHH[DJJHUDWLRQLVQRWH[FHVVLYH
The conspirators could have achieved little by force alone. That they succeeded
ZDVGXHLQSDUWWR2WKR
VFDUHIXOJLIWVWRVROGLHUVGHVHUYLQJRURWKHUZLVH but
*DOEDKLPVHOIKDGKHOSHGWKHFDXVHZLWKKLVVWLQJLQHVVDQGVHYHULW\
3OXW*DOE$SSHDOVWRWKH6HQDWHDQG3HRSOHRI5RPHZHUHIDLUO\IUHTXHQWLQGLI¿FXOW
WLPHVLWFRXOGEHXVHIXOWRIDOOEDFNRQWKHLQWHULPJRYHUQPHQWRIWKHVHQDWHDQGSHRSOH'
&$6KRWWHU&4>@±Q
3OXW *DOE.
20,4; Tac. hist. 6XHW Otho 0RUJDQ DERYH Q GRXEWV
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however, deliberately or otherwise, the gifts proved to be valuable investments in advance of
2WKR
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Tac. hist'LR±3OXW*DOE±6XHW*DOE
44 5REHUW&RQQDO
+RZHYHURQHHIIHFWRIWKLVUHYROXWLRQIURPEHORZZDVWRPDNH2WKRQLDQ
RI¿FHUV VXVSHFW LQ WKH H\HV RI WKH RUGLQDU\ VROGLHUV ZKR IRXQG LW GLI¿FXOW WR
EHOLHYHLQWKHLUOR\DOW\WRDQHPSHURUZKRRZHGVRPXFKWRWKHUDQNDQG¿OH
,WZDVIRUWKLVUHDVRQWKDWWKH\DQ[LRXVO\NHSW2WKRVHSDUDWHGIURPWKHWULEXQHV
DQGFHQWXULRQVZKLOHKHWKUHZNLVVHVDWWKHJURZLQJPDVVRIKLVVXSSRUWHUV7DF
hist,WZDVQRWDSURPLVLQJVWDUWWRDUHLJQWKDWZRXOGVKRUWO\GHVFHQGLQWR
FLYLOZDUHVSHFLDOO\ZKHQ2WKRDJUHHGZLWKWKHWURRSV
HVWLPDWHRIWKHLUJHQHU-
DOVDQGWKXVXQGHUPLQHGWKHLUDXWKRULW\DQGWKDWRIWKHLURI¿FHUV7DFhist
7KHJHQHUDOVUHSDLGKLVGLVWUXVWZLWKJHQHUDOVKLSVRSRRUWKDW6XHWRQLXV3DXOLQXV
DQG /LFLQLXV 3URFXOXV FRXOG ODWHU FODLP EHIRUH 9LWHOOLXV WKDW WKH\ KDG GHOLEHU-
DWHO\ZUHFNHGWKH2WKRQLDQFDPSDLJQ7DFhistLQFLGHQWDOO\YDOLGDWLQJWKH
GRXEWVRIVRPDQ\2WKRQLDQVROGLHUV2QWKH9LWHOOLDQVLGHRQO\9DOHQVDPRQJ
WKHVHQLRURI¿FHUVFRQWLQXHGWRVHUYHKLVHPSHURUZKHQVHQVHDQGVHOILQWHUHVW
would have suggested a change of allegiance, and he paid for his stubborn loy-
alty with his life (Tac. hist+LVHUVWZKLOHSDUWQHUDQGULYDO&DHFLQDZDV
PRUHIRUWXQDWHDQGVXUYLYHGXQWLOKLVWDVWHIRUFRQVSLUDF\OHGWRKLVEHLQJNLOOHG
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RUGHUVLQ$'
7KRXJKWKHWURRSVPLJKWVRPHWLPHVEHPLVWDNHQDVWKH\ZHUHLQWKHFDVH
RI&ULVSLQXVWKHLUVXVSLFLRQVZHUHQRWDOZD\VXQIRXQGHGQRUZHUHWKHLUVXEVH-
TXHQWDFWLRQVDOZD\VWKRXJKWOHVVRULQDSSURSULDWH$WWLPHVWKHLUDFWLRQVZKLOH
WHFKQLFDOO\ PXWLQRXV FRXOG DOVR EH UDWLRQDO DQG MXVWL¿DEOH ± HYHQ DGPLUDEOH
7KLVDVSHFWRIFLYLOZDUPXWLQ\ZDVHYLGHQWIRULQVWDQFHLQ2FWREHUZKHQ
WKH9LWHOOLDQ JHQHUDO$XOXV &DHFLQD FRQVSLUHG WR KDQG RYHU KLV VROGLHUV WR WKH
)ODYLDQV7KH9LWHOOLDQWURRSVLQLWLDOO\DJUHHGWRGHVHUWEXWVRRQFKDQJHGWKHLU
PLQGV7KH\DWWDFNHG&DHFLQDDQGKDYLQJEHHQSHUVXDGHGE\WKHWULEXQHVWKDW
WKH\ VKRXOG QRW NLOO KLP DUUHVWHG KLP LQVWHDG Tacitus does not mention the
interference of the tribunes, but the subsequent actions that he describes suggest
WKDWRI¿FHUVDFFHSWHGWKHMXVWLFHRIWKHPXWLQ\DQGPD\HYHQKDYHEHHQGLUHFWO\
involved. Having mutinied against their general, the troops proceeded to select
)DELXV)DEXOOXVOHJDWHRIWKH¿IWKOHJLRQDQGWKHFDPSSUHIHFW&DVVLXV/RQJXV
as their leaders (Tac. hist7KLVZDVQRWWKHDFWLRQRIDQLUUHVSRQVLEOHUDE-
EOHQRUHYHQDJHQHUDOPXWLQ\RIVROGLHUVDJDLQVWWKHLURI¿FHUV,QIDFWWKHWURRSV
Suet. 7LW'LR±
-RVHSK %- ± -RVHSKXV WKRXJKW WKH PRWLYH IRU WKHLU FKDQJH RI KHDUW ZDV WKH
VXVSLFLRQWKDW9LWHOOLXVPLJKWZLQWKHFLYLOZDUDIWHUDOO7KH)ODYLDQVXSSRUWHU-RVHSKXVWKRXJK
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9LWHOOLXV
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calculation, some thirty miles on the last day. Tacitus believed that the soldiers'
main motive was pride: they were not prepared to suffer the shame of giving up
WKHHPSHURUZLWKRXWD¿JKW7DFhist7DFLWXVZDVQRKDELWXDODGPLUHURI
the common soldier and this acceptance of a laudable motive for their actions is
not to be lightly dismissed.
The safety of the Gallic Empire
7KH¿QDOVWDJHDQGLPPHGLDWHDIWHUPDWKRIFLYLOVWULIHGHPRQVWUDWHGKRZUDWLR-
QDOVROGLHUVUHJDUGOHVVRIRWKHUSHRSOHV
SHUFHSWLRQVRIWKHLUFRQGXFWFRXOG¿QG
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instead to the service of Rome's enemies. In part, this action stemmed from the
GLI¿FXOW\DWVXFKDWLPHRILGHQWLI\LQJIULHQGVDQGHQHPLHVZLWKDQ\FHUWDLQW\
:KLOHFLYLOFRQÀLFWPRYHGWRZDUGV)ODYLDQYLFWRU\LQ,WDO\-XOLXV&LYLOLVD%DWD-
YLDQZLWKUR\DOEORRGLQKLVYHLQVDQGORQJH[SHULHQFHDVDFRPPDQGHURI5RPDQ
DX[LOLDU\IRUFHVEHJDQDQXSULVLQJZKLFKKHFODLPHGZDVLQWHQGHGWRKROGGRZQ
9LWHOOLDQWURRSVDQGWKXVKHOSWKH)ODYLDQFDXVH%\WKHHQGRIWKH\HDU9LWHO-
OLXVZDVGHDGDQG&LYLOLVGURSSHGDOOSUHWHQFHRIVXSSRUWLQJ9HVSDVLDQ7DFhist.
7KH%DWDYLDQVZHUHMRLQHGLQUHYROWE\*DOOLFIRUFHVOHGE\-XOLXV&ODV-
VLFXV-XOLXV7XWRUDQG-XOLXV6DELQXV5RPDQL]HG*DXOVZKRZLVKHGWRFUHDWHD
*DOOLFHPSLUHRQZKDWDSSHDUHGWREHWKHUXLQVRI5RPDQSRZHU%\WKHWLPHWKH
IRUFHVRI4XLQWXV3HWLOOLXV&HULDOLVDUULYHGD5RPDQJDUULVRQKDGEHHQGHVWUR\HG
two Roman generals had been murdered, and Roman legions had allowed mutiny
WRVOLGHLQWRWUHDVRQE\VZHDULQJWRVHUYHWKH*DOOLF(PSLUH
6LQFH WKH VROGLHUV RI WKH 5KLQH DUP\ ZHUH9LWHOOLDQV WKHLU SULQFLSOH HQ-
emies, for the time, were the Flavians, serving what they could only see as a false
HPSHURULQ9HVSDVLDQ,WZDVXQIRUWXQDWHWKDWVHQLRURI¿FHUVFKRVHUDWKHUWRRHDU-
ly, to demonstrate their shift of allegiance to the forthcoming winner of the strug-
gle. Soldiers whose allegiance had not changed could rationally identify those
RI¿FHUVDVHQHPLHV2QHUHVXOWRIWKLVZDVWKDWVRPHRIKLVRZQWURRSVKDXOHG
Flaccus from his bed and murdered him (Tac. hist+RUGHRQLXV)ODFFXVKDG
K. Wellesley, 7KH<HDURIWKH)RXU(PSHURUV, London 2000, 141.

7KH )ODYLDQ JHQHUDO$QWRQLXV 3ULPXV ZHQW DORQJ ZLWK &LYLOLV VR IDU DV WR VHQG KLP D
OHWWHUHQFRXUDJLQJKLVZRUNDQGHQFRXUDJHPHQWFDPHDOVRIURP+RUGHRQLXV)ODFFXVOHJDWHRI
8SSHU*HUPDQ\7DFhist
5REHUW&RQQDO
HDUO\VHHQWKHDGYDQWDJHRIVZLWFKLQJKLVVXSSRUWIURP9LWHOOLXVWR9HVSDVLDQEXW
ZKHQKHDQGKLVRI¿FHUVKDGWKHLUWURRSVVZHDUOR\DOW\WR9HVSDVLDQWKHHYHQW
ZDVOHVVLPSUHVVLYHWKDQLQWHQGHG$IHZPHQQRGRXEWVSRNHWKHQDPHFOHDUO\
HQRXJKEXWWKHLUYRLFHVZHUHGURZQHGXQGHUWKHPXPEOHVRIWKHPDMRULW\7DF
hist'LVFRQWHQWZDVDOORZHGWRVOXPEHUIRUDZKLOHEXWWKHQWKHPHQKHDUG
WKDW9LWHOOLXVKDGVHQWPRQH\IRUDGRQDWLYHZKLFKWKH\GHPDQGHG$FRPPDQGHU
with more understanding of his troops might have given them the money with-
out further comment; but Hordeonius Flaccus insisted on following his changed
DOOHJLDQFHE\KDQGLQJLWRYHULQWKHQDPHRI9HVSDVLDQ7DFhist6LQFH
9LWHOOLXVZDVVWLOOOLYLQJWKHWURRSVZHUHQRWEHLQJHQWLUHO\XQUHDVRQDEOHLIWKH\
VDZWKLVDVWUHDVRQ7KHWULEXQHVKDGVDYHG&DHFLQDIURPDVLPLODUIDWHZKHQKH
WULHGWRGHOLYHUKLVIRUFHVWR9HVSDVLDQ-RVHSK%-±EXW&DHFLQDFRXOG
be an effective and sometimes even a popular general. Flaccus was neither, and in
this case, the tribunes were probably wise to be quiet. The memory of that reluc-
WDQWRDWKWR9HVSDVLDQZDVIUHVKHQRXJKWREHWURXEOHVRPHDQGGLVFUHWLRQZRXOG
recommend the safer course.
7KHUHZDVOHVVH[FXVHIRUWKHPXUGHURI9RFXODE\WKHWLPHRIKLVPXUGHU
9LWHOOLXVZDVGHDGDQGWKHUHFRXOGEHQRWUHDVRQLQKLVVHUYLQJ9HVSDVLDQ%XW
he stood in the way of what could easily seem the rational way out for men who
KDGORVWWKHREMHFWRIWKHLUOR\DOW\DQGQHHGHGDYLDEOHUHSODFHPHQW$FFRUGLQJ
WR7DFLWXVWKHWURRSVKDWHG9HVSDVLDQVRPXFKWKDWWKH\ZRXOGUDWKHUVHUYHRXW-
siders (Tac. hist7KHUHPRYDORI9RFXODZRXOGPDNHWKDWHDVLHUWKRXJK
he might have survived had he not made himself unpopular by his severity.
'HVSLWHWKHLUGLVOLNHIRUKLP9RFXOD
VVROGLHUVWRRNQRGLUHFWSDUWLQKLVPXUGHU
(Tac. histEXWHYHQWKHOHDVWGLVDIIHFWHGZHUHDSSDUHQWO\ZLOOLQJWRORRN
WKHZURQJZD\ZKHQWKHPXUGHUHUDSSHDUHG:LWKWKHGHHGGRQH&ODVVLFXVFRXOG
enter the camp, in the garb of a Roman general, and receive the oath of allegiance
WRWKH*DOOLF(PSLUH
)RUPHQZKRZLVKHGWRVXUYLYHIRUZKRPOR\DOW\WR9LWHOOLXVZDVQRORQJ-
HUUHDOLVWLFDQGIRUZKRPWKHSURVSHFWRIVHUYLQJ9HVSDVLDQZDVVWLOOGLVWDVWHIXO
&ODVVLFXV RIIHUHG D UDWLRQDO DQG DFFHSWDEOH ZD\ RXW RI WKHLU SUREOHPV 5RPDQ
FRPPDQGHUVZHUHVXSSRVHGWRSUHIHUGHDWKWRGLVKRQRXUDQG'LOLXV9RFXODKDG
both refused to escape before he was murdered and been prevented from suicide
only by the entreaties of his freedmen and slaves (Tac. hist. 4,59). But the com-
Tac. hist9RFXOD¿UVWSXWWRGHDWKDVROGLHUZKRP)ODFFXVKDGPHUHO\LPSULVRQHG
DIWHUZKLFKWKHWURRSVVWLOOZDQWHG9RFXODWROHDGWKHP±WKRXJKWKHGHVLUHPD\KDYHEHHQOHVV
universal than Tacitus claims (Tac. hist./DWHUKRZHYHU9RFXODH[HFXWHGVHYHUDOPRUH
men in what by then was a hopeless effort to restore discipline (Tac. hist. 4,27).
PDQGHUV RI 5RPDQ OHJLRQV ZHUH PHQ ZLWK IDPLO\ UHSXWDWLRQV WR WKLQN RI7KH
ordinary soldier had less need to fear the disgrace of survival. Indeed, the Roman
camp, rebuilt, if necessary, day after day in the course of a campaign, openly of-
IHUHGWURRSVDSODFHWRUXQDZD\WRZKHQWKHRUGHUZDVJLYHQWKDWUXQQLQJDZD\
KDGVXGGHQO\EHFRPHWKH5RPDQWKLQJWRGR In normal circumstances, peer
SUHVVXUHPLJKWKDYHRSHUDWHGWRNHHSWKHOHVVHQWKXVLDVWLFVROGLHUVLQSODFHEXW
circumstances were far from normal. The large-scale movement of troops from
WKH5KLQHLQWR,WDO\KDGOHIWWKRVHZKRUHPDLQHGYXOQHUDEOHWRDWWDFNIURPHQ-
HPLHVZKRIRXQGLQWKHEXUQLQJRIWKHWHPSOHRI-XSLWHU%HVWDQG*UHDWHVWGXULQJ
DVWUXJJOHEHWZHHQ9LWHOOLDQVDQG)ODYLDQVWKH¿QDOYLQGLFDWLRQIRUWKHLUEHOLHI
in the imminent collapse of Rome (Tac. hist. 4,54). There was little hope of aid
IURPWKH6RXWK9HVSDVLDQZDVWRRXQSRSXODUWRLQVSLUHOR\DOW\DQGPXWLQ\VRRQ
SURJUHVVHGWRPXUGHU7KHHQWKXVLDVWVQRZZHUHWKRVHZKRZDQWHGWRMRLQWKH
*DOOLF(PSLUH
,W PLJKW KDYH EHHQ RWKHUZLVH 9HU\ GLIIHUHQW DQG HYHQ RSSRVLWH EHKDY-
iours, could result from equally rational considerations, and this was demonstrat-
HGE\RWKHU9LWHOOLDQVROGLHUVVWLOOVWDWLRQHGRQWKH5KLQH,QWKHQRUWK9HWHUDVWLOO
KHOGRXWEXWRQO\MXVW$FDPSRULJLQDOO\GHVLJQHGWRKROGWZROHJLRQVZDVQRZ
RFFXSLHGRQO\E\WKRVHUHPQDQWVRI9$ODXGDHDQG;93ULPLJHQLDWKDWKDGQRW
IROORZHG9LWHOOLXVWR,WDO\&LYLOLVKDGVXJJHVWHGWKDWWKHJDUULVRQPLJKWMRLQKLP
DQGKLV%DWDYLDQVLQVZHDULQJDQRDWKWRVXSSRUW9HVSDVLDQEXWZDVPHWZLWK
WKHDQVZHUWKDWWKH\DOUHDG\KDGDQHPSHURULQ9LWHOOLXVZKRPWKH\LQWHQGHGWR
serve to the death (Tac. hist7KH\PD\DOVRKDYHIRXQGWKH%DWDYLDQ&LYL-
OLVDPRUHGLI¿FXOWDOO\WRDFFHSWWKDQWKH*DOOLFOHDGHUV%HVLHJHGUHOLHYHGDQG
EHVLHJHGDJDLQWKHWURRSVDW9HWHUDKHOGRXWIRUVHYHUDOPRQWKVVXUYLYLQJLQWKH
HQGRQURRWVVKUXEVDQGJUDVVEHIRUHWKH\¿QDOO\VXUUHQGHUHG3URPLVHGVDIHW\
they left the fort, but were allowed to march only a few miles before they were
DWWDFNHG DQG VODXJKWHUHG$W WKLV SRLQW7DFLWXV FRPSODLQV WKDW WKH\ KDG ¿QDOO\
UXLQHGWKHLUUHSXWDWLRQVE\DJUHHLQJWRJLYHWKHLUDOOHJLDQFHWRWKH*DOOLF(PSLUH
(Tac. hist,WVHHPVDKDUVKMXGJHPHQWRQPHQZKRKDGKHOGRQIRUVRORQJ
in such circumstances; but it was intended, perhaps, to suggest a comparison with
RWKHU5RPDQVROGLHUVZDWFKLQJHYHQWVIURPRXWVLGHWKHZDOOVRI9HWHUDUHSUH-
VHQWDWLYHVRIWKHOHJLRQVWKDWKDGDOUHDG\VZRUQDOOHJLDQFHWRWKH*DOOLF(PSLUHLQ
HDVLHUFLUFXPVWDQFHV,QSUDFWLFHWKHPHQDW9HWHUDZKRKDGUDWLRQDOO\FKRVHQWR
VXSSRUWWKHLURI¿FHUVLQUHVLVWDQFHDVORQJDVUHVLVWDQFHZDVIHDVLEOHQRZFKRVH
on equally rational grounds, to support the decision to surrender, even on what
:-7DWXP$OZD\V,$P&DHVDU0DOGHQ±2[IRUG
48 5REHUW&RQQDO
Tacitus and others might consider disgraceful terms. That their surrender led to
WKHZURQJUHVXOWZDVGXHWRSHU¿G\RQWKHSDUWRIWKHLUHQHPLHVUDWKHUWKDQDQ\
ODFNRIUDWLRQDOLW\RQWKHSDUWRIWKHJDUULVRQDW9HWHUD
Attitudes of the mutineers
5DWLRQDOLW\DORQHOHDGVQRZKHUH+XPHFODLPHGWKDWUHDVRQLVDQGRXJKWRQO\
WREHWKHVODYHRIWKHSDVVLRQVDQGFDQQHYHUSUHWHQGWRDQ\RWKHURI¿FHWKDQWR
VHUYHDQGREH\WKHP In a period of civil war, it was natural that the passions
should sometimes run hot, but occasional bouts of seemingly uncontrolled behav-
LRXUFRXOGPDVNWKHSXUSRVHDVZHOODVWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIUDWLRQDOLW\7KHWURRSV
ZKRPXWLQLHGWKURXJKDQGEH\RQGWKH<HDURI)RXU(PSHURUVZHUHDFWLQJRXWRI
wishes and attitudes that, while not always admirable, were nonetheless usually
XQGHUVWDQGDEOHDQGQRWH[FHSWLRQDOO\PDUNHGE\IRROLVKQHVV
Most troops apparently thought it right and proper that a general should
HQULFKKLPVHOIEXWQRWDWWKHH[SHQVHRIKLVWURRSVZKRVHOR\DOW\ZRXOGTXLFNO\
YDQLVKLIWKH\WKRXJKWKHZDVNHHSLQJWRRPXFKWRKLPVHOI40 It was suspicion of
WKLVNLQGRIXQIDLUQHVVWKDWVHQWVROGLHUVSURGGLQJWKHJURXQGLQVHDUFKRIKLGGHQ
JROGDIWHUGULYLQJRIIWKHQRWRULRXVO\JUHHG\9DOHQV7DFhist. 2,29). The failure
RIWKHVHDUFKE\GHPRQVWUDWLQJKLVLQQRFHQFHQRGRXEWKHOSHGWRPDNHKLVVDIH
return welcome.
Though the acquisition of plunder was ubiquitous and readily accepted,
civil war in Italy raised, at least in theory, the question of whether Roman cities
could be plundered. However, perhaps relatively few soldiers believed strongly
that they could not; the rest acted in accordance with a natural desire to improve
WKHLU¿QDQFLDOSRVLWLRQ$FFRUGLQJWR'LRLWVGHIHDWHG9LWHOOLDQGHIHQGHUVMRLQHG
WKHYLFWRULRXV)ODYLDQVLQEXUQLQJDQGSOXQGHULQJ&UHPRQD'LR'HVSLWH
WKHFRQYHQWLRQWKDW5RPDQVFRXOGQRWEHHQVODYHGVROGLHUVDW&UHPRQDWRRNSULV-
oners all the same and, when ordered to release them, butchered a few instead,
ZKLFKHQFRXUDJHGWKHIDPLOLHVRIWKHVXUYLYRUVWR¿QGUDQVRPPRQH\7DFhist.
7KH UDWLRQDO WKRXJK KDUGO\ DGPLUDEOH DSSOLFDWLRQ RI IRUFH DFKLHYHG LWV
GHVLUHGHQG:KHQWKH)ODYLDQVUHDFKHG5RPH$QWRQLXV3ULPXVWULHGWRGHOD\
HQWU\LQWRWKHFLW\EHFDXVHKHIHDUHGWKDWKLVWURRSVDIWHUUHFHQW¿JKWLQJZRXOG
QRWWURXEOHWRVKRZUHVSHFWWRFLYLOLDQVRUVHQDWRUVDQGPLJKWHYHQDWWDFNVKULQHV
D. Hume, $7UHDWLVHRI+XPDQ1DWXUHYRO/RQGRQ±

40 -(OPRUH&-±
and temples.41+HZDVULJKW$IWHUWKHVSRLOVRI&UHPRQDWKH\ZRXOGQRWUHIXVH
the spoils of Rome.
0RVW VROGLHUV VHHP WR KDYH EHOLHYHG ¿UPO\ LQ OR\DOW\ DQG FRQVLGHUHG LW
a sound basis for their actions. Throughout the civil wars, soldiers tended to be
42
PRUHUHOLDEO\OR\DOWKDQWKHLURI¿FHUVZHUH and reacted strongly when they sus-
SHFWHGWKRVHRI¿FHUVRIGLVOR\DOW\RUWUHDVRQ/R\DOW\WR2WKRZHQWWRH[WUHPHV
ZKHQVROGLHUVFKRVHWRMRLQKLPLQVXLFLGH7DFhistEXWHYHQ9LWHOOLXVLQ
spite of his faults, managed to achieve a similarly devoted following. This was
no doubt helped by memories of his friendly and generous behaviour during his
VKRUW SHULRG DV OHJDWH RI /RZHU *HUPDQ\ 6XHW Vit ± ZKLFK DEVHQFH SUH-
VHUYHGXQGLPPHGEXWOR\DOW\WR9LWHOOLXVHYLGHQWO\SHUVLVWHGLQVROGLHUVZKRVH
SHUVRQDONQRZOHGJHRIWKHHPSHURUZDVVOLJKWDWEHVW,QGHHGWKHSHUVLVWHQWGH-
YRWLRQRI9LWHOOLDQWURRSVLQWKHIDFHRIWKHGHIHDWDQGGHDWKRIWKHLUHPSHURU
suggests loyalty to an image or idea, little affected by the reality of plentiful hu-
man failings.
7KHIDWHRI*DOEDKRZHYHUVXJJHVWVWKDWOR\DOW\ZDVDWOHDVWSDUWO\EDVHG
XSRQWKHH[SHFWDWLRQRIUHFLSURFLW\*DOEDKDGGRQHHYHU\WKLQJSRVVLEOHWRHQ-
VXUHWKHIDLOXUHRIKLVVLGHRIWKHEDUJDLQ2QDSSURDFKLQJ5RPHKHEXWFKHUHGD
JDWKHULQJRIVDLORUVZKRZLVKHGWREHFRQ¿UPHGLQWKHOHJLRQDU\VWDWXVWKDW1HUR
had promised them; then he increased the butchery by decimating the survivors.
He followed this pointless massacre by refusing to pay the donative promised
on his behalf by the murdered praetorian prefect Nymphidius Sabinus, stating
bluntly that it was his habit to levy soldiers rather than buy them.44*DOEDFRXOG
hardly be accused of determined loyalty to his soldiers, and few could have felt
WKDWWKH\RZHGPXFKOR\DOW\LQUHWXUQ+LVRZQOHJLRQ9,,*DOELDQDPLJKWKDYH
VXSSRUWHGKLPEXWLWKDGEHHQVHQWWR3DQQRQLD6HPSURQLXV'HQVXVZKRGLHG
to protect him, did more for his own posthumous reputation than for the doomed
HPSHURU7KHUHZHUHH[FHSWLRQVWRKLVIDLOXUHEXW*DOEDKDGRQO\DOLPLWHGDELOLW\
to inspire loyalty; and since they could not feel loyal to him, his troops had reason
on their side when they chose to abandon him.
41 Tac. hist7DFLWXVFODLPVWKDWWKHWURRSV
DQJHUZDVGXHWRDVXVSLFLRQWKDWSRVWSRQLQJ
WKHHQWU\LQWR5RPHGHOD\HGWKHLUYLFWRU\EXWWKHLULGHDRIYLFWRU\FRXOGHDVLO\LQFOXGHWKHNLQG
RIEHKDYLRXUWKDW$QWRQLXV3ULPXVIHDUHG
426HHHJ0RUJDQDERYHQ
'LR±7DFLWXVhist.FODLPVWKDWWKHLQLWLDOPDVVDFUHVKRFNHGHYHQWKRVHZKR
carried it out.
44 Tac. hist. 1,5; Suet. *DOED
50 5REHUW&RQQDO
&ORVHO\DOOLHGWRWKHTXHVWLRQRIOR\DOW\ZDVWKDWRIRDWKVDQGWKHLUVXSSRV-
HGO\ELQGLQJQDWXUH6ROGLHUVWRRNRDWKVVHULRXVO\RWKHUZLVHWKH\QHHGQRWKDYH
PXWWHUHGWKHQDPHRI9HVSDVLDQDVWKH\KDGHDUOLHUPXWWHUHGWKDWRI*DOED7DF
hist 7KH\ FRXOG KDYH VSRNHQ WKH GHWHVWHG QDPH DORXG DQG WKHQ TXLHWO\
IRUJRWWHQWKDWWKH\KDGSURPLVHGDQ\WKLQJ$GPLWWHGO\RDWKVGLGQRWDOZD\VODVW
:KHQGLVFRQWHQWZLWK*DOEDSDVVHGLQWRPXWLQ\WKHOHJLRQVLQ*HUPDQ\VZRUH
DOOHJLDQFHWRWKH6HQDWHDQG3HRSOHRI5RPHEXWWKDWRDWKZDVVRRQUHSODFHG
ZLWK RQH WR 9LWHOOLXV )RU 7DFLWXV WKH VSHHG\ DGRSWLRQ RI DQ RDWK WR 9LWHOOLXV
meant that the initial oath was meaningless,45 but that need not necessarily fol-
ORZ7KHRDWKWR6HQDWHDQG3HRSOHDOORZHGWKHWURRSVWRIHHOWKDWWKH\ZHUHOR\DO
to something, even if it was not the current emperor. That temporary oath, even
if not entirely realistic, was nonetheless rational; it served a useful purpose for
those who gave it, even if it had little value for those to whom it was given.
7KHODWHURDWKWRVHUYHWKH*DOOLF(PSLUHZDVDOVRUHSODFHGWKLVWLPHZLWK
a fresh oath to Rome, as soon as the affected legions were united with the forces
RI3HWLOLXV&HULDOLV,WZDVFOHDUO\H[SHGLHQWDWWLPHVWRFRPELQHEHOLHILQWKH
validity of oaths with a sensible, rational acceptance of their possible imperma-
QHQFH7KHRDWKWRWKH*DOOLF(PSLUHPD\QRWKDYHEHHQLPPHQVHO\SRSXODUEXW
survival demanded it and some of the troops involved might even have agreed
ZLWKWKHLU*DOOLFPDVWHUVWKDWWKHEXUQLQJRIWKHWHPSOHRI-XSLWHU%HVWDQG*UHDW-
est signalled the end of Roman dominion./LYLQJWR¿JKWIRUDSRVVLEO\YLDEOH
*DOOLF(PSLUHFRXOGVHHPDUHDVRQDEOHDOWHUQDWLYHWRG\LQJIRUD5RPDQ(PSLUH
DSSURDFKLQJLWVUXLQ7KH¿QDOWHVW±¿JKWLQJIRUWKH*DOOLF(PSLUHDJDLQVW5R-
PDQHQHPLHVZKRKDGDIWHUDOOVXUYLYHGWKHLUSURPLVHGGHVWUXFWLRQ±QHYHUFDPH
DERXWDQGSHUKDSVIHZHYHUEHOLHYHGWKDWLWZRXOG,WZDVVLJQL¿FDQWWKDWLQVSLWH
RIWKHLURDWKVWRWKH*DOOLF(PSLUHWKH\ZHUHVHQWVRXWKWR$XJXVWD7UHYLURUXP
ZKHUHWKH\UHPDLQHGXQXVHGXQWLOWKHDUP\RI3HWLOLXV&HULDOLVDUULYHGZKHQLW
ZDVWLPHIRUDQRWKHUOHVVUHOXFWDQWRDWKWR9HVSDVLDQ
0RVW VROGLHUV WRRN SULGH LQ WKHLU SURIHVVLRQDO VNLOOV DQG H[SHFWHG WKRVH
VNLOOVWREHXVHGHIIHFWLYHO\LWZDVWKHLPSUHVVLRQWKDWWKH\ZHUHQRWEHLQJXVHG
WRJRRGHIIHFWWKDWFDXVHGWKHPXWLQ\DJDLQVW&DHFLQDDW$G&DVWRUHV8QWLOGHFL-
VLYHO\GHIHDWHGLQEDWWOHRUIRUFHGWRVXUUHQGHUDVWKHGHIHQGHUVRI9HWHUDZHUH
45 Tac. hist,WPD\KDYHPHDQWOLWWOHWRPDQ\RUPRVWRIWKHRI¿FHUVEXWWKDWZRXOGQRW
QHFHVVDULO\SUHYHQWRUGLQDU\VROGLHUVIURPWDNLQJLWVHULRXVO\$OVRDQRDWKJLYHQWRDQHPSHURU
PLJKWEHVHHQDVH[WHQGLQJUDWKHUWKDQUHSODFLQJDQRDWKWR6HQDWHDQG3HRSOH
7DFLWXV ZULWHV RI *DOOLF FODLPV WKDW 5RPDQ SRZHU ZDV FRPLQJ WR DQ HQG DV D UHVXOW RI
superstitious Druidism (Tac. hist. 4,54) but superstition was hardly alien to Roman soldiers
(e.g. Tac. DQQ 1,28 on the effects of a lunar eclipse).
by impossible circumstances, ordinary soldiers in the civil wars tended to favour

action over inaction and battle over submission (Tac. hist6RPHWLPHV
WKRVHSUHIHUHQFHVZHUHWURXEOHVRPHWRWKHLURI¿FHUVDVZKHQWKHSUDHWRULDQVRI
9HVWULFLXV 6SXULQQD LQVLVWHG RQ DFWLRQ UDWKHU WKDQ UHPDLQLQJ DW 3ODFHQWLD 7DF
hist±RUZKHQVRPHRI2WKR
VVXSSRUWHUVUHIXVHGWRJLYHLQHYHQDIWHU
his death (Tac. hist1RQHWKHOHVVHQWKXVLDVPZDVPRUHOLNHO\WREHDYLUWXH
than a defect, and occasional mutiny was perhaps not an impossible price for its
YDOXHLQEHWWHUFLUFXPVWDQFHV3URIHVVLRQDOSULGHDQGHQWKXVLDVPQHHGQRWLPSO\
DEOLQGORYHRIEDWWOHHDJHUQHVVWRSXWWKHLUVNLOOVWRXVHFRXOGH[LVWDORQJVLGHD
distaste for the horrors of civil war and the inglorious business of slaughtering
fellow Romans (Tac. hist 2UGLQDU\ VROGLHUV ZHUH SHUKDSV OHVV WURXEOHG
WKDQWKHLURI¿FHUVE\WKRXJKWVRIPLOLWDU\JORU\(YHQ&LFHURDWKLVPRVWEHOOL-
cose hardly a thoughtless warmonger, recommended that young men should try
WRZLQJORU\WKURXJKPLOLWDU\VHUYLFH&LFRII. 2,45), but these were men who
FRXOGH[SHFWWRFRQYHUWPLOLWDU\JORU\LQWRVWDWXVDQGLQÀXHQFH)RUWKHRUGLQDU\
VROGLHUPLOLWDU\JORU\ZDVSHUKDSVDPLQRULW\LQWHUHVWD¿QHWKLQJIRUWKRVHZLWK
ambitions to carry a centurion's vine-rod but less attractive than survival to those
whose ambitions were centred on their retirement prospects.
Conclusions
7KHVROGLHUVRIWKH<HDURI)RXU(PSHURUVZHUHQRWDOZD\VUHPDUNDEOHIRUWKH
strength of their moral principles, but even their worst behaviour, for all its seem-
ing senselessness, could derive from the rational pursuit of their aims and rational
insistence on matters that they considered important. They did not always agree
among themselves, but some common sources of action may be discerned, not
wholly foolish in spite of their sometimes unfortunate results.
In long years devoted to military service, soldiers developed strong views
about how that service should be handled. Some of their attitudes they may have
OHDUQHGIURPWKHLURI¿FHUVEXWLWZDVQRWWKHRI¿FHUVZKRWDXJKWWKHPWRLQVLVWRQ
OR\DOW\WRDGRRPHGHPSHURUORQJDIWHUWKHRI¿FHUVWKHPVHOYHVKDGVHHQWKHVHQVH
RIFKDQJLQJVLGHV1RULVLWOLNHO\WKDWRI¿FHUVWDXJKWWKHPWRGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQ
RDWKVWKDWPXVWEHNHSWDQGRDWKVWKDWFRXOGEHGLVFDUGHGRUPRGL¿HG7KDWFKRLFH
ZDVQRWLQWHQGHGIRUWKHRUGLQDU\VROGLHUZKRLQVLVWHGRQPDNLQJLWQRQHWKHOHVV
usually in pursuit of his own aims.
Mutiny gave the ordinary soldier the means of pressing other claims, re-
ÀHFWLQJDWWLWXGHVDQGPRWLYHVWKDWKHFRQVLGHUHGLPSRUWDQW+HDFFHSWHGWKHRU-
52 5REHUW&RQQDO
GLQDU\ULVNVRIKLVSURIHVVLRQEXWKHSUHIHUUHGQRWWRKDYHKLVOLIHRUKLVVNLOOV
wasted by a thoughtless or inconsiderate commander; nor would he accept the
GLPLQXWLRQRIKLVUHZDUGVE\DJUHHG\RQH,IKHZDVH[SHFWHGWRGHPRQVWUDWH
OR\DOW\WKHQVRVKRXOGKLVFRPPDQGHUVDQGRI¿FHUVDQGPXWLQ\ZDVWKHFRPPRQ
PHDQV RI GHPRQVWUDWLQJ WKH VROGLHU
V GLVJXVW ZLWK D FRPPDQGHU OLNH &DHFLQD
who failed to live up to the proper standards.
Mutiny, however, was also the means by which soldiers argued and fought
out their own disagreements. There were no doubt as many shades of opinion in
DQ\JURXSRIPXWLQRXVVROGLHUVDVDPRQJVWULNLQJZRUNHUVRIPRGHUQWLPHVDQG
those disagreements, at their worst, could lead to ferocious acts of violence. Even
when soldiers appear to act in consort it is advisable to question their apparent
DJUHHPHQWRIWHQDSURGXFWRIWKHDQFLHQW±DQGPRGHUQ±WHQGHQF\WRGLPLQLVK
individual and group differences or reduce them to simple dichotomies: better
DQGZRUVHOR\DODQGGLVOR\DOZLVHDQGZLWOHVV$Q\IDLUVL]HGJDWKHULQJRIPXWL-
neers, each rationally, if not always wisely, following his personal interests, could
be all those things at once, and more besides.
8QLYHUVLW\RI-\YlVN\Ol
Arctos 46 (2012) 53–58
HARMONIA MUNDI – EINE INDIGENE GOTTHEIT,

GRIECHISCHE MYTHOLOGIE UND RÖMISCHE ÜBERNAHME
ULRIKE EHMIG – RUDOLF HAENSCH
Im Zuge des Lissos-Projektes des Albanischen und des Deutschen Archäologi-

schen Instituts und des damit verbundenen "Albanienkurses" des DAI im Frühjahr
2009 wurde der Autor beim Besuch des Museums in Shkodër auf einen kleinen
Altar aufmerksam. Daß dieser bislang unpubliziert ist, ergab sich bei der Arbeit
an dem im Oktober 2012 erschienenen Corpus "Die Lateinischen Inschriften aus
Albanien" (LIA).1 Dank der freundlichen Vermittlung von Ghezim Hoxha (Al-
banisches Archäologisches Institut) und der Erlaubnis von Shpresa Gjongecaj,
Direktorin des Instituts, wurde den Bearbeitern des Corpus gestattet, auch dieses
Stück erstmals vorzulegen (LIA 12). Da die in der Inschrift zu fassende Göttin,
Harmonia, einen bisher nicht bezeugten Kultur- und Kultaustausch zwischen in-
digener, griechischer und römischer Welt belegt, ist es sinnvoll, sie separat vor-
zustellen.
Im Historischen Museum von Shkodër ist das Bruchstück eines Weihe-
altars von etwa 27 cm Höhe und 23 cm Breite ausgestellt. Der Stein ist in der
Höhe nicht vollständig erhalten. Die Buchstabenhöhe liegt bei 2,7 cm (Abb. 1).
Die Fundumstände des Altars in der sonst inschriftenarmen römischen Kolonie
Scodra2 oder ihrer Umgebung sind nicht mehr zu ermitteln.
Die Inschrift ist in der Breite nahezu vollständig; die Zeilen reichen links
und rechts bis an den Rand des Steins und lassen nur geringfügige Ab- bzw.
hEHUDUEHLWXQJHQHUNHQQHQhEHUGHQ6FKULIW]HLOHQEH¿QGHWVLFKHLQYRUVSULQJHQ-
des, weitgehend vollständig erhaltenes Gesims. Die Zone darüber scheint abge-
arbeitet oder stark bestoßen. Weder die formal-dekorative Gestaltung des Steins
1 U. Ehmig – R. Haensch, Die Lateinischen Inschriften aus Albanien (LIA), Bonn 2012.
2 So CIL III 12695 = ILS 7159 [p]on[t.] in co[l.] Sc[o]dr.; vgl. Plin. nat. 3,144. Die Erwähnung
eines Dekurionenbeschlusses in LIA 13 (= CILA 7) führt nicht weiter. Darüber hinaus sind aus
Scodra bisher nur noch vier lateinische Inschriften bekannt geworden: LIA 14–17.
54 Ulrike Ehmig – Rudolf Haensch
noch die Schrift erlauben eine präzisere zeitliche Einordnung als die in die "Hohe
Kaiserzeit" (ca. 50–240 n. Chr.). Der Altar trägt folgende Inschrift:
Harmo|niae sac(rum) | [. (?)]naius | ------
Geht man nach der Epigraphik-Datenbank3 von Manfred Clauss und Wolfgang
Slaby (EDCS), ist "Harmonia" in lateinischen Inschriften bisher lediglich als
Frauenname in Italien, Spanien, Nordafrika und der Dalmatia bezeugt.4 Das in
der Inschrift folgende "sac(rum)" aber macht einen solchen unwahrscheinlich. Es
läßt vielmehr an eine Weihung an eine Gottheit denken und zwar die aus der grie-
chischen Welt stammende ǹƲvưƮơƣ. Bei ihr handelte es sich nach unterschied-
lichen Mythologien um eine Tochter des Ares und der Aphrodite oder des Zeus
und der Pleiade Elektra. Sie galt als Vertreterin der in der bürgerlichen Welt wal-
tenden Ordnung und Schönheit beziehungsweise als Mutter der Chariten oder
Musen.5 Bekannt war vor allem ihre Hochzeit mit Kadmos, dem Herrscher von
Theben, an der die olympischen Götter teilgenommen hatten. Das Thema fand
vielfach Eingang in die antike Literatur und Kunst.6
Aber selbst in der griechischen Welt war die Gottheit anscheinend eher
von untergeordneter Bedeutung.7 Ihr Kult stammte wohl aus Böotien und ge-
wann später eine gewisse Rolle im Rahmen der Verehrung der Kabiren auf Samo-
thrake. In griechischsprachigen Inschriften erscheint – zumindest nach der PHI
Datenbank "Searchable Greek Inscriptions" zu urteilen –, ǹƲvưƮơƣ wiederum
YRUDOOHPDOVQLFKWEHVRQGHUVKlX¿JHUDEHUEHUDOOLPEHWUHIIHQGHQ6SUDFKUDXP
verbreiteter Frauenname.8 Auf die Göttin zu beziehen sind nur Vermerke in den
nach 166 v. Chr. zu datierenden Inventarlisten von Delos – es wird darin auf ein
Standbild verwiesen –, in den tabulae Iliacae und in einer Lobrede auf die Kulte
3 Alle genannten Datenbanken wurden im Mai und Juni 2012 konsultiert.

4CIL II2 14, 1, 261; CIL VI 22258; CIL VI 35044; CIL VIII 13223; CIL X 2496; CIL X 6187;
EE VIII 1, 451 = AE 1999, 454; AE 1973, 199; AE 1982, 180; AE 1993, 232; BCAR 1923, 93;
HEp 4, 1994, 914; ILJug III 1849 = AE 1986, 553; vielleicht CIL V 332 = IItal. X 2, 9.
5 Vgl. Sittig, RE I 7,2 (1912) 2379–88 s. v. Harmonia; W. H. Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon
der griechischen und römischen Mythologie I 2, Leipzig 1886–90, 1830–32 s. v. Harmonia.
6 Vgl. – auch zum folgenden – Roscher (Anm. 5) II 1, 824–893 s. v. Kadmos und zuletzt D.
Fernández-Galiano Ruiz, "Cadmo y Harmonía: imagen, mito y arquología", JRA 5 (1992)
162–77, ferner die in Anm. 10 genannte Literatur.
7 S. E. Paribeni, LIMC IV 1, 412–4; IV 2, 238–40.
8 Belege in allen Bänden von LGPN.
Harmonia mundi 55
von Samothrake.9 Ein griechischsprachiger Altar oder gar die Bauinschrift eines
Tempels für ǹƲvưƮơƣ sind allem Anschein nach nicht bekannt.
Wie kann vor diesem Hintergrund der Fund eines entsprechenden, zudem
lateinischen Altars an der südlichen Grenze der römischen Provinz Dalmatia in-
WHUSUHWLHUWZHUGHQ",QGHUJULHFKLVFKHQ/LWHUDWXU¿QGHWVLFKQHEHQGHQ'DUVWHO-
lungen der Herkunft und "Aufgaben" der Harmonia sowie den Beschreibungen
ihrer Hochzeit mit Kadmos noch ein weiterer Komplex von Erzählungen. Es
handelt sich um die verschiedenen Darstellungen des letztendlichen Schicksals
des Paares Kadmos und Harmonia. Jenseits aller Unterschiede ist diesen gemein,
GDEHLGHDXV7KHEHQYHUWULHEHQZXUGHQQDFK,OO\ULHQÀRKHQXQGGRUWHQWZHGHU
verstarben oder in Schlangen verwandelt wurden. Ein erheblicher Teil dieser Er-
zählungen nimmt dabei mehr oder weniger konkret Bezug auf unmittelbar bei
oder südlich von Scodra gelegene Örtlichkeiten im Gebiete des antiken Epirus,
also der Grenzregion der beiden römischen Provinzen Dalmatia und Macedonia
beziehungsweise des heutigen nördlichen Albaniens.10 Gerade die älteste dieser
Nachrichten ist recht präzise: Nach § 24 des wohl um 340 v. Chr. zu datieren-
GHQ3HULSOXVGHV3VHXGR6N\OD[EHIDQGHQVLFKEHLGHP]ZDUQLFKWLGHQWL¿]LHUWHQ
aber sicher zwischen Naron und Epidamnum gelegenen Fluß Arion (?) zwei Stei-
QH)HOVHQGLH.DGPRVXQG+DUPRQLDYHUVLQQELOGOLFKWHQXQGHLQ+HLOLJWXPțĮɚ
ƍƞƦvưƶƬƣɚǹƲvưƮơƣƳưȝƭơƪưƫƧȜƴɚƮȀƮƵƣ˃ƪƣƬƣɚȝƧƲɜƮǴƱưƪƧƮƵư˃ǸƲơƺƮưƳ
9 IDelos 1442, 43; 1452 C 16 f., vgl. 1434, 8; IG XIV 1285 II und SEG 35, 1044; IPriene 69, 7.
10 Für die gesamte Überlieferung vgl. Roscher (Anm. 5) II 1, 849–53, 863 und Sittig (Anm.
5) 2386 sowie vor allem M. Šašel Kos, "Cadmus and Harmonia in Illyria", AAV 44 (1993)
113–36; jetzt auch dies., "Mythological Stories concerning Illyria and its name", in: P. Cabanes
– J.-L. Lamboley (ed.), L'Illyrie méridionale et l'Epire dans l'antiquité IV, Paris 2004, 493–
504. Neben dem im Text besprochenen Ps.-Skylax sind zu erwähnen: Erat. bei Steph. Byz. s.
v. Dyrrachium: das Grab der beiden bei den Flüssen Drilon und Aoos (?; diese Emendation
wird akzeptiert von Šašel Kos; dagegen aber N. G. L. Hammond, Epirus, Oxford 1967, 467
Anm. 3) – vgl. Apoll. Rhod. 4,516 f., Nik. Ther. 607–9; Phylarchos bei Athen. deipn. 11,462
B: ein Mnemeion für das Paar bei einem ansonsten unbekannten, aber wegen Prok. aed. 4,4
sehr wahrscheinlich in Epirus Nova gelegenen Ort namens Kylikes; Dion. Per. 390 f. und
Eust. ad Dion. Per. 391 (GGM II 127. 289), vgl. Kall. frg. 11 (Pfeiffer I 20 f.): bei einer
Meeresbucht an den Keraunischen Bergen das Grab des Paares; Nonn. 44,116 f.: das Paar
sei zu steinernen Schlangen bei einer Mündung in die Adria geworden. Vgl. auch Šašel Kos
passim zu den Enchelei, über die das Paar angeblich geherrscht hatte; zu diesen weiterhin
LQVEHVRQGHUH5.DWLþLü'LH(QFKHOHHUGod. Cen. Balk. Isp. 15 (1977) 5–82 und jetzt auch
S. Palazzo, "Ethne e poleis lungo il primo tratto della Via Egnatia: La prospettiva di una fonte",
in: C. Antonetti (ed.), Lo spazio ionico e le comunità della Grecia nord-occidentale. Territorio,
società, istituzioni, Pisa 2010, 273–90.
Abb. 1
ƱưƵƣvư˃.11 Allem Anschein nach war ein indigener (Schlangen12-)Kult gegebe-

nenfalls nicht nur an einem, sondern mehreren Orten in einer interpretatio Graeca
mit einem griechischen Mythos verbunden worden und der so gewandelte Kult
existierte auch noch in der römischen Kaiserzeit.
11 Ps.-Skyl. Periplus 24 (GGM I 30 f. wird jetzt ersetzt durch G. Shipley, Pseudo-Skylax's

Periplous. The Circumnavigation of the Inhabited World, Bristol 2011), zur handschriftlichen
hEHUOLHIHUXQJ XQG ]X GHQ ,GHQWL¿NDWLRQVYHUVXFKHQ QHEHQ 6KLSOH\ D 2 LQVEHVRQGHUH
auch Šašel Kos (Anm. 10) 122 f. mit Anm. 75, deren Textrekonstruktion hier wie auch bei P.
&RXQLOOLRQ/H3pULSOHGX3VHXGR6F\OD[HWO
$GULDWLTXHLQ6ýDþH$.XULOLü)
Tassaux (ed.), Les routes de l'adriatique antique, Bordeaux – Zadar 2006, 19–29 gefolgt wird.
12 Zu solchen, für die Region typischen Kulten z. B. S. Düll, Die Götterkulte Nordmakedoniens
in römischer Zeit, München 1977, 137–41 und jetzt insbesondere Šašel Kos (Anm. 10) 125.
Šašel Kos verweist auch (mit älterer Literatur) auf zwei Bronzebleche aus hellenistischer Zeit,
die in Selcë Poshtme auf der albanischen Seite des Ochridsees und bei Gostilj in Crna Gora
in Montenegro gefunden wurden, und auf denen eine Schlange dargestellt ist, die "griechisch"
gerüstete Krieger gegen Barbaren unterstützt.
Harmonia mundi 57
Man möchte gerne wissen, welche Inhalte den Kult in dieser Zeit für einen
römischen Bürger attraktiv machten. Dachte man tatsächlich noch immer an die
in eine Schlange verwandelte Frau eines Königs von Theben, oder hatten die ge-
nerellen Bedeutungen von Harmonia im Griechischen wie im Lateinischen – also
der gute harmonische Zusammenklang, insbesondere auch im Bereich der Musik
– an Bedeutung gewonnen? Bedauerlicherweise weist der Altar keine Darstel-
lung auf, die in dieser Hinsicht Anhaltspunkte liefern könnte.
Keine klare Antwort läßt sich auch auf die Frage nach der genaueren eth-
nischen Herkunft des Dedikanten geben. Zunächst ist sein Name nur partiell er-
halten. Die in Zeile 2 erkennbare Buchstabenfolge NAIVS, der eventuell ein wei-
teres Zeichen vorausging, läßt unterschiedliche Ergänzungen in Betracht ziehen.
Zunächst möchte man an ein ausgeschriebenes praenomen Cnaius denken, dem
in weiteren, verlorenen Zeilen die übrigen Namensbestandteile folgen müßten.
Mehrere Überlegungen aber machen dies unwahrscheinlich: Ausgeschriebene
praenomina waren in den Provinzen bei in Stein gemeißelten Inschriften nicht
üblich. Auch eine abusive Verwendung als nomen gentile durch einen Provinzia-
len, von der Endung –ius verführt, ist eher unwahrscheinlich. Zwar ist eine solche
Praxis für andere praenominaYHUJOHLFKVZHLVHKlX¿JEHOHJWVSH]LHOOIUCnaius
aber bisher nur einmal in einer lateinischen Inschrift zu fassen.13 Zudem ist in
dieser Zeit die Schreibweise Cnaeus und nicht Cnaius die wesentlich üblichere.14
Allerdings weist Olli Salomies in seiner Studie zu den römischen Vorna-
men auf folgendes, seiner Ansicht nach letztlich nicht zu erklärendes Phänomen
hin: "Die Form ƐƣʴưƳ scheint im späten 1. Jh. v. Chr. und im frühen 1. Jh. n. Chr.
IDVWRI¿]LHOOHQ&KDUDNWHU>DOV:LHGHUJDEHYRQ&QDHXV@JHKDEW]XKDEHQ15 Es
ist zu erwägen, ob in der hier vorgestellten Inschrift ein entsprechendes Zeugnis
vorliegt – gleich ob Naius dabei als ausgeschriebenes praenomen oder nomen
gentile fungierte.16 Schließlich ergäbe sich selbst bei der Annahme, vor dem N
13 CIL XI 2149, cf. p. 1278 (Clusium).

149JO]XUUHODWLYHQ+lX¿JNHLWGLH(SLJUDSKLN'DWHQEDQN&ODXVV6ODE\)UGLHDXVJHVFKULHEHQH
)RUP¿QGHQVLFKGRUWEHUZLHJHQG=HXJQLVVHDXVGHP%HUHLFKGHVVRJHQDQQWHQLQVWUXPHQWXP
domesticum. Ausgeschrieben erscheint Cnaei nur zweimal im Rahmen einer Filiation: ICUR
VII 18576; ILTG 159 = AE 1960, 291. CIL III 3258, cf. p. 1041 ist nicht einschlägig, da in der
zugrunde liegenden Handschrift nur der Inhalt der Inschrift referiert wurde.
15 O. Salomies, Die römischen Vornamen, Helsinki 1987, 29 f.
16 Naius als cognomen in AE 1984, 355 (Cluviae, Prov. Chieti); als Individualname vielleicht
auch in AE 1969/70, 521 = RIU VI 1481 nach der Lesung bei G. Alföldy, Specimina nova 18
(2004) 38 (cf. AE 2004, 1133).
fehle ein Buchstabe, nur noch die Möglichkeit des äußerst seltenen Anaius.17
Für einen längeren Namen bietet der Stein keinen Platz. Möglicherweise liefert
also nicht nur die Gottheit, sondern auch der Name des Stifters des Monumentes
einen Hinweis auf eher ungewöhnliche Beispiele von Kulturaustausch zwischen
indigener, griechischer und römischer Welt.
Universität Wien – Kommission für Alte Geschichte und Epigraphik des

Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts
17 S. H. Solin – O. Salomies, Repertorium nominum gentilium et cognominum Latinorum,

Hildesheim – Zürich – New York 1994, 223. Anaius: CIL IX 3827 = CIL I2 1772 (p. 1034.
1036), Supinum Vicus; ICUR VIII 22169a, Rom; vgl. auch Tit Aq. II 517.
Arctos±
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ZDVDOUHDG\LQSULQWDK\SRWKHVLVUHJDUGLQJWKLVFDVHRFFXUUHGWRPH*LYHQWKDW
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element of which may disclose the genitive of a male name (and not the gen.ǍƞƲƮưƫư,ODPE
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2,WPXVWEHGXO\QRWHGWKDWEHFDXVHRIWKHXQOLNHO\FRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQZDQR and ǰƲƠƮ,ǰƲƮƽƳ
(cf. n. 1), a reference to Hom. ȒȞȠȥZDVWHQWDWLYHO\VXJJHVWHGORQJDJRE\$QQD0RUSXUJR

0LND.DMDYD
ưƹ,is evidently based on the element*ǍƩƮRIXQNQRZQRULJLQIRUWKHREYLRXV

LQÀXHQFH RI WKH GLJDPPD see Hom. ,O Ƭƣɚ ȐƮưƱƫ ƸƣƭƬˑ; ,O
OdȀƮɚȐƮưƱƫƸƣƭƬˑ). Notwithstanding the problem that one cannot
show conclusively that Ʃ (in ȒȞȠȥUHSUHVHQWVƗ, and not an original Ɲ,4 there is
a good possibility that ZDQR could beunderstood as /‫ܜ‬ƗQRV/§ ǍƩƮưƳ) with
initial ZD > (Ǎ)Ʃ.56HPDQWLFDQGFRQWH[WXDODQDO\VLVRIWKHXVHRIERWKȒȞȠȥDQG
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the following discussion does not solve the etymology of these words, it may cast
some light on their meaning, thus hopefully providing further information about
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it also suggested the metals' golden-brown colouring.7 In this sense, it may be
compared with two further Homeric -ưƹDGMHFWLYHVLHƮːƲưƹ(of obscure deri-
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&RQJULQWHUQPLFHQRORJLD:RXOGDFRQQHFWLRQZLWK+RPHULFȒȞȠȥEHSRVVLEOH"
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QRWSXUVXHWKHLVVXHIXUWKHUWKHLGHDVHHPVWRKDYHEHHQIRUJRWWHQQRWLFHGLQVTXDUHEUDFNHWV
by L. Baumbach, *ORWWD 49 [1971] 158, s.v. ǰƲƠƮ).
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ion. ȒƮưƹ ein urgr. *ΒƮưƹZLWKXQWHQDEOHIXUWKHUUHFRQVWUXFWLRQ
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FRO,9ǍǵƦư=vƩ?ǍşǵƦưvƠ, with M. L. West, =3(
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0LQRVQV±>±@±DGG,G$HYXP>@-:HLOKDUWQHU0LQRV n. s.
±>±@±
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of appropriate colours. For ǰƲƥƠƳ / ǰƲƥƽƳ, and the derivatives, see Arctos±±
&RPPHQWDWRUVXVXDOO\JORVVHGȒƮưƹ as ƭƣvƱƲƽƳIRUVRPHIDQWDVWLFH[SODQDWLRQVFI$SROO
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ǴƮưƱƣ, and Eusth. DG+RP Od. YRO,SȚƮưƹƦɖƬƣɚƮ˃ƮƸƣƭƬɜƳȎȭȄvƷƺƮưƳ
ɅƳƬƣɚǰƭƭƣƸư˃ƬƣƭːƳȀƥƲƞƷƩȎȭƦƫƣƶƥɘƳƦƫˡưȿȄƴƵƫƮȀƮưƱƵƲơƨƧƴƪƣƫ.
8 Scholiasts referred to brightness and to the blinding effect it caused, e.g., Eusth. DG+RP,O
,S±ƐƿƲưƱƣƦɖƸƣƭƬɜƮƭƟƥƧƫƵɜƮƭƣvƱƲɜƮƬƣɚƴƵƧƲơƴƬưƮƵƣƵư˃ȭƲʗƮ
ZDQR.1&K
the dative (and the former also in the accusative) as epithets of ƸƣƭƬƽƳin similar
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with the red poppies, creates an impressive combination of colour tones. Suda Ʃ
VYȒƮưƹ, duly glossed the epithet with ƵưƶƵƟƴƵƫƱƶƲƲɜƮƴʴƵưƮ.12
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as personal human names, and they sometimes occur as names of both men and
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personal names NDVDWR § ȄȐȞșȠȢ %ORQG )DLU >\HOORZ EURZQLVK DXEXUQ@
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Whether an early form corresponding to Hom. ȒƮưƹwas ever used in My-
FHQDHDQ*UHHNLVXQNQRZQEXWVXUHO\LWFRXOGKDYHEHHQ+RZHYHUDVWKHUHLV
no etymology for *ǍƩƮ nor for ZDQR either, such a hypothetical word remains
beyond reach. But if there is the sort of semantic connection between ȒƮưƹ (<
*ǍʦƮưƹ)and ZDQRVXJJHVWHGKHUHWKHQRQHPLJKWWKLQNRIDSRVVHVVLYHFRP-
pound in /-ǀN‫ܜ‬-sFRPSDUDEOHWR31SRNLURTR /3RLNLOǀN‫ܜ‬s3<$QP$T
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ưȢƮưƹ).15&RXOGLWEHWKDW ‫ܜ‬ƗQǀN‫ܜ‬s/ (or, as an o-stem, */‫ܜ‬ƗQǀN‫ܜ‬RV/) denoted
VRPHRQHKDYLQJDWDZQ\IDFHRUGDUNDQGJOHDPLQJH\HVZKDWHYHUWKHH[DFW
PHDQLQJDQGRULJLQRIWKHFRORXULWHP ‫ܜ‬ƗQPD\KDYHEHHQ"7KHSUREOHPLV
E.g., HUXWRUR§ʮƈƲƶƪƲưƳ, NDUDXNR§Ɔƭƣ˃ƬưƳ, NDVDWR§ȄȐȞșȠȢSXZR[also f. SX
ZD@§ȆȪȡȡȠȢUHXNR§ƎƧ˃ƬưƳVHH-&KDGZLFN'RFXPHQWVLQ0\FHQDHDQ *UHHN2
UHIHUHQFHVLQWKHJORVVDU\
14 ƑƞƮƪưƳ ƓƾƲǍưƳ ƎƧ˃ǉưƳandƆƭƣ˃ǉưƳ(cf. previous note), for instance,are all documented
DVQDPHVRIKRUVHVRQHDUO\&RULQWKLDQSRWWHU\RUSLQDNHV2IWKHVHƑƞƮƪưƳ was rather popular,
EHLQJDOVRIRXQGRQ&KDOFLGLDQYDVHVDJHQHUDOVXUYH\LVLQ:DFKWHU>FLWQ@±
15 +RPHU IUHTXHQWO\ FDOOV WKH VHD ZLQHGDUN EXW WKH HSLWKHW LV DOVR DSSOLHG WR D SDLU RI
SORXJKLQJR[HQƤƽƧưȠƮưƱƧ (,OOdDQGLVIRXQGDVDPDQ

VQDPHLQOd. 21,144
/HLRGHVWKHVDFUL¿FLDOSULHVWIRUWKHVXLWRUVRI3HQHORSHDQGWKH¿UVWWRDWWHPSWWRVWULQJWKH
ERZZDVWKHVRQRI2LQRSV$OWKRXJKWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQLVRIWHQDFFHSWHGFI'LFF0LF II 444),
ZRQRTRVRKDUGO\PHDQVZLWKZLQHGDUNFURXS ‫ܜ‬RLQRN‫ܜ‬RUVRV/).
)RU0\FHQDHDQFRPSRXQGQDPHVZLWKHLWKHUÛǀN‫ܜ‬RUÛǀN‫ܜ‬-o-/ as the second element, see
0%X]DONRYVND$OHNVRYDLQ6'HJHU-DONRW]\±6+LOOHU±23DQDJOHGV)ORUHDQW6WXGLD
0\FHQDHD. $NWHQ;0\N&ROO6DO]EXUJ,±-/*DUFtD5DPyQ)DYHQWLD
ZLWKDGLVFXVVLRQRIHURTR3<(DSUREDEO\WREHLQWHUSUHWHGDV
a possessive compound: *HULǀN‫ܜ‬RV,TXHWLHQHJUDQRMR
ZDQR.1&K
however, that, in the case of ȒƮưƹ, not only the etymology of *ǍƩƮ, but also the
derivation of the element -ưƹ remains opaque with no necessary relation to *-ǀN‫ܜ‬,
H\HIDFH*LYHQVXFKXQFHUWDLQW\RQHPLJKWGRZHOOWRRSWIRUDFRPSRXQG
SHUVRQDOQDPHIRUPHGVRPHZKDWIUHHO\OLNHWKHDEEUHYLDWHGFRPSRXQGVZLWK
WKHRQRPDVWLFVXI¿[os/.17 This is all speculation, though, with little relevance
to the above semantic analysis of the Mycenaean ZDQR.
8QLYHUVLW\RI+HOVLQNL
17 $EEUHYLDWHG IRUPV RI FRPSRXQGV - / *DUFtD 5DPyQ LQ< 'XKRX[ ±$ 0RUSXUJR
Davies (eds.), $&RPSDQLRQWR/LQHDU%0\FHQDHDQ*UHHN7H[WVDQGWKHLU:RUOG II (2011),

±2Q0\FFRPSRXQGVLQJHQHUDOVHH)0-:DDQGHUV$Q$QDO\WLF6WXG\RI0\FHQDHDQ
&RPSRXQGV6WUXFWXUH7\SHV (2008).
Arctos±
ON HUMAN-ANIMAL SEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS

IN AELIAN'S DE NATURA ANIMALIUM
TUA KORHONEN
,QWKHFRXUVHRIKLVWRU\WKHSKHQRPHQRQRIKXPDQVKDYLQJVH[XDOLQWHUFRXUVH
ZLWKDQLPDOVKDVEHHQFDOOHGIRUH[DPSOHEHVWLDOLW\EXJJHU\VRGRP\]RRHUDVW\
]RRVH[XDOLW\DQG]RRSKLOLD$WWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHPRGHUQHUDWKLVNLQGRILQWHU-
course was considered to be a felony and a crime against nature, which, accord-
ing to the Mosaic Law (/H±PHDQWDGHDWKSHQDOW\IRUERWKWKHKXPDQ
and the animal.1,QFRQWUDVWLWKDVEHHQDUJXHGWKDW*UHHNDQG5RPDQOLWHUDWXUH
DQGDUWSURYLGHQXPHURXVUHIHUHQFHVWRKXPDQDQLPDOVH[XDOUHODWLRQVVHHPLQJO\
GHYRLGRIPRUDOMXGJPHQW27KHFDWHJRULHVRIHURWLFH[SHULHQFHDQGVH[XDOLW\LQ
WKH*UDHFR5RPDQZRUOGZHUHRIFRXUVHVRPHZKDWGLIIHUHQWIURPRXUV but is
*7KH¿UVWGUDIWRIWKLVSDSHU7KHQRWRULRXVNLQGRI]RRSKLOLDLQ$QWLTXLW\ZDVSUHVHQWHGDW
WKH0LQGLQJ$QLPDOV&RQIHUHQFH8WUHFKW-XO\±,DPJUDWHIXOWRWKHFRPPHQWDWRUV

LQWKHVHVVLRQHVSHFLDOO\WR-XGLWK&$GDPVIRUWKHGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHWHUPLQRORJ\ODWHURQDQG
WKHDQRQ\PRXVUHIHUHHVIRUWKHLUFRPPHQWV±DVZHOODVWR5REHUW:KLWLQJIRUFRPPHQWVDQG
language revision.
1 See also ([ 22:19, 'H2QWKHVHSDVVDJHVLQWKH0RVDLF/DZVHH3%HLUQH2QWKH
6H[XDODVVDXOWRI$QLPDOV$6RFLRORJLFDO9LHZLQ$1+&UHDJHU±:&-RUGDQHGV
7KH$QLPDO+XPDQ%RXQGDU\+LVWRULFDO3HUVSHFWLYHV5RFKHVWHU1<±2QWKH
FULPLQDOL]DWLRQRIEHVWLDOLW\LQWKHHDUO\PRGHUQSHULRGVHH-RKQ00XUULQ7KLQJV)HDUIXO
WR1DPH%HVWLDOLW\LQ(DUO\$PHULFDLQ&UHDJHU±-RUGDQRSFLW±3*0D[ZHOO
6WXDUW :LOG ¿OWKLH H[HFUDELOO GHWHVWDELO DQG XQQDWXUDO VLQ %HVWLDOLW\ LQ HDUO\ PRGHUQ
6FRWODQG0DQFKHVWHU()XGJH0RQVWURXV$FWV%HVWLDOLW\LQ(DUO\0RGHUQ(QJODQG
+LVWRU\7RGD\±
2 Beirne (above n. 1), 199; Fudge (above n. 1), 21.
0%6NLQQHU6H[XDOLW\LQ*UHHNDQG5RPDQ&XOWXUH2[IRUG±'0+DOSHULQ
±--:LQNOHU±),=HLWOLQ%HIRUH6H[XDOLW\7KH&RQVWUXFWLRQRI(URWLF([SHULHQFHLQWKH
$QFLHQW*UHHN:RUOG3ULQFHWRQ1-6HHDOVR-'DYLGVRQ7KH*UHHNVDQG*UHHN/RYH,
/RQGRQ±
Tua Korhonen
LWSODXVLEOHWKDWWKHDQFLHQWVZHUHPRUHWROHUDQWRIWKLVNLQGRIVH[XDOEHKDYLRXU
±RUVKRXOGZHVD\DQLPDODEXVH"
In the following, I will discuss this question from the point of view of
$HOLDQRU&ODXGLXV$HOLDQXVF±ZKRLQKLVSRSXODUQDWXUDOKLVWRU\UH-
ports about twenty cases of ardent human-animal affectionate relationships,4 thus
UHIHUULQJWRWKLVSKHQRPHQRQPRUHRIWHQWKDQDQ\RWKHUDQFLHQWZULWHUNQRZQWR
us.5$HOLDQ PHQWLRQV VRPH FDVHV RQO\ LQ SDVVLQJ VRPH PRUH HODERUDWHO\$O-
though we can interpret some of them as instances of imprinting (geese in love
ZLWKKXPDQVWKHUHUHPDLQRWKHUFDVHVWRSX]]OHRYHU,QWKHIROORZLQJ,ZLOO
GLVFXVVZKHWKHU$HOLDQGLVWLQJXLVKHVWKHHURWLFORYHDIIDLUVIURPPHUHGHYRWLRQ
DQGZKDWFDQEHVDLGDERXWKLVDWWLWXGHWRWKHKXPDQDQLPDOVH[XDOUHODWLRQVKLSV7
,ZLOOVWDUWZLWKWKHVH[XDOWHUPLQRORJ\LQDQWLTXLW\
Philia, erôs and zoophilia
-XGLWK&$GDPVDQGKHUFROOHDJXHVZKRKDYHVWXGLHGKXPDQDQLPDOVH[XDOUH-
lations as a present-day phenomenon, have suggested that one should distinguish
EHWZHHQEHVWLDOLW\]RRVH[XDOLW\DQG]RRSKLOLD$FFRUGLQJWRWKHVHVFKRODUVZH
PD\GH¿QHEHVWLDOLW\ as an activity or practice performed by individuals whose
VH[XDORULHQWDWLRQLVXVXDOO\WRZDUGVRWKHUKXPDQVZKLOH]RRVH[XDOLW\ denotes a
47KHDQLPDOVLQFOXGHGRJVDVHDOJHHVHDQGRWKHUELUGVDQGHVSHFLDOO\VQDNHVDQGGROSKLQV
$GRJRUDUDPRUDJRRVH±$HOLDQPHQWLRQVWKHGLIIHUHQWYHUVLRQVIHOOLQORYHZLWK*ODXFHWKH

KDUSLVWDGRJIHOOLQORYHZLWKDER\QDPHG;HQRSKRQDIHPDOHVQDNH
ZLWKDQ(J\SWLDQER\DPDOHVQDNHZLWKDQ$UFDGLDQER\DQGZLWKDER\QDPHG$OHXDV
DQGDPDOHVQDNHZLWKD-HZLVKJLUODQGZLWKWKHGDXJKWHURI6\EDULV
DVHDOZLWKDGLYHUDJRRVHZLWKDER\QDPHG$PSKLORFKXVDFRFNHUHOQDPHG
&HQWDXUXV ZLWK D UR\DO FXSEHDUHU D MDFNGDZ ZLWK D ER\ DQ HOHSKDQW
ZLWKDÀRZHUVHOOHUDQGYDULRXVGROSKLQVZLWKYDULRXVKXPDQV
>DK\PQDWWULEXWHGWR$ULRQ@,QDGGLWLRQWRWKHVHSDVVDJHVWKHUHDUHWKHWDOHVRIWKHJURRP
GHVLULQJWKHPDUHDQGWKHJRDWKHUGWKHVKHJRDWDQGWKHFDVHVWKDWUHSRUWDQLPDOV
DVVDXOWLQJZRPHQGRJVEDERRQVRUDSHVDQG,QDGGLWLRQ$HOLDQUHIHUVWR
3LQGDUVHHEHORZQFRQFHUQLQJWKHFDVHRIDJRDWKDYLQJLQWHUFRXUVHZLWKDZRPDQ$ERXW
the numbering of the new edition of NA I have used, see below n. 17.
5 )RU OLVWV RI WKH EHVWNQRZQ FDVHV LQ *UDHFR5RPDQ OLWHUDWXUH DQG LFRQRJUDSK\ VHH - *
<RXQJHU6H[LQWKHDQFLHQWZRUOGIURP$WR=/RQGRQ±1HZ<RUNEHVWLDOLW\DQG*
9RUEHUJ*ORVVDULXP(URWLFXP6WXWWJDUWFRLWXVFXP EUXWLVDQLPDOLEXV and VRGRPLD).
7KHPRUHHODERUDWHWDOHVDUHDQG
7)RUH[DPSOHRIGRJV
GHYRWLRQWRWKHLUPDVWHUV
2Q+XPDQ$QLPDO6H[XDO5HODWLRQVKLSVLQ$HOLDQ
V'H1DWXUD$QLPDOLXP
SUHFLVHVH[XDORULHQWDWLRQRIDSHUVRQWRZDUGVDQLPDOV7KHVDPHVFKRODUVVXJ-
gest that ]RRSKLOLD, which nowadays is in clinical use to refer both to the practice
DQGWRWKHRULHQWDWLRQVKRXOGEHUHVWULFWHGWRPHDQPDLQO\WKHQRQVH[XDOORYH
RIDQLPDOV+RZHYHUWKH\DUJXHWKDW]RRSKLOLDDOVRLQFOXGHVWKRVHRFFXUUHQFHV
ZKHUHDQLQGLYLGXDOH[SHULHQFHVDWUDQVLWLRQIURPDORYLQJDWWDFKPHQWWRVH[XDO
DWWUDFWLRQIRUH[DPSOHWRKLVFRPSDQLRQDQLPDO8
,WJRHVZLWKRXWVD\LQJWKDWPRVWRIWKHFDVHVRIKXPDQDQLPDOVH[XDODFWV
KDSSHQ ZLWKRXW WKH FRQVHQW RI WKH QRQKXPDQ SDUW VR WKDW VH[XDO LQWHUFRXUVH
with animals can be more often understood as an LQWHUVSHFLHVVH[XDODVVDXOW, as
3LHUV%HLUQHKDVSXWLW9 Therefore it can be compared to paedophilia, the attrac-
WLRQWRDQGH[SORLWDWLRQRIFKLOGUHQDVVH[XDOREMHFWVE\DGXOWV7KH*UHHNVRFLDO
FXVWRPRISHGHUDVW\DFFHSWHGWKHH[SORLWDWLRQRI\RXQJER\VDVVH[XDOREMHFWV
within certain norms and restraints and a vocabulary was created around it.
%\FRQWUDVWIRUKXPDQDQLPDOVH[XDOUHODWLRQVWKHUHZHUHQRH[DFWZRUGV
which suggests that the cases were either very rare or were not discussed because
IRUH[DPSOHRIHPEDUUDVVPHQWRURILQGLIIHUHQFH+HURGRWXVZKRLVWKH¿UVW
to clearly describe such an act, reports on the intercourse between a goat and
D ZRPDQ WKDW RFFXUUHG LQ D SXEOLF VSDFH RSHQO\ ǰƮƣƷƣƮƦƽƮ), in Mendes,
(J\SW+HXVHVWKHFRPPRQYHUEGHQRWLQJVH[XDOLQWHUFRXUVHPL[LQJ
(vơƥƮƶvƫ +HURGRWXV H[SUHVVHV KLV DVWRQLVKPHQW E\ FDOOLQJ WKH DFW VWUDQJH RU
monstrously strange (Ƶư˃ƵưƵɜƵƟƲƣƳDOWKRXJKKHFDQFRQWH[WXDOL]HWKHLQFLGHQW
DVEHORQJLQJWRWKHVSKHUHRIH[RWLFUHOLJLRXVSUDFWLFHWRWKHFXOWRIWKHJRGWKDW
WKH*UHHNVLGHQWL¿HGDV3DQWKHK\EULGJRGRIVKHSKHUGVDQGKHUGVPHQ10
In Theocritus' ,G\OOV±DJRDWKHUGLVGHVFULEHGDVHQY\LQJKLVELOO\
JRDWWKDWKHVHHVPRXQWLQJDVKHJRDWDQGFXUVLQJWKDWKHKLPVHOILVQRWERUQD
JRDW7KLVLVKRZHYHUUDWKHUDQH[SUHVVLRQRIDFNQRZOHGJLQJWKHDOOSHUYDVLYH
FKDUDFWHURIVH[XDOSDVVLRQDQGRIWKHERXQGDULHVEHWZHHQWKHVSHFLHV,QUHDOOLIH
young boys were usually responsible for herding farm animals, which involved
8-&$GDPV±($0F%ULGH±.&DUQHOOH\±$&DUU+XPDQDQLPDOVH[XDOLQWHUDFWLRQVD
SUHGLFWLYHPRGHOWRGLIIHUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQ]RRSKLOLD]RRVH[XDOLW\DQGEHVWLDOLW\3URFHHGLQJV
RIWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO6RFLHW\RI$QWKUR]RRORJ\&RQJUHVVLQ7RN\R7KH3RZHURI$QLPDOV
QRW SXEOLVKHG VHH SRVWHU QXPEHU KWWSZZZMDKDRUMSLDKDLRSGIDEVWUDFWBSGI
%HVWLDOLW\VHHPVWREHDVSHFL¿FDOO\SROLWLFDOO\LQFRUUHFWWHUPIRUDQDFWLQZKLFKWKHDJHQF\LV
usually not on the part of the EHDVW.
9%HLUQHDERYHQ±
10 6HH DOVR 6WUDER DQG$HO NA ZKR ERWK UHIHU WR 3LQGDU IU LQFHUW.,
ed.
0DHKOHU6H[XDOLQWHUFRXUVHFRXOGEHFRPELQHGZLWKFXOWLFSUDFWLFHVLQDQWLTXLW\RQWHPSOH
SURVWLWXWLRQVHHHJ<RXQJHUDERYHQ±
Tua Korhonen
FORVHUHODWLRQVZLWKWKHPDQGDOVRRIIHUHGNQRZOHGJHRIVH[XDOUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQ
animals.117KHHSLJUDPIURPWKH¿UVWFHQWXU\%&(DWWULEXWHGWR0HOHDJHUAP
VXJJHVWVWKDWVH[XDOHQFRXQWHUVEHWZHHQ\RXQJJRDWKHUGVDQGVKHJRDWV
ZHUHVXSSRVHGWREHDGROHVFHQWVH[XDOH[SHULPHQWDWLRQDVLIDSDVVLQJSKDVHLQ
WKHLUVH[XDOLW\+RZHYHUWKHODQJXDJHRIWKLVHSLJUDPZDVREYLRXVO\PHDQWWREH
VKRFNLQJRUDWOHDVWFUXGH
$OWKRXJKDOOOLYLQJEHLQJVZHUHWKRXJKWWRVKDUHWKHVH[XDOGULYH±DFDXVH
IRU ERWK MR\ DQG DQ[LHW\ ± WKH SK\VLFDO SDUW RI DQ\ NLQG RI VH[XDO LQWHUFRXUVH
ZDVXVXDOO\GHVFULEHGZLWKQHXWUDOWHUPVOLNHDVVRFLDWLQJEHLQJFORVHEHLQJ
ZLWKDQGPL[LQJZLWK12 as is the case in the incident related by Herodotus,
EXWDOVRPXFKODWHURQLQ$HOLDQ
VWDOHVRIKXPDQDQLPDOLQWHUFRXUVH7KHUHIRUH
DOWKRXJKWKHOHFKHURXVVFHQHVLQ*UDHFR5RPDQHURWLFDUWRULQVRPHHSLJUDPV
PD\JLYHDSLFWXUHRIVH[XDOXQUHVWUDLQHGQHVVPRGHUDWLRQDQGHXSKHPLVPVZLWK-
RXWFOHDUREVFHQLWLHVZHUHWKHQRUPRIWKHJHQUHVRIKLJKHUOLWHUDWXUHH[FHSWRI
FRXUVHIRU$ULVWRSKDQHV
FRPHG\
7KH UHVWUDLQHG VH[XDO UHJLVWHU SHUWDLQV HVSHFLDOO\ WR WKH GHVFULSWLRQV RI
SHGHUDVW\ ZKLFK ZDV FRPELQHG ZLWK XSOLIWLQJ LGHDV ,Q 3ODWR
V 3KDHGUXV and
6\PSRVLXPDEHDXWLIXODGROHVFHQWER\H[HPSOL¿HVXQLYHUVDOEHDXW\ZKLFKFRQ-
ducts the lover, the adult male, to the Idea of Beauty. The pederastic relationship
ZDVIRUPXODWHGDVHGL¿FDWLRQERWKIRUWKHORYHUHUDVWrV) and the beloved one
(HU{PHQRV) and valued as the noblest form of erôV$OWKRXJK6RFUDWHVVSHFL¿-
cally states in the 3KDHGUXV that this relationship is not SKLOLD, but erôsF±H
PDQ\ VFKRODUV KDYH FRPPHQWHG DERXW WKH DPELJXLW\ RI WKHVH WHUPV LQ *UHHN
erotic discussion in general.14 WhileSKLOLD usually meant mainly friendship and
other non-erotic forms of love, it also stood for strong affection, a fond intimacy.
But then again, while erôsDVWKHPRUHVSHFL¿FIRUPRIHURWLFDIIHFWLRQFRXOG
mean obsessive forms of affection, it was sometimes used quite neutrally, as a
11/&DOGHU&UXHOW\DQG6HQWLPHQWDOLW\2[IRUG%HLUQHDERYHQ±&IDOVR
'DSKQLVDQG&KORH
129RUEHUJDERYHQVY'DYLGVRQDERYHQ
6NLQQHU DERYH Q DQG 6 +DOOLZHOO *UHHN /DXJKWHU &DPEULGJH ±
$FFRUGLQJWR*6LVVDWKH*UHHNVXQGHUVWRRGerôsQRWDVDUHSHUWRLUHRISRVVLEOHDFWVEXWDV
WKHERG\
VLQVLVWHQWGHVLUHVHH6LVVD6H[DQG6HQVXDOLW\LQWKH$QFLHQW:RUOG1HZ+DYHQ±
/RQGRQ
142QWKHLQWHUFKDQJHDELOLW\RIWKHZRUGVSKLOLD and erôsLQ*UHHNWKRXJKWVHH+DOSHULQHW
DODERYHQ±'DYLGVRQDERYHQ±2QWKHYRFDEXODU\RIVH[XDOSDVVLRQ
(KLPHURV, pothosDQGRWKHUVVHH'DYLGVRQDERYHQ±
V'H1DWXUD$QLPDOLXP
synonym for SKLOLD.157KLVLVUHÀHFWHGLQWKHYHU\FODVVRIZRUGVRISHGHUDVW\

(ƱƣƫƦƧƲƣƴƵơƣ). While the substantive SDLGRSKLOLDLVODFNLQJWKHFRPSRXQGDG-
MHFWLYHVƱƣƫƦưƷơƭƩƳ and ƱƣƫƦƧƲƣƴƵƠƳ were sometimes used as synonyms (cf.
7KJQ
Thus, there was a scale of intensity of the words SKLOLD and erôs, but also
DNLQGRIFRQYHUWLELOLW\RIWKHP$HOLDQXVHVERWKȝƱƱƧƲƣƴƵƠƳ and ƷơƭƫƱƱưƳ in
the same tale as synonyms referring to the lover of horses, but in this case quite
clearly referring to non-erotic love (NA 2,28).177KHUHIRUHLI$HOLDQHPSOR\VWKH
verb ȄƲƣƴƪƣƫ as such more often than ƷƫƭƧʴƮ in his tales about human-animal
ORYH±DQGKHFHUWDLQO\GRHV±WKHYHUELVQRWHYLGHQFHRIDQHURWLFUHODWLRQVKLS
between human and non-human.
Aelian, the storyteller
$HOLDQ
V'H1DWXUD$QLPDOLXPLVDPL[WXUHRILQIRUPDWLRQFROOHFWHGIURPPRUH
RU OHVV VREHU QDWXUDOKLVWRULHVDQG HQWHUWDLQLQJ SDUDGR[RJUDSKLHV18 Sometimes
$HOLDQPHQWLRQVKLVVRXUFHVRPHWLPHVKHVSHDNVRQO\RIDVWRU\RUVWRULHVKHKDG
KHDUG 7HOOLQJ WKHVH VWRULHV RI KXPDQDQLPDO DIIHFWLRQDWH UHODWLRQVKLSV$HOLDQ
FDQUHIHUIRUH[DPSOHWR7KHRSKUDVWXVDQGWR(XGHPXVWKHQDWXUDOKLV-
15'DYLGVRQDERYHQ±
If we compare this with the words used to describe the love for animals, we note that
the substantives ]RRSKLOLD and ]RRHUDVWLDDUHDEVHQWDVZHOODVWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJDGMHFWLYHV
EXW WKHUH DUH WKH UDUH DGMHFWLYDO FRPSRXQG ȝƱƱƧƲƣƴƵƠƳ DQG WKH FRPSRXQGV ZLWK WKH SUH¿[
philOLNHƷơƭưƲƮƫƳ, ƷƫƭưƬƾƺƮ, and ƷơƭƫƱƱưƳ. The word ƷơƭƽƨˎưƳORYLQJDQLPDOVH[LVWHG
DOWKRXJK LW ZDV H[WUHPHO\ UDUH ,Q WKH PRVW QRWDEOH RFFXUUHQFHV LW LV D IHDWXUH RI WKH JRGV
;HQ0HPVHHDOVR3KLOR7KHDGMHFWLYHƷơƭƽƨƺưƮORYLQJOLIHFRXOGDOVREH
SHMRUDWLYH)XUWKHUPRUHƭƶƬưƷƫƭơƣPHDQVZROI
VIULHQGVKLSWKDWLVDIDOVHIULHQGVKLSDQG
ƷƫƭƽƪƩƲƫưƮORYLQJSUHGDWRUVEHFDXVHWKH\DUHJRRGWRKXQW/6-, s.v.
17 I am using the recent Teubner edition of NADQGXWLOL]HWKH(QJOLVKWUDQVODWLRQE\$
)6FKRO¿HOGLQWKH/RHEVHULHVVRPHWLPHVDELWPRGL¿HG7KHUHDUHVRPHGLIIHUHQFHV
in the numbering between Teubner 2009 and Loeb 1958, see 7DEXODFRPSDUDWLRQLV in the new
7HXEQHUHGLWLRQSS±
186XFKDV(XGHPRV3OLQ\WKH(OGHUDQG3OXWDUFK7RVRPHH[WHQWDOOZHUHXVLQJPRUHRUOHVV
WKHVDPHFOXVWHURIWDOHVIURPORVWQDWXUDOKLVWRULHV2Q$HOLDQ
VVRXUFHVVHH-).LQGVWUDQG
&ODXGLXV$HOLDQXVXQGVHLQ:HUNLQ$15:±DQG5)UHQFK $QFLHQW
1DWXUDO+LVWRU\/RQGRQ±6HHDOVR0*DUFtD9DOGpV&LHQFLD\0RUDO(OLDQR
GHVGH$ULVWyWHOHV \ D OD OX] GHO HVWRLFLVPR \ OD
]RR¿OLD
PRGHUQD (PHULWD
*DUFtD9DOGpVXVHVWKHZRUG]RR¿OLDIRUQRQHURWLFORYHRIDQLPDOV
70 Tua Korhonen
WRULDQEXWLWLVREYLRXVWKDWWKHVHWDOHVRZHPRUHRIWKHLUVW\OHWRSDUD-

GR[RJUDSK\WKDQWRWKHQDWXUDOKLVWRULHV7KHSODFHDQGWKHQDPHRIWKHKXPDQ
sometimes even of the animal are mostly mentioned, but the date is referred to
RQO\YDJXHO\IRUH[DPSOHLQ2QHREYLRXVSXUSRVHRIWKHVHWDOHVRIDIIDLUV
ZLWKQRQKXPDQVLVWKXVWRVWDUWOHWKHUHDGHUEXWDOVRWRPDNHKLPRUKHUEHOLHYH
these stories.
2QHVRXUFHIRUWKHVHWDOHVZDVSKLORVRSKLFDOHVSHFLDOO\3HULSDWHWLFZULW-
LQJVRQORYHDQGVH[XDOLW\7KLVEHFRPHVHYLGHQWIURPWKHthERRNRIWKH'HLS
QRVRSKLVWDHZKHUH$WKHQDHXVUHIHUVWR7KHRSKUDVWXV
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ORVWHVVD\V
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elephant and a boy, which, however, tells of parental love, the elephant behaving
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famous for their ostensibly dismissive statements on non-human animals.19 How-
HYHU$HOLDQGHFODUHVLQKLVSURORJXHWKDWKLVWRSLFLVWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIGLIIHU-
ent animals, which, according to him, possess some virtues and some outstanding
human (ǰƮƪƲƿƱƫƮưƳTXDOLWLHVE\QDWXUH$HOLDQ
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tric, but it refers to the tendency to see animals and animal life as models for hu-
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VHQVHKDGEHHQGLVFXVVHGPRUHH[WHQVLYHO\DOUHDG\DFHQWXU\HDUOLHUE\3OXWDUFK
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some few cases, his vocabulary seems usually to refer to an ardent admiration and
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VXJJHVWHGVHH*LOKXV$QLPDOV*RGVDQG+XPDQV2[IRUGQ6HHDOVR*DUFtD
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the word ǰƮƵƟƲƺƳUHWXUQORYHORYHIRUORYHUHFLSURFDOORYHZDVWKHDIIHF-

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V
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mal is acting as the HUDVWrV or as the HU{PHQRV(HU{PHQr).22
An animal as erastês
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LQJ LQ ORYH ZLWK VSHFL¿F KXPDQV 1HDUO\ DOO FDVHV LQ$HOLDQ
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mutual. The reason for the preference of an animal HUDVWrV (animal showing
IRQGQHVVWRKXPDQKDVEHHQH[SODLQHGDVDUHÀHFWLRQRIWKHVWURQJDQWKURSRFHQ-
WULVPDQGWKHFXOWRIWKHPDQRI*UDHFR5RPDQDQWLTXLW\24 However, the popular
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PDQZKLFKDUHFRQWUDVWHGZLWKWKHXQWDXJKWYLUWXHV±IRUH[DPSOHJUDWLWXGH±
of animals.25)XUWKHUPRUH$HOLDQKLPVHOIJLYHVVLJQL¿FDQFHWRWKHIDFWWKDWKH
NQRZVPRUHWDOHVDERXWDQLPDOVIDOOLQJLQORYHZLWKKXPDQVWKDQWKHRWKHUZD\
URXQG$FFRUGLQJWRKLPLWLVRQHRIWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIPDQ\DQLPDOVWRIDOO
LQORYHZLWKKXPDQVZKRKDYHEHHQEOHVVHGE\H[WUHPHEHDXW\6RWKH
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6RFUDWLF3ODWRQLFSHGHUDVW\±DOOXUHVQRWRQO\KXPDQVEXWDOVRQRQKXPDQVDV
well.
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PDOHDQGDJLUO7KHWDOHDERXWDQHOHSKDQWIDOOLQJLQORYHZLWKDÀRZHUVHOOHULVQRQHURWLFDW
¿UVWEXW$HOLDQWHOOVXVWKDWDIWHUWKHGHDWKRIWKHJLUOWKHHOHSKDQWZDVOLNHDORYHUHUDVWrV)
who had lost his loved one (HU{PHQr
The gender of the animal is not always obvious.
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25 This superiority of animals in moral issues was a constant theme of ancient cultural criticism
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7KHULRSKLO\LQ+RPHU$UFWRV±
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as a result of the fact that for the seal the diver appeared to be most beautiful.
72 Tua Korhonen
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grown gradually because the human and the animal were brought together; they
were foster-brothers (ƴƾƮƵƲưƷưƫ $HOLDQ XVHV WKH VDPH ZRUG LQ WKH WDOH RI D
VQDNH ƦƲƞƬƺƮ WKDW IHOO LQ ORYH ZLWK DQ$UFDGLDQ ER\7KHLU PXWXDODIIHFWLRQ
(ǰƭƭƠƭưƶƳ ƷƫƭƧʴƮLVEDVHGRQDVKDUHGFKLOGKRRG
The development of affection from childhood friendship to love is, of
FRXUVHPRVWIDPRXVO\GHOLQHDWHGE\$HOLDQ
VSUREDEOHFRQWHPSRUDU\WKHDXWKRU
of 'DSKQLVDQG&KORH. This romantic novel also includes close encounters be-
tween humans and non-humans that seem to obscure the boundaries of humanity.
%RWKFKLOGUHQDUHIRXQGOLQJVDQGKDYHEHHQVXFNOHGE\DQLPDOV'DSKQLVE\D
VKHJRDW27DQG&KORHE\DVKHHSWKDWLVDOVRGHSLFWHGDVZDVKLQJKHUIDFH
E\OLFNLQJLWZLWKKHUWRQJXH$HOLDQGHVFULEHVWKHVDPHNLQGRIFDUHVVLQJ
EHWZHHQKXPDQDQGQRQKXPDQWKHVQDNHOLFNVWKHIDFHRIWKHFRZKHUG$OHXDV
(8,11).287KHVHWWLQJVRI$HOLDQ
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$HOLDQ
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RQO\LQWKHQLFKHRIVXEOLPDWHGSHGHUDVWLFUHODWLRQVKLSVEXWDOVRVHHQDVUHÀHFW-
ing the subgenre of pastoral HURWLFDjOD'DSKQLVDQG&KORHWKDWÀRXULVKHGGXU-
ing the 2ndDQGrd century Second Sophistic.+RZHYHU$HOLDQXVHVPDLQO\WKH
language of suggestion and allusion when the animal is the active participant. The
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ORYHUƴƶƮƧƬƞƪƧƶƦƧƴƷƽƦƲƣȀƲƺƵƫƬːƳ, l. 19). With euphemistic but neverthe-
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XHVXQWLOWKHJLUOEHJLQVWRIHDUKHUORYHUDQGPRYHVDZD\,WLVQRWHZRUWK\WKDW
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thermore, he tones down the drastic aspect of the intercourse not only by stressing
the continuity and constant nature of the serpent's affection but also the power of
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for this animal's behaviour.
27The goat even remains Daphnis' nanny after he gets human foster-parents, and, later, Daphnis
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28$OHXDVZDVDP\WKLFDO¿JXUHDSULQFHRI7KHVVDO\DQGDVHHU6HHDOVRDQHOHSKDQWDQG
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29 6HH
2Q WKH PL[WXUH RI JHQUHV LQ 'DSKQLV DQG &KORH (romance, pastoral, comedy), see F. I.
Zeitlin, in Halperin HWDODERYHQ±
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affairs with humans in both human and animal form. The metamorphosis hap-
pened mostly in the role of HUDVWrV, as in the case of Zeus seducing Leda. In
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parissus falling in love with the holy stag. If there is a correspondence between
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form in their relationships with humans. The beloved human was usually de-
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human form. The power of beauty was supposed to be so strong that the HUDVWrV
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of view of the desired one, the human.,QVWHDG$HOLDQFRXOGDOVRWDNHQRWHRI
the reactions of the passive partner, as in the above-mentioned tale about the huge
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have assaulted women (7,19). However, here his vocabulary is disapproving (Ƭƣɚ
ƬƾƮƧƳ Ʀɖ ƥƶƮƣƫƯɚƮ ȀƱƫƵưƭvʗƮ ȀƭƟƸƪƩƴƣƮ ± DQG LQ WKH FDVH RI ED-
ERRQVKHHYHQVSHDNVRIWKHPDVXVLQJIRUFHRUYLROHQFHƤƫƞƨưvƣƫ).
The goddess Thetis, in the role of the beloved one, changed her shape into various animals
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$WWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHPRGHUQHUDWRKDYHLQWHUFRXUVHZLWKDWKHULRPRUSKLFdevil,
that is,
with the devil in animal form, was thought to be the ultimate degradation. Murrin (above note
6HH,O±%RUHDVDVDVWDOOLRQZLWKPDUHV
>@RQHFDQQRW¿QGDQ\KXPDQVZKRKDYHEHHQWKRXJKWZRUWK\WRDVVRFLDWHZLWKWKHJRGV
H[FHSWIRUWKRVHZKRKDYHKDGEHDXW\VD\V&KDULGHPXVLQWKHGLDORJXH2Q%HDXW\(7), which
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$ERXWJRGVGLVJXLVHGDVDQLPDOVVHHKRZHYHU-(5REVRQ%HVWLDOLW\DQGEHVWLDOUDSHLQ
*UHHN0\WKLQ6'HDF\±.)3LHUFHHGV5DSHLQ$QWLTXLW\, 75.

7KHUHDUHVRPHH[FHSWLRQVWKHPRVWQRWDEOHRQHLV&UHXVDZKRJLYHVWKHPRVWHODERUDWH
female point of view in Euripides' ,RQ±

74 Tua Korhonen
A human as an active participant
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$HOLDQ
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VKHJRDW¿WVZHOOWKHSDWWHUQRISDVWRUDOHURWLFD of the Second Sophistic. In this
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ȀvƱƧƴɠƮƵʧƵːƮƣȜƥːƮȜƦƧʴƮɅƲƣƫưƵƞƵʤvơƥƮƶƵƣƫƬƣɚƵʧ ȭvƫƭơʕȑƴƪƩƬƣɚƧȠ
ƱưƵƧȀƦƧʴƵưǰƷƲưƦơƵƩƳɅƳƣȸƵɘƮȀƷươƵƣƬƣɚƧȢƸƧƮȀƲƺvƟƮƩƮƣȸƵƠƮ±
14). There is, however, no account of the reactions of the beloved one: the emo-
WLRQVRIWKHSUHWWLHVWRIWKHJRDWVVHHPWREHDVLGHLVVXH+RZHYHUWKHJRDWKHUG
JLYHVWRKLVVLJQL¿FDQWRWKHUYDULRXVJLIWVDVDWRNHQRIKLVDIIHFWLRQZKLFKPDNHV
this relationship mirror love affairs between humans.&UDWKLVHYHQSUHSDUHVD
EULGDOEHGPDGHRIOHDYHVIRUKLVVKHJRDWZKLFKGHWDLODGGVWRWKHSDVWRUDOÀD-
vour of this story. We may assume that this is also supposed to be comical too, but
LWLVQRWDEOHWKDW$HOLDQHPSKDVL]HVWKHDJHRIWKHJRDWKHUGE\FDOOLQJKLPDPHUH
boy (ƵɘƮ ȍƭƫƬơƣƮ ǰƮƵơƱƣƫƳ) already at the beginning. Thus, this story can be
FRQVLGHUHGWRUHSUHVHQWWKHSDWWHUQRISDVVLQJDGROHVFHQWVH[XDOH[SHULPHQWDWLRQ
7KHWRQHLVTXLWHGLIIHUHQWZKHQ$HOLDQWHOOVXVWKHWDOHRIDQDGXOWJURRP
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has been employed to care for (4,9). The groom tries to restrain his passion, but
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ally wrong action: ȀƱƫƵưƭvʦƴƣƫƵˑƭƟƸƧƫƵˑƯƟƮˎƬƣɚȭvƫƭƧʴƮƣȸƵʧ±
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and the reader sees the event from the foal's point of view as well: ɉƴƱƧƲưȾƮ
ƵƶƲƣƮƮưƶvƟƮƩƳƵʦƳvƩƵƲɜƳȹƱɜƵư˃ ƦƧƴƱƽƵưƶOO±,QWKLVFDVH$HOLDQ
LVWKXVFOHDUO\FRQGHPQLQJVH[XDOLQWHUFRXUVHZLWKDQLPDOVDOWKRXJKKHGLGQRW
IDLOWR±VRUWRI±DFNQRZOHGJHWKHSK\VLFDOWHPSWDWLRQWKHJURRPLVH[SHULHQFLQJ
$VPHQWLRQHGHDUOLHU3OXWDUFK
VDQLPDOHVVD\VZHUHSUREDEO\RQHRIWKH
sources for 'H1DWXUD$QLPDOLXP3OXWDUFKIRUKLVSDUWLVKLJKO\MXGJPHQWDORQ
this phenomenon in one of his essays and permissive in the other. In his $QLPDOV
DUH UDWLRQDO DOVR NQRZQ DV *U\OOXV 3OXWDUFK VWDWHV WKDW DQLPDOV QHYHU WU\ WR
KDYHVH[XDOLQWHUFRXUVHZLWKKXPDQV,QVWHDGPDQ\DQLPDOVKDYHEHHQYLFWLPV
$HOLDQVD\VWKDWWKHHYHQWKDSSHQHGLQ6\EDULV±WKHFLW\IDPRXVIRULWVDVVRFLDWLRQZLWK
sensuous pleasure.
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RIWKHYLROHQWOXVWVRIPDQ0RUI±D7KXV3OXWDUFKFOHDUO\QRWHVWKDW

DQDQLPDOQHYHUWDNHVWKHDFWLYHSDUWand that there is no consent on the part of
WKHDQLPDODVWKHSDVVLYHSDUWQHU+HYLHZVKXPDQVH[XDOLQWHUFRXUVHZLWKQRQ
humans as equivalent to abuse, to using violence (ƤƫƞƨưvƣƫIRUWKHVDNHRIWKH
human's own pleasure (0RU. 991a). However, in his imaginative account of the
GLQQHURIWKHVHPLP\WKLFDOZLVHPHQ3OXWDUFKUHÀHFWVDPRUHSHUPLVVLYHPRRG
The Thales character in the 'LQQHURIWKH6HYHQ:LVH0HQ sees this practice as
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In both these dialogues, especially in *U\OOXVD3OXWDUFKUHIHUVWRWKH
possible offspring of the union between different species, although long before
KLVWLPHWKHH[LVWHQFHRIKXPDQDQLPDOK\EULGVZDVODUJHO\GHQLHGE\SKLORVR-
phers and other intellectuals on the grounds that they did not follow nature or that
they belong to the same category as children born with deformities.40 However,
the conclusion reached in the 'LQQHURIWKH6HYHQ:LVH0HQ is that it is more so-
EHUWRWKLQNWKDWVWUDQJHK\EULGVwereWKHRXWFRPHRILQWHUVSHFLHVVH[UDWKHUWKDQ
that they are portents representing some future evil (0RU 149d). Travesties of
natural processes of reproduction were thus better to be counted in the same class
DVWKHIDFWXDORIIVSULQJRIWZRVXEVSHFLHVOLNHPXOHV2IFRXUVHOXVXVQDWXUDH
SURYRNHGQRWRQO\IULJKWEXWDOVRFXULRVLW\DQGIDVFLQDWLRQ41DQGERWK3OXWDUFK
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only one occurrence of a strange offspring of a human and non-human union. The
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(ƱƣƫƦơưƮZLWKWKHOHJVRIDJRDWDQGWKHIDFHRIDPDQ7KHK\EULGZDV
WKHQGHL¿HGDQGZRUVKLSSHGDVDIRUHVWJRG7KHZKROHLQFLGHQWZDVWKXVSXWLQWR
the sphere of religion.
7KHVDPHNLQGRIDWWLWXGHLVGHSLFWHGLQRQHRIWKHIDEOHVRI3KDHGUXVZKHUHWKHUHLVDFDVH
involving a shepherd and a sheep (IDE6HHDOVR&DOGHUDERYHQ±

40)UHQFKDERYHQ±
41 2QDWWLWXGHVWRWKHOXVXVQDWXUDH, see R. Kearney, 6WUDQJHUV*RGVDQG0RQVWHUV, London

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42 Later on, in early modern Europe, children born with deformities were usually interpreted as
the result of intercourse between humans and non-humans and could then induce a prosecution
IRU IRUELGGHQ VH[XDO SUDFWLFHV DQG LQ PDQ\ FDVHV DOVR WKH GHDWK SHQDOW\ 6HH HJ %HLUQH
DERYHQ±,WLVQRWHZRUWK\WKDWWKHVSHDNHULQWKH*U\OOXV (as the former member
RI2G\VVHXV
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'LQQHURIWKH6HYHQ:LVH0HQ is for its part set in the mythico-historical past.
In NAWKHXQLRQRI6\EDULV
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tale has, however, a mythical setting. See also NA 11,40 about DQLPDOV born with deformities.
Tua Korhonen
7KHUHZDVRQHZHOONQRZQFRQWHPSRUDU\VWRU\RIDKXPDQDQLPDOVH[XDO
UHODWLRQVKLSWKDW$HOLDQGRHVQRWPHQWLRQSUREDEO\EHFDXVHLWZDVQRWDVWRU\
DWDOHEXWD¿FWLRQDOFUHDWLRQE\FHUWDLQZULWHUV7KHKD]DUGVRI/XFLXVWUDQV-
IRUPHGLQWRDGRQNH\ZHUHWROGERWKLQ*UHHN/XFLXVRUWKH$VV) and in Lat-
in (*ROGHQ$VVEXWWKHRULJLQDOZRUNLVGDWHGWRWKHFHQWXU\SULRUWR$HOLDQ44
:KLOH$SXOHLXV
QRYHOLVDKXPRURXVVDWLUHD%LOGXQJVURPDQ, also giving a seem-
ingly sympathetic account of the life of a beast of burden, /XFLXVRUWKH$VV is an
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DQLPDOELRJUDSK\WKHVWRU\UHÀHFWVWKHFRQVWDQWWKUHDWRIYLROHQFHLQWKHOLIHRI
DQDQLPDOLQFOXGLQJWKHWKUHDWRIVH[XDODEXVHWKURXJKWKHDJHQF\RIWKHSULHVW
RIWKH6\ULDQJRGGHVVDQGWKHXSSHUFODVVIRUHLJQODG\/XFLXVLVWKHVSHDNHUDQG
WKXVWKHH[SOLFLWVH[VFHQHZLWKWKHODG\ZKRIDQFLHGKLPLVGHVFULEHGH[FHSWLRQ-
ally from the point of view of the desired one. In his asinine form, he is acting
PRVWO\WKHSDVVLYHUROHEXWLVDOVRH[SUHVVLQJKLVFRQVHQW+RZHYHUKHGH¿QLWHO\
abhors and declines to perform the same act in the arena in public display with a
female criminal who was condemned DGEHVWLDV. Roman gladiatorial games ap-
SDUHQWO\LQFOXGHGDIHZFDVHVRIWKLVNLQGRIKXPLOLDWLRQSXWLQWRDP\WKRORJLFDO
setting.45 They were, of course, crimes against the integrity of animals, too, but it
LVSHUKDSVWRRPXFKWRH[SHFWWKDWWKHFUHDWRURI/XFLXV
VWRU\IHOWDQ\V\PSDWK\
for the animal victims in the arena as such. However, it is noteworthy that Lucius
(in both versions) also fears the arena not only because he is afraid of being eaten
E\SUHGDWRUVEXWDOVREHFDXVHKHLVWHUUL¿HGE\WKHKXPLOLDWLRQRIFRQGXFWLQJWKH
act in public. Not even his asinine form shelters him from the shame.
Conclusions
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WLRQV"<HV DQG QR +H FOHDUO\ FRQGHPQV WKH VH[XDO DVVDXOW RI WKH PDUH E\ WKH
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Harrison, $SXOHLXV$/DWLQ6RSKLVW2[IRUG±
45$OONQRZQFDVHVGHSLFWLQWHUFRXUVHZLWKDYLFWLPSHUIRUPLQJWKHUROHRI4XHHQ3DVLSKDH
$V.0&ROHPDQKDVDUJXHGWKHVHEUXWDOSXEOLFGLVSOD\VSURYLGHGDQRSSRUWXQLW\QRWRQO\
WRH[DFWSXQLVKPHQWEXWDOVRIRUKXPLOLDWLRQDQGPRFNHU\RIWKHFRQGHPQHG.0&ROHPDQ
)DWDOFKDUDGHV5RPDQH[HFXWLRQVVWDJHGDVP\WKRORJLFDOHQDFWPHQWVJRS±
HVSHFLDOO\IITXRWLQJSDVVDJHVIURP0DUWLDODQG6XHWRQLXV
VKRZWROHUDQFHRIWKHREYLRXVVH[XDODVVDXOWLQWKHVWRU\RIWKHJLUODQGWKHKXJH
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Much depends on who acts with whom and how.
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SKLOLDDFFRUGLQJWRWKHWHUPLQRORJ\E\$GDPVHWDO), between abuse (or interspe-
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male, and long-term affection between humans and non-humans. The affairs be-
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DORQJWHUPDWWDFKPHQWZKLFK$HOLDQGHVFULEHVDVDJUHDWVRXUFHRIMR\OHDYLQJ
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the inherent ambiguity of the words SKLOLD and erôs contribute to this. However,
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VWDOHVVHSDUDWHO\IURPP\WKV
LWFDQQHYHUWKHOHVVEHVDLGWKDWWKHP\WKVDFFXVWRPHGWKH*UDHFR5RPDQDXGL-
HQFHWREHOLHYHWKDWEHDXWLIXOKXPDQVFDQVH[XDOO\DWWUDFWQRWRQO\RWKHUKXPDQV
EXWDOVRJRGVDQGDQLPDOVDOLNH<HWLPDJLQDWLRQLVDVDIHUSODFHIRUWUDQVJUHVVLRQ
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tions in the Roman arena.
When Herodotus mentions that the act between a goat and a woman was
strange, he might have meant that the strangeness consisted of three aspects be-
sides the act itself. Firstly, of its public nature (ǰƮƣƷƣƮƦƽƮ), secondly, that the
human partner was a woman and not a goatherd or a young boy, and thirdly, that
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active participant, he is not only stressing the lovability of the human. He is inci-
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the human world. Furthermore, most of these tales of the affairs between human
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about animals.
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LATIN INSCRIPTIONS AND THE LIFE COURSE.

REGIO III (BRUTTIUM AND LUCANIA ) AS A TEST CASE
CHRISTIAN LAES
1. Introduction
The present contribution sets Regio III, Bruttium and Lucania, in a long-stand-
ing research tradition. Long before the information age, the Hungarian scholar
-6]LODJ\LLQLWLDWHGWKHSURMHFWRIOLVWLQJDOONQRZQHSLWDSKVZLWKDJHLQGLFDWLRQ
from the Latin West.17KRXJKDWSUHVHQWQRVLQJOHVFKRODUVKDUHV6]LODJ\L
VGH-
PRJUDSKLFDODVSLUDWLRQVKLVWKRURXJKFROOHFWLRQ±QRWHDV\WRWUDFHGRZQ±UH-
mains a fundamental starting point for studies on the epigraphic habit and the
representation of ages in various regions of the Roman Empire.2 Some twenty
\HDUVDJR3*DOOLYDQDQG3:LONLQVVWDUWHGDSURMHFWRQIDPLOLDOVWUXFWXUHVDV
HQFRXQWHUHGLQLQVFULSWLRQVWKURXJKRXW5RPDQ,WDO\$OWKRXJKWKHDQQRXQFHGGD-
tabase was never published, the results of their regional approach appeared in a
contribution which also deals with the evidence from the South of Italy.$WWKH
present moment, the scholarly world is eagerly awaiting the fully informatised
GDWDEDVHE\)7UL¿OzDQG5/DXUHQFHZKLFKZLOOFRYHUDODUJHVDPSOHRI/DWLQ
QRQ&KULVWLDQDJHLQVFULSWLRQVIRUWKH:HVWRIWKH5RPDQ(PSLUH7KHLUGDWDVHW
FRQVWLWXWLQJDERG\RILQVFULSWLRQVZLWKDOHJLEOHLQGLFDWLRQRIDJHFRQ-
, RZH PDQ\ WKDQNV WR 5D\ /DXUHQFH DQG )UDQFHVFR 7UL¿Oz 8QLYHUVLW\ RI .HQW ZKRVH
inspiring research on epigraphy has been the incentive for this article. I am also very grateful
WR$WWLOLR0DVWURFLQTXH8QLYHUVLWjGHJOL6WXGLGL9HURQDIRULQYLWLQJPHWRWKHFRQIHUHQFH,
5RPDQLHOD/XFDQLDQXRYHSURVSHWWLYHGLULFHUFDWKRI0D\$OIUHGR%XRQRSDQH
8QLYHUVLWjGHJOL6WXGLGL9HURQDKDVLQWURGXFHGPHLQWRWKH¿HOGRIHSLJUDSK\RI5HJLR,,,
HVSHFLDOO\*UXPHQWXP,WZDVDSOHDVXUHWRSUHVHQWWKLVSDSHUDWWKH6XPPHUVFKRRO(SLJUDSK\
LQDQ(PSLUHRI&LWLHV3RVVLELOLWLHVDQG&KDOOHQJHV*UXPHQWR1RYDRQWKHWKRI-XO\
1)RUWKHSUHVHQWDUWLFOH6]LODJ\LLVWKHPRVWUHOHYDQW
2 MacMullen (1982) and Meyer (1990) are essential introductions on the epigraphic habit.
*DOOLYDQ±:LONLQV
&KULVWLDQ/DHV
WDLQVHSLWDSKVIURP$IULFD3URQFRQVXODULVWKH0DXUHWDQLDH+LVSDQLD7DUUDFRQ-
HQVLV*DOOLD1DUERQHQVLV/XVLWDQLD$TXLWDQLD'DFLD0RHVLDDQGDOORI,WDOLD
ZLWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRI5RPH4
Several other scholars have set themselves to compiling databases of spe-
FL¿FUHJLRQV7KHLUVWUHQXRXVHIIRUWVDJDLQDQGDJDLQOHDGWRWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDW
WKHVHGDWDVHWVUHYHDOFXOWXUDOELDVHVDQGQRWGHPRJUDSKLFDOSDWWHUQV<RXQJSHR-
ple are usually more strongly commemorated than adults, more men than women
DUHUHSUHVHQWHGDJHURXQGLQJWR9DQG;LVUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHSHDNVLQWKHQXP-
ber of tombstones at certain ages.5
*LYHQWKHSUHVHQWVWDJHRIUHVHDUFKWKHDGGLWLRQDOYDOXHRIDUHJLRQDOVWXG\
on life course in the inscriptional evidence of Regio III may be questioned. In my
YLHZVXFKUHJLRQDODSSURDFKFDQDGGWRRXUNQRZOHGJHIRUVHYHUDOUHDVRQV$V
WKLVDUWLFOHZLOOEHWKH¿UVWWRWDNHWKLVDSSURDFKLWPD\EHFRPHWKHVWDUWLQJSRLQW
of other studies which will undoubtedly appear when research facilities become
HDVLHUE\DFFHVVLEOHLQIRUPDWLVHGGDWDEDVHV&RPSDULVRQRIUHVXOWVIURPGHWDLOHG
regional studies will then yield interesting results which may further increase our
NQRZOHGJHRQORFDOFRPPHPRUDWLYHSDWWHUQV$OVRWKHUHJLRQDODSSURDFKHQD-
bles the scholar to systematically scrutinise DOO epigraphical editions concerning
KLV
UHJLRQDQH[KDXVWLYHDSSURDFKZKLFKLVIRUSUDFWLFDOUHDVRQVEH\RQGUHDFK
IRUWKHFRPSRVHUVRIFRPSUHKHQVLYHGDWDEDVHV$VVXFK,ZLOOLQFOXGHERWKWKH
&KULVWLDQHSLWDSKVRI5HJLR,,,DQGWKHODWHVWDGGLWLRQVXSWR/
DQQpHpSLJUDSKLTXH
2008. Thirdly, the focus on one particular region will offer the opportunity for the
VRFDOOHGDQHFGRWLFDODSSURDFKE\ZKLFKLQVFULSWLRQVEHFRPHQRZDQGWKHQOLNH
YLJQHWWHVRIGDLO\OLIHDQHFGRWDOEXWYDOXDEOHVRXUFHPDWHULDOIRURXUNQRZOHGJH
of Roman family life.
Though previous published research has not paid attention to the factor
of age in the inscriptions of Lucania and Bruttium, the full scale study of family
LQVFULSWLRQV RI 5RPDQ ,WDO\ E\ *DOOLYDQ DQG:LONLQV KDV UHYHDOHG D ZKROH VHW
of patterns. For the present study, the following observations might be relevant.
The familial structure of parents with one child is more commonly represented
LQWKHLQVFULSWLRQVIURPWKH6RXWKWKDQLQWKHUHJLRQVZKLFKZHUHPRUH
LQWKH1RUWKLQWKH1RUWK)DPLOLHVWHQGWREHFRPHODUJHUDVZHPRYHWR
46HH/DXUHQFH±7UL¿OzIRUD¿UVWVDPSOHRIPRVWSURPLVLQJUHVHDUFK7KHHYLGHQFHIRU
WKH&LW\RI5RPHLVWUHDWHGE\6KDZDQG/DHV

5 3LRQHHU VWXGLHV LQFOXGH .DMDQWR 'XQFDQ-RQHV /DVVHUUH +RSNLQV
6FKHLGHOLVIXQGDPHQWDOIRUWKHVXEMHFWRIDJHURXQGLQJDQGGLJLWSUHIHUHQFH

3OHDVIRUWKHVWXG\RILQVFULSWLRQVDVDQHFGRWDOHYLGHQFHE\0DUWLQDQG&RUELHU
/DWLQ,QVFULSWLRQVDQGWKH/LIH&RXUVH 97
WKH1RUWK7KURXJKRXW,WDO\WKHRYHUDOOVH[UDWLRRIIDPLO\LQVFULSWLRQVLVLQ
IDYRXURIER\V7KH6RXWKRI,WDO\LVQRH[FHSWLRQWRWKHWHQGHQF\RIPDOHRYHU-
UHSUHVHQWDWLRQWKRXJKWKHVH[LPEDODQFHIDYRXULQJVRQVRYHUGDXJKWHUVLVPRVW
H[WUHPHLQWKH1RUWKZKLOHLQIDPLOLHVZLWKFKLOGUHQRIERWKVH[HVWKHLPEDODQFH
is more pronounced in the South.7
2. Indication of age, age awareness, age rounding
2.1. Inscriptions with age indication
Epigraphy has been said to occupy a middle ground between the intimacy of the
KRXVHKROGDQGWKHREMHFWLYLW\RIWKHFHQVXV8 Epitaphs are statements that shift
IURP WKH SHUVRQDO ZRUOG RI NQRZOHGJH WR WKH SXEOLF ZRUOG RI FRPPHPRUDWLYH
QRUPVEHFDXVHWKHLQVFULSWLRQZDVDSXEOLFREMHFW9%XWZKDWZDVLWH[DFWO\WKDW
compelled people in antiquity to mention age (their own or that of the deceased)
RQDQLQVFULSWLRQDOPRVWDOZD\VDQHSLWDSK±DSDUWLFXODUW\SHRIWRPEVWRQHHP-
phasising the obligations owned to the dead by the heir or at least by those liv-
LQJLQFORVHDIIHFWLYHSUR[LPLW\"10$VLVWKHFDVHIRUPDQ\RWKHUPRWLYDWLRQV
FRQFHUQLQJWKH
HSLJUDSKLFKDELW
ZHVLPSO\GRQRWNQRZ112QHFRXOGUHFNRQWKH
amount of inscriptions with age indication in relation to those without one. This
LVIHDVLEOHIRUDZHOOVWXGLHGUHJLRQDVWKH&LW\RI5RPH+HUHZHKDYHDERXW
HSLWDSKVVRPHRIZKLFKUHYHDODQLQGLFDWLRQRIDJH12 For
UHJLRQVZLWKIDUOHVVHSLJUDSKLFPDWHULDOVXFKQXPEHUVDUHSHUKDSVOHVVVLJQL¿-
cant.)RU5HJLR,,,,KDYHFROOHFWHGLQVFULSWLRQVZLWKDJHLQGLFDWLRQ$FRQ-
servative count reveals about 500 epitaphs in total for the region; the percentage
RISRLQWVWRDVWURQJSRSXODULW\IRUWKLVJHQUHRILQVFULSWLRQV14 In any case, it
7*DOOLYDQ±:LONLQV±VHL]HRIIDPLOLHV±VH[LPEDODQFH
8 Huebner (2011).
9/DXUHQFH±7UL¿Oz
100H\HU±
11%RGHO±
12 Laes (2007) 27.

1HZ H[FDYDWLRQV DV WKH GLVFRYHU\ RI RQH QHZ QHFURSROLV PLJKW FKDQJH WKH SHUFHQWDJHV
IXQGDPHQWDOO\)RURXUUHJLRQDZKROHQHFURSROLVRI*UXPHQWXPVWLOOQHHGVWREHH[FDYDWHG
6HH&DSDQRIRUD¿UVWHQTXLU\
14 Regio III has a total of about 840 inscriptions. It should be stressed that the dataset of
98 &KULVWLDQ/DHV
is possible to treat the age inscriptions as a separate category, to be distinguished

from those epitaphs which do not record age.
2.2. Young and old
Table 1 lists the age distribution as it appears in the inscriptions from Regio III.
Both scholars of Latin literature as epigraphists have traditionally set the division
line between young and old at age 25.15 This is of course a crude and simplify-
LQJFDWHJRULVDWLRQZKLFKPLJKWEHVXEVWLWXWHGE\DGLYLVLRQLQWRFKLOGUHQ±
\RXQJDGXOWV±ROGHUDGXOWV±ROG±DQGYHU\ROGVHH
WDEOH But for several reasons, the evidence from Regio III also allows for a
GLYLVLRQEHWZHHQDJHVSDQ±DQG
$ERYHWKHDJHRIWKHWHQGHQF\IRUDJHURXQGLQJLVRXWVSRNHQWKHPXO-
WLSOHV RI ¿YH EHLQJ VWURQJO\ HPSKDVLVHG7KH LQVFULSWLRQV IRU WKRVH LQ WKH DJH
VSDQ±GRQRWUHYHDODQ\VXFKWHQGHQF\7KHODWWHUFDWHJRU\FRQVLVWVRI
LQVWDQFHVXSWRWZHQW\DQGXSWRDJH2XWRIDWRWDORILQVFULSWLRQVWKLV
HTXDOVWRRUHYHQLIZHWDNHDVWKHOLPLQDODJH2XUHYLGHQFHWKXV
FRQ¿UPVWKHZHOONQRZQIDFWWKDWDVDQDJHJURXS\RXQJSHRSOHDUHZHOOUHSUH-
sented in the inscriptions with age indication.17$OVRWKHLQVFULSWLRQVIRUWKRVHXS
WRDJHKDYHDPDUNHGWHQGHQF\WRZDUGVDFFXUDF\RIWKHLQVWDQFHVRIDJH
LQGLFDWLRQXSWRGD\VRXWRIDUHFRPPHPRUDWLRQVWR\RXQJSHRSOH/DX-
UHQFHDQG7UL¿OzKDYHULJKWO\VXJJHVWHGWKDWWKLVJUHDWHUGHJUHHRIDFFXUDF\LVDQ
indication of the presence of parents or other relatives who were in the possibility
of mourning the young deceased and who remembered very well the birthday of
the person involved.18
5HJLR,,,LVUDWKHUVPDOO7KHDQFLHQWFLW\RI7KXJJDLQPRGHUQ7XQLVLDWKH$IULFDQSURYLQFHV
DUHYHU\ULFKLQHSLJUDSKLFDOHYLGHQFHSURGXFHVWRPEVWRQHVZLWKLQGLFDWLRQRIDJH6HH
+DUORZ±/DXUHQFH±
15 (\EHQ/DHV±6WUXEEH±RQWKHOHJDOGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQEHWZHHQPLQRUHV
and PDLRUHVVHWDWDJH3LNKDXV±RQDJHDV

SV\FKRORJLFDOERUGHU
EHWZHHQ
young and old.
+DUORZ±/DXUHQFH±DSSO\WKLVGLYLVLRQWRWKHHYLGHQFHIURP7KXJJD/DXUHQFH
±7UL¿Oz±IRUWKHLUVDPSOHRIWKH/DWLQ:HVW

17/DHV±IRUWKH&LW\RI5RPHDVZHOODVRWKHUVFKRODUO\OLWHUDWXUH)RUWKH&LW\RI
5RPHWKHSHUFHQWDJHHYHQDPRXQWVWRIRUWKRVHXSWRDJH
18/DXUHQFH±7UL¿Oz6DOOHU±KDVPDGHGHPRJUDSKLFDOFDOFXODWLRQV
RQWKHQXPEHUVRIUHODWLYHVVWLOODOLYHDWFHUWDLQDJH$OVRLQUHJLRQVZLWKDUHNQRZQIRUWKHLU
Table 1: Age distribution of the inscriptions of Regio III*
Age Years Months Days References

0
1 1 2 &,/;$(
&,/;((9,,,,QVFU,WIII 1, 217;
2 1 2
3DHVWXP 181; AE
&,/;"F,&,9
3 5 2 6XSSO,W (L) III 17; ,QVFU,W,,,,,,3DHVWXP 190;
AE
&,/; $($(
4 2 2 4

&,/;,&,96XSSO,W5,9
5 1 1 5
3DHVWXP 189
&,/;((9,,,9,,,9,,,,&,
6 96XSSO,W(L) III 15; ,QVFU,W III 1, 89; III 1, 97; AE

7 2 2 &,/;EE9,,,9,,,
&,/;((9,,,,&,96XSSO,W5,9
8 5 1
27; $(AE 2008, 442
9 1 1 &,/;EE9,,,
10 2 2 &,/;6XSSO,W&,,,/,,,
11 1 1 1 &,/;3DHVWXP188
12 1 1 1 &,/;AE 1978, 258
&,/;((9,,,,QVFU,W III 1, 100; III
13 4 1 2
1, 248; $(
14 1 1 &,/;
&,/;,QVFU,W,,,$(1974, 294;
15 1
$(1999, 544
16 4 2 &,/;,QVFU,W III 1, 252
&,/;((9,,,,QVFU,W III 1,
17 5 1 2
$(
&,/;$(
18 10 2
1978, 259; $($(
&,/;((9,,,6XSSO,W5,9,QVFU,W III 1,
19 4 1 1
,,,$(
& &RVLOLQXP / /RFUL 5, 5HJLXP,XOLXP
)RUREYLRXVUHDVRQVQR*UHHNLQVFULSWLRQVKDYHEHHQLQFOXGHG)RUWKHVDNHRIFODULW\RQO\
one reference is given for each single inscription: in the case of multiple references in /
$QQpH
pSLJUDSKLTXH only the most recent is given.
** 7KLVLQVFULSWLRQFRQVLGHUHGDVDIDNHE\0RPPVHQKDVEHHQFRQYLQFLQJO\
UHKDELOLWDWHG
E\
%XRQRSDQH±±
100 &KULVWLDQ/DHV

&,/;,QVFU,W,,,,,,"
20 1 1
$($(1982, 221
21 1 &,/;$(
22 5 &,/;((9,,,
23 2 &,/;6XSSO,W(L) III 12
&,/;((9,,,,QVFU,W,,,$(
24 4 2

&,/;6XSSO,W/95,9
25 9 2
9JU9$(
26 4 &,/;EE9,,,$(1984, 272
27 5 &,/;3DHVWXP180; $(
28 2 &,/;
29 2 &,/;
&,/;((9,,,
30 11 1 4 252; 3DHVWXP 184; ,&,99$($(1984,
270; AE
31 2 &,/;"3DHVWXP 184
32 1 1 ((9,,,AE
33 2 1 &,/;
34 1 &,/;
&,/;G,&,99
35 7
,QVFU,W,,,"
36 4 1 &,/;F6XSSO,W&,,,
37 2 6XSSO,W5,99
38 1 1 1 &,/;$(
39 2 &,/;6XSSO,W(L) III 14
&,/;
8081; 8092; EE9,,,6XSSO,W5,99,QVFU,W
40 9 4 7
III 1, 177; 3DHVWXP$(1975, 280;$(1984, 271; $(
1999, 541
41 2 1 &,/;
42 2 6XSSO,W(L) III 18; $(
43 1 &,/;
44
45 2 1 1 &,/;,&,96XSSO,W(L) III 5
46 1 &,/;
47 2 &,/;
48
49

&,/;,&,9
50 10 2 2 96XSSO,W/,,,AE$(AE

51 1 3DHVWXP 179
52 1 1 ,&,9$(
53 2 6XSSO,W5,9AE
54 1 1 1 &,/;((9,,,,&,9
55 4 &,/;((9,,,,QVFU,W III 1, 114a
56 1 &,/;
57 1 1 &,/;
58 2 &,/;EE9,,,
59 1 &,/;
&,/;6XSSO,W(L) III 7;
60
5,9,&,99AEAE
61 1 &,/;
62 1 ,QVFU,W,,,
63 2 &,/;AE 1999, 541
64 1 $(D
&,/;EE9,,,$(1975, 281; AE 1975,
65 2
282
66
67
68
69
&,/;,&,99AEAE
70 4 1

71
72 2 &,/;
73
74
75 4 1 &,/;AE
76
77
78
79
80 1 &,/;E6XSSO,W5,9,&,9
$JHLVRQO\LQGLUHFWO\JLYHQ,QVWHLD3XOODZDVWDNHQIURPKHUKRPHDWDJHVHYHQDQGZDV
KHUKXVEDQG
VZLIHIRU\HDUV6HHSRQWKLVUHPDUNDEOHLQVFULSWLRQ
102 &KULVWLDQ/DHV
2.3. Key ages for the young
)LUVWDQGIRUHPRVWLWVKRXOGEHVWDWHGWKDWWKHOLIHVWDJHRIFKLOGKRRG±LV

YHU\ZHOOUHSUHVHQWHGLQRXUVDPSOHZLWKDWRWDORILWLVIDUDERYHWKHDYHU-
DJHIRUWKH/DWLQ:HVWDVZHOODVIRUWKHUHJLRQDOVWXG\FRQFHUQLQJ7KXJJD
±19
,QWKHLUVWXG\/DXUHQFHDQG7UL¿OzGLVWLQJXLVKZKDWWKH\FDOONH\DJHVDV
WKH\ DUH HQFRXQWHUHG LQ WKH OLWHUDU\ VRXUFHV WKUHH HDUOLHVW DJH DW EXULDO ¿YH
VWDUWLQJSRLQWIRUODERXUDQGVPDOOWDVNVVHYHQER\VEHFRPHpueri and girls
YLUJLQHV, minimum age of betrothal); twelve or fourteen (minimum age for mar-
ULDJHIRUJLUOVDQGER\VIRXUWHHQWRVL[WHHQWRJDYLULOLVand dangerous period of
SXEHUW\IRUER\V¿IWHHQWRQLQHWHHQHVWLPDWHGDJHRI¿UVWPDUULDJHIRUJLUOV
HLJKWHHQQLQHWHHQVWDUWRIPLOLWDU\VHUYLFHDQGPLOLWDU\WULEXQDWHWZHQW\H[-
SHFWDWLRQRIPDUULDJHIRUJLUOVDFFRUGLQJWRWKH$XJXVWDQPDUULDJHODZVWZHQW\
¿YHER\VDUHOLEHUDWHGIURPWKHWXWHODDQGH[SHFWHGWREHPDUULHGDFFRUGLQJWR
WKH$XJXVWDQ PDUULDJH ODZV WKH\ PD\ VWDUW WKHLU SROLWLFDO VHQDWRULDO FDUHHU20
'RHVWKHHYLGHQFHRI5HJLR,,,GLVSOD\HPSKDVLVRQWKHVHNH\DJHV"
$PRQJ WKH JURXS RI \RXQJ SHRSOH DJHV WKUHH VHYHQWHHQHLJKWHHQQLQH-
WHHQDQGDUHSDUWLFXODUO\ZHOOUHSUHVHQWHG$IUDJPHQWIURPWKHWKLUGFHQWXU\
MXULVW 8OSLDQ SUHVHUYHV WKH UXOH WKDW D FKLOG \RXQJHU WKDQ WKUHH \HDUV GRHV QRW
UHFHLYHIRUPDOPRXUQLQJEXWDPDUJLQDOIRUPDQG3OXWDUFKDVFULEHVDODZGHQ\-
LQJIRUPDOPRXUQLQJIRUFKLOGUHQ\RXQJHUWKDQWKUHHWRWKHVHFRQGNLQJ1XPD
3RPSLOLXV21 There is also some evidence in the alimentary schemes pointing to
the age of three as a minimum age for receiving the DOLPHQWD.22$OVRIRUQXPHUR-
logical reasons, this age was considered important.7KHUDWKHUHTXDOVH[UDWLR
IRUWKLVDJHWHVWL¿HVWRWKHIDFWWKDW\RXQJJLUOVZHUHYDOXHGDVKLJKO\DV\RXQJ
boys (see table 2).24
VWURQJHPSKDVLVRQROGDJHDERYHVL[W\DJHLQGLFDWLRQVXSWRWKHGD\VRPHRQHOLYHGDUHUDUH
6HH+DUORZ±/DXUHQFH
19 /DXUHQFH ± 7UL¿Oz /DWLQ :HVW +DUORZ ± /DXUHQFH ± 7KXJJD
GLIIHUHQWLDWHGEHWZHHQER\VDQGJLUOVUHVSHFWLYHO\DQG
20/DXUHQFH±7UL¿OzGUDZLQJRQUHVHDUFKRQOLIHFRXUVHE\+DUORZ±/DXUHQFH
3DUNLQDQG/DHV±

21 ),5$QRQOXJHWXUVHGVXEOXJHWXU3OXW1XPD12.
22 CIL VIII DJH±IRUER\VDQG±IRUJLUOV6HHDOVR&-IURPWKHDJHRI
three, one cannot deny the fatherhood of an infant).
/DHV±
247KLVLVDOVRDWWHVWHGIRUWKHLQVFULSWLRQVRI5RPH/DHV±DQGIRUWKHODUJHVDPSOH

/DWLQ,QVFULSWLRQVDQGWKH/LIH&RXUVH
The sudden increase of epitaphs for the Table 2: Sex ratio

ages of seventeen/eighteen may be connected
ZLWKWKHIDFWWKDWOHJLVODWLRQRQWDNLQJRQSR- Boys Girls Sex ratio
litical responsibilities in the PXQLFLSLD points \ 8 5
WRDJHHLJKWHHQ$OVRDWWKLVDJHPHQRISK\VL- \ 5
FDOVRXQGQHVVDQGPHQWDO¿WQHVVVKRXOGEHSXW 17 y. 2
RQWKHUROORINQLJKWV257HOOLQJO\WKHVH[UDWLR 18 y. 9
IRU DJHV VHYHQWHHQHLJKWHHQ LV LQ IDYRXU 25 y. 4 7 57
RIPDOHVWKLVLVDOOWKHPRUHVLJQL¿FDQWVLQFH \ 8 8 100
RWKHUURXQGHGDJHVKDYHDIDLUO\HTXDOVH[UDWLR \ 7
(see table 2). This is compelling evidence to 40 y. 12 7 171
state that the ages of seventeen/eighteen were 50 y. 10
sensed as important ages for the starting of \ 100
a young male's adult life and political career
DQGZHUHWKHUHIRUHUHÀHFWHGLQWKHHSLJUDSKLF
KDELW2EYLRXVO\WKHFRPLQJRIDJHIRUWDNLQJRQSROLWLFDOUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVLQWKH
PXQLFLSLDZDVFRQVLGHUHGPRUHLPSRUWDQWWKDQWKHHQUROPHQWDVDNQLJKWVLQFH
not a single boy of this age in our data-set can be proved to be a member of the
equestrian class. In the same way, I believe that the emphasis on age 25 is to be
understood as an effect of age rounding, and not as the beginning of political ca-
reer in the senate, which obviously was only related with a very tiny percentage
of the populace.
2.4. Key ages and age rounding for the elderly
$FFRUGLQJWR/DXUHQFHDQG7UL¿OzLWLVWKHPLGGOHDJHJURXS±ZKLFKLV

best represented in the inscriptions from the Latin West, both for man and wom-
HQZLWKDSHUFHQWDJHRIDERXW7DEOHFRQ¿UPVWKLVSHUFHQWDJHIRUWKH
HYLGHQFHRI5HJLR,,,$VWULNLQJGLIIHUHQFHZLWKWKHWRWDOVDPSOHE\/DXUHQFHDQG
7UL¿OzLVWKHXQGHUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHHOGHUO\LQRXUVDPSOHWKRVHDJHG±
RQO\UHSUHVHQWDERXWLQWKHVDPSOHE\/DXUHQFHDQG7UL¿OzDQGWKHUH
LVQRWDVLQJOHLQVWDQFHRIDQHSLWDSKIRUDSHUVRQDJHGRYHUHLJKW\DERXWLQ
RIWKH/DWLQ:HVW/DXUHQFH±7UL¿Oz

25+DUORZ±/DXUHQFH±/DHV
/DXUHQFH±7UL¿Oz±

104 &KULVWLDQ/DHV
Table 3: age distribution/ age categories
WKHVDPSOHE\/DXUHQFHDQG7UL¿Oz27(YHQLIRQHZRXOGLQFOXGHDJHVL[W\LQWKH
FDWHJRU\RIWKHHOGHUWKHSHUFHQWDJHRIZRXOGQRWUHDFKWKHSHUFHQWDJHRI
the total sample for the Latin West. This again points to the fact that the inscrip-
tions from Regio III tend to stress young ages.
The inscriptions for those above age 25 are revealing for the discussion on
age rounding and age awareness in the Roman Empire. In table 1, the multiples
of ten are particularly well attested.
$JHWKLUW\GRHVRFFXUZLWKOLWHUDU\DXWKRUVDVWKHHQGRI\RXWKIXOYLJRXU
DJHIRXUW\PLJKWEHV\PEROLFIRUWKHDWWDLQLQJRIIXOODGXOWDJHZKLOHDJHVL[W\
LVWKHWUDGLWLRQDOPDUNHUIRUWKHEHJLQQLQJRIROGDJHRUVHQHFWXV.28$OVRWKHDJHV
RI VL[W\ VHYHQW\ DQG LQ VRPH FLUFXPVWDQFHV VHYHQW\¿YH DSSHDU DV DJHV IURP
ZKLFKWKHPHPEHUVRIWKHHOLWHVKRXOGEHH[FXVHGWKHH[SHQVHVRISXEOLFJLIWVRU
PXQHUD.29
Scholars have pointed to the fact that it often depended on the medium as
WRZKHWKHUSHRSOHZHUHLQFOLQHGRUXVHGWRLQGLFDWHWKHLUH[DFWDJHV The unde-
niable fact that people resorted to age rounding in epitaphs does not necessarily
mean that they could not do better; it only indicates that it was part of custom to
rather round the number of years someone lived (though it was not obligatory
27)RU$IULFDQ7KXJJDWKHSHUFHQWDJHRIDJHFDWHJRU\±LVDQGPHQDQG
ZRPHQ ZKLOH WKH YHU\ ROG RFFXS\ DQG 6HH +DUORZ ± /DXUHQFH
±%XWWKH$IULFDQHSLJUDSKLFDOSUHIHUHQFHIRUWKHROGKDVEHHQNQRZQIRUDORQJWLPH6HH
6]LODJ\LDQG
28/DXUHQFH±7UL¿Oz±)RUROGDJHVHH3DUNLQ
29 'LJ)RUDGHWDLOHGDFFRXQWVHH3DUNLQ±

6FKHLGHO
HLWKHUVLQFHVHYHUDOLQVFULSWLRQVWHVWLI\WRTXLWHWKHRSSRVLWH$OVRDJHURXQGLQJ
does not imply that one is unaware of one's birthday: people may perfectly re-
PHPEHUWKHGD\WKH\ZHUHERUQ[GD\VEHIRUHRUDIWHUPDUNHWGD\WKHSUR[LPLW\
RIDIHVWLYDOZKLOHZLWKWLPHSDVVLQJE\WKHH[DFWDJHPD\KDYHEHHQIRUJRWWHQ
7DEOHLQGHHGUHYHDOVDUHPDUNDEOHQXPEHURIDJHLQGLFDWLRQVLQFOXGLQJGD\V
IRUWKHLQVFULSWLRQVZLWKPXOWLSOHVRI¿YHVHVSHFLDOO\IRUDJHVWKLUW\IRXUW\VL[W\
DQGVHYHQW\DQXQDPELJXRXVFRQ¿UPDWLRQRIWKHWUHQGWRFRPELQHDJHURXQGLQJ
with a full awareness of the day of birth.
In the category of the VHQHVVWDUWLQJIURPDJHVL[W\DJHURXQGLQJEHFRPHV
LQFUHDVLQJO\LPSRUWDQW:LWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRIDJHRQO\PXOWLSOHVRI¿YHDUH
DWWHVWHGIURPDJHRQ0RUHRYHURXWRILQVFULSWLRQVDUHLQDOO
OLNHOLKRRG&KULVWLDQ Since the collection of instances of age indication in table
FRQWDLQV&KULVWLDQFDVHVLQWRWDOWKHHPSKDVLVRIWKH&KULVWLDQHSLWDSKVRQ
ROGDJHLVPDUNHGQRWOHVVWKDQRIWKH&KULVWLDQLQVFULSWLRQVLQ5HJLR,,,LV
GHGLFDWHGWRWKHHOGHUO\RIVL[W\\HDUVRUROGHU
8QIRUWXQDWHO\ WKH VDPSOH IURP 5HJLR ,,, GRHV QRW FRQWDLQ HQRXJK HYL-
dence of inscriptions precising the time of death up to the hours one lived.
There are fourteen instances of the SOXVPLQXV formula. The strong presence of
&KULVWLDQHYLGHQFHIRUWKHODWWHUFDWHJRU\VXJJHVWVWKDWDOVRLQWKLVUHJLRQ
WKHIRUPXODZDVSDUWRIWKH&KULVWLDQHSLJUDSKLFKDELW2QO\WKUHHSOXVPLQXV
LQVFULSWLRQGRQRWUHIHUWRDURXQGHGDJHDFRQ¿UPDWLRQRIWKHOLQNEHWZHHQWKLV
IRUPXODDQGWKHDWWDLQPHQWRINH\DJHV The tendency for age rounding is even
PRUHRXWVSRNHQLQWKH&KULVWLDQHSLWDSKVZKHUHQRWOHVVWKDQRXWRI
RIWKHLQVFULSWLRQVPHQWLRQVDJHVZKLFKDUHPXOWLSOHVRI¿YH
3. Funerary inscriptions as gendered information
7KLVSDUDJUDSKVWXGLHV WKHVRFDOOHGVH[ UDWLRZKLFKKLJKOLJKWVWKHSURSRUWLRQ

of inscriptions for males versus inscriptions for females. Similar research has
&KURQRORJLFDOO\VWDUWLQJIURPDJHVL[W\WKHVHLQFOXGH&,/;DQG,&,9
DQG&,/;,&,9DQG
Hours are only indicated in &,/;3DHVWXP 188; 189.
3OXVPLQXV: &,/;DQG,&,9DQG$(
$(/DXUHQFH±7UL¿Oz±RQWKHODWHDQFLHQWDQG&KULVWLDQXVH
of the SOXVPLQXVIRUPXOD2QO\&,/;DQGDUHQRW&KULVWLDQ
&,/;\HDUV,&,9\HDUV$(\HDUV/DXUHQFH±7UL¿Oz
on SOXVPLQXVDQGNH\DJHV
&KULVWLDQ/DHV
Table 4: Sex imbalance in age categories
EHHQVHWXSHDUOLHU2XWRIDVDPSOHRIHSLWDSKV.+RSNLQVFDOFXODWHG
DQDYHUDJHVH[UDWLRRIIRU5RPDQLQVFULSWLRQV/DXUHQFHDQG7UL¿OzPHQ-
WLRQDVH[UDWLRRIIRUWKHLUVDPSOHRIWKH/DWLQ:HVW$VDPSOHIRU5RPDQ
,WDO\UHYHDOHGDQRYHUDOOSUHSRQGHUDQFHRIPDOHVZLWKDYHUDJHVH[UDWLRRI
WKRXJK PDUNHG UHJLRQDO YDULDWLRQV RFFXU$V PHQWLRQHG DERYH WKH VWXG\ RI
IDPLO\LQVFULSWLRQVVKRZHGDVWURQJHUVH[LPEDODQFHLQIDYRXURIPHQFIQRWH
7KLUWHHQVHHPVWREHDFUXFLDODJHIRUWKHZKROHRI,WDO\7KHVH[UDWLRGURSV
to 88: an indication of the importance of this age for girls who were by then con-
sidered as marriageable.
)RUP\VDPSOHRI5HJLR,,,WKHDYHUDJHVH[UDWLRQLVDQXPEHUZKLFK
FRPHVYHU\QHDUWKHDYHUDJHIRU5RPDQ,WDO\$VDSSHDUVIURPWDEOHWKHUHDUH
QRVLJQL¿FDQWYDULDWLRQVZKHQZHFRPSDUHDJHFDWHJRULHVIRUPHQDQGZRPHQ
The relatively small numbers per age do not allow for a more nuanced analysis,
EXWLIZHRQO\LQFOXGHWKHVHDJHVZLWKVLJQL¿FDQWDWWHVWDWLRQVVRPHLQWHUHVWLQJ
SDWWHUQVDSSHDUVHHWDEOH,QIDFWWKHVH[LPEDODQFHVHHPVWRKDYHEHHQOHVV
RXWVSRNHQIRUURXQGHGDJHVDVWKLUW\DQGVL[W\WKHEDODQFHLVHYHQWXUQLQJLQID-
YRXURIZRPHQDWDJH)RUWKHLUVDPSOHRIWKH/DWLQ:HVW/DXUHQFHDQG7UL¿Oz
have pointed out that women are indeed more strongly represented at the age of
25 and thirty.$OVRIRU\RXQJLQIDQWVWKHLPEDODQFHGRHVQRWVHHPWREHWKDW
+RSNLQV±
/DXUHQFH±7UL¿Oz
0F:LOOLDPDYHUDJHVH[UDWLRQXPEHUVE\UHJLRQ7KHVDPSOHRI0F:LOOLDP

does not include Regio III.
$VWKHUHDSSHDUQRVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFHVIRU7KXJJD6HH+DUORZ±/DXUHQFH±
/DXUHQFH±7UL¿Oz±+RZHYHUWKHJHQGHUSHDNLQIDYRXURIPHQDWDJHVL[W\LV
QRWFRQ¿UPHGLQRXUVRXUFHPDWHULDO
VWURQJDVLWLVIRUROGHUDJHV±DJDLQDIDFWZKLFKLVFRQ¿UPHGE\WKHPXFKODUJHU
collection of epitaphs of Rome.40
4. Individual instances and case stories
4.1. Age terminology
7KHLQVFULSWLRQVRI5HJLR,,,GRQRWRIIHUVXI¿FLHQWPDWHULDOWRVWXG\WHUPLQRORJ\
of age.417KHUHLVKRZHYHURQHHSLWDSKIURP9HOLDLQZKLFKWKHXVHRIDGXOHVFHQV
is strange when compared to the literary sources:
EE9,,,
0(/XFUHWLXVDGXOHVFHQVDPDQWLVVLPXVYL[LWDQQRV9,,,,
PHQVHP,6SX¿XV&DPSDQXVDOXPQREHQHPHUHQWL.
$GXOHVFHQVXVXDOO\UHIHUVWRDJHV¿IWHHQWRWKLUW\WKRXJKWKHWHUPZDVQHYHUXVHG
that strictly. In practice, it could be applied to anyone living in the vigour of his
youth, and the distinction with LXYHQLVwas not always that sharp.42 However, the
XVHRIWKHWHUPIRUDQLQH\HDUVROGFKLOGLVUHPDUNDEOHWKHUHDUHRQO\WZRRWKHU
DWWHVWDWLRQVSRLQWLQJWRDJHVXQGHU¿IWHHQRQHRIZKLFKLVDODWHDQFLHQW&KULVWLDQ
H[DPSOH7KHH[DPSOHIURP9HOLDWKXVWXUQVRXWWREHWKH\RXQJHVWFKLOGNQRZQ
as an DGXOHVFHQVin the pagan material.
40/DHV±
41$JHWHUPLQRORJ\LVQRWWUHDWHGLQ/DXUHQFH±7UL¿OzRU+DUORZ±/DXUHQFH
)RUWKHLQVFULSWLRQVRI5RPHVHH/DHV±

422QDGXOHVFHQV and LXYHQLVVHH(\EHQ±DQG/DHV±6WUXEEH±
&DHVDULVFDOOHGDGXOHVFHQVE\6XHWRQLXVDWWKHDJHRI6XHW&DHV
&,/;,,,/&9 1747; 5,&*;99LFXV$XJXVWL*DOOLD1DUERQHQVLV+LFUHTXLHVFLW
LQSDFHERQDHPHPRULDHDGROHVFHQVLQWHJUHFDUQLVQRPLQH/HXGRPDULTXLYL[LWDQQXV
(sic)QXPHUR,,,,HWGLHV9,,,RELLWLQ&KULVWR;9.DOHQGDV0DUWLDV"VH[VLHVSRVW
FRQVXODWXP %DVLOL YYLUL FODULVVLPL &66 FRQVXOLV )RU WKH RWKHU SDJDQ H[DPSOH VHH
,/$OJ,0DGDXUXV$IULFD3URFRQVXODULV>'LV0DQL@EXVVDFUXP>0DWWLXV@0DWWL
+R>QRUD@WLDQL ¿OL>XV +R@QRUDWXV >D SULPD@ DGXOHV>FHQWL@D H[LPLXV >VLQFH@UXV SLXV
>YL[LWDQQLV@;,,,GLHEXV;;;>KLFVLWXVHVWRVVD@WLELEHQHTXLHVFDQW
108 &KULVWLDQ/DHV
4.2. Marriage at (very) early age
$JHDW¿UVWPDUULDJHDQGGXUDWLRQRIPDUULDJHDVUHSUHVHQWHGRQWRPEVWRQHVKDYH
EHHQWKHVXEMHFWRIGDWDEDVHVDQGVHSDUDWHVWXGLHVERWKEHIRUHDQGDIWHUWKHLQ-
IRUPDWLRQHUD7KHHYLGHQFHVXJJHVWVDQDYHUDJHDJHRI¿UVWPDUULDJHLQWKHODWH
teens for women and somewhat over 25 for men.44 Both in the case of marriages
DWHDUO\DJHDQGH[FHSWLRQDOO\ORQJPDUULDJHV/XFDQLDDQG%UXWWLXPKDYHVRPH
interesting cases to offer.
$¿UVWLQVWDQFHLVDQLQVFULSWLRQIURP)RUXP3RSLOOLLGDWLQJIURPWKHUHLJQ
RI(PSHURU&ODXGLXV±RUSHUKDSVVRPHZKDWHDUOLHURQDPRQXPHQWZKLFK
is described by the enthusiastic editor as one of the most important of the Roman
Empire:45
,QVFU,W,/6AE 1910, 191

&DLR 8WLDQR &DL ILOLR 3RPSWLQD 5XIR /DWLQLDQR ,,,,YLUR
LXUH GLFXQGR LWHUXP ,QVWHLD 0DUFL ILOLD 3ROOD VDFHUGRV
,XOLDH$XJXVWDH9ROFHLVHW$WLQDHRSWLPRHWLQGXOJHQWLVVLPRYLUR
TXLHDPSXSLOODPDQQRUXP9,,LQGRPXPsicUHFHSWDPSHUDQQRV
/9FXPVXPPRKRQRUHX[RUHPKDEXLW.KXQFGHFXULRQHV9ROFHLDQL
LQSHQVD (sic) SXEOLFD IXQHUDQGXP HW VWDWXD HTXHVWUL KRQRUDQGXP
FHQVXHUXQW./DWLQLDH0DUFLILOLDH3RVLOODH>VRU@RUL/DWLQLDQL
This is an intriguing instance of early betrothal.$WDJHVHYHQPHUHO\DOLWWOHJLUO

(SXSLOOD,QVWHLD3ROODZDVEURXJKWLQWRWKHKRXVHRI&8WLDQXV5XIXV/DWLQLDQXV
a member of the JHQV/DWLQLDQD who had been adopted into the JHQV8WLDQD. She
ODWHUEHFDPHDSULHVWRI,XOLD$XJXVWDWKHGHL¿HG/LYLDZLIHRI$XJXVWXV7KH
great prestige of the family is apparent from the fact that her husband, who is hon-
oured for having treated his wife with all due respects in a marriage which lasted
IRU \HDUV LV JUDQWHG D IXQHUDO RQ SXEOLF H[SHQVHV DV ZHOO DV DQ HTXHVWULDQ
statue on the costs of the GHFXULRQHVRI9ROFL$OVRKLVVLVWHULVFRPPHPRUDWHG
with due honours.
44 +DUNQHVV 6KDZ IRU GDWD VHWV7KH GHWDLO RI WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RQ DJH DW ¿UVW
marriage is aptly summarised by Scheidel (2007).

457LWXOXPSURSWHUHWYDULDTXDHHQXQWLDWHWRUQDWXVHOHJDQWLDPHWPLUXPPRQXPHQWLGHFXV
LQWHUVHSXOFUDOHVSUDHFLSXRV5RPDQDUXPFLYLWDWXPSODQHKDEHR
)RUDJHVRIEHWURWKDOVHH+DUORZ±/DXUHQFH±+DUORZ±/DXUHQFH
note 29 (also referring to previous scholarship).

0DUULDJH DW SUHSXEHUDO DJH KDV EHHQ WKH VXEMHFW RI FRQVLGHUDEOH VFKRO-
arly attention and debate, but it has to be pointed out that this inscription only
refers to bringing the seven-year-old girl into the house of her future husband.
6KHPD\KDYHEHHQNHSWWKHUHDQGHGXFDWHGIRUVHYHUDO\HDUVEHIRUHWKHPDUULDJH
ZDVDFWXDOO\FRQWUDFWHGRUVH[XDOO\FRQVXPPDWHG$IDPRXVLQVWDQFHRIDQRWKHU
VHYHQ\HDU ROG LV WKH IUHHGZRPDQ$XUHOLD 3KLOHPDWLRQ IURP 5RPH ZKR OLYHG
for forty years with her husband and collibertus3KLOHPDWLRQ$WDJHVHYHQKH
LVVDLGWRKDYHWDNHQKHULQKLVDUPVVHSWHPPHQDDWDPDQQRUXPJUHPLRLSVH
recepitWKHVDPHVFHQDULRDVWKHWDNLQJLQWRWKHKRXVHZKLFKLVPHQWLRQHGLQWKH
LQVFULSWLRQIURP)RUXP3RSLOLL47 In both cases, nothing is said about the age of
the husband.
$QLQVFULSWLRQIURP3RWHQWLDXQDPELJXRXVO\UHIHUVWRDFWXDOPDUULDJHDW
age nine:
EE9,,,
'LV0DQLEXV)ODELDH%HUYLDQHQL"FRQLXJLTXLsicYL[LW
>DQ@QLV;;9,3XEOLXV2F>FL@XV,X>OL@D>QX@V&9>@297DQQLV
;9,,EHQHPHUHQWL
In an epitaph from the same town, marriage with a ten-year-old girl is attested.
When she died at age 28, she is commemorated by her husband and her daughter:
&,/;
'LV0DQLEXV&LVDWLDH3ROODHTXDHEL[LWDQQRV;;;9,,,PHQ
VHV9,,,,)LJHOLXV$WLPHWXVFRQLXJLFXPTXRYL[LWDQQRV;;9,,
PHQVHV;,HW)LJHOOLD3URFXOD¿OLDPDWULEHQHPHUHQWL
$QG \HW DQRWKHU LQVWDQFH IURP 7HJLDQXP WHVWL¿HV WR PDUULDJH DW DJH WKLUWHHQ
(though the bride was nearly fourteen when marrying). Here, the minimum legal
age for marriage of twelve for girls is respected:
&,/;,QVFU,W III 1, 255

'LV 0DQLEXV 7HJHDQHQVL 3ULPDH TXDH YL[LW DQQRV ;;;,,,,
PHQVHV9,,GLHV;,,0DUFXV7HJHDQHQVLV&UHVFHQVFRQLXJL
GXOFLVVLPDH FXP TXD YL[LW DQQRV ;; PHQVHV 9,,,, EHQH
PHUHQWLIHFLW
47 &,/ I 1221.
110 &KULVWLDQ/DHV
8QIRUWXQDWHO\QRWDVLQJOHLQVFULSWLRQIURP5HJLR,,,LQIRUPVXVRQTXHVWLRQVDV
DJHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQPHQDQGZLIHRUWKH¿UVWDJHRIEHFRPLQJDPRWKHU,Q
WZRMRLQWHSLWDSKVIRUDKXVEDQGDQGKLVZLIHZKRGLHGUHVSHFWLYHO\DWWKHDJH
RIVL[W\DQGIRUW\ZHFDQQRWSRVVLEO\NQRZWKDWWKHDJHJDSEHWZHHQWKHWZR
DFWXDOO\ZDVWZHQW\\HDUV2QHFRXOGKDYHGLHGORQJEHIRUHWKHRWKHUWKHVWRQHV
could have been erected after the second had died.48
When people recorded the duration of their marriage, they preferred to
mention long duration, and they did certainly not always resort to rounding.
+HQFHWKHHYLGHQFHIURP5HJLR,,,FRQWDLQVVL[LQVWDQFHVRIPDUULDJHVODVWLQJ
IRU PRUH WKDQ \HDUV49$ TXLWH UHPDUNDEOH LQVWDQFH LV D FRPPHPRUDWLRQ RI
PDUULDJHIURP)RUXP3RSLOOLLZKHUHWKHGXUDWLRQLVGHWDLOHGXSWRWKHKRXU
,QVFU,W III 1, 117

'LV0DQLEXV'HFLPR'LQQLR$ULVFRQL,QVWHLD/DQWHQXVDFRQ
LXJLEHQHPHUHQWLIHFLWTXLVHQHsicXOORGRORPHR>H[DQLPD@
WXVHVWLQDHRORFRYLULEXVXPQLVH[LPHUHWXUFRQsicTXRYL[LW
DQQRV;9,,,PHQVHV9GLHV;9,,KRUDV;,,
+HUHDQHPHQGDWLRQE\+6ROLQKDVWDNHQDZD\WKHVXJJHVWLRQWKDW,QVWHLD/DQ-
tenusa's husband would have died by an accident or a murder for which she in
RQH ZD\ RU DQRWKHU ZRXOG KDYH WR EH EODPHG ,Q IDFW WKH HSLJUDSKLFDO KDSD[
>H[DQLPD@WXV should be read as >KXPD@WXV, while VHQHXOORGRORPHR has to be
understood as VLQHGRORPDOR, a very usual formula.50
5. Conclusions
7KHGDWDVHWRIDJHLQVFULSWLRQVIURP/XFDQLDDQG%UXWWLXPKDVFRQ¿UPHGVRPH
ZHOONQRZQSDWWHUQVZKLFKZHUHGLVFRYHUHGLQWKHODUJHVDPSOHIRUWKHFRUSXVRI
LQVFULSWLRQVIURPWKH/DWLQ:HVWVH[LPEDODQFHLQIDYRXURIPDOHVVWURQJUHS-
resentation of young people, high valuation of female infants, preference for age
URXQGLQJDWPRUHDGYDQFHGDJHDSDUWLFXODUVWUHVVRQNH\DJHVERWKIRUWKH\RXQJ
48 See &,/;DQG)RURWKHUH[DPSOHVVHH6XSSO,W5,9VRQGLHVDWDJHIRXUW\

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Epigraphical editions
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rum). 6XSSOHPHQWD,WDOLFD 5, 1989 (Regium Iulium).
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'3LNKDXV/HYHQVEHVFKRXZLQJHQPLOLHXLQGH/DWLMQVHPHWULVFKHLQVFULSWLHV, Brussels 1978.
536DOOHU3DWULDUFK\3URSHUW\DQG'HDWKLQWKH5RPDQ(PSLUH&DPEULGJH
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Arctos 46 (2012) 115–35
THE HIRPI SORANI AND THE WOLF CULTS

OF CENTRAL ITALY
MIKA RISSANEN
The impressive ridge of Mt. Soracte, the only mountain in the lower Tiber valley,
is situated 45 kilometres north of Rome, its highest peak being 691 metres above
sea level (about 500 metres higher than its surroundings). It was known as the
site of the cult practised by priests called Hirpi Sorani. The region around about
was inhabited by the Faliscans, a tribe who spoke a language related to Latin.
Politically and culturally the Faliscans were closely connected with the Etruscans
until the 5th century BCE, when the expanding city-state of Rome occupied their
territory. In this paper I discuss the cult of the Hirpi Sorani, comparing it with
other wolf cults of central Italy, analysing the common elements of these cults,
and suggesting that the cults have a common origin.
The earliest literary source which mentions the cult of the Hirpi Sorani
is Virgil's Aeneid.1 Strabo gives a more detailed description in his Geographia
(written between 7 BCE and 23 CE).2 Other valuable sources are Pliny the El-
1 Verg. Aen. 11,784–788: ( - - ) superos Arruns sic voce precatur: / "summe deum, sancti custos
Soractis Apollo, / quem primi colimus, cui pineus ardor acervo / pascitur, et medium freti
pietate per ignem / cultores multa premimus vestigia pruna" "Arruns ( - - ) prayed aloud, like
this, to heaven: 'Highest of gods, Apollo, guardian of holy Soracte, whose chief followers are
ZHIRUZKRPWKHEOD]HRIWKHSLQHZRRG¿UHLVIHGDQGZKRDVZRUVKLSSHUVFRQ¿GHQWLQRXU
IDLWKSODQWRXUVWHSVRQGHHSHPEHUVDPRQJWKHÀDPHV
WUDQVODWHGE\$6.OLQH
2 Strabo 5,226: ȓƳ ƵƟvƧƮƽƳ ȀƴƵƫƮ ȀƮ Ƶˑ ƵƽƱˎ ƪƣƶvƣƴƵɘƮ ȝƧƲưƱưƫơƣƮ ȄƸưƮx ƥƶvƮưʴƳ ƥɔƲ
ƱưƴɚƦƫƧƯơƣƴƫƮǰƮƪƲƣƬƫɔƮƬƣɚƴƱưƦƫɔƮvƧƥƞƭƩƮưȝƬƣƵƧƸƽvƧƮưƫȹƱɜƵʦƳƦƣơvưƮưƳƵƣƾƵƩƳ
ǰƱƣƪƧʴƳxƬƣɚƴƶƮƟƲƸƧƵƣƫƱƭʦƪưƳǰƮƪƲƿƱƺƮǵvƣƵʦƳƵƧƱƣƮƩƥƾƲƧƺƳƸƞƲƫƮȏƴƶƮƵƧƭƧʴƵƣƫ
ƬƣƵʞȄƵưƳƬƣɚƵʦƳƭƧƸƪƧơƴƩƳƪƟƣƳ. "Her sacred precinct is in the place; and it has remarkable
ceremonies, for those who are possessed by this goddess walk with bare feet through a great
heap of embers and ashes without suffering; as a multitude of people come together at the same
time, for the sake not only of attending the festal assembly, which is held here every year, but
also of seeing the aforesaid sight." (translated by H. L. Jones)
116 Mika Rissanen
der (about 70 CE),3 Silius Italicus (late 1st century),4 Solinus (3rd or 4th century,
strongly leaning on Pliny)5 and Servius (5th century).6 The oldest epigraphical
sources date back to the 1st century BCE.
The cult was practised once a year, but no author mentions the exact date of
the ritual.7 Pliny and Solinus write that it was practised by certain families which
were exempt from military service because of their religious responsibilities. Ac-
3 Plin. nat. 7,19: Haud procul urbe Roma in Faliscorum agro familiae sunt paucae quae
YRFDQWXU+LUSL+DHVDFUL¿FLRDQQXRTXRG¿WDGPRQWHP6RUDFWHP$SROOLQLVXSHUDPEXVWDP
ligni struem ambulantes non aduruntur et ob id perpetuo senatus consulto militiae omniumque
aliorum munerum vacationem habent. "There are a few families in the Faliscan territory, not far
IURPWKHFLW\RI5RPHQDPHGWKH+LUSLZKLFKDWWKH\HDUO\VDFUL¿FHWR$SROORSHUIRUPHGRQ
Mount Soracte walk over a charred pile of logs without being scorched, and who consequently
enjoy under a perpetual decree of the senate exemption from military service and all other
burdens." (translated by H. Rackham)
4 Sil. 5,175–183: Tum Soracte satum, praestantem corpore et armis, / Aequanum noscens,
patrio cui ritus in arvo, / cum pius Arcitenens accensis gaudet acervis, / exta ter innocuos
laetum portare per ignes, / "Sic in Apollinea semper vestigia pruna / inviolata teras victorque
vaporis ad aras / dona serenato referas sollemnia Phoebo: / concipe" ait "dignum factis,
Aequane, furorem / vulneribusque tuis. ( - - )" "Next he recognized Aequanus, a son of Mount
6RUDFWHDVSOHQGLG¿JXUHLQVSOHQGLGDUPRXULQKLVQDWLYHODQGLWZDVKLVWDVNWRFDUU\WKH
RIIHULQJVWKULFHLQWULXPSKRYHUKDUPOHVV¿UHVDWWKHWLPHZKHQ$UFKHUWKHORYLQJVRQWDNHV
SOHDVXUHLQWKHEOD]LQJSLOHV
$HTXDQXV
FULHGWKHJHQHUDO
¿OO\RXUKHDUWZLWKZUDWKWKDWVXLWV
\RXUSURZHVVDQG\RXUZRXQGVDQGWKHQPD\\RXHYHUWUHDGXQKXUWRYHU$SROOR
V¿UHDQG
FRQTXHU WKH ÀDPH DQG FDUU\ WKH FXVWRPDU\ RIIHULQJV WR WKH DOWDU ZKLOH 3KRHEXV VPLOHV

(translated by J. D. Duff)
5 Sol 2,26: Memorabilibus inclutum et insigniter per omnium vulgatum ora, quod perpaucae
IDPLOLDH VXQW LQ DJUR )DOLVFRUXP TXRV +LUSRV YRFDQW +L VDFUL¿FLXP DQQXXP DG 6RUDFWLV
montem Apollini faciunt; ad operantes gesticulationibus religiosis impune exultant ardentibus
OLJQRUXP VWUXLEXV LQ KRQRUHP GLYLQDH UHL ÀDPPLV SDUHQWLEXV &XLXV GHYRWLRQLV P\VWHULXP
PXQL¿FHQWLDVHQDWXVKRQRUDWD+LUSLVSHUSHWXRFRQVXOWRRPQLXPPXQHUXPYDFDWLRQHPGHGLW
"It is worth remembering and is known by everyone, that there are a few families in the Faliscan
territory that are called Hirpi7KH\SHUIRUPD\HDUO\VDFUL¿FHWR$SROORRQ0RXQW6RUDFWH
:KLOHSHUIRUPLQJWKHLUUHOLJLRXVDFWVWKH\MXPSXQVFDWKHGRQÀDPLQJSLOHVRIZRRGLQKRQRU
RIWKHGLYLQLW\WKDWFRQWUROVWKHÀDPHV%HFDXVHRIWKHLUGHYRWLRQWRWKHP\VWHU\WKHVHQDWHKDV
generously honored the HirpiZLWKSHUSHWXDOH[HPSWLRQIURPDOORI¿FLDOGXWLHVWUDQVODWHGE\
the author)
6 Serv. Aen. 11,785. See the text below in the note 33.
7 Plin. nat. 7,19; Sol. 2,26; Strabo 5,226. E. Marbach ("Soranus", RE III A.1 [1929] 1131)
believes that the cult was probably practiced in the winter to create the contrast between the
FROGHQYLURQPHQWDQGWKHSXULI\LQJ¿UH
The Hirpi Sorani and the Wolf Cults of Central Italy 117
cording to Solinus, this exemption was an honour.8 However, this opinion is not
accepted by G. Piccaluga, who regards the exemption as a precaution, because
the Romans found priesthoods with a direct connection to the divinities too suspi-
cious and strange.9
,GHQWL¿FDWLRQ RI WKH IDPLOLHV RI WKH +LUSL 6RUDQL LV QRW XQFRQWURYHUVLDO
Pliny and Solinus refer to certain families that live in the Faliscan region, but they
GRQRWH[SOLFLWO\VD\WKDWWKH\ZHUH)DOLVFDQV,QVWHDGWKLVGH¿QLWLRQLVPDGHE\
Strabo, Porphyrio and Vibius Sequester.10 Servius, on the other hand, writes that
Mt. Soracte was located in the territory of the Hirpini, who also practised the ritu-
al.11 His view is probably mistaken and he may have been misled by the similar-
ity of the names, as will be shown below. Even though the priesthood consisted
of members of only certain families, the whole community joined in the ritual.
Strabo describes a multitude of people gathering to attend the ritual.12
The descriptions of the ritual given by Pliny the Elder, Solinus and Strabo
are very similar. First, a pile of wood had to be burned down to glowing embers.
Virgil is the only author who describes the wood more explicitly as pine,13 which
however can be due to poetic or metric reasons.
Then the priests walked barefoot across the embers without feeling any
pain. Silius Italicus writes that the priests performed their walk three times, carry-
ing offerings to the god. Servius too speaks in the plural about the walks.14 While
all the other sources write about "taking steps" or "walking", Solinus describes
the priests' motion as "leaping" (exultant).15 The word exultare often includes
a connotation of rejoicing.16 The atmosphere of the ritual seems in fact to have
been joyful rather than frightening. Silius Italicus describes Apollo being happy
about the blazing piles of wood and the offerings.17
8 For further examples of an exemption as a reward, see e.g. Liv. 23,20; 27,38.
9 G. Piccaluga, "I Marsi e gli Hirpi", in P. Xella (ed.), Magia. Studi di Storia delle Religioni
in Memoria di Raffaella Garosi, Roma 1976, 211–6 and 228. Livy (27,10) relates an example
ZKHUHWKHH[FOXVLRQIURPRI¿FLDOGXWLHVZDVXVHGDVDFRPPXQDOSXQLVKPHQWE\WKH5RPDQV
10 Strabo 5,226; Porph. Hor. carm. 1,9; Vib.Seq. geogr. 367.
11 Serv. Aen. 11,785; 11,787.
12 Strabo 5,226. Cf. Sil. 5,175–176.
13 Verg. Aen. 11,786.
14 Sil. 5,178; Serv. Aen. 11,785.
15 Sol. 2,26.
16 C. T. Lewis – C. Short, $/DWLQ'LFWLRQDU\, Oxford 1879, s.v. exsulto.
17 Sil. 5,178; 5,182. Also the word pascitur used by Virgil (Aen. 11,787) has a connotation of
118 Mika Rissanen
All these authors point out that the priests were able to perform the ritu-
al without burning their feet.18 The explanation given by Varro, transmitted by
Servius, is that the priests used medicated ointment to moisturize their soles,19
while Silius Italicus refers to some kind of trance that protected the priests.20 Vir-
gil too says that the priests piously put their trust in the god while walking across
the embers.21
On the basis of their name, the Hirpi Sorani were "the wolves of Soranus",
hirpus being the Faliscan (or Sabellic, as G. Bakkum suggests)22 equivalent for
Latin lupus23 and Soranus the name of the god worshipped in the area.24 It is less
plausible to see Soranus as an adjective derived either from the Etruscan fam-
ily name Sora or the homonymous Volscan town. Both Pliny and Solinus speak
about priest families in the plural, which seems to rule out a connection with one
particular family. Nor does the Volscan town of Sora, situated 100 kilometres
eastwards, seem to have anything to do with the cult. There doubtless is a con-
nection between the names of Soracte and Soranus. However, the derivation of
Soranus directly from the name of the mountain (*6RUăFWQXV), as suggested by
W. Deecke,25 is linguistically unacceptable.26
Two inscriptions have been found in the region of Mt. Soracte which con-
tain the name of the god, one at the northern foot of the mountain, near the city of
Falerii (now Cività Castellana),27 the other on the peak.28 In both cases the dedi-
enjoyment.
18 Plin. nat. 7,19; Sil. 5,179–181; Sol. 2,26; Strabo 5,226.
19 Serv. Aen. 11,787.
20 Sil. 5,182–183.
21 Verg. Aen. 11,787–788.
22 G. C. L. M. Bakkum, The Latin Dialect of the Ager Faliscus, Amsterdam 2009, 98.
23 Fest. p. 106M; Strabo 5,226; Serv. Aen. 11,785. This is accepted also by e.g. A. Walde – J.
B. Hofmann, /DWHLQLVFKHVHW\PRORJLVFKHV:|UWHUEXFKI–II, Heidelberg 1938, 650, s.v. hircus.
24 Cf. W. F. Otto, "Hirpi Sorani", RE VIII .2 (1913) 1935.
25 W. Deecke, 'LH)DOLVNHU(LQH*HVFKLFKWOLFK6SUDFKOLFKH8QWHUVXFKXQJ, Strassburg 1888,
97.
26 Otto (above n. 24) 1935; M. Fluss, "Soracte", RE III A.1 (1929) 1112.
27 &,/ XI 7485 = ,/6 4034: &9DULXV+HUPHV_6DQFWR6RUDQR_$SROOLQLSURVDO(ute) sua
"Gaius Varius Hermes to the sacred Apollo Soranus for his own health (- - -)" (translated by
the author)
28 I. Di Stefano Manzella, "Nuova dedica a Soranus Apollo e altre iscrizioni dal Soratte
cation is made to Apollo Soranus. In the literary texts the god is usually called
Apollo without any epithet.292QWKHRWKHUKDQG6HUYLXVLGHQWL¿HV6RUDQXVZLWK
Dis, the Roman god of the Underworld and death;30 this is the only literary ref-
erence to a god called Soranus in Italy. In addition to the dedications mentioned
above, the only epigraphical source on Soranus has been found in Alburnus Maior
in Dacia.31 Ultimately, the name of the god (and thus the name of the mountain) is
probably to be connected with ĝXULWKH(WUXVFDQJRGRISXUL¿FDWLRQDQGSURSKH-
cies (which will be discussed in detail below), as suggested by G. Colonna.32
Servius is the best source regarding the origin of the cult and the reason
why the priests were considered wolves. He says: "Mount Soracte is located in
the territory of the Hirpini next to Via Flaminia. It was on this mountain that a
VDFUL¿FH WR Dis Pater was once performed – because it is devoted to chthonic
GHLWLHV±DVZROYHVVXGGHQO\DSSHDUHGDQGSOXQGHUHGWKHHQWUDLOVIURPWKH¿UH
The shepherds chased the wolves for a long time, until they arrived at a cave
emanating pestilential gases that killed people standing nearby. The reason for
the emergence of this plague was that they had chased the wolves. They received
a message that they could calm it down by imitating wolves; that means, living
by plundering. They did so, and since then these people have been called Hirpi
Sorani."33
(AE 1992, 594)", MEFRA 104 (1992) 159: 6RUDQR_$SROOLQL_GRQXPGHGLW_7L&DHLXV
Atim[etus] "To Apollo Soranus dedicated by Ti(berius) Caei(us) Atim[etus]". (translated by the
author)
29 Verg. Aen. 11,785–788; Plin. nat. 7,19; Sil. 5,175–181; Sol. 2,26.
30 Serv. Aen. 11,785. Strabo (5,226) calls the god Feronia. This is probably a misunderstanding
due to a nearby town called Lucus Feroniae, as suggested by Marbach (above n. 7) 1133.
Feronia was known as a goddess of harvest and waters, of Sabine origin. Compared with the
RWKHUNQRZQFXOWSODFHVRI)HURQLDWKHEDUUHQULGJHRI0W6RUDFWHGRHVQRWVHHPWR¿WLQWKH
picture. Cf. Plin. nat. 3,51; Liv. 26,11; Sil. 13,84 speaking about lucus Feroniae, "a grove of
Feronia"; M. Di Fazio, "Feronia. The Role of an Italic Goddess in the Process of Integration
of Cultures in Republican Italy", in S. T. Roselaar (ed.), 3URFHVVHVRI,QWHJUDWLRQDQG,GHQWLW\
Formation in the Roman Republic, Leiden 2012, 337–42.
31 AE 1990, 832 = ,/' 364: Soran[o] / posui[W NDVWHOOXP] / An/si[s] / v(otum) l(ibens)
[m(erito)]. Cf. S. Nemeti, "Bindus-Neptus and Ianus Geminus at Alburnus Maior (Dacia)",
SHHA 22 (2004) 98.
32,Q)DOLVFDQDVLQ/DWLQWKHVXI¿[QXV
was commonly used in the derivation of the names of
divinities (cf. silva ĺ Silvanus, summa ĺ Summanus). According to G. Colonna ("Novità sui
culti di Pyrgi", RPAA 57 [1985] 76 n. 58) the Faliscan Soranus was derived from the Etruscan
ĝXULĺ Suranus ĺ Soranus). Cf. A. Cherici, "Suri", /,0&VII.1, Zürich 1994, 823–4.
33 Serv. Aen. 11,785: 6RUDFWLV PRQV HVW +LUSLQRUXP LQ )ODPLQLD FRQORFDWXV ,Q KRF DXWHP
120 Mika Rissanen
)LJV(WUXVFDQODWHEODFN¿JXUHQHFNDPSKRUDF%&(KHLJKWFP3ULYDWHFRO-
lection, Basel. (From Bloesch [ed.] [below n. 39])
The legend might indicate that the wolf was considered to be a sacred
animal and its harassment some kind of taboo in the archaic religion of the Falis-
cans.34 The wolf could have been regarded as a messenger from the divinities, as
it was among the Romans.35 In Rome the wolf was mostly associated with Mars,
whereas in Greece wolves carried annunciations of Apollo.36
monte cum aliquando Diti patri sacrum persolveretur – nam diis manibus consecratus est –
subito venientes lupi exta de igni rapuerunt, quos cum diu pastores sequerentur, delati sunt ad
quandam speluncam, halitum ex se pestiferum emittentem, adeo ut iuxta stantes necaret: et
exinde est orta pestilentia, quia fuerant lupos secuti. De qua responsum est, posse eam sedari,
si lupos imitarentur, id est rapto viverent. Quod postquam factum est, dicti sunt ipsi populi
Hirpi Sorani. (translated by the author)
34$0DVWURFLQTXH,QÀXHQ]HGHO¿FKHVX6RUDQXV$SROORGLRGHL)DOLVFLLQ$1DVRHG
Stranieri e non cittadini nei santuari greci, Firenze 2006, 90.

35E.g. Liv. 3,29,9; 33,26,9; Cass. Dio 39,20,2; 40,17,1. Cf. J. Trinquier, "Les loups sont entrés
dans la ville: de la peur du loup à la hantise de la cite ensauvagée", in M.-C. Charpentier (ed.),
/HVHVSDFHVGXVDXYDJHGDQVODPRQGHDQWLTXH&ROORTXH%HVDQoRQPDLRUJDQLVp
SDUO
,67$, Besançon 2004, 85–118.
36 Paus. 2,19,4; 10,6,2; 10,14,7; Ael. nat. 12,40.
As to the priests living like wolves, E. Marbach suggests that "living by

plundering" (id est rapto viverent) is an explanation added by Servius, not an
element of the original cult.37 The priests were most probably considered to be
wolves spiritually or symbolically, because there is no evidence of any masks or
articles of clothing that would have made them look like wolves. Virgil uses the
wolf connotation in the Aeneid when he describes Arruns (who was mentioned
DVEHLQJIURP6RUDFWHÀHHLQJRXWRIVLJKWWRSDWKOHVVPRXQWDLQVOLNHDZROIDIWHU
killing a shepherd or an ox.38
On a small Etruscan neck-amphora dating from about 500 BCE (Figs. 1,
2) there are similar elements to those in the birth legend of Hirpi Sorani narrated
E\6HUYLXV2QWKHDPSKRUDWKHUHDUHWZRSULHVWVSHUIRUPLQJDVDFUL¿FHRQDQ
altar. On one side there are canines running back and forth on inclined shelves of
DQRWKHUDOWDU7KHVFHQHLVLQWHUSUHWHGDVUHSUHVHQWLQJDSOXQGHULQJRIVDFUL¿FLDO
ÀHVK39 However, as the time span between the amphora and Servius is almost a
millennium, there must be some doubt about any connection of the painting with
the story.
The exact location of the cult site on Mt. Soracte is unknown. There are
good reasons to believe that the ritual was performed on the highest peak (S.
Silvestro) of the mountain. One of the dedications to Apollo Soranus was found
right there during maintenance work on the church of S. Silvestro in 1980.40 In
Christian legends the mountain is associated with St. Sylvester, who hid in the
caves of Mt. Soracte during the persecutions of the early 4th century. The emperor
Constantine, after his conversion to Christianity, ordered a church dedicated to
Sylvester to be built on the top of the mountain.41 This place could be one of
many examples in which a Christian church is a continuation of ancient religious
practices.
For Christians, caves did not have the same sort of chthonic associations
as they did for other Romans, who regarded them as passages to the Underworld.
The appearance of caves in both the pagan and the Christian legend may be pure
37 Marbach (above n. 7) 1131. Cf. above n. 33.

38 Verg. Aen. 11,806–811.
39 H. Bloesch (ed.), Das Tier in der Antike, Zürich 1974, 54 n. 325; S. Bruni, "Nugae de
Etruscorum fabulis", Ostraka 11 (2002) 12–24.
40 Di Stefano Manzella (above n. 28) 159.
41 M. Andreussi, "Soratte", (QFLFORSHGLD9LUJLOLDQDIV (1988) 947. According to the legend, the
emperor Constantine recovered from leprosy after having met Sylvester (later Pope Sylvester
I, 314–335).
122 Mika Rissanen
coincidence. Mt. Soracte is a limestone ridge where there are dozens of caves.
However, no indication of caves (or ponds) exhaling mephitic, lethal gases, as
described by Pliny, Vitruvius and Servius,42 can be found. There is, however, a
spring with water rich in iron, called Acqua ForteDERXW¿YHNLORPHWUHVQRUWKRI
Mt. Soracte. This is often considered to be the origin of the stories about Soracte's
lethal gases.43
Silius Italicus is the only one who mentions that the Hirpi Sorani carried
offerings,44SRVVLEO\EHFDXVHDVDFUL¿FHZDVVRVHOIHYLGHQWLQDQFLHQWULWXDOVWKDW
DQ\PHQWLRQRILWZRXOGKDYHEHHQXQQHFHVVDU\7KHVDFUL¿FHVHHPVQRWWRKDYH
been the most important part of the ritual on Mt. Soracte. Instead, the climax of
the cult was the walk across the glowing embers.
Fire was widely recognized as a purifying element in the ancient world.45
+RZHYHUWKH¿UHLQWKHULWXDORIWKH+LUSL6RUDQLFDQQRWEHFRQVLGHUHGDVWKHSUL-
PDOIRUFHRISXUL¿FDWLRQRQO\LWVYLVLEOHV\PERO7KHGHHSHUVLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKH
walk can be found in the nature of the god that was worshipped: Soranus, god of
the Underworld and death.
The name of the priesthood and the epigraphical dedications indicate that
the ritual was originally devoted to Soranus. However, as Colonna points out, the
LGHQWL¿FDWLRQRI6RUDQXVZLWK*UHHN$SROORZDVPDGHE\WKH)DOLVFDQVDVHDUO\
as the 5th century BCE.46 According to A. Mastrocinque, the Faliscan cult was
probably seen as parallel to the cult of Apollo in Delphi in the early 4th century,
during the siege of Veii, already.47 There certainly are many parallels between Mt.
42Plin. nat. 2,207; Vitr. 8,3,17; Serv. Aen. 11,785. Cf. Plin. nat. 31,27 on a mephitic pond at
Mt. Soracte.
43 E.g. A. Nibby, $QDOLVL VWRULFRWRSRJUD¿FRDQWLTXDULD GHOOD FDUWD GH
'LQWRUQL GL 5RPD
III, Roma 1837, 112; G. Dennis, 7KH &LWLHV DQG &HPHWHULHV RI (WUXULD, London 1837,188;
Mastrocinque (above n. 34) 88.
44 Sil. 5,181.
45E.g. Strabo (12,537) gives us a description about the cult of Artemis Perasia in Cappadocia,
ZKHUH WKH SULHVWV ZDON WKURXJK ¿UH LQ RUGHU WR SXULI\ WKHLU FRPPXQLW\ 6HH - - 3UHVWRQ
3XUL¿FDWLRQ7KH(QF\FORSHGLDRI5HOLJLRQ XII, New York 1987, 95–6.
46 G. Colonna, "Apollon, les Étrusques et Lipara", MEFRA 96 (1984) 572; G. Colonna, "Noti
preliminari sui culti del santuario di Portonaccio a Veio", Scienze dell'antichità 1 (1987) 433.
Cf. D. F. Maras, "Note in margine al &,( II, 1, 5", SE 73 (2007) 246–7.
47 Mastrocinque (above n. 34) 85–97.
Soracte and Delphi (references to mephitic caves,48 myths about guiding wolves49
and the connection of Apollo with wolves) and it is undeniable that Apollo was
held in great respect by the Faliscans.50+RZHYHU*UHHNLQÀXHQFHVVKRXOGQRWEH
overestimated at the expense of Italic roots, especially as some of the parallels
mentioned above (wolves, caves) can be found in other cults of central Italy, too.
:HVKRXOGWKHUHIRUHUDWKHUFRPSDUHWKHUROHRI6RUDQXVZLWK(WUXVFDQĝXUL
&RORQQD
VLGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIĝXULZLWK6RUDQXVVHHPVSODXVLEOH51 Even though no
LOOXVWUDWLRQVRIĝXULH[LVWHSLJUDSKLFDOHYLGHQFHJLYHVDJRRGLGHDRIWKHQDWXUHRI
WKHJRGĝXULZDVDQ8QGHUZRUOGJRGZKRKDGERWKSXULI\LQJDQGRUDFXODUSRZ-
ers.527KURXJK5RPDQDQG+HOOHQLFLQÀXHQFHVĝXULZDVDVVLPLODWHGZLWK$SROOR
in the 4th century BCE and was called Aplu.53%HVLGHVWKH$SROORQLFQDWXUHĝXUL
had its original chthonic side, which became emphasized in the Faliscan counter-
part Soranus.547KLVFKWKRQLFDVSHFWRI6RUDQXV±ĝXULH[SODLQV6HUYLXV
UHIHUHQFH
to Dis as the god worshipped in the ritual of Mt. Soracte.
As Servius mentions in the birth legend of the Hirpi Sorani,55 the cult was
DSXUL¿FDWLRQULWXDO7KHSXUL¿FDWLRQZDVV\PEROL]HGE\WKHJORZLQJHPEHUV±
and the priests' miraculous walk across them, unscathed – and it was provided by
the forces of the Underworld. The Hirpi Sorani priests, symbolically representing
ZROYHVZDONHGWKURXJKWKH¿UHWRWKHZRUOGRIGHDWKDQGEDFNWKXVSHUIRUPLQJ
a purifying ritual for the whole community.56
The Hirpi Sorani and the inhabitants of the region of Mt. Soracte were mis-
taken for the Hirpini by Servius, as mentioned above. The Hirpini, whose name
is also derived from the word hirpus were a Samnite tribe, living in the Apennine
48 Serv. Aen. 11,785. E.g. Strabo 9,419; Cic. div. 1,79; Plin. nat. 2,208.
49 Serv. Aen. 11,785. Paus. 10,6,2; 10,14,7; Ael. nat. 12, 40. Cf. the guiding wolf among the
Hirpini, Strabo 5,250; Fest. p. 106M.
50 G. Colonna, Santuari d'Etruria, Milano 1985, 86–8; Mastrocinque (above n. 34) 87.
51$FFHSWHGDOVRE\HJ$&RPHOOD$SROOR6RUDQXV",OSURJUDPPD¿JXUDWLYRGHOWHPSLR
dello Scasato di Falerii", Ostraka 1 [1993] 313–5) and Mastrocinque (above n. 34) 86–7.
52 Colonna (above n. 32) 74–8; Mastrocinque (above n. 34); G. Colonna, "L'Apollo di Pyrgi,
ĝXUĝXULLO1HURHO
$SROORSourios", SE 73 (2007) 109–13.
53 Colonna (above n. 32) 77, n. 69; Colonna (1987, above n. 46) 433.
54 Colonna (above n. 32) 76–7; Colonna (2007, above n. 52) 113–4.
55 Serv. Aen. 11,785. See above n. 33.
560RGHUQVFKRODUVDJUHHZLWKWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKH+LUSL6RUDQLFXOWDVDSXUL¿FDWRU\FXOW
see, e.g., G. Wissowa, "Hirpi Sorani", $XVIKUOLFKHV/H[LFRQGHU*ULHFKLVFKHQXQG5|PLVFKHQ

0\WKRORJLH I, Leipzig 1886, 2694; Marbach (above n. 7) 1131; Andreussi (above n. 41) 946–7.
124 Mika Rissanen
mountains, more than 200 kilometres south-east of Mt. Soracte. Strabo and Fes-
tus tells us how the people were led to their dwelling-place by a guiding wolf.57
A. Alföldi supposes that the Faliscans and the Samnite Hirpini shared a common
origin but were separated at an early stage.58
In addition, the Faliscans and the Hirpini share stories about pestilential
caves with chthonic associations. Virgil tells us about a cave called Ampsanctus,
the main religious cult site of the Hirpini, which led to the Underworld and ex-
haled pestilential gases.59 However, the connection between the Hirpi Sorani and
the fairly distant Hirpini is very uncertain. The cult of Mt. Soracte should rather
be compared with certain cults practised in the adjacent region around Rome and
in Southern Etruria.
* * *
In central Italy the best known religious ritual associated with wolves was the
Roman festival of the Lupercalia, celebrated annually on February 15th until 494
CE, when Pope Gelasius I succeeded in suppressing it.60 The cult of the Hirpi So-
rani and the Lupercalia have often been discussed together, mostly concentrating
on the latter.61 There are several points of resemblance between these two rituals,
the most obvious one being that regarding priesthoods. The name of the priest lu
percus is derived from lupusZROIHLWKHUZLWKDVXI¿[62 or through a rhotacism
57 Strabo 5,250; Fest. p. 106M.

58 A. Alföldi, 'LH 6WUXNWXU GHV YRUHWUXVNLVFKHQ 5|PHUVWDDWHV, Heidelberg 1974, 77. Also
Piccaluga (above n. 9) 224.
59 Verg. Aen. 7,563–571. Also Cic. div. 1,36,79; Plin. nat. 2,207–208; Serv. Aen. 7,563.
60 )RU VWXGLHV RI WKH /XSHUFDOLD VHH HJ $ .LUVRSS 0LFKHOV 7KH 7RSRJUDSK\ DQG
Interpretation of the Lupercalia", TAPhA 84 (1953) 35–59; A. W. J. Holleman, 3RSH*HODVLXV,
and the Lupercalia, Amsterdam 1974; C. Ulf, 'DVU|PLVFKH/XSHUFDOLHQIHVW, Darmstadt 1982;
W. Pötscher, "Die Lupercalia – eine Strukturanalyse", *% 11 (1984) 221–49; U. Bianchi,
"Luperci", DE IV, parte III, 1985, 2204–12; T. P. Wiseman, "The god of the Lupercal", JRS 85
(1995) 1–22; A. Ziolkowski, "Ritual cleaning-up of the city: from the Lupercalia to the Argei",
AncSoc 29 (1999) 191–218; P. Carafa, "Appendice III. I Lupercali", in A. Carandini (ed.), La
leggenda di Roma, Roma 2006, 477–93.
61(J.LUVRSS0LFKHOVDERYHQ*%LQGHU'LH$XVVHW]XQJGHV.|QLJVNLQGHV.\URV
und Romulus (Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie 10), Meisenheim an Glan 1964, 92–3; A.
Peruzzi,&LYLOWjJUHFDQHO/D]LRSUHURPDQR, Firenze 1978, 33. On the other hand, Piccaluga
(above n. 9, 222 n. 58) is not convinced of the analogous nature of the cults.
62 Suggested by H. Jordan, .ULWLVFKH%HLWUlJH]XU*HVFKLFKWHGHUODWHLQLVFKHQ6SUDFKH, Berlin
Fig. 3: Map of Tiber valley and Etruria. (Author's drawing)
from OXSRVHTXRV, "wolf follower"63 (compare the birth myth of the Hirpi Sorani
cited above). Whichever the etymology is, it seems obvious that the Luperci were
considered to be wolves,64 like the priests of the Faliscan cult.
Like the Hirpi Sorani, the priests of the Lupercalia also belonged to certain
families. They were divided into two collegia, the Fabiani and the Quinctiliani,
named after the old Patrician families of Fabii and Quintilii.65 In 46 BCE Julius
1879, 164.
63 J. Gruber, "Zur Etymologie von lat. lupercus", Glotta 39 (1960/61) 273–6. Gruber, like
Walde – Hofmann (above n. 23, 835, s.v. lupercus), rejects the theory of lupercus being a
combination of lupus and arcere "ward off" and meaning "the protector from the wolves".
64 Cf. Aug. civ. 18,17.
65 &,/ VI 1933; XI 3205; Ov. fast. 2,377–378; Prop. 4,1,26; Fest. p. 87M.
126 Mika Rissanen
Caesar initiated a third collegium, the ,XOLL, which however was discontinued af-
ter his death in 43 BCE.66
In the Lupercalia, the Lupercal cave acted as a passage to the Underworld.
The Luperci came out of the cave at the beginning of their run and returned there
at the end of it. Symbolically, the Luperci arrived from the Underworld and went
EDFNWRWKHLUDQFHVWRUVZKHQWKHSXUL¿FDWLRQULWXDOZDV¿QLVKHG,WLVZRUWKQRWLF-
ing that a cave also appears in the birth legend of the Hirpi Sorani. In addition,
on some Etruscan urns there is a wolf-like demon emerging from a well, which
might also signify a passage to the world of the dead (see below, Figs. 5, 6).67
Caves play an essential role in chthonic cults. While augurs and priests
were able to be in touch with celestial gods through observation of auspices and
VDFUL¿FHVDSDVVDJHWRWKH8QGHUZRUOGZDVQHHGHGLQRUGHUWRFRPPXQLFDWHZLWK
infernal powers. The priest could pass to the world of the dead either through a
FDYHRUDZHOO±RUV\PEROLFDOO\WKURXJK¿UHDVWKH+LUSL6RUDQLGLG
A minor similarity in the birth myths of the Lupercalia and the Hirpi Sorani
LVWKHSOXQGHULQJRIVDFUL¿FLDOÀHVK$W0W6RUDFWHWKLVZDVGRQHE\ZROYHV,Q
Rome, Remus and his companions of the Fabius family had once eaten hissing
entrails after a chase before Romulus and the Quintiliani arrived. Ovid relates the
tale when describing the origins of the run of the Luperci.68
* * *
Ancient suggestions of the Lupercalia being a continuation of the Arcadian cult

of =HXV/\NDLRV69 have been rejected nowadays.70 The Lupercalia has been per-
66 Cic. Phil. 13,5,31; Cass. Dio 44,6,2; Suet. ,XO. 76, 1; Suet. Aug. 31.
67 J. Heurgon, "Sur le culte de 9HOWKD, le démon à tête de loup", $UFK&ODVV43 (1991) 1255–6.
68 Ov. fast. 2,372–376. The similarities between the plundering raids are discussed in more
detail by L. Cerchiai, "Eracle, il lupo mannaro e una camicia rossa", Ostraka 7 (1998) 42.
69 E.g. Dion. Hal. 1,32,3; Verg. Aen. 8,343; Liv. 1,5; Iustin. 43,1. On the cult of =HXV/\NDLRV
see W. Immerwahr, 'LH.XOWHXQG0\WKHQ$UNDGLHQV I, Leipzig 1891, 1–24; R. P. Eckels, Greek
:ROIORUH, Diss. Philadelphia 1937, 49–60.
70 E.g. B. Riposati, "I 'Lupercali' in Varrone", in J. Collart (ed.), 9DUURQJUDPPDLUHDQWLTXHHW
VW\OLVWLTXHODWLQH, Paris 1978, 62–5.
ceived by modern scholars as a ritual of pastoral culture,71 initiation,72 fertility73

RUSXUL¿FDWLRQ74 These different interpretations need not be mutually exclusive,
because during the centuries the Lupercalia had changed and developed different
connotations.
Among the literary sources there is little evidence to support the inter-
pretation of the Lupercalia as a pastoral ritual.75 There is some support for the
initiation ritual, based mostly on comparative research of parallels found among
other peoples and at different times, but many aspects of the Lupercalia are in fact
contradictory to this interpretation.
,QWKH¿UVWSODFHWKH/XSHUFLZHUHQRWWHHQDJHUVEXWiuvenes, young men
aged between 20 and 40. For example, Mark Antony was a Lupercus in 44 BCE at
the age of 39 years.76 Secondly, repeated participation in the ritual speaks against
the interpretation as initiation.77 Thirdly, the Lupercalia was held in the middle of
the Parentalia, the festival celebrated in February in honour of the ancestors, not
in March in connection with the Liberalia, when the coming of age of young men
was celebrated.
During the Empire, the Lupercalia was widely recognized by the Romans
as a fertility ritual.78 According to Livy,79 the fertility aspect was not dominant –
LILWH[LVWHGDWDOO±LQWKH¿UVWSKDVHRIWKHFXOWEXWZDVDQHPSKDVLVLQWURGXFHG
by the senate in 276 BCE.80 The Lupercalia seems always to have had a joyful
71 E.g. G. Wissowa, 5HOLJLRQXQG.XOWXVGHU5|PHU,,0QFKHQ.LUVRSS0LFKHOV

(above n. 60) 50–51.
72E.g. Ulf (above n. 60); J. N. Bremmer, "Romulus, Remus and the Foundation of Rome",
5RPDQ 0\WK DQG 0\WKRJUDSK\, London 1987, 25–48; A. Fraschetti, Romolo il fondatore,
Roma 2002.
73E.g. E. Mannhardt, 0\WKRORJLVFKH)RUVFKXQJHQ, Straßburg 1884; G. Radke, "'Wolfsabwehrer'
oder 'Wachstumsbitter'", :-$ ± 7 .|YHV=XODXI 5|PLVFKH *HEXUWVULWHQ
(Zetemata 87), München 1990, 224–45.
74 E.g. Binder (above n. 61); A. W. J. Holleman, "Cicero on the Luperci", $& 44 (1975)
198–203; A. Mastrocinque, Romolo ODIRQGD]LRQHGL5RPDWUDVWRULDHOHJJHQGD, Este 1993.
75 Serv. Aen. 8,343 and, with an ambiguous interpretation, Cic. &DHO. 26 and Val. Max. 2,2,9.
76 Plut. &DHV. 61; Cic. Phil. 13,15; Cass. Dio 44,6,2.
77 E.g. &,/VI 495: &DHFLOLXVWHU/XSHUFXV
78 Plut. Rom. 21,7; &DHV. 61,3; Ov. fast. 2,425; Gel. adv. Andr. 12.
79 Liv. fragm. 14W–M; Gel. adv. Andr. 12. Cf. Oros. hist. 4,2,2; Aug. civ. 3,18.
80 A. W. J. Holleman "Ovid and the Lupercalia", Historia 22 (1973) 262–4; Holleman (above
n. 74) 202; U. W. Scholz, "Zur Erforschung der Römischen Opfer (Beispiel: die Lupercalia)",
128 Mika Rissanen
nature,81 which was emphasized in the early Empire. The ritual developed more
VLJQL¿FDQWO\ LQWR D OLJKWKHDUWHG DQG DPXVLQJ FDUQLYDO GXULQJ ZKLFK SHRSOH
women especially,82 wanted to be struck with a goatskin strip by the Luperci in
order to secure their fertility. However it must be noted that the Luperci struck
bystanders of both sexes,83 not only women, which casts doubt on the theory that
this was explicitly a fertility ritual.
7KH WKHRU\ WKDW WKH /XSHUFDOLD ZDV RULJLQDOO\ D SXUL¿FDWLRQ ULWXDO JHWV
strong support from Varro84 and Ovid.85 In Roman mythology the world of the
dead was associated not only with destructive but also with protective and purify-
ing powers.86 Faunus, the god to whom the celebration was most commonly dedi-
cated, had chthonic connotations,87 which agrees with the connection between
the Lupercalia and the Parentalia. In the Lupercalia, the wolf-priests representing
DQFHVWRUVEURXJKWSXUL¿FDWLRQWRWKHFRPPXQLW\IURPWKH8QGHUZRUOG
* * *
in J.-P. Vernant (ed.), /H VDFUL¿FH GDQV O
$QWLTXLWp (Entretiens sur l'anquité classique 27),
*HQqYH2QWKHFRQWUDU\.|YHV=XODXIDERYHQDQG-$1RUWK&DHVDUDW
the Lupercalia", JRS 98 [2008] 151–3) suggest that fertility was an important aspect of the
Lupercalia from its origins.
81 Holleman (1973, above n. 80), 261; North (above n. 80) 152 and 160.
82Ov. fast. 2,427; 2,445–446; Iuv. 2,142; Serv. Aen. 8,343; Fest. p. 57M; 85 M; Gel. adv. Andr.
16.
83 Plut. &DHV. 61; Plut. Rom. 21; Plut. quest. Rom. 280b; Val. Max. 2,2,9; Ps. Vict. Aur. or. 22,1.
84 E.g. Varro ling. 6,34: Posterior, ut idem dicunt scriptores, ab diis inferis Februarius
appellatus, quod tum his parenteretur; ego magis arbitror Februarium a die februato, quod
tum februatur populus, id est Lupercis nudis lustratur antiquum oppidum Palatium gregibus
humanis cinctum. "( - - ) The latter, as the same writers say, was called Februarius 'February'
from the di inferi
JRGVRIWKH/RZHU:RUOG
EHFDXVHDWWKDWWLPHH[SLDWRU\VDFUL¿FHVDUHPDGH
to them; but I think that it was called February rather from the dies februatus
3XUL¿FDWLRQGD\

because then the people februatur
LVSXUL¿HG
WKDWLVWKHROG3DODWLQHWRZQJLUWZLWKÀRFNVRI
SHRSOHLVSDVVHGDURXQGE\WKHQDNHG/XSHUFLWUDQVODWHGE\5*.HQW
The purifying aspect of the Lupercalia, which gives its name (februa) to the whole
month, is mentioned by many authors of late Antiquity, too: Fest. p. 85M; Cens. 22,14; Serv.
georg. 1,43; Macr. Sat. 1,13,3; Lyd. 4,25; Isid. 5,33,4.
85 Ov. fast. 2,19–34; 5,101–102.
866HHHJ)3¿VWHU.DWKDUVLVRE S VI (1935) 153.
87 The Romans connected several gods with the Lupercalia, but most commonly the celebration
was dedicated to Faunus, e.g. Ov. fast. 2,99–102, 267–268, 303–304, 423–424; Ps. Vict. Aur.
or. 4,6; Prob9HUJJHRUJ. 1,10. About the chthonic aspects of Faunus, see Porf. Hor. carm.
3,18; Serv. Aen. 7,91; W. F. Otto, "Faunus", RE VI, 2 (1909) 2064–66.
)LJ%URQ]HVWDWXHWWHRIWKHFDQLQH(WUXVFDQJRG&DOXZLWKWKHLQVFULSWLRQĝ&$/8ĝ7/$
from Cortona. Florence, Museo Archeologico Nazionale. (Author's drawing)
In the last decades a connection between the Hirpi Sorani and the Etruscan pan-
WKHRQHVSHFLDOO\ZLWKWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHGĝXULKDVDOVREHHQVXJJHVWHG88
The connection of wolves and the dead is obvious in the Etruscan panthe-
on. The Etruscan god of the Underworld, Aita, has often been depicted wearing a
hood like a wolf's head, as can be seen in many paintings and sculptures and on
coins.89 The anthropomorphic Aita (or Eita) was a god of Greek origin (Hades)
who in the 4th century BCE replaced the indigenous Etruscan Underworld god
&DOX90 The wolf-headed appearance of Aita might derive from the zoomorphic
Calu, who appeared in the form of a canine (Fig. 4) – probably, because of its
mane, to be interpreted as a wolf.91
88 Colonna (above n. 32) 72–7; (above n. 50) 572; (1987, above n. 46) 433; Di Stefano Manzella
(above n. 28) 159–67; Comella (above n. 51) 301–316; Colonna (2007, above n. 52) 106 and
113.
89 See e.g. G. Q. Giglioli, L'arte Etrusca. Milano 1935, 65, tav. 348; G. Dennis (above n. 43)
58–9; M. P. Baglione, "Su alcune serie parallele di bronzo coniato", &RQWULEXWLLQWURGXWWLYLDOOR
VWXGLRGHOODPRQHWD]LRQHHWUXVFD$WWLGHO&RQYHJQR&,611DSROL(Annali [Istituto
,WDOLDQRGL1XPLVPDWLFD@6XSSO5RPD±,.UDXVNRSI7RGHVGlPRQHQXQG
7RWHQJ|WWHU LP YRUKHOOHQLVWLVFKHQ (WUXULHQ .RQWLQXLWlW XQG :DQGHO (Studi Etruschi 16),
)LUHQ]H±,.UDXVNRSI+DGHV$LWD&DOXLQ/,0&IV, Zürich 1988, 394–9.
90P. Defosse, "Génie funéraire ravisseur (Calu) sur quelques urnes Étrusques",$& 41 (1972)
498–9.
91'HIRVVHDERYHQLGHQWL¿HVWKHFDQLQHRIWKHVWDWXHWWHDVDZROI:/5XSS-UShape
RI WKH %HDVW 7KH 7KHULRPRUSKLF DQG 7KHULDQWKURSLF 'HLWLHV DQG 'HPRQV RI $QFLHQW ,WDO\,
Diss. Tallahassee 2007, 50 and 129) proposes either wolf or wolf-hound. On the contrary, E.
130 Mika Rissanen
Fig. 5: Alabaster urn of Chiusian origin, width 67 cm. Florence, Museo Archeologico Nazion-
DOHLQYQ)URP.|UWH>EHORZQ@
Some interrelation between Etruscan and Roman religious practices can

be expected. It has in fact been suggested by some scholars that the phonetically
un-Latin p in the word lupus LVGXHWR(WUXVFDQLQÀXHQFH(WUlupu, "death").92
Among Etruscan artifacts, seven urns93 dating from the 3rd or 2nd century
BCE are decorated with reliefs representing a chained wolf emerging from a
Richardson ("The Wolf in the West", 7KH-RXUQDORI:DOWHUV$UW*DOOHU\ 35 [1977] 95) regards
WKHDQLPDOPRUHDVDKRXQGWKDQDZROIDQG.UDXVNRSIDERYHQDVDKRXQG
92&0DUFKHWWL/RQJKL,O/XSHUFDOHQHOVXRVLJQL¿FDWRUHOLJLRVRHWRSRJUD¿FR&DSLWROLXP
9 (1933) 370; A. Alföldi, The Etruscans, 1978, 218–9; A. W. J. Holleman, "Lupus, Lupercalia,
lupa", Latomus 45 (1985) 609–14. However, generally the un-Latinity of the word lupus is
H[SODLQHGE\6DELQHLQÀXHQFHFI:DOGH±+RIPDQQDERYHQ±VYlupus.
93 Urns of Volterran origin, made of alabaster: 1) Volterra, Museo Guarnacci, inv. n. 350; 2)
Volterra, Museo Guarnacci, inv. n. 351; 3) Camposanto di Pisa (fragmented). An urn of Chiusian
origin, made of alabaster: 4) Florence, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, inv. n. 5781. Urns of
Perugian origin, made of travertine: 5) Perugia, Museo Archeologico Nazionale dell'Umbria,
inv. 341; 6) Museo Civico di Chiusi, inv. n. 955 (disappeared); made of terracotta: 7) Perugia,
Museo Archeologico Nazionale dell'Umbria, inv. 323. Besides, the same scene is represented
in a terracotta plaque (Museo Comunale di Gubbio, inv. n. 309) which however is probably a
modern copy of the terracotta urn of Perugia (number 7). Cf. M. Matteini Chiari (ed.), Museo
&RPXQDOHGL*XEELR0DWHULDOLDUFKHRORJLFL, Gubbio 1995, 417–8, n. 623; M. Sclafani, 8UQH
¿WWLOLFKLXVLQHHSHUXJLQHGLHWjPHGLRHWDUGRHOOHQLVWLFD, Roma 2010, 105–6.
Fig. 6: Travertine urn of Perugian origin, width 58 cm. Perugia, Museo Archeologico Nazion-
DOHGHOO
8PEULDLQY)URP.|UWH>EHORZQ@
well. In addition to the wolf, most of the urn scenes also depict 9DQWK, a winged
female demon from the Underworld carrying a torch, and a man with a patera, a
plate for liquid offerings, as well as some armed men. The chthonic nature of the
scene is obvious. In Etruscan art, Vanth is commonly depicted as a psychopomp,
a guide to the Underworld.947KHFKWKRQLFQDWXUHLVFRQ¿UPHGE\WKHZHOOZKLFK
symbolizes a passage to the Underworld, and the wolf, an animal connected with
death. Furthermore, the man with a patera indicates that the scene includes a
VDFUL¿FH
It is uncertain, however, whether the reliefs represent a mythological scene
RUDULWXDO*.|UWH
VK\SRWKHVLVFRQQHFWVWKHVFHQHZLWKDVWRU\WROGE\3OLQ\WKH
Elder about a monster called Olta or 9ROWD, against whom a thunderbolt was in-
voked by sacred rites.95 The name of the monster is associated with the Etruscan
94 See e.g. C. Weber-Lehmann, "Vanth", /,0& VIII, Zürich 1986, 173–83.
95 * .|UWH , ULOLHYL GHOOH XUQH HWUXVFKH
III, Berlin 1916, 16–23. Plin. nat. 2,140: Exstat
DQQDOLXP PHPRULD VDFULV TXLEXVGDP HW SUHFDWLRQLEXV YHO FRJL IXOPLQD YHO LPSHWUDUL 9HWXV
IDPD (WUXULDH HVW LPSHWUDWXP 9ROVLQLRV XUEHP GHSRSXODWLV DJULV VXEHXQWH PRQVWUR TXRG
vocavere oltam, evocatum a Porsina suo rege. "It is related in our Annals, that by certain sacred
rites and imprecations, lightnings may be compelled or invoked. There is an old report in
Etruria, that a lightning was invoked when the city of Volsinium had its territory laid waste by
a monster named Olta$OLJKWQLQJZDVDOVRLQYRNHGE\.LQJ3RUVHQQDWUDQVO+5DFNKDP
132 Mika Rissanen
Fig. 7: Lid of bronze vase (730–700 BCE), from Bisenzio. Rome, Museo Etrusco di Villa
Giulia, inv. n. 57066. (Author's photograph)
word veltha, meaning both "earth" and a demon with chthonic powers.96 Even
WKRXJK.|UWHKLPVHOIZDVQRWIXOO\FRQYLQFHGRIWKHFRQQHFWLRQKLVWKHRU\KDV
been widely quoted.97 In my opinion, the connection between Pliny's story and
the urns described above is very unlikely. Pliny mentions a monster, monstrum,
not a wolf, and a thunderbolt, which does not appear on any of the urns.98
96 D. Anziani, "Démonologique Étrusque", MEFRA 30 (1910) 267. In Liber Linteus, an

Etruscan text found in mummy wrappings, the word velthaDSSHDUV¿YHWLPHVDOZD\VUHIHUULQJ
rather to demons than the earth. S. P. Cortsen, "Literaturbericht 1928–1934: Etruskisch", Glotta
±$3¿I¿JReligio Etrusca, Graz 1975, 314–5) remarks that, similarly, the
Greek word ƥƣʴƣ means both "earth" and the Earth goddess Gaia.
973¿I¿JDERYHQ-+HXUJRQDERYHQ±-(OOLRWW7KH(WUXVFDQ:ROIPDQLQ
Myth and Ritual", EtrStud 2 (1995) 17–33.

98The connection of the urns and Pliny's story is strongly rejected by P. Defosse ("À propos du
monster à tête de loup représenté sur quelques urnes étrusques", Latomus 53 [1994] 410) and
Fig. 8: Amphora from Cerveteri (6th century BCE). Paris, Musée du Louvre, Neg.E72.3. (From
Elliott 1995 [above n. 97])
Fig. 9: Plate from Vulci, Necropoli dell'Osteria, Tomba 177 (540–510 BCE). Rome, Museo
Etrusco di Villa Giulia, inv. n. 844. (Author's photograph)
It has also been suggested that the urn reliefs represent scenes from Greek
mythology,99 the wolf-shaped Etruscan god Calu,100 or the Roman king Numa
chaining the god Faunus, a scene connected with a story told by Ovid.101
$PRQJWKH*UHHNVQRSDUDOOHOVIRUWKHZROI¿JXUHFDQEHIRXQGZKLFK
suggests an Italic origin for the scene. As for the Roman literary sources, Pliny
DQG2YLGVKRXOGZHHYHQWU\WR¿QGDQLQWHUSUHWDWLRQIRUWKHrd and 2nd century
BCE urn scenes from stories that were written down centuries later? The stories
about Olta or Numa could rather be seen as literary reminiscences of rituals or
myths represented in the ash urns.
N. T. de Grummond ((WUXVFDQ0\WK6DFUHG+LVWRU\DQG/HJHQG, Philadelphia 2006, 14), too.

99 E.g. necromancy performed by Odysseus, suggested by P. Ducati ("Esegesi di Alcune Urne
Etrusche", RAL 19 [1910] 166–8) or Thanatos chained by Sisyphus, suggested by E. Simon
("Sentiment religieux et vision de la mort chez les Étrusques dans les derniers siècles de leur
historie", in F. Gaultier – D. Briquel [eds.], /HVeWUXVTXHV/HVSOXVUHOLJLHX[GHVKRPPHVpWDW
GH OD UHFKHUFKH VXU OD UHOLJLRQ pWUXVTXH$FWHV GX FROORTXH LQWHUQDWLRQDO *UDQG 3DODLV
, Paris 1997, 454).
100 Defosse (above n. 90) 487–99.
101 Rupp (above n. 91) 67–76. Ov. fast. 3,291–326.
134 Mika Rissanen
2QWKHXUQVIURP9ROWHUUDDQG&KLXVL)LJWKH¿JXUHHPHUJLQJIURPWKH

well is depicted realistically as a wolf. On the urns of Perugian provenance (Fig.
WKH¿JXUHLVUDWKHUDPDQGLVJXLVHGDVDZROI3'HIRVVHH[SODLQVWKLVGLVWLQF-
tion with the different dating of the urns: those from Perugia, being later, could
KDYHKDGDQDQWKURSRPRUSKLFZROILQÀXHQFHGE\WKH+HOOHQL]DWLRQRI(WUXVFDQ
mythology.102 However, we do not know the exact dating of any of these reliefs.
The lid of an 8th century BCE Villanovan bronze vase (Fig. 7) presents an
LQWHUHVWLQJSDUDOOHOWRWKHXUQVZLWKZROI¿JXUHV7KHULWXDOVFHQHUHSUHVHQWHGRQ
the lid has some similarities with later urns (a chained beast, armed men and pos-
sibly a well under the beast), even though the chained monster is an imaginary
beast rather than a wolf.
,QDGGLWLRQWRWKHXUQUHOLHIVRWKHUH[DPSOHVRIDWKHULDQWKURSLFZROI¿JXUH
or a man wearing a wolf skin can be found among Etruscan artifacts. On a 6th-
century BCE amphora (Fig. 8) and a 6th-century BCE plate (Fig. 9) a wolf-headed
DQGIXUFRYHUHG¿JXUHLVGHSLFWHGZKRVHERG\LVKXPDQVKDSHG,QERWKRIWKH
SDLQWLQJVWKH¿JXUHLVLQPRWLRQHLWKHUGDQFLQJRUUXQQLQJ,WFRXOGEHLQWHUSUHWHG
either as a wolf demon or a man disguised as a wolf.103 +RZHYHUDVWKHZROI¿J-
ure is the only common element in these paintings and the ash urns, we cannot be
sure whether they belong to the same cultural tradition.
On the basis of the archeological evidence discussed above, we can con-
clude that the Etruscans shared a cultural phenomenon characterized by wolves
that emerged from the Underworld. It is not sure whether the reliefs depict a
ritual, as suggested by J. Elliott,104 or a mythological scene.
* * *
When the Hirpi Sorani went across the glowing embers and ashes, they symboli-
cally passed to the world of the dead. As the wolf was considered a sacred animal
devoted to the powers of death, the priests representing wolves (as well as ances-
tors) had access to the Underworld while performing the ritual.
102 Defosse (above n. 90) 493 and 499. F. Messerschmidt ("Das Grab der Volumnier bei
Perugia", 0'$,557 [1942] 204–5), on the other hand, suggests that the Volterran urns are
later than the others.
103 J.-R. Jannot, "Phersu, Phersuna, Persona", in 6SHFWDFOHVVSRUWLIVHWVFpQLTXHVGDQVOHPRQGH
pWUXVFRLWDOLTXHDFWHVGHODWDEOHURQGHRUJDQLVpHSDUO
eTXLSHGHUHFKHUFKHVpWUXVFRLWDOLTXHV
GHO
805&1563DULVHWO
eFROHIUDQoDLVHGH5RPH5RPH±PDL(Coll. EFR
172), Rome 1993, 284–6.
104 Elliott (above n. 97) 31.
I believe that the cult of the Hirpi Sorani had common origins with the
Roman Lupercalia. In these cults the observance of the ritual was different, but
WKHEDVLFLGHDZDVLGHQWLFDOWKHZROISULHVWVSXUL¿HGWKHLUSHRSOHE\PHDQVRI
chthonic powers.
The interpretation of the Etruscan artifacts discussed above is far more
DPELJXRXVEXWLWLVFOHDUWRPHWKDWWKHSLFWRULDOPRWLIRIDZROI¿JXUHDJRGRU
a demon) emerging from a well (seen as a passage to the world of the dead) is not
an isolated phenomenon but should be examined in the same context as the wolf
cults of the Faliscans and the Romans.
Even though in some Greek cities, such as Delphi, the wolf was an hon-
oured animal associated with the gods105 and its chthonic nature was acknowl-
edged all over the ancient world, nowhere else were these aspects as prominent
as in central Italy. It seems plausible that the wolf was a sacred animal for the
peoples of this region in the prehistoric era. From this background, possibly dat-
ing back to the 6th century BCE cultural koine of the Tiber valley, the different
manifestations of the special religious position of the wolf have emerged, the cult
of the Hirpi Sorani being one of its manifestations.106
105 See, e.g., Eckels (above n. 69); C. Mainoldi, L'image du loup et du chien dans la Grèce
ancienne, d'Homère à Platon, Paris 1984.
106 I would like to thank Anne Helttula and Raija Vainio for their valuable comments and
Eleanor Underwood for revising and correcting my English.
Arctos±
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LQ&DSXD±ZLOORIFRXUVHEHDGGXFHGLQWKHFKHFNOLVWWKLV$SSHQGL[
DOVRFRQWDLQVDQXPEHURIQRPLQDZKLFKDUHDWWHVWHGH[FOXVLYHO\RU
DOPRVWH[FOXVLYHO\LQ2VFDQFLWLHVHJ'LJLWLXVLQ3DHVWXPHolco
QLXVLQ3RPSHLLDQGZKLFKRQHFRXOGWKXVVXVSHFWDVEHLQJRI2VFDQ
origin.
G ¿QDOO\,KDYHLQFOXGHGVRPHIXUWKHUQRPLQDHJWKRVHRISHUVRQV
with a nomenclature of the Italic type (with at least a praenomen and
DQRPHQDSSHDULQJLQ*UHHNLQVFULSWLRQVRIWKH+HOOHQLVWLFSHULRGWR
ZKRPDQRULJLQLQWKH2VFDQVSHDNLQJDUHDLVDVVLJQHGHJƐƽƶƫưƳ
ƎƣƵơƮƫ ưƳƒȸơưƶƏƣvƧƲƵʴƮưƳ).
7KHFKHFNOLVWLQFOXGHVRQO\QDPHVZKLFK,WKLQNWKDWRQHFDQDVVXPHZLWKVRPH
FRQ¿GHQFHWKDWZHDUHGHDOLQJZLWKQRPLQD4 at the end, there is a section with
XQFHUWDLQFDVHVLQZKLFK,OLVWDIHZQDPHVZKLFKGRVHHPWREHQRPLQDEXW
which are of uncertain interpretation.5
4 Thus I have omitted anus(i)eís$QVLL6D ,PDJ1159f. Terventum 9 (c. 125), avusas
,PDJI7UHEXOD%DOOLHQVLV±"†diufaris &S ,PDJ&DSXD±
'LXIDULVDWKHRSKRULFQRPHQ"lavs/DYLXV&P ,PDJII+HUFXODQHXP
2 (c. 100), mamerttieísW&S ,PDJ&DSXD6WDPSF±DQGmamertiúí W&P
,PDJ$FHUUDH6WDPSQGFIQPXWWQLLXP 3V ,PDJ&DPSDQLD"
±Ʈƫƶ?Ʈ]Ʊ_ƹƩƦ=ƫƴ,PDJS3RWHQWLD>1X@PSVLG>LXV@YHQLOHLV&P
,PDJ&DPSDQLDǍƧƲƧƬưW/X ,PDJ9LERWDNHQIRUDQRPHQE\/HMHXQH
QRFIS,KDYHDOVRRPLWWHGWKHQDPHVLQWKHVWULNLQJLQVFULSWLRQ&,/I2 ,PDJ
)DOHUQXVDJHU>)UDQFROLVH@FZKLFKDOWKRXJKIRXQGLQWKHDJHU)DOHUQXV, seems
to record persons alien to this area (note that each of them seems to have a nomen not found
DQ\ZKHUHHOVHDQGWKDWWKHQRPLQD±5DFHFWLXVHWF±GRQRWDWDOOVHHP2VFDQ
5 For nomina the reading of which appears in a corrected form in ,PDJLQHV ,WDOLFDH, note
akkiis/HMHXQHQREXWWKHUHDGLQJLVmakkiis LQ9HWWHU67 and ,PDJ&DPSDQLD
&RLQDJHasillii(s) 9HQRZLQWHUSUHWHGDVsillii(s) W3R,PDJ3RPSHLZKHUH
however, the reading g. asillii(s) is apparently not altogether ruled out); Ƭƣƭƣƫưƴ33RFFHWWL
in 0LVFHOODQHDHSLJUD¿FDLQRQRUHGL/*DVSHULQL>@IIQRZUHDGDVƬƣƫƭƫưƴ (,PDJ
I/DRVkavkdis&PFRUUHFWHGWRkavkeis and interpreted as a praenomen in ,PDJ
II&XPDHHƣƦƫƴ/XQRZFRUUHFWHGWRƣƦƫƴ (,PDJI/DRVlare(-) W3RQRZ
read as rar(iis) (,PDJ3RPSHLưƵƣŁƫƴ/XQRZUHDGDV=ƴ?ƵƣƵƫƴ, ,PDJI
140 2OOL6DORPLHV
,QFLWLQJ2VFDQLQVFULSWLRQV,UHIHUWRERWK5L[
6DEHOOLVFKH7H[WHof 2002
(but normally not to older publications) and to ,PDJLQHV ,WDOLFDH (abbreviated
,PDJ7H[WVLQ5L[DUHFLWHGDVHJ&PZLWKRXW5L[RU67
,QUHIHU-
ences to ,PDJ,KDYHDGGHGWKHSDJHQXPEHUVHJ,PDJI&DSXDDV
LWFDQWDNHVRPHWLPHWRORFDWHLQVFULSWLRQVUHIHUUHGWRVLPSO\DV&DSXDRU
WKHOLNH9HWWHU
VFROOHFWLRQLVUHIHUUHGWRDV9HEXWWKDWRI3RFFHWWLDV3RFFHWWL
QRWDV3RDV3RLVDWWDFKHGWRLQVFULSWLRQVIURP3RPSHLLLQ5L[)RU/DWLQ
inscriptions, I normally follow the abbreviations used in the $QQpHpSLJUDSKLTXH
VRPHWLPHVZLWKVRPHPRGL¿FDWLRQV
In the case of most nomina, there follows some information on their at-
WHVWDWLRQVLQ/DWLQLQVFULSWLRQVPDLQO\LQ/DWLQLQVFULSWLRQVIURPWKH2VFDQDUHD
LQRUGHUWRLOOXVWUDWHWKHVXUYLYDORIQRPLQDIURPWKH2VFDQWRWKH5RPDQSHULRG
It must thus be noted that if I say that the nomen $¿QLXVis attested in Saepinum,
$HVHUQLD%HQHYHQWXP$HFODQXPDQG$EHOOLQXPFIEHORZWKLVGRHVQRWPHDQ
that $¿QLXVPLJKWQRWEHDOVRDWWHVWHGHOVHZKHUHEXWLQWKLVFRQWH[WDWWHVWDWLRQV
from (say) Rome, Etruria or Spain are of lesser interest. In order to save space,
,QRUPDOO\RQO\PHQWLRQWKHFLW\LQZKLFKDSDUWLFXODUQRPHQLVIRXQGHJDW-
WHVWHGLQ&DSXDDQG3RPSHLLRUVLPSO\MXVW&DSXD3RPSHLLDQH[DFWUHIHU-
ence (e.g., NSAQEHLQJJLYHQRQO\LIWKHUHIHUHQFHVDUHQRWHDVLO\
IRXQG LQ WKH HSLJUDSKLF GDWDEDVH &ODXVV6ODDE\ http://www.manfredclauss.de/).
7KRVHZLVKLQJWR¿QGRXWHJWKHDWWHVWDWLRQVRI$VHOOLXVin Latin inscriptions
RQO\KDYHVHDUFKIRUAselliLQWKHVDLGGDWDEDVHZKLFKZLOOSURGXFHWKHDWWHVWD-
tions in an instant.
Checklist of Oscan Nomina
DWWHVWHGDOVRLQ6DEHOOLDQDVFRQWUDVWHGWR2VFDQLQVFULSWLRQV3D-

eligni, etc.)
DWWHVWHGLQ/DWLQLQVFULSWLRQVLQWKH2VFDQVSHDNLQJUHJLRQ6DPQLXP
Lucania, etc.)
± DWWHVWHGLQ/DWLQRU*UHHNLQVFULSWLRQVRQO\RXWVLGHWKH2VFDQVSHDN-
ing region
QRWDWWHVWHGLQ/DWLQRU*UHHNLQVFULSWLRQV
/DRV)RUZRUGVRUQDPHVLQWHUSUHWHGDVQRPLQDLQSUHYLRXVHGLWLRQVRI2VFDQLQVFULSWLRQV
but now interpreted as something else, note nive(llieís) &S IRU ZKLFK WKH UHDGLQJ QRZ
RIIHUHGEXWQRWH[SODLQHGLVminive (,PDJII&DSXDpask(iís) W3RQRZDQDO\VHG
as pa(kis) sk(-) (,PDJ3RPSHL púҕ ҕpҽশӏӏৢSa2
ҕ (a completely different interpretation in
,PDJI7HUYHQWXP)RUQRPLQDWKHUHDGLQJRIZKLFKVHHPVGHEDWDEOHFIHJEHORZ
s. v. auríl(iis), ƤưƷưƮƫ=Ʈ?, puinik(iis).
7KH1RPLQDRIWKH6DPQLWHV$&KHFNOLVW 141
*abutis ,PDJ$HFODQXPQGAbuttius, attested in Nola (AE 1994, 414)

DQG$EHOOLQXP&,/;FI+6ROLQArctos 19 [1985] 204f.).
*aboliies /DWLQ DOSKDEHW ƣƤưƭƫƫƧ=ƴ? ,PDJ I 1XPLVWUR ±
AbulliusDWWHVWHGLQ$HVHUQLD&,/,;IIIHWF
*aadiieísJHQ6D ,PDJI6DHSLQXPF±ƣƦƫƴ/X ,PDJ
I/DRVZLWKFRUUHFWHGUHDGLQJF$GLXV(attested at least in
3RPSHLLDQGLQ/DULQXP7 Addius.
†aadirans3R ,PDJII3RPSHLDIWHUFI.0F'RQDOG-56
102±7KLVLVFOHDUO\DQRPHQZLWKWKHHQGLQJDQXV, and a
comparison with aadíriis $WULXV indicates that the Latin form of this
name would be $WUDQXV.8 The presence of this name, possibly with an
(WUXVFDQEDFNJURXQGVHHQLQ3RPSHLLLVQRWDEOHLQDVPXFKDVQRPLQD
ending in DQXV concentrate in, and thus seem typical of, the Sabine area,
8PEULDDQG3LFHQXP9ZKHUHDVWKH\VHHPWRODUJHO\DEVHQWIURP2VFDQ
territory. (For a nomen ending in ±LDQXV cf. below *3HWWLDQXV.)
*aadíriis 3R ,PDJ I 3RPSHL ± aadiriís 3R ,PDJ I
3RPSHL±FIÈWULD9I, &,/;1ROD10 (cf. also adaries
JHQ3V ,PDJI6XUUHQWXP>±"@"ƖWULXV11$HTXXP7XWL-
FXP3RPSHLL1ROD6DOHUQXP3RWHQWLD Adrius is not attested.
1RWHDOVR$EXOOLD1I1LJHOODLQ&RUGXED&,/II2
7 N. Stelluti, (SLJUD¿GL/DULQR(1997) no.

8 In &,/I2 ;9LQYHQWUHOXFHUQDH«UHSLQQHFURSROL(VTXLOLQDWKHUHDGLQJ
may possibly be $WUDQ.; Etruscan names such as DWUDQHIRULQVWDQFHVVHH+5L[(WUXVNLVFKH
7H[WH,>@LQWKHLQGH[DUHDGGXFHGDVSRVVLEOHSDUDOOHOVE\WKH,WDOLDQVFKRODU(/DWWHV
quoted in the commentary.
9 &I HJ WKH DWWHVWDWLRQV RXWVLGH 5RPH RI QRPLQD OLNH &DUGDQXV )XUIDQXV 5DQWLIDQXV
5HIDQXV7HEDQXV7HEHGDQXV7LIDQXV7XWLFDQXV.
107KHLQVFULSWLRQVWLOOH[LVWVLQFRQWUDVWWRWKHUHSURGXFWLRQRIWKHWH[WLQWKH&,/, the <a> (as
UHSRUWHGE\+6ROLQGRHVKDYHDQDSH[WKXVFRQ¿UPLQJWKDWWKH>D@LVORQJ
11 /HMHXQH WKLQNV WKDW WKH LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ RI aadíriis
with $WULXV LV GRXWHXVH VD\LQJ
WKDW>X@QSDVVDJHVSRUDGLTXHGHWUjGUHQWUHYR\HOOHVHQRVTXHQ
HVWSDVpWDEOLSDUGHV
H[HPSOHVUHOHYDQWGXOH[LTXHKHDGGVWKDWWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKHQDPHaadirans does not favour
the view that the <í> in aadíriis LVGXHWRDQDSW\[LV+RZHYHUWKHIDFWWKDW*Adirius is not
attested whereas $WULXV(with long DLVIRXQGLQ3RPSHLLWKHFLW\ZKHUHaadíriis is attested)
DQGLQRWKHU2VFDQFLWLHVFRPELQHGZLWKWKHIDFWWKDWsadiriis DWWHVWHGLQ3RPSHLLPXVWEH
identical with 6DWULXVDOVRDWWHVWHGLQ3RPSHLLDQGLQPDQ\RWKHU2VFDQFLWLHVsadri(is) and
3DHOLJQLDQVDGULHV, continued by Latin 6DGULXVPD\UHÀHFWERWKWKHRULJLQDOIRUPDQGWKHIRUP
ZLWKDQDSW\[LVDQGWKHDFFRPSDQ\LQJGHYHORSPHQW>WU@!>GU@PDNHVLWLQP\RSLQLRQFOHDU
that aadíriis must be identical with Atrius.
142 2OOL6DORPLHV
*M. Aesqulli(us)3DTI5XIXV&,/ I27HJLDQXPFI$HVTXLOOLD&I

3ROODAE3RPSHLL
*D¿OOLV3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±FIaf(-)W+L ,PDJ952
$EHOOLQXPQG12 $¿OLXV3XWHROL$¿OOLXV3RPSHLL
*aphinis DQRPHQ" 3R ,PDJII3RPSHLEHWZHHQWKH6RFLDO:DU
DQG 6XOOD cf. af(-) DERYH 1$¿QLL LQ %HQHYHQWXP &,/ ,;
EE9,,,$IƯQLXV6DHSLQXP$HVHUQLD%HQHYHQWXP$HF-
ODQXP$EHOOLQXP
*ahiisW&P ,PDJ6WDELDHQGW6L ,PDJI9HQDIUXPF
ҥত>LLV@W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±&9$KLHV &,/
;00DJDOKDHV6WDELDHURPDQDQRRQEULFN
VWDPSVIURP3RPSHLLDQG6WDELDHIRUWKHUHDGLQJ±QRW&9DKLHV±FI
9HWWHUS141$KLXV6XFFHVVXV$XJXVWDOLV1XFHULDH&,/;(EX-
rum): $KLXVDWWHVWHGDOVRLQ$HVHUQLD9HQDIUXP$EHOOLQXP$LXV(attested
at least in Nuceria [&,/;@DQG3XWHROL>AE@/HMHXQH
*aallasis W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±VXUHO\WKLVPXVWEHLGHQ-
tical with AlsiusDWWHVWHGLQ+HUFXODQHXP>/$OVLXV9HUHFXQGXV&,/;
G@DQGSRVVLEO\LQ3RPSHLL>&,/,9@WKXV6OXQHþNRUDWKHU
than with *$ODVLXV(,PDJ), not attested.
ƣƭƣHƫưvDFF/X ,PDJ 1478 Teuranus ager 1 (presumably before c. 200),
ƣƭƣƷƫƺQRPIHP",PDJII3HWHOLDF0DULXV$O¿XV"
PHGGL[WXWLFXVLQ&DSXDLQ%&/LYDWWKHQRPHQ
DSSHDUV±DVUHSRUWHGE\:DOWHUV±&RQZD\EXWQRWE\'RUH\DQG-DO±DVAl
piusDWDV$O¿R$O¿D1I6HUYLOODEE9,,,3RPSHLLFIDOD¿V
3J ,PDJ6XSHUDHTXXPF±$O¿XV(attested at least in
7HUYHQWXP$HVHUQLD9HQDIUXP&DLDWLD7UHEXOD%DOOLHQVLV&DSXD1ROD
3RPSHLLFI/HMHXQH $OD¿XVis not attested.
Alpius: cf. $O¿XV; and DOSLV3J ,PDJI6XOPRF±$OSLXV
DWWHVWHGLQ$HFODQXP&,/,;
12 This might, however, also be $¿QLXV(cf. below) or even $IDULXV, a nomen attested as DIDULHV
LQ /X ,PDJ ,WDOLD FI &UDZIRUG DQG LQ /DWLQ LQVFULSWLRQV IURP 3RWHQWLD DQG
apparently from somewhere in Lucania, &,/;
)RUWKHRUWKRJUDSK\SK!FI/HMHXQHI76LURQHQArctos 21 (1987) 112, Stuart-Smith
EXW VXUHO\ $¿QLXV FDQQRW EH UHJDUGHG DV D QDPH RI *UHHN RULJLQ DOWKRXJK WKH
SHUVRQZKRSDLQWHGWKLVLQVFULSWLRQPD\KDYHWKRXJKWWKDWKHZDVUHSURGXFLQJ*UHHNǸƷơƮƫưƳ
UDWKHUWKDQ2VFDQ D¿QLLV).
14 M. Steinby, in F. Zevi (ed.), in 3RPSHL5DFFROWDGLVWXGLSHULOGHFLPRQRQRFHQWHQDULR
GHOO
HUX]LRQHYHVXYLDQDVSHDNVRIWKLVVWDPSDVRQHRIWKHSLDQWLFKL
Andripius&P ,PDJII&XPDH"F±

anniieíVJHQ&S ,PDJI&DSXDF±">FIS@"an(-)
W6D ,PDJ%RYLDQXPF±3DFXOOD$QQLDIURP&DSXD
/LY/$QQLXV9I&,/ I2F&RSLD7KXULLFIDQLD3J
,PDJI6XOPRF±3J ,PDJ&RU¿QLXP
DQLHV3J ,PDJ&RU¿QLXP$QQLXV6DHSLQXP$HFODQXP9H-
QDIUXP7HDQXP6LGLFLQXP&DSXD3XWHROL+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL1ROD
6DOHUQXP9ROFHL3RWHQWLD*UXPHQWXPFI/HMHXQH
"&Aplonius Mi. f. $( 6XSSO,W$X¿GHQDAplo
QLD is also the reading in &,/,9FIS3RPSHLLEXWWKHFRUUHFW
reading may in fact be $SURQLD (H. Solin).
±appúllis &P ,PDJI6XUUHQWXP±Apulius &,/ I20LQ-
WXUQDHHWF"
±akviiai QRPHQ"GDWIHP&S ,PDJII&DSXD±OLQH
AquiusDWWHVWHGLQ,WDO\LQ$PLWHUQXP(SLJUDSKLFD>@LQWKH
country of the Marsi ((SLJUD¿DGHOODUHJLRQHGHL0DUVL $(1975,
DQGLQ7DUHQWXPNSAQ
*ƣƲƲƫƧƴ/X ,PDJI1XPLVWUR±=Ɠƞ?ƬƬƫưƳǼƲƲƫưƳƐưưƶơưƶ
,*;,9 ,PDJI&DSXDF"&$UULXV9I&,/ I2 2949
&DSXD1$UULLRU$UULL1IODWWHVWHGLQ$OOLIDH&,/,;$HFOD-
num (&,/,;DQG&DSXD&,/I215 $UULXV
$HFODQXP >PDQ\ LQVFULSWLRQV@ %HQHYHQWXP$EHOOLQXP &DSXD$WHOOD
9ROWXUQXP3XWHROL+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL0XUR/XFDQR9ROFHL3RWHQ-
WLD$WLQD*UXPHQWXP
*arruntiis 3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±ĮȡȡȠȞĲȚİȢW/X ,PDJ
I3RWHQWLD$UUXQWLXV%RYLDQXP&DSXD$WHOOD3RPSHLL6XUUHQ-
WXPFI/HMHXQH
[*=ƣ?ƲƵưƲ=ƫv?"DFF/X ,PDJI7KXULL&RSLD±EXWZHDUH
more probably dealing with Hortorius, q.v.).
*ǸƴƟƭƭƫưƳ ,PDJI/DRVF1$VHOOLLLQ7HOHVLD&,/ ,;
$VHOOLXVDWWHVWHGDOVRDWOHDVWLQ$OOLIDH3XWHROLDQG3RPSHLL
asinis3R ,PDJI3RPSHLQG6D ,PDJ%RYLDQXP
QGFI+HULXV$VLQLXVSUDHWRU0DUUXFLQRUXP in the Social War (5(
$VLQLXV$VLQLXV%HQHYHQWXP3XWHROL3RPSHLL6DOHUQXP
*atiniís3R ,PDJI3RPSHL±3R ,PDJI3RPSHL
±$WƯQLXV7HOHVLD1ROD&DOHV+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL/HMHXQH
141).
151$UULLDUHDOVRDWWHVWHGLQ/XFHULD&,/,;DQG5RPH&,/9,
144 2OOL6DORPLHV
±ƣƶƦƣƫƴƣƶƦƣଢǍଣư"FRUUHFWHGIURPƣƶƦƣƦưQRPIHP",PDJII3H-

WHOLDFSUREDEO\$XGDHXV(thus ,PDJ), otherwise attested only in
Regium Lepidum(NSA 1940, 288); ƣƶƦƣଢǍଣư, if this is the correct emen-
GDWLRQLWUHFDOOV3DHOLJQLDQIRUPVRIWKHW\SH$QQDYXV$QQDYDwhich seem
to be variants of $QQDHXV$QQDHD.
*ƣǍƦƧƫƧƴ /X ,PDJ I 3RWHQWLD ± Audeius, attested in Ben-
eventum(&,/,;I
*avdiis3R ,PDJ3RPSHL±ahvdiúIHP3R ,PDJ 558f.
7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPF"ahvdiis ,PDJ&DPSDQLD"±
200), [ah]vud(iis) " W6D ,PDJ %RYLDQXP F ± 1
$XGLL LQ &DSXD + 6ROLQ 2HEDOXV 5 [2010] 252): $XGLXV (attested also
DWOHDVWLQ3RPSHLL>DGG$XGLD&QI16$QR@DQG+HUFXOD-
QHXP/HMHXQH
$X¿GLD 6W I 0D[LPD &,/ ; 1ROD cf. DX¿GLV 3J ,PDJ
&RU¿QLXP$X¿GLXV&DSXD/LWHUQXP3XWHROL3RPSHLL1XFHULD3HWH-
lia).
*DYUӏHV"3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±SUREDEO\Aurius, attested
LQ/DULQXP&LF&OX.).
avksii(s) ,QHGLWXPIURP&XPDHFRPPXQLFDWHGE\*&DPRGHFD,Q/DWLQWKLV
would surely be *$X[LXV(cf. avdiis Audius), cf. $X[LOLXV(&,/9
,/1RYDH AE 1994, 1520), the relation of $X[LXV to $X[LOLXV being the
same as that of (e.g.) 0DHFLXVto0DHFLOLXV. There is, however, the problem
that $X[LOLXVmay be a nomen of late origin derived from DX[LOLXP.17
*auríl(iis) " 3R ,PDJ I 3RPSHL ± VXJJHVWLQJ auríl Au
reliusLQVWHDGRIWKHHDUOLHUUHDGLQJ9HWWHU>9H@5L[puríl. which,
however, still seems preferable.
*ƣǍƧƭƫưƴ ,PDJ II 3HWHOLD F Avelius, attested in Terventum (AE
DQGVHYHUDOWLPHVLQ&RU¿QLXP
*avia(-) "W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±LIWKHUHDGLQJLVFRUUHFW
this will surely be $YLDQLXVDWWHVWHGLQ$EHOOLQXP$WHOOD&XPDH3XWHROL
3RPSHLLDQG3DHVWXP
1$X¿GLLDUHDWWHVWHGLQ7HDWH0DUUXFLQRUXP&,/,;DQGLQ+LVWRQLXP$(2004,

17I suggest this possibility because the man in &,/90HGLRODQXP/$X[LOLXV0HUFDWRU
PDNHVDGHGLFDWLRQWRWKH0DWURQDH, which in addition to his cognomen 0HUFDWRU, points to
*DXORU*HUPDQ\7KHLQVFULSWLRQIURP1RYDHLVQRWRIDQ\XVHLQWKLVFRQWH[W
*bଢaଣbbiis (in the 19th-century copy, the $ZDVPLVWDNHQO\LQWHUSUHWHGDVNǾL

,PDJ I$HFODQXP Q G %DEELXV DWWHVWHG LQ$HFODQXP AE
&XPDHDQG3XWHROL/HMHXQH
*bak(-) "3RUHDGLQJEDঌ ,PDJ3RPSHLQGSRVVLEO\%DF
culeius (thus ,PDJDWWHVWHGLQ3RPSHLL&,/,9"
*EDঌLLV"3R ,PDJ3RPSHLUHDGLQJbak.; n. d.); Badius&DP
SDQXVLQ%&/LYHWF%DGLXV(Saepinum, Ligures Baebiani,
%HQHYHQWXP$HFODQXP7HOHVLD$OOLIDH&DSXD+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL
*baibiis ,PDJ &DODWLD EHIRUH F FI baiଢbଣi(is) ± IRU WUDQVPLWWHG
bairi.)U ,PDJI/DULQXP>F@"18 N. Baebii and Baebii 1
IDWWHVWHGLQ6DHSLQXPDQG$OOLIDH&,/,;3%DHELXV1O
LQ&DSXD&,/I2 2947): %DHELXV, also attested in other inscriptions from
&DSXDDQGLQ/DULQXP6DHSLQXP$OOLIDH$EHOOLQXPAE3X-
WHROL3RPSHLL736XOS9ROFHL*UXPHQWXP3HWHOLD
±ƐƽƶƫưƳƅƞƮƮƫưƳ 6(*FI,PDJ1528 Lucania or Brettii or Sicilia no.
F=Ƥ?ƣƮƫƴ"/X ,PDJII%X[HQWXPQGVXUHO\
*%DQQLXV(cf. %DQLXV&,/;,9>"@&,/,,,19
*ƤƣƲƣƤƫƧƴ ,PDJ 9LER SUHVXPDEO\ EHIRUH F SUREDEO\ %DUELXV
(thus ,PDJDWWHVWHGLQ3XWHROL&,/;DQHDUO\LVKLQVFULSWLRQDQG
a few times in Misenum.
*bassiis&P ,PDJI1RODF±"+HUHQQ^L`XV%DVVL!XVIURP
1ROD%&/LY20 %DVVLXV, attested in Nola also later
3%DVVLXVPXOLHULVOLEHUWXV%DUQDHXV"16$@21
*bení(ieís), ben(íieís) gen. W6D ,PDJ II %RYLDQXP F ±
100); vƫ
ƮƫưƳƤƧ
ƮƫưƳ!, N.K. Rutter & al. (eds.), +LVWRULD1XPRUXP,WDO\
(2001) no. 2295 cf. ,PDJ/DRVEXWWKLVPLJKWVRPHRWKHUQRPHQ
beginning with %H1%HQLXV0I5X¿RLQ$HFODQXPAE
%HQLXVDWWHVWHGDOVRDWOHDVWLQ&DSXD&,/;%HQQLXV$HVHUQLD
&XPDH >FI &DPRGHFD I@ 3XWHROL >&DPRGHFD Q @
+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL3DHVWXP
18&ISHUKDSVDOVRNULED>@, ,PDJ/DULQXP
19)RUWKHVXJJHVWLRQRI*&RORQQDWKDWZHVKRXOGEHGHDOLQJZLWKD)DQQLXVUDWKHUWKDQZLWK
a Bannius), cf. ,PDJ

20 It seems obvious to me that we cannot deal with a Herennius with the cognomen %DVVXVin
%&±basías+L ,PDJI6DHSLQXPLVFRQVLGHUHGDIHPLQLQHJHQLWLYHVLQJXODU
RI WKLV QRPHQ E\ 5L[ S EXW DV QRPLQDWLYH VLQJXODU RI D WHUP LQGLFDWLQJ SDUHQWHOD or
VLPLODUVWDWXVHVLQ,PDJS
21 There is also a Bassius in Misenum (&,/;EXWWKLVLVDYHWHUDQ
2OOL6DORPLHV
±beriis6LDQG ,PDJI7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPIFberiieis gen.

6L ,PDJI7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPFberiium JHQSO6LDQG
,PDJI7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPIF%HULXV%HUULXV (at-
WHVWHGLQ2VWLD$TXLOHLDHWF
*betitis6D ,PDJ%RYLDQXPF±"6D ,PDJ 1097f.
%RYLDQXP±bet(-) W6D ,PDJ%RYLDQXPF±
%HWLWLD3RQWLQD1OLEHUWDLQ$HFODQXP&,/,;%HWLWLXV%HWX
tiusDWWHVWHGLQ%HQHYHQWXP$HFODQXP>PDQ\LQVWDQFHV@&DOHV&DSXD
3RPSHLL/HMHXQH
*bivellis&S ,PDJI&DSXD±%LYHOOLXV&DSXD$EHOOLQXP
>FI&DPRGHFDI@/HMHXQH
ƤƫǍƫƦƫƴ/X ,PDJI7KXULL&RSLD±=Ƥƫ!?ǍƫƦƫƴ/X ,PDJ
II%X[HQWXPQG"Ƥƫ(-) ,PDJ/DRVRQEURQ]HFRLQDJH
RI±%&7KHQDPHPXVWVXUHO\EHXQGHUVWRRGDVUHSUHVHQWLQJ %L
vidius; cf. %LYLXV%LYHLXV%LYHOOLXVDWWHVWHGDOVRLQ2VFDQ%LYRQLXV.
*blaisiis&P ,PDJII&XPDH±OLQH1%ODHVLLDWWHVWHG
in Beneventum (&,/,;+HUFXODQHXP&,/;G and
in WDEHOODH+HUFXODQHQVHV: $(EFI*
&DPRGHFD&URQ(UF>@DQG3RPSHLL&DVWUpQQR%ODH
siusDWWHVWHGDOVRLQ3XWHROLFI/HMHXQH
±blan(iis?)W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±FIbla(-) W3R ,PDJ
II3RPSHL>F±@"SRVVLEO\%ODQQLXV, attested in &,/,;
3LFHQXP
*blússii(eís) JHQ&S ,PDJI&DSXDF±">S@0DULXV
Blossius, SUDHWRU &DPSDQXV LQ %& /LY & %ORVVLXV WKH
SKLORVRSKHUIURP&XPDHRE Blossius 1; 'LFWLRQQDLUHGHVSKLORVRSKHVDQ
WLTXHV,,I%%ORVVLXVDWWHVWHGDOVRODWHULQ&XPDH&,/I2
AELQ&DSXD&,/ I2&,/;AE
3XWHROL&,/I2RI%&+HUFXODQHXPFI/HMHXQH
ƤưƷưƮƫ=Ʈ?"DFF/X ,PDJII/DRVF±,Q/XWKHUHDG-
ing is ƤưƪƲưƮƫ
ưƮ (see below), but the name has also been read as ƤưƷ^`
ưƮƫ=Ʈ?, a reading now reintroduced in ,PDJ and interpreted as *%XIRQLXV,
which would be plausible alongside %X¿OLXV (cf. 3RPSRQLXV: 3RPSLOLXV).
+RZHYHUWKHUHDGLQJȕȠșȡȠȞȚȠȞVHHPVSUHIHUDEOHWRPHWKXVDOVR0F-
Donald 2012, 50), especially as the letter interpreted as a Ʒdoes not seem
to bear much resemblance to the letter ƷLQRWKHU2VFDQLQVFULSWLRQVXVLQJ
*UHHNOHWWHUVLQVWHDGLWGRHVVHHPDUHODWLYHO\FOHDUUHQGHULQJRIDƪ.
±ƤưƪƲưƮƫ
ưƮ"DFF/X ,PDJII/DRVF±WKHQDPHKDV
also been read as ƤưƷưƮƫ=Ʈ?, but the reading ƤưƪƲưƮƫ. seems preferable
(cf. above), especially as we may well be dealing with a rendering of the
nomen which in its Latin form is attested as %XWURQLXVin Tarracina (&,/;

±2Bracio(s)9I&,/I2 ,3DHVWXP140: %UDFFLXV, attested in Fundi
(&,/;± ,2D±FDQGLQ$WKHQV,*II/III2
*EUL৬LLVDQRPHQ"&P ,PDJI&XPDH±ZLWKWKHLQWHUSUH-
WDWLRQD%UHWWLDQbri(tiis)",PDJII)DJLIXODHQGFI
bruties JHQ3V ,PDJI1XFHULD$OIDWHUQD>±"@"%ULWWLXV
%HQHYHQWXP $HFODQXP &XEXOWHULD &DSXD 3XWHROL 3RPSHLL %UXWLXV
%UXWWLXV%HQHYHQWXP7HDQXP6LGLFLQXP$EHOOLQXP&XPDH3RPSHLL
(EXUXP9ROFHL3RWHQWLD7HJLDQXP*UXPHQWXPIRUWKHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQRI
%UXWWLXVwith %ULWWLXVcf. below siuttiisZLWKQ
*buk(iis) ,PDJ1XFHULD$OIDWHUQDQG%XFLXV%XFFLXVDWWHVWHGLQ3RP-
peii).
*burris 6L ,PDJ7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPF"%XULXV%XUULXV (Her-
FXODQHXP3RPSHLL>&DPRGHFD@
*buttis &P ,PDJII&XPDH±OLQH%XWWLXV (Larinum, Ben-
eventum), cf. %RWWLXV$OOLIDH
ƬƣƫƦƫƬƫƴƬƣƫƦƫƬ
ƫƺ "DQGƬƣƫଢƦଣƫଢƬଣ
ƫƺ22QRPIHP",PDJII3H-
WHOLDF&DHGLFLXV&P ,PDJII&XPDH"F±
(cf. kai(-) W3R ,PDJII3RPSHL>F±@
kଢaଣi(-) W+L ,PDJ$HFODQXP>QG@"FIFDHGFLHV/X ,PDJ
I,WDOLDFI&UDZIRUG&DHGLFLXVDWWHVWHGLQ&XPDH,/6 9511a),
"1HDSROLV&DPRGHFDDQG3HWHOLD&,/I2((9,,,
±kaísillieísJHQ&S ,PDJI&DSXDF±">S@&DHVLOLXV,
DWWHVWHGLQ2VWLD7LEXU2FULFXOXP$TXLOHLDHWF
*L. Cai(us) Tr. f.&,/ I27HJLDQXP&DKLXV&DLXV, attested in Beneven-
tum (5,*, 8 [1924] 148 no. 11), Telesia (&,/,;$EHOOLQXPVHH$
Simonelli, $UFK&ODVV47 [1995] 154 no. 14).
*Ƭƣƫƭƫưƴ ,PDJI/DRVFkai(liús") QRPSOW3R± ,PDJ
II3RPSHL>F±@"&DHOLXV&XPDH3XWHROL+HUFXODQH-
XP3RPSHLL$EHOOD3DHVWXP
22 The reading in fact seems to be ƬƣƫƣƫƦƺ, but in view of the presence of a ƬƣƫƦƫƬƫƴ and a
ƬƣƫƦƫƬ
ƫƺ in the same GH¿[LR, the correction to ƬƣƫଢƦଣƫଢƬଣ
ƫƺ seems acceptable. However,
if ƬƣƫƣƫƦƺ ƬƣƫƣƫƦƫƺ) were the correct form, this nomen could perhaps be compared with
&DLHGLDLQ3J ,PDJ6XOPRFDQG&DHLGLXV in &,/ I2 ,;6XOPR
148 2OOL6DORPLHV
*kalaviis 6D ,PDJI%RYLDQXPRU6DHSLQXPFkala[v]iis&P

,PDJI1RODQGkalauiiúmDFF&P ,PDJI&XPDH
±[kala]vii(úm) "JHQSO&S ,PDJII&DSXD%
cf. kal(-) W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±&DODYLLIURP&DSXD
LQOLWHUDU\VRXUFHV/HMHXQH1&DODYLXV(XVHEHVLQ3XWHROL&,/;
1 &DOYLXV 5XIXV LQ /RFUL &,/ ; &DODYLXV (Beneventum,
1XFHULD&DSXD3XWHROL3RPSHLL/HMHXQH&DOYLXV&DOHV3XWHROL
Locri).
*ƬƣƭƫƮƫƴ 0HFI0H ,PDJ 1515ff. Messana 4, 5 (c. 250): &DOLQLXV (&,/;
3XWHROL
±ƓƞƬƫưƳƍƣƭƽƮƫưƳ6(*,9FI,PDJ7HXUDQXVDJHUQRWKLVPXVWEH
*&DORQLXV or possibly *&DOXQLXV(cf. &DOXVLXV, etc.).24
*kaluvis &S ,PDJ&DSXDEHIRUHFkalúvis,PDJ&XPDH
4bis (c. 100), kalúvieis &S ,PDJ I &DSXD F ±" >S
@ &S ,PDJ I &DSXD F ±" >S @ &DORYLXV: L.
&DORYLLIUHHGPHQRID/XFLXVDUHQRZDWWHVWHGLQ&XPDH*&DPRGHFD
LQ/&KLRI¿>HG@,O0HGLWHUUDQHRHODVWRULD>@
*kamp[aniis] 3R ,PDJ II 3RPSHL F kam[paniis] 3R
,PDJ3RPSHLF±kam(-) W6D ,PDJ 987f. Bovianum
>F±@,PDJ%RYLDQXP>F±@"&DPSDQLXV, at-
WHVWHGLQ&DSXD
(*)Cantilia 6W O$UJ\ULV &,/ ; &DSXD &DQWLOLXV is otherwise attested
RQO\LQ$TXLOHLDDQGLQ6SDLQ
*kanuties JHQDQRPHQ"&P ,PDJI6DWLFXOD±1&DQ-
QXWLXV$XFWXVLQ&DSXD$(1982, 175): &DQXWLXV&DQQXWLXV, attested also
in Salernum (&,/;FIDOVREHORZVYutiis).
±kar(iis)" W6D ,PDJI%RYLDQXPF±ƬƣƲ
ƫƧƴ!W/X
,PDJI3RWHQWLDWKLVFRXOGEH&DULXV (attested in Rome, Fanum,
$ULPLQXPHWF
*ƓƞƱƧƭưƳƍƣƴơƮ
ƮƫưƳ -G,IQR±QRHWF3DWHUQzLQ
E. Sicily), cf. ,PDJ3DWHUQz&DVLQLXVDWWHVWHGLQ9ROFHL&,/;
407 [IXQGXV&DVLQLDQXV]. 422. 8108. 8114).
*kastríkiíeísJHQ3R ,PDJI3RPSHL±1&DVWULFLXV$JDWKRSXV
LQ3XWHROL736XOS&DVWULFLXV%HQHYHQWXP&DLDWLD&DOHV&DSXD
3XWHROL+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL/HMHXQH
For a Severan YLJLO1&DODELXV7URSKLPXVVHH&,/9,,,
24&ISHUKDSV4&DORQLXV"9,,,0*5>@IQR0LQWXUQDHEULFNVWDPSDQG
&,/;,&DHUH
kattiis6L ,PDJI7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPF&DWLD9LELI&,/ I2

1727 (Beneventum); cf. FDWLV09 ,PDJ221 Incerulae 2: &DWLXV
3RPSHLL&DWWLXV3XWHROL
*N. Ceius3HUI&,/ǿȋ7HUYHQWXP&HLXVTXLGDP6DPQLV&LF&OX
&HLXV%HQHYHQWXP$HFODQXP+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL
*keliis "&P ,PDJ1XFHULD$OIDWHUQDFLIWKHUHDGLQJLVFRU-
rect, we are probably dealing with &HOOLXVDWWHVWHGLQ3RPSHLLDQG$WLQD
Lucana.
"kepiis"&PYHOkeliis ,PDJ1XFHULD$OIDWHUQDFUHDG-
ing keliis, ƬƧ[ƱƫƧƴ"@/X ,PDJI$WLQD/XFDQDFLIWKH
reading kepiis is correct, the nomen must be identical to &HSLXV&HSSLXV
(,3DHVWXP>IUDPP(@((9,,,FI,3DHVWXPQR
QRWH
*Minius and Herennus Cerrinius IURP &DSXD LQ %& /LY HWF
&HUULQLXV6DHSLQXP/DULQXP%RYLDQXP%HQHYHQWXP$HFODQXP$EHO-
OLQXP&DSXD+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL0HVVDQD
±kid(iis")"RUkud(iis)"6D ,PDJ1225ff. Fagifulae 5, (1) (n. d.): &LGLXV
(&,/;0LQWXUQDH"2USHUKDSVUDWKHU&RGLXV, also attested in Min-
turnae (&,/I2 2702),25 &XGLXV(%$&7+QRIURP7K\VGUXV"
*kiípiís 3R ,PDJ 3RPSHL F &ƯSLXV %HQHYHQWXP &DSXD
3RPSHLL
*ƬƭƣǍƦƫƴ0H ,PDJI0HVVDQDF/&ODXGLRV7UI&,/ I2
3DHVWXP GDWHG WR WKH UG FHQWXU\ LQ , 3DHVWXP EXW SODFHG
DPRQJWKHLQVFULSWLRQVEHOOR+DQQLEDOLFRUHFHQWLRUHVE\$'HJUDVVLLQ
&,/ I2$&ODXGLXV&I,PDJ&DOHVQG&ODXGLXV.
*klí(piis) W6D ,PDJI%RYLDQXPF±DQHZLQVWDQFHLQ6RULF-
elli QRƍƭƟƱƱƫưƳ (ƍƭƧƱơƵƫưƳ the ms.), a Lucanian commander
LQWKH6RFLDO:DU'LRGFI76LURQHQ$UFWRV25 [1991]
ILQYLHZRIWKHQRPHQRIWKH/XFDQLDQFRPPDQGHUklí(-) must sure-
ly be understood as representing &OHSSLXVWKXV6OXQHþNRQR3RF-
FHWWLQRFRPPHQWDU\&DPSDQLOHDWWHVWHGDWOHDVWLQ%DQWLD
DQG$HTXXP7XWLFXPDQGFI&,/;DVLJQDFXOXP observed in
Naples with 1&OH)HOLFLV; and &OHSSLDQD&,/,;IURP%HQHYHQ-
tum (,PDJsuggests&OLSSLXVWKLVQRPHQGRHVQRWVHHPWREHDWWHVWHG
*kluvatiis, kluvatiium acc., kluvatiui dat. &S ,PDJII&DSXD±
150), lines 2. 9. 10, kluvatiium JHQSO&S ,PDJI&DSXDF
25 &RGLXVis also attested in Rome, &,/9,

150 2OOL6DORPLHV
±">S@FI&S ,PDJI&DSXD&S ,PDJI

&DSXDFIklú[-] W&P ,PDJ$EHOODQG&ORYDWLXV$OOLIDH
3RPSHLL/HMHXQH&ORDWLXV6DWLFXOD3XWHROL&OXDWLXV.
*L. Cluentius, a commander of the Italians in the Social War (RE&OXHQWLXVFI
6XSSO,,,SHUKDSVIURP&DPSDQLD6DOPRQRU6DPQLXP
.HDYHQH\1&OXHQWLXVHTXHV5RPDQXV,IURP/DULQXP&LF
&OX&OXHQWLXVDWWHVWHGHVSHFLDOO\LQ/DULQXP&LF&OX; $(1997,
5,%1545); cf. &ORYHQWLXV.
3DFXODCluviaIURP&DSXDLQ%&/LY9DO0D[
1&OXYLLLQ3XWHROL&,/I2I;FISHUKDSVVWDWLVFORLLV&OX
viusRQDERQHWHVVHUDRIXQFHUWDLQRULJLQ,PDJ 9HVWLQL0DUUXFLQL
3DHOLJQL0DUVL"&OXYLXV$OOLIDH&DXGLXP&DLDWLD&DSXD3XWHROL
3RPSHLL1ROD&OXLXV.
±kud(iis")"RUkid(iis)"FIDERYHVYkid(iis).
*kúrel(ieís) gen. 6D ,PDJ I %RYLDQXP F ± &RUHOLXV
3RPSHLL&RUHOOLXV (Nola).
±ƤƣƮƵƫƮƺƬƺƴƴƣƮƺ nom. fem. ,PDJII3HWHOLDWKHQRPHQPD\ZHOOEH
identical with &RVDQXVDQRPHQIRXQGLQ3LQQD9HVWLQRUXP&,/,;
,2DQGDVDUHVXOWRIHDUO\,WDOLDQLPPLJUDWLRQLQ6SDLQ
*kvíntieís gen. ,PDJ3DOODQXPF4XLQWLXV.
*ƏơƮƣƵưƳƍƽƲưƶƫưƳƏƣvƧƲƵʴƮưƳ6(*±FI,PDJ0HVVDQD
UG F &RUYLXV (cf. NDVD &RUYLDQD LQ 9ROFHL &,/ ;
&XUYLXV3RPSHLL6DOHUQXP
*ƬưƵƵƧƫƩƫƴJHQW/X ,PDJI9LERSUHVXPDEO\EHIRUHF
probably &RWLXV&RWWLXVDWWHVWHGLQ7HDQXP6LGLFLQXP/LWHUQXP&DSXD
$EHOOLQXP9LER/HMHXQHFI0&RWWLXV1IRQ'HORV&,/I2 2504
,'
*=Əơ?ƮƣƵưƳƍƲơƵƵƫưƳƏƫƮƞ=ƵưƶƏ?ƣƵơƭƣƳƏʗƲƬưƳƍƲơƵ=ƵƫưƳ?ƏƫƮƞƵưƶ,*;,9
3HWHOLDFI6(*57, 941 (,PDJ3HWHOLDQRFIkr(-) W6D
,PDJI%RYLDQXP>F±@1&UL+HU on a VLJQDFXOXPin
Naples [&,/;"&ULWLXV(&,/,;IURP)ULJHQWR&ULWWLXV
$HTXXP7XWLFXP$HFODQXP7HDQXP6LGLFLQXP3XWHROL27
*kurt(iis) ,PDJ3RPSHLQG1&XUWLLLQ3RPSHLL&DVWUpQQR
&XUWLXV&DOHV&DSXD&XPDH3XWHROL3RPSHLL1XFHULD9ROFHL
&I&DPRGHFDQ
27&I&DPRGHFD
1XPHULXV Decirius (codd.; 'HFLPLXV edd.), a Samnite from Bovianum, 217

%&(Liv. 22, 24, 11); cf. decries3J ,PDJI6XOPRF±
125): 'HFULXV$HVHUQLD1HDSROLV>AE@'HFLULXV
DWWHVWHGVHYHUDOWLPHVLQ&DSXD
*dekitis6D ,PDJI7HUYHQWXP±dekitiúdDEO6D ,PDJ
I7HUYHQWXPODWHVHFRQGFHQWXU\&Q. 'HFLWLXV (thus the FRG
/DXUHQWLDQXVVDHF;,'HFLGLXVor 'HFLXV later mss.), 6DPQLV&LF&OX
FI7DFGLDO1'HFLWLLLQ7HUYHQWXPAEDQG&DSXD
(H. Solin, 2HEDOXV>@IQR'HFLWLXVDOVRDWWHVWHGLQ$HVHUQLD
and often in Terventum (&,/;LQDGGLWLRQWR$(1997,
QRWHDOVR1'HFLWLXV1O6DEHOOLRPLPXVin &,/9,
dekkiis 6D ,PDJI6DHSLQXPQGdek. W6D ,PDJ 995 Bo-
YLDQXPF±de. 6D ,PDJI$X¿GHQDF±
>į@İțțȚȠ>ı@,PDJ3RWHQWLD±FIGHFLHV/X ,PDJ81
,WDOLDFI&UDZIRUG28 'HFLXV3XWHROL3RPSHLL'HFFLXV&XPDH
3XWHROL&DSXD3RPSHLL
*díidiis =2 ,PDJ I &DPSDQLD RU 6DPQLXP DIWHU F 1 'LGLL
around Beneventum (&,/ ,; 29 'LGLXV (Larinum, Beneven-
WXP9HQDIUXP3RPSHLL
*Mar. Deinius&I&,/ I2DJHU9ROFHLDQXV'LQLXV'LQQLXV, both attested
in Lucania (&,/;,QVFU,W III 1, 117).
*ƦƫƲƫưƴQRPSORUVLQJ"/X ,PDJI$WLQD/XFDQDF'LULXV,
attested in Neapolis (&,/;I
*duiíeísJHQ+L ,PDJI6DHSLQXPF±1'RLXV1I&OH-
mens in Bovianum (AE'RLXV, also attested in Teanum Sidici-
num (&,/;
±eburis&P ,PDJII&XPDH"F±Eburius, apparently at-
tested in Italy only in the north (but note the presence of a certain Eburio
lusLQ3RPSHLL&,/,9
*ega(natiis") W6D ,PDJ %RYLDQXP F ± *HOOLXV (JQDWLXV
6DPQLWLXPGX[LQ%&RE Egnatius 9); Marius Egnatius, a GX[of the
Samnites during the Social War (5((JQDWLXV1(JQDWLXV&O$QD-
vos in Herculaneum (&,/;VXUHO\D5HSXEOLFDQLQVFULSWLRQ(J
QDWLXV%HQHYHQWXP$OOLIDH&DSXD3RPSHLL1XFHULD$EHOOLQXP9LER
etc.).
28 Note also a N. Decius in Rome, &,/9,
29&I1'LGLXV1I$U9DWLDPLOHVLQSUDHWRULRVSHFXODWRU, &,/9,
152 2OOL6DORPLHV
*epidiis
ҕ 3R ,PDJ 3RPSHL ± epid[-] 3R ,PDJ
3RPSHLSHUKDSVF±epid.6L ,PDJ7HDQXP6LGLFL-
QXPFVXJJHVWHGEXWSUREDEO\DELWODWHUepi[-] W&P ,PDJ 845
6WDELDHQG1(SLGLLLQ&DSXD&,/; (SLGLXV(Terventum,
%RYLDQXP9HWXV%HQHYHQWXP7HOHVLD7HDQXP6LGLFLQXP&DSXD+HUFX-
ODQHXP3RPSHLL
*ƧƲưƶƬଢƫଣƩƫ ƴ"İȡȠȣțĲȘıRQWKHVWRQHJHQ/X ,PDJI&ULPLVD
±EruciusDWWHVWHGDWOHDVWLQ3XWHROL
†ev(iis) "W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±WKHDEEUHYLDWHGQRPHQ
ev(-) is interpreted as Latin *(YLXV E\ 6OXQHþNR DQG LQ ,PDJ.; this
QRPHQGRHVQRWVHHPWRH[LVW but would be plausible alongside Eveius,
(YDWLXV, Evilius, etc.
fassii[s] "=2 )3ROLSE± ,PDJI&DPSDQLDRU6DP-
QLXPFWKLVPXVWEHWKHHTXLYDOHQWRI )DVVLXV5L[3ROLZKLFK
LVQRWDWWHVWHGEXWSODXVLEOHLQYLHZRIWKHH[LVWHQFHRI)DVVLGLXV(cf.
$OOLXV$OOLGLXV, etc.). However, some scholars prefer the reading frssii[s]
WKXV9HWWHU9HLQWHUSUHWLQJWKLVDV)UHQVLXV ,PDJ, with the inter-
SUHWDWLRQ)UXVLXV"
*HƧƴƵƫƧƴ/X ,PDJ/XFDQLDF1)HVWLXV$PSOLDWXVLQ3RPSHLL
&DVWUpQQR)HVWLXV, attested also in Herculaneum (cf. )LVWLXV[&,/
;ILQ3RPSHLLDVWKHFRJQRPHQRIDIUHHGZRPDQLQ&DSXD@"
físanis3R ,PDJ3RPSHL±¿V>DQLLXP"] JHQSO&S
,PDJ &DSXD " %XW VHH EHORZ ,Q /DWLQ WKLV ZRXOG EH )LVDQLXV
WKXV6OXQHþNRQR,PDJ; cf. )LVLXV)LVLGLXV)LVHYLXV) or possibly, if
the <í!JRHVEDFNWRDORQJ>Ɲ@ )HVDQLXV (cf. *)HVLXV )HVHGLXV )HVLQLXV
)HVRQLXV).
$Q>(@SLGLD1I>@LVDWWHVWHGLQ,XYDQXP&,/,;
&I/HMHXQH&DPRGHFD
In &,/9,WKHFRUUHFWUHDGLQJLVQRW(YLDbut >1@DHYLD+HOSLV, see AE 1999, 195.

AEEULFNVWDPSIURP5RPH&,/;,6XDQD9ROVLQLL
Not attested, but cf. )UHQVHGLXV)UHQVLGLXV/HMHXQHQRDOVRKDVfrssiis.
)RUWKHRPLVVLRQRIWKHYRZHORIDQDFFHQWHG¿UVWV\OODEOHFIHJg(a)v(is)+L
,PDJ
$HFODQXPp(e)rk(ens)&P ,PDJI1RODHWFEXWWKHVHQDPHVDUHSUDHQRPLQD
and are thus, of course, not suitable parallels as praenomina tend to be abbreviated.
This nomen can be reconstructed on the basis of the cognomen of 0DULD4I)HVLDQD (S.
3DQFLHUD(SLJUD¿HSLJUD¿DHSLJUD¿VWL>@
3.RYiFV7LWXOL5RPDQLLQ+XQJDULDUHSHUWL6XSSOHPHQWXP>@QR6DOOD5,%
*¿V>LLXP "] JHQ SO &S ,PDJ &DSXD >F ± FI S @"
5L[ LQ WKH WH[W DQG LQ WKH LQGH[ S VXJJHVWV WKDW RQH VKRXOG XQ-
derstand ¿V>DQLLXP@ and that we would be dealing with the nomen
)LVDQLXV )HVDQLXV (cf. above), but in ,PDJWKHQDPHLVWUDQVODWHG2I
WKH)LVLLRU)LVLGLL)LVLXV ()ƯVLXVFI6FKXO]HVHHPVSODXVLEOHDV
WKLVQRPHQLVDWWHVWHGQRWRQO\LQ6DHSLQXP$HFODQXP1RODDQG3XWHROL
EXWDOVRLQ&DSXDLWVHOILQLQVFULSWLRQVRI5HSXEOLFDQGDWH&,/I2
and also later (&,/;
±&Fladius Ban. f.&,/ I2 1758 (Bovianum vetus; the only other attestation is
&,/;9
*ÀDYLLHVJHQ3V ,PDJI1RODF±RUODWHU)ODYLXV.
*fuvfdis&P ,PDJII&XPDH±OLQHIXItঌ>LLV@W6D
,PDJ%RYLDQXPQG1)X¿GLLLQ3XWHROL&,/I2%&
DQGLQ3RPSHLL&DVWUpQQR)X¿GLXV, attested also in Terven-
WXP6DHSLQXP7HDQXP6LGLFLQXP/HMHXQH
ƥƣƶƬƫƧƴ/X ,PDJII3RWHQWLD±7KLVQRPHQZDVLQWHU-
SUHWHGLQE\0/HMHXQHDVFRUUHVSRQGLQJWR *DXFLXV0/HMHXQH
5(/>@WKXVDOVR'HO7XWWR3DOPD,PDJ); however, in
/HMHXQHVXJJHVWHG *DYLFLXV0/HMHXQHREA>@DF-
FHSWHGE\6OXQHþNRQRDSSDUHQWO\DVVXPLQJWKDWZHKDYHKHUHDQ-
other instance of the syncope of the type pupdiis for pupidiis and that
<ƣƶ> is here written instead of <ƣǍ> (cf. ƣƶƦƣƫƴ$XGDHXVaƣǍƦƧƫƧƴ
Audeius
*gaaviis &P ,PDJI1ROD±JDҥ৾LLV&P ,PDJ 849f. Sur-
UHQWXP±gaviis &S ,PDJI&DSXD6D ,PDJ
1220f. Fagifulae 2: *DYLXV$HVHUQLD%HQHYHQWXP&DLDWLD+HUFXODQHXP
3RPSHLL6DOHUQXP/HMHXQH
*Statius Gellius, LPSHUDWRU6DPQLWLXP%&/LY*HOOLXV$HFOD-
QXP3XWHROL1XFHULD6XUUHQWXP$WLQD/XFDQD&RVHQWLD
*gnaívii(s) ,PDJI7UHEXOD%DOOLHQVLV±"FQDLYLLHVJHQ3V
,PDJI1RODF11DHYLLRU1DHYLL1I in Saepinum (&,/,;
DQG3XWHROL&,/;IURP3XWHROLFIWKHSRHW&Q1DHYLXV
who wrote an epigram SOHQXPVXSHUELDH&DPSDQDH*HOO1DH
YLXV7HUYHQWXP6DHSLQXP7HOHVLD7HDQXP6LGLFLQXP&DOHV&DSXD$W-
HOOD&XPDH3XWHROL3RPSHLL1ROD0XUR/XFDQR3HWHOLD
)LVLGLXV seems less plausible, as this nomen is attested only in Luna in northern Etruria (&,/
;,
N. Naevii are also attested in Teate Marrucinorum (EE9,,,DQG5RPH&,/9,
154 2OOL6DORPLHV
±gusies ")U ,PDJ/DULQXPF±WKLVFRXOGSHUKDSVEH

*XVVLXV (&,/,,,
Harines/DWLQDOSKDEHW&P ,PDJII&XPDH"F±7KLV
is surely the nomen of an immigrant, possibly from somewhere in Etruria.
*KHJӏLV"W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLQG+HJLXVDWWHVWHGLQ3RPSHLL+HJL
XVmust be in the same relation to HeiusDOVRDWWHVWHGLQ3RPSHLLDVPDJLV
is to PDLXV(*PDJ\RV), 0DJLXVto 0DLXV, and ieíis to ,HJLXV; cf. Leumann
/HMHXQHI40
*heíis &P ,PDJ I &XPDH SUHVXPDEO\ EHIRUH heíi(s) &P
,PDJI&XPDHSUHVXPDEO\EHIRUH&P ,PDJ&XPDH
F"eiúmJHQSOW&P ,PDJ&XPDHF"ƇƟƬvưƳ
ȋƫưƳƓƣƬơưƶ ,*;,9&XPDH41+HLD3DSLINSA3RP-
peii): +HLXV6DHSLQXP&XPDH>&,/I2&DPRGHFD@
heleviis 6D ,PDJ I %RYLDQXP ± =2 ,PDJ I
&DPSDQLD RU 6DPQLXP DIWHU F helevi(is) &S ,PDJ I
&DSXDF±">S@heleviieís JHQ&S ,PDJI&DSXD
F±">S@ helleviis &S ,PDJI&DSXD±
200), helvi[-] =2 ,PDJI&DPSDQLDRU6DPQLXPEHIRUHF
ȀƱɚ˫Ɛưƶơưƶ ȇƭƧ
Ǎơưƶ!3RFFHWWL ,PDJ3HWHOLDQR+HOYLL
1ILQ&DSXD&,/ I2I&Ihelevis3J ,PDJ&RU¿QLXP
3J ,PDJ&RU¿QLXP+HOYLXV$HVHUQLD6DHSLQXP%RYLDQXP
&RPSVD %HQHYHQWXP &DSXD 3XWHROL +HUFXODQHXP 3RPSHLL 1XFHULD
3RWHQWLD$WLQD/XFDQD*UXPHQWXP9LER
40 /HMHXQH KRZHYHU RQO\ VSHDNV RI 0DJLXV0DLXV (and mentions the possibility that ieíis
might have something to do with ,HJLXV; no mention of a possible connection of hegi(is) with
heíisEXWH[SODLQVWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQ0DJLXVand 0DLXVby observing that 0DJLXVis a
nomen and 0DLXVDSUDHQRPHQWKXVLJQRULQJWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKHQRPHQ0DLXV), and saying
WKDWLQWKHLQVWDQFHRIWKHQRPHQZLWKWKHVXI¿[L\RWKHUDGLFDOEHLQJIROORZHGE\DYRZHO
VWD\HGLQDOWpUpZKHUHDVLQWKHFDVHRIWKHSUDHQRPHQWKHUHIROORZHGGHYDQW\RGDOWpUDWLRQ
( PDJ\R! PD\\R,QWKHIROORZLQJKHH[SODLQVWKHSRVVLEOHLGHQWLW\SUREOHPDWLFDFFRUGLQJ
to his view) of ieíis with ,HJLXV by saying that one would have to postulate that the nomen had
EHHQVHFRQGDLUHPHQWUHIDLWjSDUWLUGXSURQRP>XQGHUVWDQGSUpQRP@FRUUHVSRQGDQW+RZHYHU
WKLVWKHRU\VHHPVDELWWRRFRPSOLFDWHGDQGLJQRUHVWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKHQRPHQ0DLXVand of
the nomina +HJLXVand Heius. For further nomina in JLXVZKLFKPXVW±RUDWOHDVWPD\±EH
closely related to nomina in LXV cf. &DLXV&DJLXV, 5DLXV5DJLXV(&,/;5HLXV5HJLXV
(&,/ 9, HWF 5RLXV 5RJLXV (&,/ ,; HWF 6HLXV 6HJLXV (&,/ ; 6WDLXV
6WDJLXV (&,/9,9HLXV9HJLXV(&,/;,
412QHZRQGHUVKRZRQHVKRXOGLQWHUSUHWWKHIDFWWKDWLQ*UHHNLQVFULSWLRQVIURP*UHHFHDQG
$VLDWKLVQRPHQLVUHJXODUO\ZULWWHQșȚȠȢ,*II/III2 ,*9,'

etc.).
1Hercleidius3DFI&,/ I2D9ROFHL

–hereiis&P ,PDJII&XPDH±OLQHDPDQIURP6DHSL-
num: this could be HereiusDWWHVWHGLQ2VWLD&,/;,9EXW
this may be an error for heriis (cf. line 42).
*herenni(is) 3R ,PDJI3RPSHLEHWZHHQWKH6RFLDO:DUDQG6XO-
OD heírennis &P ,PDJ I 1ROD ±42 T. Herennius, a
commander of the Italians in the Social War (RE Herennius 15), perhaps
IURP&DPSDQLD6DOPRQEXWDVVLJQHGWR3LFHQXPE\.HDY-
HQH\WRWKH3DHOLJQLE\0%XRQRFRUHLQ$0'ROFLRWWL DO
(eds.), /
RPELOLFR G
,WDOLD (2007) 71; N. Herennii in Teanum Sidicinum
(&,/;DQG3RPSHLL&DVWUpQQRIIII+ƟUHQQLXV
%HQHYHQWXP&DXGLXP&RPSVD&DLDWLD&DSXD&XPDH3XWHROL+HUFX-
ODQHXP3RPSHLL$EHOOLQXP3DHVWXP9ROFHL*UXPHQWXP7HJLDQXP
*heri(is)W6D ,PDJ%RYLDQXPF±heriieisJHQ&P
,PDJII&XPDH±OLQHFIOLQHDQGDERYHhereiis),
İȡȚȘȚı SUREDEO\ IRU hİȡȚȘȚı JHQ /X ,PDJ I &ULPLVD 1
Herius Deuterus in Larinum (&,/,; ,2+ƟULXV+HUULXV (at-
WHVWHGLQ$HVHUQLD9HQDIUXP$OOLIDH&DSXD3XWHROL3HWHOLD
±ưƲƫưv DFF /X ,PDJ I &ULPLVD F ± h>ưƲƫưv44); ȀƱɚ
ƎƧƶƬơưƶ ȳƲ
ơưƶ! 3RFFHWWL ,PDJ 3HWHOLD QR WKLV FRXOG
be Horius 6OXQHþNR ,PDJ; cf. &,/ ,,, >6DORQD@ +RULD 0 O
3ULPD).
42)RUHt!FIDOVRWKHSUDHQRPHQheírens +HUHQQXV =2 ,PDJI&DPSDQLDRU

6DPQLXP)U ,PDJ1278 Histonium 10 (gen. heírene(ís)), JƩƫƲƧƮƴ/X ,PDJI
3RWHQWLD EXW QRWH DOVR WKH *UHHN UHQGHULQJ RI LWV IHPLQLQH IRUP DV ȕƲƟƮƮƩ (,*, 1DSROL
II 124; this inscription is not normally cited in the discussions of +HUHQQLXV1RZWKH¿UVW
e in +HUHQQLXV LV VKRUW 6FKXO]H DQG EHFDXVH RI Ht! LQ heírennis and heírens, these
names are normally regarded as not deriving from the same root as +ƟUHQQLXV6FKXO]H
8QWHUPDQQ7KHIRUPȕƲƟƮƮƩ seems to indicate that there was also a name *+ƝUHQQXV
+ƝUHQQLXV; but <eí> is normally used to reproduce the diphthong [ei] which in later Latin
XVXDOO\DSSHDUVDVL!>Ư@FIdeíkumdicerediúveí,RYLHWFDQGWKHUHLVFHUWDLQO\QR
trace of a name *+ƯUHQQLXV7DNLQJLQWRDFFRXQWWKHIDFWWKDW*0HLVHULQ)+HLGHUPDQQV
al. [eds.], 6SUDFKHQXQG6FKULIWHQGHVDQWLNHQ0LWWHOPHHUUDXPV)HVWVFKULIWIU-8QWHUPDQQ
>@KDVSURGXFHGDQH[SODQDWLRQIRUHt!WKLVFRXOGEHDUHSURGXFWLRQRIWKHSDODWDOH
4XDOLWlWRI>U
@EDVHGRQRULJLQDOU\, that is from the root *KHU\HR), it seems permissible
to see heírennisDVLGHQWLFDOWR2VFDQherenni(is) and Latin +ƟUHQQLXV$VIRUDVȕȡȑȞȞȘ
SHUKDSVRQHFRXOGDVVXPHWKDWWKHȘ!LVDQHUURURIVRPHVRUW
For the orthography without <h>, cf. Stuart-Smith 2004, 95.
44&IQ
2OOL6DORPLHV
*húrtiis6D ,PDJI7HUYHQWXPQGưƲƵƫƩƫƴ45JHQW/X ,PDJ

9LERSUHVXPDEO\EHIRUHFWKLVPXVWEHHortius, attested in
$TXLOHLD&,/9 ,$TXLOHLDH2859) and in Tarraco (&,/ II2
5,7
*húsdiis6D ,PDJ%RYLDQXP±húsidiis )U ,PDJI
+LVWRQLXPF±HosidiusDWWHVWHGDWOHDVWLQ3XWHROL/HMHXQH
142) and often in Histonium.
husiniesJHQ3V ,PDJ874f. Nola 8 (c. 450): surely this must be *+RVLQLXV,
not otherwise attested (but cf. Hosidius).
+–ieíisQ3J 1.5XWWHU DOHGV+LVWRULD1XPRUXP,WDO\QR
(a GX[of the Italians during the Social War, RE,;DVVLJQHGWRWKH
3HQWULE\6DOPRQQFI"iegies JHQ3V ,PDJ 851f.
6XUUHQWXP ±" FI LHJLH>V@ 3J ,PDJ I 6XOPR F
±,HJLXVDWWHVWHGLQ&OLWHUQLDLQWKHFRXQWU\RIWKH$HTXLDQGLQ
$PLWHUQXP47
*illippii[s] 6L ,PDJ 540 Teanum Sidicinum 9 (n. d.), illip[-]6L ,PDJ
552 Teanum Sidicinum 20 (c. 200): ,OLSSLXV, attested in Rufrae, a vicus
probably of Teanum (&,/;IRU5XIUDHVHHQ
ƫvƧƴ ƫv<ƫ>Ƨƴ"/X ,PDJI&ULPLVDF±ZHFDQWKLQN
RIQRSODXVLEOHFRQMHFWXUHIRUƫvƧƴ,PDJ), but this word appears in a de
¿[LRbetween a praenomen in the nominative (vƣƫƴ) and a praenomen and
a nomen in the accusative (vƣƫưv ƱưƱƧƦ[ƫưv]) and must thus be a nomen
in the nominative (i.e., that of the person who is the author of a curse); as-
suming that the <ƫ!KDVEHHQOHIWRXWE\PLVWDNHVHHPVWRPHDQDFFHSWDEOH
solution;48 ƫv<ƫ>Ƨƴ could be interpreted as *,PLXV ,PPLXV, although this
nomen does not seem to be attested.49
iseí(is) " 6( I $UFK &ODVV 3RPSHLL RQ D
EURQ]H VWDWXHWWH IURP7RUUH$QQXQ]LDWD EXW QRWH WKDW WKH LQVFULSWLRQ LV
45)RUWKHRPLVVLRQRIK!VHHQ
The Hosidius in &,/;/HMHXQHLVWKHFRQVXO&Q+RVLGLXV*HWDDSSHDULQJLQWKH

consular date, not a Hosidius from Herculaneum.
47 For the identity of ieíis and ,HJLXV see n. 40. ,HLXVLQ&,/,,,LVLQIDFWHeius, see
$,-XJ
487KXV3RFFHWWLQR5L[7LNNDQHQ+RZHYHULWPXVWEHQRWHGWKDWWKHUHGRHV
QRWVHHPWREHDSDUDOOHOIRUDQRPLQDWLYHDSSHDULQJDV±ƧƴLQVWHDGRI±ƫƧƴ.
49In &,/;,,1DUERZLWK>@LPPLXVPXOLHULVO5X¿R, the beginning of the nomen
must be missing.
FDOOHGDQRQVHQVHWH[WLQ,PDJQRDIRUJHU\LELG,IJHQX-
ine, the nomen could be interpreted as ,VHLXV, which could be compared
to ,VHGLXVDQG,VHOOLXV(AEIURPQHDU1XUVLDFIHJVibeius :
9LEHGLXV: Vibellius)RUWKHHQGLQJ±eíis cf. heíis ieíis.
*íst(akidiis) W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±1,VWDFLGLLLQ3RP-
SHLL&DVWUpQQRIII,VWDFLGLXV, a nomen attested only in
3RPSHLL
±laí(niis) "WKXV6OXQHþNRW6D ,PDJI%RYLDQXPF±
if the interpretation laí(niis)50 were correct, then we would be dealing with
/DHQLXV (a nomen typical of Brundisium), but of course one could also
WKLQNRIRWKHUQRPLQD/DHOLXV/DHYLXV, etc.).
*M. Lamponius, commander of the Lucanians in the Social War (RE;,,I51
/DPSRQLXV, attested in Muro Lucano ($(
±ƭƣƮǍƫƩƫƴJHQDQRPHQ"&P ,PDJ3LFHQWLDWKLVFRXOGUHSUHVHQW
/DQLYLXV/DQXYLXV (attested in Rome and Hispellum [&,/;,/DQL,
/DQX], cf. /DQXLXV &,/9,IDQGAEIURP3OHVWLD
*lap(iis) " W6D ,PDJ 1124 Bovianum 118 (n. d.): probably /DSSLXV, at-
WHVWHGLQ/DULQXPDQG3XWHROL
*lass(iús)QRPSOW3R ,PDJI3RPSHL"F±/DVVLXV
DWWHVWHGLQ3RPSHLLDQG6XUUHQWXP
*ƐƽƶƫưƳƎƣƵơƮƫ ưƳƒȸơưƶƏƣvƧƲƵʴƮưƳ6(*GHFUHHIURP/DULVD
B. Helly, 7RSRL±FI,PDJ0HVVDQDUHDGLQJ
ƎƣƵʴƮưƳ): /DWLQLXV, attested in Beneventum (&,/,;I$WLQD/XFDQD
(,QVFU,W,,,DQG9ROFHL,QVFU,W,,,52
*lev(iis) ",PDJI7HDQXP$SXOXPSHUKDSV/HYLXVDWWHVWHGLQ3XWHROL
DQG3RPSHLL
lík(-) W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±lí(-)W3R ,PDJ 805
3RPSHLF±FIOLFLQD(for OLFLQLD"09 ,PDJ7HDWH
0DUUXFLQRUXP"SHUKDSVRQHFRXOGWKLQNRI/LFLQLXV (but ,PDJoffers
RQO\WKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ/LF"DQG±LQWKHFDVHRI3RPSHL±/L"
RU/H"
Loesius (Lusius Lysius 6HSSLXV /RHVLXV /LY PHGGL[ LQ &DSXD
%&1/XVLLLQ+HUFXODQHXPAEDFIORLVLHV
50 ,PDJ. opts for /DLXV, but this nomen does not seem to be attested.
51 There seems to be no need to emend the nomen (thus T. Sironen, $UFWRV>@±
HVSHFLDOO\DVWKHQRPHQƣƭƣƱưƮƫƧƴQRZWXUQVRXWEHQRQH[LVWHQWVHHEHORZƴƬƣƭƣƱưƮƫƧƳ).
52&IDOVR1/DWLQLXV$QWHURVLQ5RPH&,/9,
158 2OOL6DORPLHV
09 ,PDJ II 7HDWH 0DUUXFLQRUXP F /RHVLXV (RE
Loesius 2, a man with the praenomen 7UHELXV) /XVLXV %RYLDQXP9H-
WXV$HFODQXP>&,/,;@9HQDIUXP&DSXD+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL
Nuceria)/\VLXV.
*ƎƽƭƫƽƳƵƫƳǰƮɘƲƕƣƶƮơƵƩƳLQ%&=RQDUIURP'LR1/ROOLXV1
f. in Frigento (&,/;/ROOLXV%HQHYHQWXP>FRPPRQ@$HFODQXP
9HQDIUXP&DOHV&DSXD3XWHROL+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL1XFHULD3DHV-
WXP&URWRHWF
lúvki(is)Q3J 1.5XWWHU DOHGV+LVWRULD1XPRUXP,WDO\(2001) no.
410 (a commander of the Italians in the Social War, thought to have been a
Lucilius by some scholars for no valid reason; cf. RE Lucilius 14, Salmon
lúvkiíúíGDW&P ,PDJII$EHOODF$lúvki-
iú QRPIHP6L ,PDJ 549 Teanum Sidicinum 18 (c. 200); N. Lucius
&\ULFLXVLQ&XPDHLQ$'&,/;54 &IORXFLHV3J ,PDJ
I 6XOPR F 3J ,PDJ I 6XOPR F ORXFLD
3J ,PDJ6XOPREHIRUHF"/XFLXV, attested in Saepinum
(&,/,;$HVHUQLD&,/,;%RYLDQXP&,/,;$OOL-
fae (,$OOLIDH3XWHROL1HDSROLV+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL$EHOOLQXP
3DHVWXP$WLQD/XFDQD9LER
*makkiis ,PDJ&DPSDQLD&RLQDJH±ূ>D@NttV W3R ,PDJ
3RPSHL Q G m(a)k(kiis) " ,PDJ $HFODQXP Q G
,PDJ )DJLIXODH F m(a)k(kiús) " QRP SO W3R
,PDJ3RPSHLF±/0DFFLXV3DSLINSA 1898, 422
3RPSHLL0DFFLXVDWWHVWHGDWOHDVWLQ$HFODQXP&,/,;DQGLQ
3RPSHLLDOVRLQODWHULQVFULSWLRQV
*[m]aiínis " 6D ,PDJ %RYLDQXP F " SHUKDSV 0DHQLXV,
attested in Beneventum (&,/,;IDQG9ROWXUQXP&,/; ,2

*magiis +L ,PDJ I$HFODQXP F ± magiú QRP IHP +L
,PDJI$HFODQXPF"magiium JHQ&S ,PDJI&DSXD
F±">S@mageis"JHQDQRPHQ"&P ,PDJ 599
6DWLFXOD"±'HFLXV0DJLXVSULQFHSV&DPSDQRUXPLQ
/LY9HOOHWF&Q0DJLXV$WHOODQXV, PHGGL[WXWLFXVin
214 (Liv. 24, 19, 2); Minatus Magius $HFXODQHQVLV9HOOFI&,/ I2
For /\VLXV(&,/;HWFUHSUHVHQWLQJRULJLQDO /RLVLXV/RHVLXV(and not */RXVLXV)

FI6FKXO]H)RU/XVLLLQ&DPSDQLDFI&DPRGHFDI
54 For N. Lucii in Rome, see &,/9,AE 1980, 54.
$HFODQXP00DJLXV0LQI6XUXVIRUWKH0DJLLFIDOVR&DP-

panile 2008, 982): 0DJLXVDOVRDWWHVWHGLQRWKHULQVFULSWLRQVIURP$HFOD-
QXPDQGLQ7HUYHQWXP6DHSLQXP%RYLDQXP9HWXV%HQHYHQWXP9HQD-
IUXP&DSXD3XWHROL+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL$WLQD/XFDQD*UXPHQWXP
Thurii. For the relation of 0DJLXV to 0DKLXV, cf. n. 40.
*mahii[s]6D ,PDJII$WLQD±ȝĮȚȚİıQ/X ,PDJ
&DPSDQLD &RLQDJH F ± ȝĮȚȘȚı JHQ ,PDJ 9LER
SUHVXPDEO\EHIRUHF&0DLXV1I&,/ I2&DSXD%&
0DKLXV (,$OOLIDH84), 0DLXV(Bovianum [AE@)ULJHQWR>&,/
,; ,2@9ROWXUQXP>AE@3XWHROL>&,/;@FI
/HMHXQH@
*vƣƫƴƫvDFF/X ,PDJI7KXULL&RSLD±0DHVLXV, attested
DWOHDVWLQ3RWHQWLD&,/;DQGLQ6XHVVD$XUXQFDZHVWRI7HDQXP
Sidicinum (&,/ȋ
*vƣvƧƲƧƬƫƧƴ/X ,PDJ/XFDQLDHWFF±55 0DPHUFLXV (Ben-
HYHQWXP$HFODQXP$EHOOLQXP>FI&DPRGHFD@9LER/HMHXQH
142).
*maamiis &P ,PDJ I 1ROD F ±" maamiieis (originally
probably -iieís) gen. 3R ,PDJI3RPSHL±&0DPLXV
Mar. f. &,/ I2 DJHU7HUYHQWLQXV FI DOVR7U 0DPLXV 0DL I DW-
tested in3UDHQHVWH(&,/ I20DPLXV$HVHUQLD%HQHYHQWXP&DLDWLD
&DSXD+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL3RWHQWLD*UXPHQWXP0DDPLXV(&,/ I2
$TXLQXP
marahii(s) ,PDJI7UHEXOD%DOOLHQVLV±"maraiieísJHQ6D
,PDJII7HUYHQWXPFPD৚>DLLV@>"@ 3R ,PDJI3RP-
SHL>F±"@"FIPDUDLHV/X ,PDJ 78 Italia 4. This is surely
*0DUDHXV (cf. melíssaii[s] 0HOLVVDHXV), attested (as far as I can see) only
DV*UHHNƏƣƲƣʴưƳ as a rendering of the praenomen marahis.
55 mame(-)&S ,PDJ&DSXDWKRXJKWE\5L[WREHDQDEEUHYLDWLRQRIWKHQRPHQ
is better understood as mame(rteí) 0DUWL,PDJ.). mamerttieís JHQW&3 ,PDJII
&DSXDDQGmamertiuí GDWW&P ,PDJ$FHUUDHVHHPWREHSUDHQRPLQDWKXV,PDJ
LQWKHLQGH[SUDWKHUWKDQQRPLQDmamertiuí pettiannuí would thus be a combination
of a praenomen and a nomen); in Latin, this praenomen would be *0DPHUWLXV (note that a
nomen *0DPHUWLXV is not attested).
2VFDQ0DPHUV being the equivalent of Latin 0DUV, one wonders whether some Mamercii
might not have started to call themselves 0DUFLLLQD/DWLQVSHDNLQJHQYLURQPHQWWKHUHDUH
Marcii with the praenomen 1XPHULXVLQ$EHOOD&,/;DQGLQ3RPSHLL&,/,9
AE 2009, 219).
2OOL6DORPLHV
*mari[is]"6L ,PDJ7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPUHJDUGLQJWKLVDVDSUDH-

nomen) (cf. mar(-) ,PDJ 6WDELDH >Q G@" & 0DULXV 1R I &,/
I2$HVHUQLD10DULLLQ7UHEXOD%DOOLHQVLVDQG6DOHUQXP&,/ I2
,QVFU,W I 1, 70): 0DULXV%RYLDQXP9HWXV$X¿GHQD$HVHUQLD9H-
QDIUXP $OOLIDH %RYLDQXP $HTXXP 7XWLFXP $HFODQXP %HQHYHQWXP
&DLDWLD&DOHV&DSXD3XWHROL+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL3HWHOLD/RFUL
*PDWӏ>LV@"3R ,PDJI3RPSHLF±"LIWKLVLVWKHFRUUHFW
reading, we would be dealing with 0DWLXVDSSDUHQWO\DWWHVWHGLQ3RPSHLL
by &,/;0DWWLXV. However, one wonders whether the reading
might not be PDWҽ>LLV@ (there is in fact not much to be seen in the photo
after the t), for 0DWHLXVLVDWWHVWHGDWOHDVWWKUHHWLPHVLQ3RPSHLL&,/;
736XOS57) and (as 0DWWHLXV) once (perhaps) in Herculaneum
(&,/;58
*melíssaii[s] 3R ,PDJ I 3RPSHL F ± ZLWK WKH UHDGLQJ
>NO@HPHQVPHOtVVDLଢHଣ>tV@&OHPHQVWKHVODYHRI0HOLVVDHXV59 0HOLV
VDHXVDWWHVWHGRQO\LQ3RPSHLL/HMHXQH
metiis6D ,PDJI&DPSDQLDRU6DPQLXPEHIRUHFme(tiis?)
W6D ,PDJ%RYLDQXP"meziis3R ,PDJ3RPSHL
WDNLQJWKLVWREHHTXLYDOHQWWR0HVVLXV±6WKHQQLXV 6WHQL
us) Mettius, the SULQFHSVRI6DPQLXPGXULQJDSSDUHQWO\WKH)LUVW3XQLF
War (Festus p. 150 L.); Statius Mettius, D &DPSDQLDQ LQ %& /LY
10HWWLXV^6`7UHEI0HQAEELV3RPSHLL&I
9LEHD0HWLD7DQDFHWKD&HULD0%XRQRFRUHLQ$'RQDWL *3RPD
57-*:ROI1HXH5HFKWVXUNXQGHQDXV3RPSHML731
587KHLQVFULSWLRQQRZLQ*RUL]LDKDVEHHQSODFHGE\0RPPVHQXQGHU3XWHROLEXWLWVRULJLQ
is given either as the Regnum Neapolitanum (which could mean anything) or Herculaneum.
59 However, the nominative melíssaii[s] seems quite all right, cf. the Latin type $SROORQLXV
/DHOLXV 4XLQWL VHUYXV W\SH ,, LQ $ 0DX =XU lOWHUHQ 1RPHQNODWXU GHU U|PLVFKHQ
6NODYHQ5K0>@±
2QHZRQGHUVWKRXJKZKHWKHULWZRXOGQRWEHSUHIHUDEOHWRDVVXPHZLWK3RFFHWWLQR
&DPSDQLOHZLWKQWKDWmeziis is a palatalisation of 0HWWLXV, although it

PXVWEHDGPLWWHGWKDWDSDODWDOL]DWLRQRIWKLVW\SHVHHPVWREHDWWHVWHGRQO\LQVRXWKHUQ2VFDQ
and in a much later period, namely in the WDEXOD%DQWLQD/X ,PDJII%DQWLDZLWK
EDQVDH(for *EDQWLDHFI0/HMHXQHREAIEXWFIDOVRHJ0DUWVHV[from
*0DUWLHLV] in &,/ I2 9HDIURPWKHFRXQWU\RIWKH0DUVL
Thus in the edition of Dorey with no indication of variant readings; 0HWLXV Walters &
&RQZD\
(ed.), /
RI¿FLQDHSLJUD¿FDURPDQD (2012) 211f. (Sulmo): 0HWLXV&DSXD
3RWHQWLD0HWWLXV%HQHYHQWXP$HFODQXP>&,/,;@3XWHROL
1ROD+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL9ROFHL3RWHQWLD9LERFI/HMHXQH
Mevia3DFINSA 1949, 172 (Neapolis); cf. PHYLHV)U ,PDJI+LV-
tonium 12 (n. d.): 0HYLXV7HUYHQWXP6DHSLQXP&XPDH1HDSROLV>DOVR
in &,/;@3RPSHLL6WDELDH
*minatis[&P ,PDJI1RODF±"WKHUHDGLQJRIWKHQR-
men does not seem absolutely certain), miínatúí (for -tiiúí DQGDQRPHQ"
6L ,PDJI9HQDIUXPF6WDLXV0LQDWLXVD6DPQLWHLQ
%&/LYEXWZHPD\LQIDFWEHGHDOLQJZLWKD0LQDWXV6WDLXV
cf. Salomies 1987, 79 and below staíis$UWHPR"0LQDWLXV"7UO&,/
I2&DVLOLQXP0ƯQDWLXV$X¿GHQD$OOLIDH&DSXD3XWHROL3RPSHLL
0XUR/XFDQR$WLQD/XFDQD7HJLDQXP*UXPHQWXP/HMHXQH
PLQҥWODLV 6L ,PDJ 7HDQXP 6LGLFLQXP ± ,Q /DWLQ WKLV
could be *0LQDWXODHXV (thus ,PDJ, comparing 3HWUXFXODHXV). The relation
of *0LQDWXODHXV to 0LQDWLXVwould be the same as that of 3HWUXFXODHXV to
Petrucius.
*vƫƮƫƩƫƴDQRPHQ"JHQ,PDJ3DHVWXPF0ƯQLXV, attested at
least in Beneventum (&,/,;+HUFXODQHXP&,/;G
and Nola (AE 1971, 84).
*minutihes gen. ,PDJ3LFHQWLDF±WKLVPD\ZHOOEH0LQXWLXV
DWWHVWHGDOPRVWH[FOXVLYHO\LQ&DOHV
±múlúkiis&P ,PDJI1ROD±VXUHO\ 0XOFLXVNQRZQIURP
&,/,; &,/ I2&DUVLROL
*ূ>XW@৬LOOLV, mut[ti]lli[s], muttillieis JHQ&P ,PDJII&XPDH±
OLQHV0XWLOLXV0XWLOOLXV (attested in Stabiae).
*ƮƣƮưƮƫƴ /X ,PDJ II 3RWHQWLD ± 1DQRQLXV $WLQD
/XFDQD7HJLDQXP>/HMHXQH@6LQXHVVD>AE 1991, 497]).
*naseni(eis)JHQ&S ,PDJI&DSXDF±">S@11DVHQQLL
LQ3RPSHLL&DVWUpQQR1DVHQQLXV%HQHYHQWXP&DSXD+HU-
FXODQHXP/HMHXQH
$&0HWWLXV1I4XLLVDWWHVWHGLQ5RPH&,/9, ,2

$*LDQQHWWL1RWL]LDULRDUFKHRORJLFR&LRFLDULDH]RQHOLPLWURIH,,IVXJJHVWV
that &,/; IURP$EHOODPHQWLRQLQJDFHUWDLQ0LQLXV3URFXOXVPLJKWEHJHQXLQH1RWH

also N. Minius Hylas from Thessalonica (&,/;9,
&,/;;((9,,,AE
2OOL6DORPLHV
*neriis ,PDJ7HUYHQWXPQG01HULXV2YI&,/ I2&DSXD

1 1HULXV +\JLQXV LQ 3RPSHLL &DVWUpQ QR 1HULXV 9HQDIUXP
7UHEXOD%DOOLHQVLV%HQHYHQWXP&DSXD3RPSHLL
±nim(miis)6D ,PDJII)DJLIXODHQGW6D ,PDJ 1002f.
%RYLDQXPF±&,/I2 ,'pORV 1750 N. Nimmius No.
I7KLVQRPHQLVRWKHUZLVHXQNQRZQRQHZRQGHUVKRZHYHUZKHWKHULW
is possible that 1LPPLXVmight be in some relation to 1XPPLXV, a nomen
ZLGHO\DWWHVWHGLQWKH2VFDQODQGV
*ninium JHQSO&S ,PDJI&DSXDF±">S@ Ninnii in
&DSXD LQ %& /LY 1LQQLXV 6DHSLQXP 3XWHROL 3RPSHLL
/HMHXQH
*QLXPHଢGଣLLV 6D ,PDJ I %RYLDQXP F WKH LQVFULSWLRQ LV
NQRZQIURPDFRS\PDGHLQLQZKLFKWKHUHDGLQJRIWKHQRPHQLV
in fact niumeriis WKLV KDV EHHQ FRUUHFWHG SODXVLEO\ DV 2VFDQ G! FDQ
HDVLO\ EH WDNHQ IRU U! E\ 0 /HMHXQH DQG 5$QWRQLQL D UHDGLQJ VXS-
ported in ,PDJ; QLXPHଢGଣLLV is probably identical with 1XPƱGLXV(attested
LQ&DSXD
*Ʈưvƹƫƴ /X ,PDJ I 7KXULL &RSLD ± ƮưƹƫƮ DFF /X
,PDJ II /DRV F ± FI Ʈưƹ " /X ,PDJ 1457f.
Heraclea 2, but with the reading Ʈ. ưƹ(ƫƧƴ EHIRUH F " WKLV LV WKH
nomen corresponding to the popular praenomen niumsisWKH2VFDQIRUP
of the nomen being *niumsiis; the epenthetic <p> in Ʈưvƹƫƴ and in the
/DWLQIRUPVEHORZLVDOVRDWWHVWHGLQ*UHHNUHQGHULQJVRIWKHSUDHQRPHQ
cf. Salomies 1987, 41; 2008, 28f.: 1XPVLXV (&,/ ; IURP &DLDWLD
1XPSVLXV (&,/; ,2IURP&DSXD1\PSVLXV (11\PSVLXV1
I)URQWR, unpublished inscription in the Museum of Naples); cf. 1XPL
sius,1XPHULXV.
The variation between <i> and <u> would then be comparable to that which we can observe
in %UXWWLXV %ULWWLXV, Suttius SUREDEO\Sittius. For a Nummius 1ILQ%RYLDQXP9HWXV
FIEHORZLQWKH$SSHQGL[
7KHYDULDWLRQEHWZHHQH!DQGL!UHSUHVHQWLQJ>Ɵ@DQG>Ʊ@ZRXOGWKHQEHWKHVDPHDVLQ
&DPHGLXV&DPLGLXV, 7LWHGLXV7LWLGLXV, etc. The original reading niumeriis (which would be a

rendering of the Latin form 1XPHULXVQRWRIWKHH[SHFWHG2VFDQYHUVLRQ niumsiis) and the
FRUUHFWHGYHUVLRQRI6OXQHþNRQRQLXPଢVGଣLLV(said to be the equivalent of *1XPLVGLXV
[this may be an error for 1XPLVLGLXV]), are not plausible.
For 1\PSVLXV cf. ƐƾvƹƫưƳ, a common rendering of the praenomen niumsis LQ *UHHN
LQVFULSWLRQV6DORPLHVWKLVUHÀHFWLQJDQHYROXWLRQ>X@!>@IRUZKLFKVHH0/HMHXQH
REA±
*núvellum &S ,PDJ I &DSXD ± D FXUVH WDEOHW SUREDEO\
(thus ,PDJ) to be interpreted as gen. pl. of the nomen *núvelliis: 1RYHOOLXV
&DSXD>GRPXV1RYHOOLDQD, &,/;@3RPSHLL1XFHULD
*núv(iis) W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±nú(viis) 3R ,PDJ
I 3RPSHL DIWHU F nu[viis] &P ,PDJ II &XPDH
± OLQH nuís >"@ W6D ,PDJ %RYLDQXP >Q G@"
1RYLXV 9HQDIUXP &RPSVD &DSXD 3XWHROL +HUFXODQHXP 3RPSHLL
Salernum).
±X¿LV&P ,PDJI&XPDH±WKLVPXVWEH2¿XV, attested only
in &,/;IURP$TXLQXP
*úhtavis and uhtavis &S ,PDJI&DSXD±úhtavis )U
,PDJI+LVWRQLXPF±FIúht(-) 6L ,PDJI9HQD-
frum 1 (but this is more probably a praenomen), úh(-)W3R ,PDJ 759
3RPSHLQG&Q2FWDYLXV1OLQ&DSXD&,/I22FWDYLXV
9HQDIUXP$OOLIDH7HOHVLD%HQHYHQWXP&DSXD&XPDH3XWHROL1HDS-
ROLV +HUFXODQHXP 3RPSHLL 6XUUHQWXP 6DOHUQXP 0XUR /XFDQR$WLQD
/XFDQD3HWHOLD/RFULHWF
*úpfalliu nom. fem.,PDJ%RYLDQXPF"ƒƷƞƭ[(ƭ)ƫưƳ"@Ȁv
ƓƧƵƧƭơƣƫ),6(*'HOSKLOLVWRIșİȦȡȠįȩțȠȚ01RFLWD,WDOLRWDL
H,WDOLNRL>@SFI,PDJ3HWHOLDQR±EXWZH
might also be dealing with a praenomen used as a single name); cf. XĳDliies
JHQ9H D (WUXVFDQ LQVFULSWLRQ RQ DQ RLOÀDVN IRXQG QU 6DOHUQXP
2IDOLXV (&,/ I2 2440 from Rome, 1R2IDOLXV1RI; AEIURP
Samothrace), representing *2IIDOLXV, the cluster [pf] having evolved into
[ff]; 2IDOLXV again must be identical with 2IHOLXV 2IIHOLXV 2IHOOLXV 2I
IHOOLXV$HVHUQLD%HQHYHQWXP&DSXD+HUFXODQHXPIRUZKLFKIRUPV
6FKXO]HFRPSDUHVIDOORIHIHOOL. For the praenomen úpfals see Weiss
±
*úfniú ҕ "IHP3R ,PDJI3RPSHLF±WKLVLVVXUHO\2¿QLXV
(&,/,;IURP4XDGUL7UHEXODVRXWKRI,XYDQXPLQWKHFRXQWU\LQWKH
&DUULFLQL
For <ht!UHSUHVHQWLQJ>NW@FI6WXDUW6PLWKI
That these are all different renderings of the same name appears, e.g., from the fact that we
¿QGERWK2IIHOOLLDQG2IHOOLLin Beneventum (in the same inscription: &,/,; ,2
7KHUHDUHRIFRXUVHDOVR2¿OOLLDQG2¿OLLHWFZKRKDYHDQRPHQZKLFKPXVWEHLQVRPH
relation to 2IHOOLXV (in &,/,,, 5$.HDUVOH\*UHHNVDQG5RPDQVLQ,PSHULDO$VLD
QRIURP.RVD>3@2¿OOLXVDSSHDUVLQWKH*UHHNWH[WDVƓƽƱƭƫưƳȲƷƟƭ=ƭƫưƳ?).
2OOL6DORPLHV
–=ư?ƱşƫşƭşƫşƧş=ƴ? ",PDJ3RWHQWLD±,IWKLVLVWKHFRUUHFWUHDG-

LQJDQGWKHFRUUHFWLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRQHPLJKWWKLQNRI2SLOLXV2SLOOLXV (cf.
WKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKHSUDHQRPHQúpils: Salomies 2008, 29), although these
QRPLQDGRQRWVHHPWREHIRXQGLQ/DWLQLQVFULSWLRQVRIWKH2VFDQDUHDFI
also 8SHOOLXV, below).70
*upii[s] DQRPHQ"3R ,PDJ3RPSHLRQDQDPSKRUDQRWGDWDEOH
9HVWLD2SSLDIURP$WHOODEXWOLYLQJLQ&DSXDLQ %&/LY
9DO0D[12SSLLLQ/DULQXP&,/,;6DWLFXOD
(&,/,;&DSXD(&,/ I23RPSHLL&DVWUpQQR2SSLD
1OLEHUWD5HVWLWXWDLQ3RWHQWLD&,/;FISHUKDSVưƱƫƧƴ/X
,PDJI&RVLOLQXP71 2SLXV2SSLXV$X¿GHQD$HVHUQLD6DHSLQXP
&RPSVD $HFODQXP $HTXXP 7XWLFXP %HQHYHQWXP 6DWLFXOD 7HDQXP
6LGLFLQXP&DSXD&XPDH3XWHROL+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL6WDELDH3DHV-
WXP9ROFHL7HJLDQXP
*upsiis Q6LJ ,PDJII3KLVWHOLD±úpsiiúí GDW6L ,PDJ
I9HQDIUXPF"úpsimDFF&P ,PDJI&XPDHF
" LQWHUSUHWHG DV , DP SUHVHQW UDWKHU WKDQ DV D QDPH ưƹƫưƮ acc.
[/X ,PDJII/DRVF±ưƹƫ(ưƳ) (or ưƹƫ(ưƶ)) N.K.
Rutter & al. (eds.), +LVWRULD1XPRUXP,WDO\QR±FI,PDJ
/DRVưƹ(ƫƧƴ"/X ,PDJ 1457f. Heraclea 2 (before c. 275):
2SVLXV&DOHV1HDSROLV+HUFXODQHXP*UXPHQWXP
±urugieis "JHQ,PDJ6XUUHQWXPXVLQJDOSKDEHWRI1RFHUD±72
7KLVQDPH±RQHKRSHVWKDWWKLVLVLQGHHGWKHFRUUHFWUHDGLQJFIQ±LV
UHJDUGHGDVDQRPHQLQWKHLQGH[SDQGVDLGWREHWKHHTXLYDOHQWRI
2UFKLXVDQRPHQDWWHVWHGRQFHLQ3XWHROLAE 2007, 407) and a few times
elsewhere; however, one wonders whether it would not be preferable to
consider 8UJLXV, a nomen which seems to be attested in &,/ ;,
74 and which may possibly be postulated on the basis of 8UJXODQLXV
70 Note that the reading ~SLশ>L~@PDFFRI3RKDVEHHQGLVSRVHGRIE\WKHQHZUHDGLQJ

in ,PDJ3RPSHLZKHUHWKHUHDGLQJLVúvii<s>.
71 The interpretation of ưƱƫƧƴ (preceded by a lacuna) here is not clear; ,PDJ understands it as
a cognomen.
721RWHWKDW7ULDQWD¿OOLV 3, 10 (and in SE>@QRUHDGXUX¿HLVSD¿HLV
(XUX¿LV 2U¿XV).
&,/9,II$(1988, 884 (surely from Rome); &,/;,9;9D
7; &,/I2"3UDHQHVWHDLQWKH6DELQHFRXQWU\
74&ISHUKDSVDOVRWKHFRJQRPHQ8UFLDQXV in AE 1972, 515, which might in fact represent
(cf. &DQLXVa&DQXODQLXV, etc.).75

*XUX¿LV&S ,PDJI&DSXDEHIRUHF>XUX@¿LV6D ,PDJ
%RYLDQXP SHUKDSV EHIRUH XUX>¿LV@ " 6D
,PDJII$WLQD±"úr(-) W&P ,PDJI$EHOODQG
and cf. also n. 72: 2UR¿XV&DOHV&DSXD2U¿XV7HOHVLD&DSXD&XPDH
3XWHROL$EHOOD/HMHXQH
*ưƲƵưƲƫƧƴ/X ,PDJI/DRVF=Q?ƲƵưƲ=ƫQv?"DFF/X
,PDJ I7KXULL &RSLD ± 2UWRULXV (Larinum, Terventum,
Regium [ƍ ȲƲƵƿƲƫưƳȳƲƵƿƲƫưƳ ƍ ƶ ƅƞƭƤƫƭƭưƳ, ,* ;,9 ,*,
Reggio 8]; cf.+RUWRULXV).
Numerius Otacilius IURP0DOHYHQWXPDURXQG%&/LESUDHQ)HVWXVS
174 L.; 5(2WDFLOLXVDWWHVWHGLQ3XWHROL3RPSHLLDQGVHYHUDOWLPHVLQ
Lucania, but apparently not in Samnium).
*úviis3R ,PDJII3RPSHLEHWZHHQWKH6RFLDO:DUDQG6XOODW3R
,PDJ 3RPSHL F ± úviíú nom. fem. ,PDJ I
$X¿GHQDFúvii(s) 3R ,PDJI3RPSHLEHWZHHQWKH
6RFLDO:DU DQG 6XOOD úvi(is) 6D ,PDJ I7HUYHQWXP ODWH
VHFRQGFHQWXU\úvis )U ,PDJ)UHQWDQLF±úvies
&P± ,PDJII+HUFXODQHXPF2YLXV%RYLDQXP9HWXV
$HVHUQLD6DHSLQXP$OOLIDH%HQHYHQWXP&DSXD1ROD&XPDH3RPSHLL
6XUUHQWXP6DOHUQXPFI/HMHXQH
*ƱƣƬƫƦƫƧƴ/X ,PDJI/DRVF3DFLGLXV, attested at Larinum
((SLJU/DULQR,>@ AELELGSQR,9
pakíuDQRPHQ"QRPIHP3R ,PDJ3RPSHLQGSDFLLHLV3V
,PDJ6WDELDH"F±03DFFLXV(SI&LORXQSXE-
OLVKHGLQVFULSWLRQIURP3RPSHLL13DFFLXV1I&KLORLQ3RPSHLL&,/
;I&3DFFLXV2YLI%DQWLXV7HUYHQWLQXV(&,/;,FISDFLD
3J ,PDJ I 6XOPR F 3DFLXV, 3DFFLXV (attested often in
6DPQLXPDQG&DPSDQLDEXWDSSDUHQWO\QRWLQ/XFDQLD%UXWWLXP
±pakulliis&P ,PDJII&XPDH±p(a)k(u)l(iis) ",PDJ
I3RPSHL±3DFXOOLXV (attested only in &,/ ;,,
8UJLDQXV.
75 There is also the nomen 2UJLXVEXWWKLVQDPHVHHPVWREHDWWHVWHGRQO\LQ*DXO&,/;,,,
,/6[the same man appears in &,/;,,, ,/6ZKHUHKHGHVFULEHV
himself as Aeduus]; cf. FHQWXULD2UJL, AEIURP9LQGRQLVVDDQGSHUKDSVDOVR&,/
;,,,DQGPD\ZHOOEHRIORFDORULJLQ
Not uviiú, as in ,PDJFIWKHSKRWR)RUWKLVLQVFULSWLRQFIDOVR33RFFHWWL5(/ 88 (2010)
±
2OOL6DORPLHV
*pakkvíis6L ,PDJ7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPF±ƱƣƬǍƫƺ nom.

IHP"QRPHQ",PDJII3HWHOLDF3DFYLXV(&,/;
3RPSHLL3DTXLXV$OOLIDH3RPSHLL1XFHULD&RSLD9LER3DFXYLXV(Lig-
XUHV%DHELDQL3RPSHLL/HMHXQH
±pagieis "JHQ,PDJ6XUUHQWXPXVLQJDOSKDEHWRI1RFHUD±77
,QWKHLQGH[SWKLVQDPHDSSHDUVDPRQJLQVWDQFHVRISDNLV SDFLV,
etc. as a praenomen, but I wonder whether it would not be preferable to
consider it as a nomen and equivalent to 3DJLXV, a nomen found in an
early inscription from Supinum in the country of the Marsi (&,/,;
,2 ,/6 (SLJUD¿DGHL0DUVLDQGLQDQ\FDVHSODXVLEOH
EHFDXVHWKHH[LVWHQFHRI3DJLGLXV(&,/9,DQG3DJLVLXV(&,/9,,,
0RXULUj'RXJJD[2002] 927).
paapii(s) 6D ,PDJI7HUYHQWXPODWHVHFRQGFHQWXU\1.5XW-
ter & al. (eds.), +LVWRULD1XPRUXP,WDO\(2001) no. 424 cf. ,PDJ Italia 1
S paapií(s) +LVWRULD 1XPRUXP ,WDO\ (2001) no. 425 cf. ,PDJ Italia
S78 paapi(is) +LVWRULD1XPRUXP,WDO\QRFI
,PDJ,WDOLDSI6RULFHOOLQRVWDPSpapiis
ҕ 3V ,PDJ
I1XFHULD$OIDWHUQDFpapi.W6D ,PDJ 1021f. Bovi-
DQXPF±ƱƣƣƱ>@"W0H ,PDJ0HVVDQDpaap.
W6D ,PDJ%RYLDQXPF±,PDJ 1025 Bovianum 29 (c.
±pap. W6D ,PDJ%RYLDQXPF±DQHZ
LQVWDQFH6RULFHOOLQR,PDJ%RYLDQXPQGpap[-
] 6L ,PDJ7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPQGp(a)p(iis) W3R
,PDJ3RPSHLF±%UXWXOXV3DSLXVD6DPQLWHLQ%&
/LYYLUQRELOLVSRWHQVTXH&3DSLXV0XWLOXVWKH6DPQLWHJHQ-
eral in the Social War, apparently from Bovianum, mentioned in several
sources (5(3DSLXV13DSLLLQ%RYLDQXP9HWXVDQG9HQDIUXP&,/
ǿ2ȋ79 cf. SDSLD3J ,PDJ6XOPRF3ƗSLXV
/DULQXP 7HUYHQWXP %RYLDQXP 9HWXV $X¿GHQD $HVHUQLD 6DHSLQXP
771RWHWKDW7ULDQWD¿OOLV 3, 10 (and in SE>@QRUHDGXUX¿HLVSD¿HLV.

78 In ,PDJ, the name is assumed to be in the genitive. The genitive kastríkiíeís LQ3R
,PDJI3RPSHLLVDGGXFHGDVDSDUDOOHOEXWWKLVLVDSDLQWHGLQVFULSWLRQDQGWKXVQRW
QHFHVVDULO\ D YHU\ JRRG SDUDOOHO DQG WKH QDPHV ZH ¿QG RQ 2VFDQ FRLQV QRUPDOO\ VHHP WR
be in the nominative. For nominatives ending in -iís, cf. aadiriís atiniís kiípiís sehsímbriís
[s]puriís viínikiís.
79&I13DSLXV0I+RUDQGKLVVRQ/3DSLXV1I%DVVXVLQ9HQXVLD6XSSO,W 20
9HQXVLD
9HQDIUXP&DOHV&DSXD1ROD80).
paaristís "3R ,PDJI3RPSHLWKHQDPHKDVDOVREHHQUHDGDV
SDDUলWtV). If this were *3DULVWLXV(,PDJ), one could perhaps compare 3DU
LXV(&,/,;>)DJLIXODH@DQGHOVHZKHUHDQGHJ$QWLXV: $QWLVWLXV.
*perk{e}en[iis]DFF3R ,PDJII3RPSHLEHWZHHQWKH6RFLDO:DU
DQG 6XOOD 0LQLXV 3HUFHQQLXV IURP 1ROD &DWR DJU ȉȡȑȕȚȠȢ
ȆİȡțȑȞȞȚȠȢ ,* ;,9 HWF FI ,PDJ 7HXUDQXV DJHU QR
3HUFHQQLXV7HUYHQWXP$HVHUQLD9HQDIUXP%RYLDQXP$OOLIDH$TXLOR-
QLD&DSXDFIIXQGXV3HUFHQQLDQXVLQ&DSRVHOHLQ1/XFDQLD&,/;
,/6 ,QVFU. ,W. III 1, 7).
†pҽ৚লLXP
ҕ " JHQSO&S ,PDJII&DSXDF7KHUHDGLQJLVD
bit uncertain, but *Percius would, alongside 3HUFHQQLXV(cf. 9LELXV: 9LEHQ
QLXV), be plausible.
*ƱƧƵƫƦƫƴ /X ,PDJ I /DRV F 3HWLGLXV 3HWWLGLXV, attested in
&DSXD&,/9,D,,,&3HWLGLXV&I)DO)HOLFLVVLPXV&DSXD).
†pettiannuí D QRPHQ" GDW W&P ,PDJ $FHUUDH Q G7KLV EULFN
VWDPS KDV WKH WH[W mamertiuí pettiannuí; as mamertiuí seems to be a
SUDHQRPHQDERYHQLWVHHPVEHVWWRWDNHpettiannuí as a nomen (thus
apparently ,PDJ LQ WKH LQGH[ S EXW 5L[ VXJJHVWV WKLV PLJKW EH D
cognomen, 67p. 144) which in Latin would surely be *3HWWLDQXV(although
one wonders about the double <n> in pettiannuí)RUDQ2VFDQQRPHQ
ending DQXV, cf. aadirans; for nomina in LDQXV attested in Latin inscrip-
tions cf. $UFWRV±
*pettieis JHQ &S ,PDJ I &DSXD F ±" >S @, SHWWtҽ>L@V
JHQ&S ,PDJI&DSXDF±">S@+HULXV3HWWLXV
IURP1RODLQ%&/LY13HWWLLLQ$EHOOD&,/;>$'
@ 3HWWLXV $HVHUQLD7HDQXP 6LGLFLQXP$EHOOD *UXPHQWXP
/HMHXQH
*pinni[is] "3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF"3LQQLXVDWWHVWHGLQ3RP-
peii (&,/,9FI;DQG1ROD16$
*pítakiis&P ,PDJI6XUUHQWXP±3HWDFLXVDWWHVWHGH[FOX-
VLYHO\LQ3RPSHLL
planilies gen. ,PDJI1ROD"F7KLVFRXOGEH 3ODQLOLXV(cf. 3OD
QLXV and, e.g., &DPSLOLXV3XSLOLXV: &DPSLXV3XSLXV).
ƱưƬƫƦ
ƫƧƴ) /X ,PDJ I 3RWHQWLD ±7KLV LV VXUHO\ Pocid
ius or *Pucidius which could be compared to 3RFFLXV (&,/ 9 DQG
80 In addition to 16$1900, 101 also in NSA

2OOL6DORPLHV
3XFFLXV/*DUFtD,JOHVLDV(SLJUDItD5RPDQDGH$XJXVWD(PHULWD>@
DOWKRXJKRQHZRXOGOLNHVHHWKHVHQRPLQDDWWHVWHGLQ&HQWUDO,WDO\
ƷưƫƮƫ=Ƭƫ
Ƨƴ?"ZLWKƷ> for <Ʊ!"/X ,PDJII%X[HQWXPQG
being preceded by the praenomen =ƥ?ƣǍƫƴƷưƫƮƫ=?seems to be a nomen
(thus in ,PDJZLWKWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ3KRHQLFLXVFIWKHLQGH[S81
and could be identical with puinik(iis) (but the reading may in fact be
pumik(iis), cf. ,PDJ&S ,PDJI&DSXDF"ƷưƫƮƫ=Ƭƫ
Ƨƴ?
could perhaps correspond to *3RLQLFLXV 3RHQLFLXV82 (cf. 3RLQLVLXV, &,/I2
IURP$VLVLXP
ƱưƭƭƫƧƴ/X ,PDJI&ULPLVDF±/X ,PDJII
%X[HQWXPQG13ROOLLLQ&XPDHLQ$'&,/; cf. SROLHV
7ULDQWD¿OOLV6* ,PDJ,WDOLDFI&UDZIRUG3ROOLXV(Ben-
HYHQWXP&DSXD3XWHROL+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL1ROD
[p]úmpunis W/X ,PDJ 9HOLD F ± ƱƺvƱưƮƫƴ /X
,PDJI3RWHQWLD±3RPSRQLXVDQRPHQ"&P ,PDJ
II&XPDH"F±13RPSRQLXV1I6FDHYD&,/,;
%HQHYHQWXP & 3RPSRQLXV 9 I &,/ I2 $HVHUQLD FI SHUKDSV
SHXPSXQLHV 3J ,PDJ 6XSHUDHTXXP F 3RPSRQLXV
7HUYHQWXP$X¿GHQD$HVHUQLD%RYLDQXP6DHSLQXP%HQHYHQWXP$H-
FODQXP9HQDIUXP7HDQXP6LGLFLQXP&DSXD&XPDH3XWHROL+HUFXOD-
QHXP3RPSHLL1XFHULD6WDELDH6DOHUQXP3DHVWXP$WLQD/XFDQD7H-
gianum).
ƱưvƱƵƫƧƴ0H ,PDJ 1515f. Messana 5; ƓƣƬơƣƓưvƱƵơƣ,6(*FI
,PDJ0HVVDQDFFIEHORZpúmt(iis). This must, of course,
be *3RPSWLXV84 (cf. 3RPSWLQLXV).
812IFRXUVHKRZHYHUWKHUHDUHDOVRVFKRODUVZKRVHHWKLVPDQDVD3KRHQLFLDQ(&DPSDQLOH
SE>@± &DPSDQLOH±6HHDOVR0F'RQDOG

82 3XQLFLXV in &,/;,,,IURP1RYLRPDJXV 1LMPHJHQLVSUREDEO\DUHFHQWIRUPDWLRQ
(from 3XQLFXVRIWKHW\SHFRPPRQLQ*DXODQG*HUPDQ\
&I>@3ROOLXV1O6WDELOLRLQ5RPH&,/9,
84 3RPSWLRV is normally seen as identical with *3RQWLRV, 3RPSWLRV (from the ordinal
SRPSWR) representing the original form, *3RQWLRV(with <nt> for <mpt> as in ODQWHUQDfor
ODPSWHUQD; cf. Leumann 150, and note intermediate stage as represented by púmt(iis)) its
ODWHU HYROXWLRQ WKXV /HXPDQQ 8QWHUPDQQ /HMHXQH RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG VHHPV WR
assume that *3RQWLRis the original form derived from SRQWRFLQTXLqPHpYHQWXHOOHPHQW
UHPDQLpHQSRPSWRjO
DQDORJLHGXFDUGLQDO SRPSHWKLVUHVXOWLQJLQ 3RPWLR6FKXO]H
TXHVWLRQVWKHWUDGLWLRQHOOH,GHQWL¿FLUXQJRI3RQWLXVand *3RPSWLXV.
púntiis 3R ,PDJII3RPSHLF±"pun(tiis) 6D ,PDJ

%RYLDQXP SUREDEO\ EHIRUH puntieis " JHQ &P
,PDJI6DWLFXODFUHDGLQJpuntrଢieisଣpúmt(iis)W6D ,PDJ
%RYLDQXPF±DQGpúm(tiis) W6D ,PDJ%RYL-
DQXPF±IRUpúmt- FIQ+HUHQQXV3RQWLXVWKH6DPQLWH
philosopher (RE3RQWLXV36+RUN\&ODVV$QW>@±
&3RQWLXV+HUHQQL¿OLXVWKH6DPQLWHJHQHUDOLQ%&DOVR5(3RQWLXV
FI'%ULTXHOLQ*9DQ+HHPV>HG@/DYDULDWLRQOLQJXLVWLTXHGDQVOHV
ODQJXHVGHO
,WDOLHSUpURPDLQH>@±3RQWLXV7HOHVLQXVGX[of the
Italians in the Social War (5(3RQWLXV&3RQWLXV0DULI&,/ I2
DJHU&RPSVLQXVIUHHGPHQRID13RQWLXVLQ%RYLDQXP9HWXV&,/,;
FIRQWKH6DPQLWH3RQWLLDOVR&DPSDQLOHIFISRQWLHV
3J ,PDJ I 6XOPR F ± 3RQWLXV %HQHYHQWXP$HFOD-
QXP )ULJHQWR 9HQDIUXP 7HDQXP 6LGLFLQXP &DSXD 3XWHROL 3RPSHLL
Nuceria, Stabiae, Surrentum).
puntrଢieisଣ"85JHQ&PUHDGLQJSXQWӏҽLV ,PDJI6DWLFXODF
If this reading is correct, the name should probably be interpreted as *3RQ
tirius (,PDJ) which could be in the same relation to 3RQWLXVas 'HFLULXV
to 'HFLXV.
púpidiis3R ,PDJI3RPSHL±3R ,PDJII3RPSHL
±3R ,PDJI3RPSHLEHIRUHF±púpid.
3R ,PDJI3RPSHL±3R ,PDJ3RPSHLQ
d.), ƱưƱƧƦ[ƫưv@DFF/X ,PDJI&ULPLVDF±pupdiis
&P ,PDJ&DXGLXP"F±93RSLGLXV(SI&,/ I2
3RPSHLLDQXPEHURI13RSLGLLLQ3RPSHLL&DVWUpQI
cf. popdis3J ,PDJ&RU¿QLXP±3RSLGLXV&DSXD+HU-
FXODQHXP 3RPSHLL >&DVWUpQ QR DGG &,/ ,9 @ /HMHXQH
3XSLGLXV(&,/;IURP3XWHROL
pupiedis /DWLQ DOSKDEHW 3R ,PDJ 3RPSHL F ±" púpie.
W3RDQG ,PDJII3RPSHLF±
pupie.W3R ,PDJII3RPSHLF±
7KLVFRXOGEH 3RSLHGLXV*Poppiedius,
which, again, could be compared to 3RSLXV3RSSLXV, cf. $OOLXV: $OOLHGLXV
6WDLXV: 6WDLHGLXV9LELXV: 9LELHGLXVetc.
857KHODVWIRXUOHWWHUVDVFRUUHFWHGUHSUHVHQWOLWWOHEHWWHUWKDQUDQGRPVFUDFKHV7KH¿IWK
letter can hardly be anything other than an <r>.

1RWH WKH VXI¿[ LHGLXV W\SLFDO RI WKH 6DEHOOLDQ UHJLRQV 0DUVL 3DHOLJQL HWF DQG RI
170 2OOL6DORPLHV
ƓưƱƱƣƭƣʴưƳ ,PDJI/DRVF 3RSSDODHXV; cf. 3RSSDOHQXV.

*pústm(iis) "3RZLWKWKHUHDGLQJS~JӏQ ,PDJ3RPSHLF±
100): 3RVWXPLXV"FID13RVWXPLXVLQ3RPSHLL&DVWUpQQRIRU
3RVWXPLLLQ&DPSDQLDLQJHQHUDOFI&DPRGHFD
pumik(iis)"&SZLWKWKHUHDGLQJpuinik(iis) ,PDJI&DSXDF
"7KLVFRXOGFRUUHVSRQGWR 3XPLFLXV which, again, could be com-
pared to 3XPLGLXV DWWHVWHG HJ LQ &DSXD DQG 3RPSHLL FI )X¿FLXV :
)X¿GLXV, 0XUULFLXV: 0XUULGLXV, etc.
*=Ʊư?ƶşƱƫƧƴ",PDJ3RWHQWLD±Pupius"%HQHYHQWXP7HOHVLD
$WHOOD&DSXD3RPSHLL
*puríl(iis)"3R ,PDJI3RPSHL±UHDGLQJauríl.): this may
well be the equivalent of Purellius (&,/,;IURP$OOLIDH
ƓưƵơƭƫưƳ"=RQDUD6DPQLWH%& 3RWLOLXV 3XWLOLXV"
*kuiírinis3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±4XLULQLXV(attested at least
in Salernum, &,/;
*rahiis&P ,PDJII&XPDH±VHYHUDOWLPHVrahiieis gen.
ibid. line 41, ˉĮȓȠȣ,PDJ2UODQRL&RLQDJH±&5DLXV1
I9RO3HUXOODLQ6DHSLQXP&,/,;5DKLXV 5DLXV(Larinum, Ter-
YHQWXP$HFODQXP$HVHUQLD&DLDWLD&DSXD+HUFXODQHXP9LER/HMHXQH

±rar(iis?) "W3R ,PDJI3RPSHLF±ra(riis?) "
W)U ,PDJ7HDQXP$SXOXPQGFISHUKDSV5DULXV, attested in
Spain (&,/,,"
rufriis&P ,PDJII&XPDH±OLQHFIUXIULHV3J
,PDJ &RU¿QLXP 0 5XIULXV 1 I &LPEHU LQ7UHEXOD %DOOLHQVLV
(&,/ I25XIULXVDOVRDWWHVWHGLQ%HQHYHQWXPDQG&DLDWLD/HMHXQH

ƴƣƤƫƦƫưƮ and ƴƣƤƫƦƫ(ưƮDFF/X ,PDJII/DRVF±FI
VDEGLD 3J ,PDJ &RU¿QLXP 6DELGLXV 7HUYHQWXP$HTXXP
7XWLFXP%HQHYHQWXP3RPSHLL1ROD6WDELDH&DSXD*UXPHQWXP
sadiriis3R ,PDJI3RPSHLQGsadri(is)W6D ,PDJ 1008
%RYLDQXPF±16DWULLLQ$HVHUQLD7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPDQG
Tegianum (&,/,;$(1908, 218; &,/ I287 cf. VDGULHV3J
8PEULDEXWZKLFKLVDOVRDWWHVWHGLQWKHFDVHRI2YLHGLXVand VibiediusLQ&DPSDQLDDQG
/XFDQLDVHH$6FKXOWHQ.OLR>@II
87)RU16DWULLRXWVLGHWKH2VFDQDUHDFI&,/;$WLQDLQ/DWLXP$TXLQXP
&,/9,
,PDJ&RU¿QLXP6DGULXV (&,/; ,2IURP$WLQDLQ/X-

cania), 6DWULXV$HVHUQLD6DHSLQXP%HQHYHQWXP7HOHVLD&DOHV&DSXD
+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL9LER"6DWLULXV(),5$ II2S$'88
±saidiieisJHQ&S ,PDJI&DSXDF±">S@6DHGLXV.89
salaviis&S ,PDJI&DSXDFFI6DOYLXV3DHOLJQXVLQ%&
Frontin. VWUDW2, 8, 5 (although the praenomen rather than the nomen may
be meant): 6DODYLXV,90 6DOYLXV%HQHYHQWXP$HFODQXP&DSXD3RPSHLL
1ROD3RWHQWLD/RFUL/HMHXQH91
*sattiieísJHQ6D ,PDJI7HUYHQWXPFƒȼƫưƳƕƞƵƵƫưƳ,PDJ
*HQXVLD QR 6DWLXV DWWHVWHG LQ 9HQDIUXP >&,/ ; D@ DQG
&DOHV>((9,,,@6DWWLXVZLWKDWWHVWDWLRQVFRQFHQWUDWLQJLQWKH2VFDQ
DUHD%HQHYHQWXP9HQDIUXP5XIUDH929ROWXUQXP&DSXD3XWHROL1ROD
ƴƬƣƷƫƲƫƺQRPIHP",PDJII3HWHOLDF7KH/DWLQHTXLYDOHQW
could be *6FD¿ULXVor *6FDIULXV (possibly to be compared with 6FD¿XV),
cf. 'HFLXV: 'HFLULXV'HFULXV.
*ƴƬƣƭƣƱưƮƫƧƳ/X ,PDJI7HJLDQXP±=ƴƬ?ƣƭƣƱưƮƫƳ Lu40
,PDJI&RVLOLQXPF$6FDOSRQLXV3DTO &,/ I2
3DHVWXPsk(-) W3R ,PDJ3RPSHL>F±@"6FDOSR
QLXV, otherwise attested only in &,/9,DQGAE&DSSDGR-
cia).
sehsímbriís3R ,PDJI3RPSHL± 6H[HPEULXV according to
9HWWHU9HDQG6OXQHþNRQR 6H[WHPEULXV in ,PDJ94 This is one
RIWKH2VFDQQRPLQDZKLFKDSSDUHQWO\FDQQRWEHLOOXVWUDWHGE\DQ\QRPLQD
attested in Latin inscriptions.
seísDQRPHQ"3R ,PDJII3RPSHLEHWZHHQWKH6RFLDO:DUDQG
6XOOD16HLXV1O$HVFL>QXV@LQ&DSXD&,/;FIVHLRV3J
,PDJ 6XSHUDHTXXP 6HLXV /DULQXP %RYLDQXP 9HQDIUXP
&DSXD&XPDH3RPSHLLHWF
88 For the forms sadiriis, sadri(is), VDGULHV and 6DGULXV (with <d> for <t>), cf. above n. 11.
6DWLULXVLIWKHUHDGLQJLVDFFHSWHGPD\UHÀHFWWKHDQDSW\FWLFIRUPEXWZLWKWKHUHWHQWLRQRI
the original <t>.
89$WWHVWHGLQ5RPH&,/9,*DXO$IULFDDQG$WKHQV,*II/III2
90$WWHVWHGLQ&RU¿QLXPDQG6XOPR&,/,;6XSSO,W&RU¿QLXPLELG6XOPR
91&I16DOYLXV3LVWXVLQ5RPH&,/9,
923UREDEO\EHORQJLQJWRWKHWHUULWRU\RI7HDQXP&DPRGHFDQ
05RVWRZ]HZ7HVVHUDUXPXUELV5RPDHHWVXEXUELSOXPEHDUXPV\OORJH
94+RZHYHU6H[WHPEULXVLVSHUKDSVDQHUURU&IRQsehsímbriísDOVR33RFFHWWL1RPL
SHUVRQDOLQXPHULHFRPSXWRFDOHQGDULDOHQHOO
,WDOLDDQWLFDLQ$,21 OLQJI
172 2OOL6DORPLHV
*seppiis3R ,PDJ3RPSHL±sep(iis)3R ,PDJ3RP-

SHLF16HSSLXV$I6HFXQGXV"LQ)ULJHQWR&,/,;
6HSLXV(&,/,;IURP6DHSLQXP6HSSLXV7HUYHQWXP$HVHUQLD9HQD-
IUXP7HOHVLD$HTXXP7XWLFXP%HQHYHQWXP7HDQXP6LGLFLQXP&DSXD
3RPSHLL/HMHXQH95
*sillii(s)W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±silli(is) &P ,PDJ 517
&XPDH F " silie YRF &P ,PDJ I &XPDH VXUHO\
HDUOLHU«WKDQ3RFFHWWL
V±16LOOLXV1IRQ&DPSDQLDQEULFN
stamps (&,/;D±Q6LOOLXV(apparently not otherwise attested
LQWKH2VFDQDUHD6ƯOLXVis probably a separate name.
*siuttiis3R ,PDJII3RPSHLF±"WKLVPXVWEH6XWLXV6XWWLXV
FI2VFtiurrí for WXUULPHWFKRZHYHURQHZRQGHUVZLWK&DVWUpQQR
ZKHWKHU6XWWLXVcould not be identical with Sittius which is a com-
PRQQRPHQLQ&DPSDQLDDQGDWWHVWHGDWOHDVWLQ1XFHULD36LWWLXVIURP
Nuceria, 5(&DOHV$SSLDQ%&&DSXD3XWHROL1HDSROLV+HUFX-
ODQHXP3RPSHLLDQG6DOHUQXPEE9,,, ,QVFU,W,D1\PHULXV
[sic]6LWWLXVWKHYDULDWLRQEHWZHHQL!DQGX!LQDQDFFHQWHG¿UVWV\O-
lable would then be the same as the one we can observe in %UXWWLXV%UXWWLL
names which are often rendered as %ULWWLXV%ULWWLLFI*UHHNǺȡȑĲĲȚȠȢHWF
especially in the later period:6XWLXV(&,/,93RPSHLL6XWWLXV(at-
WHVWHGLQWKH2VFDQDUHDRQO\LQ&,/;EXWWKLVLVDPDULQHQDWLRQH
&LOL[; but cf. n. 98) 6LWWLXV"
*siviiú DQRPHQ" QRPIHP+L ,PDJI$HFODQXPF"6ƝYLXV97
&DSXD+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL
"slabiis &P ,PDJ II +HUFXODQHXP F ± ƴƭƣƤƫƧƴ /X
,PDJ I 3RWHQWLD ± sl(abiis) " ,PDJ 3RPSHL "
±6WODELXV(&,/;IURP0LVHQXPEXWWKLVLVDPDULQH
6ODYLXV"/DELXV"/DYLXV.98
95&I16HSSLXV3ROXVLQ5RPH&,/9,
%UXWWLXV is already rendered as %ULWWLXV LQ 3RPSHLL 4 %UXWWLXV %DOEXV DHGLOH LQ
appearing both as %UXWWLXV(&,/; ,/6&,/,9JHWFDQGDV%ULWWLXV
(&,/ ,9 %\ WKH WK FHQWXU\ WKH UHJLRQ %UXWWLL LQ 6 ,WDO\ ZDV
constantly referred to as %ULWWLL (&,/9,> ,/6@&,/;IHWF
WKHVHQDWRULDOIDPLO\RIWKH%UXWWLL3UDHVHQWHVDV%ULWWLL3UDHVHQWHV (&,/9,&,/;
$()RUWKHYDULDWLRQL!X!LQWKLVSRVLWLRQFIDOVR/HXPDQQIDQGSHUKDSV
1LPPLXV which could be in some relation to 1XPPLXV(see above).
976FKXO]HDGGXFHVGRFXPHQWVVKRZLQJWKDWWKHHis long.
98 slabiis must be identical with 6ODYLXV(the diploma &,/;9,RI$'PHQWLRQLQJDPRQJ
±smintiis&S&S ,PDJII&DSXDF7KLVLVVXUHO\6PLQWLXV

which is so far attested only as a cognomen in inscriptions from Etruria
(&,/ ;, ,/6 >)ORUHQWLD@ AE >&OXVLXP@99 This
nomen must be of Etruscan origin, but may well ultimately derive, in one
way or another, from the surname of ǸƱƽƭƭƺƮ ƕvƫƮƪƧƾƳ 6FKXO]H
FI/HMHXQHDOWKRXJKWKHDXWKRUVHHPVWRJRWRRIDUZKHQKH
DVFULEHVRULJLQHJUHFTXHWRWKLVQDPH100
*ƏƣƲƣơưƶƕưƮƵơưƶ ,PDJ9LER9DOHQWLD6RQWLXV, attested in Beneven-
tum (&,/,;$OOLIDH&,/,;7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPAE
DOVRLQ7HDWH0DUUXFLQRUXP&,/,;
*N. Spedius9LEI&RU'H[VDQLFXV &,/,;$HFODQXPFI46SHGLXV
4. &,/,9 ,PDJ3RPSHLF±"QRWIXOO\/DWLQ
Spedius7HUYHQWXP%HQHYHQWXP$EHOOLQXP&DSXD3RPSHLL(EXUXP
&RVLOLQXP/HMHXQH
*ƴƱƧƭƫƮ, ƴƱƧƭ
ƫƣƮDFF/X ,PDJII/DRVF±ƴƱƧƭ(-) N.K.
Rutter & al. (eds.), +LVWRULD1XPRUXP,WDO\(2001) no. 2289 cf. ,PDJ
/DRVRQEURQ]HFRLQDJHRI±%&6SHOOLD2YLI16$ 1898, 422
3RPSHLLWKLVVHHPVWREHWKHRQO\DWWHVWDWLRQRIWKLVQRPHQ±RWKHUZLVH
IRXQGHJLQ$WLQDDQG&DVLQXPLQ/DWLXP±LQ/DWLQLQVFULSWLRQVLQWKH
2VFDQDUHD6SHOLXV6SHOOLXV.
the witnesses a certain 06ODYLXV3XWLRODQXV&DUDOLWDQXV, surely a former marine from the

naval base at Misenum) and 6WODELXVDOVRDWWHVWHGLQ$IULFD>&,/9,,,@DQGLQ(SKHVXV
LQWKH*UHHNLQVFULSWLRQAEWKHUHODWLRQRI6WODELXVto *6ODELXV6ODYLXV being that
of VWOLV to slis (&,/ I2 15 [;YLU VOLWLEXV LXGLNDQGLV], &,/ I2 >VOLWLVTXH DHVWXPDWLR];
cf. Leumann 189). Furthermore, as VWOLVlater appears as lis, one could consider /DELXV(e.g.,
&,/,;$HTXXP7XWLFXPDQGSRVVLEO\DOVR/DYLXV(e.g., N. Stelluti, (SLJUD¿GL/DULQR
, >@ TXDWHU DV ODWHU GHYHORSPHQWV RI 6WODELXV (for /DELXV FI /HMHXQH $V IRU
both 6WODELXVand 6ODYLXV being attested for marines from Misenum, there are some reasons to
believe that some marines chose as their nomina names in use among the local populution in
WKHDUHDVHH26DORPLHV$UFWRV>@IZKLFKZRXOGPHDQWKDW6WODELXVand 6ODYLXV
FRXOGEHFRQVLGHUHG&DPSDQLDQQDPHVRQO\E\FKDQFHQRWDWWHVWHGIRUSHUVRQVRIORFDORULJLQ
in Latin inscriptions from the Imperial period.
9949LELXV/I6FD0D[LPXV6PLQWLXV/DUFLD/O+LODUD7XWLOL6PLQWLWKHKXVEDQGZDV
thus called Tutilius Smint(ius)). For these name types, with a nomen being used as a cognomen,
FIHJ/&DOYHQWLXV9HWXV&DUPLQLXV36XOSLFLXV4XLULQLXV
100By the way, one wonders whether 0LQWLXV, attested only in Etruria(&,/;, ,/69194
from Saturnia; 6XSSO,W5XVHOODHQRWHDOVR0LQWKLXV, attested for a YLJLOin Rome under
Severus, &,/9,PLJKWQRWEHDIXUWKHUGHYHORSPHQWRIWKLVQRPHQIRU VP!
P see Leumann 190).
174 2OOL6DORPLHV
*[s]puriís 3R ,PDJI3RPSHLF±"spuriíeís gen. 3R

,PDJI3RPSHL±spuriieisJHQ&P ,PDJI6DWLFXOD
±&Q6SXULXV2YI&,/ I2&XPDH16SXULXV'I&,/
I2 &DSXD 6SXULXV +HUFXODQHXP 3RPSHLL 1ROD 9HOLD /HMHXQH
FIYLFXV6SXULDQXVLQ$WHOOD&,/; ,/6
*staíis &P ,PDJI1RODQG+L ,PDJI6DHSLQXPF
±6D ,PDJI7HUYHQWXPF"6D ,PDJ1170
7HUYHQWXPF"6D ,PDJ7HUYHQWXPF"6D
,PDJI7HUYHQWXP±staíís 6D ,PDJ1152f. Ter-
ventum 5 (c. 175), staí(ís)W6D ,PDJ 1015ff. Bovianum 22,
DQHZLQVWDQFHRIW6D %RYLDQXPLQ6RULFHOOLQR
2), staíiiús (sicQRPSO6D ,PDJ7HUYHQWXPF±
staiis 6D ,PDJ 1150f. Terventum 4 (c. 175), stai(is) W6D ,PDJ
I%RYLDQXPF±sta(iis)W6D ,PDJ 987f. Bovianum 1
F±W6D ,PDJ 1009ff. Bovianum 17ff., 21f.;
"6WDLXV0LQDWLXVD6DPQLWH%&/LYZKRPLJKWLQIDFW
be a Minatus Staius (cf. above 0LQDWLXVDQG0LQ6WDLXV2YI&,/ I2
[Delos], ƆƞƫưƳ ƕƵƞƫưƳ ƒȸơưƶ , 'pORV 1 6WDLL LQ$HFODQXP DQG
&DSXD&,/,;;DQGFIRQWKH6WDLLDOVR&DPSDQLOH
±6WDKLXV (Minturnae), 6WDLXV(attested also in Larinum, Terventum,
%HQHYHQWXP7HDQXP6LGLFLQXP>&DPRGHFDZLWKQ@3RP-
peii, Nola, $WLQD/XFDQD7HJLDQXP/HMHXQH
*ƴƵƣƭƭƫƧƴ /X ,PDJ I 3RWHQWLD ± >ƴƵ]ƣƭƭƫƧƴ /X
,PDJI3RWHQWLD±6WHQLXV6WDOOLXVD/XFDQLDQLQ
%&3OLQQDW6WDOLXV(&,/,96WDOOLXV3XWHROL3RP-
peii).
*Statius Statilius, GX[RIWKH%UXWWLDQVDQG/XFDQLDQVLQ%&RE Statilius 9);
Marius 6WDWLOLXV D /XFDQLDQ FRPPDQGHU DW &DQQDH LQ %& /LY
42, 4 and elsewhere; RE Statilius 7): 6WƗWƯOLXV$EHOOLQXP&DSXD3XWHROL
3RPSHLLDQGDFFRUGLQJWRPDQ\VFKRODUVWKHVHQDWRULDO6WDWLOLL7DXULZHUH
DOVRIURP/XFDQLDSRVVLEO\IURP9ROFHLFI*&DPRGHFDLQ(SLJUD¿DH
RUGLQHVHQDWRULR II [1982] 155f.).
staatiis6D ,PDJII7HUYHQWXPFstatiis &P ,PDJ
I1RODQG=2 ,PDJI&DPSDQLDRU6DPQLXPDIWHUF
staattieís JHQ&P ,PDJI$EHOODF"staa.W6D
,PDJ%RYLDQXPF±sta[tiis] 6D ,PDJ1219 Fagifulae
1 (n. d.), ƴƵƣƵƫƮDFF/X ,PDJII/DRVF±ıĲĮĲȚȠDQG
ıĲĮĲȚȦQRPIHP"ƴƵƣƵƫƧƴ,PDJII3HWHOLDFƕƵƞƵƫưƳ˫
ȭƕƣƶƮơƵƩƳZKREHFDPHDVHQDWRUDIWHUWKH6RFLDO:DU$SSLDQFLY4, 25,
102 (5(73:LVHPDQ1HZ0HQLQWKH5RPDQ6HQDWH>@QR
414); cf. VWDWLHV/X ,PDJ,WDOLDFI&UDZIRUG6WƗWLXV(com-
PRQLQWKH2VFDQDUHDFI/HMHXQH6WDDWLXV(&,/ I2 1824f.).
*Treb. Statorius Tr. l. Terminalis&,/;J+HUFXODQHXP6WƗWǀULXV,
also attested in Telesia (&,/I2D
*M'. Statuleius Mar. f. F. Miele, in ,WDOLFD $UV 6WXGL LQ RQRUH GL * &RORQQD
IIQRFI*&DPRGHFD('57HDQXP6LGLFLQXPFI
IXQGXV>6@WDWXOHLDQXVLQ&DSRVHOHLQ1/XFDQLD&,/; ,/6
,QVFU. ,W. III 1, 7: 6WDWXOHLXV.101
*ƴƶƲƫƧƴ[/X ,PDJI/DRVF6XULXVDWWHVWHGLQWKH2VFDQ
area apparently only as the name of the IXQGXV6XULDQXV in Ligures Bae-
biani, &,/,;FI6\ULXV(&,/9,,&95
tantrnnaiúmJHQSO&S ,PDJII&DSXDF± 7DQ
WHUQDDFFRUGLQJWR6OXQHþNRQREXWWKHVXJJHVWLRQ 7DQWHUQDHXV(thus
,PDJ; *7DQWHUQHXV9HWWHU9HVHHPVPRUHSODXVLEOHWKHQDPHKDVDQ
(WUXVFDQULQJEXWWKHVXI¿[LIFRUUHFWO\LGHQWL¿HGVHHPVWRSRLQWWRWKH
6DEHOOLDQODQGVDQGWR8PEULD
±[t]arút(iis) "3R ,PDJI3RPSHLF±7KHUHDGLQJarút(-)
has been interpreted as representing as such an (abbreviated) nomen, and
LGHQWL¿HGZLWK$UUXQWLXVWKXV/HMHXQH102 but it seems that a letter or
two must (in addition to the praenomen of the man) be missing in the be-
ginning. ,PDJsuggests the reading [t]arút(iis), this nomen being identi-
¿HGZLWK7DUXWLXV (a nomen found in the area of &,/,;±;RQO\LQ%DULXP
[&,/ ,; @ +RZHYHU RQH FRXOG SHUKDSV DOVR FRQVLGHU RWKHU QRPLQD
ending in -DUUXWLXV.
*tedis QRPHQ"Q6D ,PDJ&DPSDQLD&RLQDJH±7ƝGLXV3X-
teoli, AE 7ƝLGLXV (Beneventum and the DJHU %HQHYHQWDQXV
[&,/,;@104
101 $ FHUWDLQ 1 6WDWXOHLXV 3DXOXV IURP 6FXSL EXW SHUKDSV ZLWK D 6DPQLWH EDFNJURXQG LV
attested in Rome (&,/9,

102 $UUXQWLXVLVLQIDFWDWWHVWHGLQ3RPSHLLFIDERYH9HWWHULQWKHLQGH[SDOVRWDNHV
WKLVQDPHZKLFKLVIROORZHGE\WKH¿OLDWLRQni.WREHDQRPHQEXW5L[LQWKHLQGH[S
GH¿QHVLWDVDSUDHQRPHQ
E.g., %DUUXWLXV0DUUXWLXV6DUXWLXV(&,/9,9DUUXWLXV.
104)RU>Ɲ@LQ7HGLXVcf.,
e.g., ,&UHWLFDH,9,/DRGLNHLDDP/\NRV7KDW7HGLXVis
identical with 7HLGLXV (7ƝLGLXV, cf. ȉȘȓįȚȠȢ, ,.\PHHPHUJHVHJIURPWKHIDFWWKDWWKH
FRQVXOVXIIHFWXVRI$'6H[7HLGLXV9DOHULXV&DWXOOXVLVFDOOHGERWK7HLGLXV (the )DVWL
2OOL6DORPLHV
*ƏơƮƣƵưƳ ƏƫƮƞƵưƶ ƖƠƫưƳ ȀƬ ƍƾvƩƳ , 'pORV 442, B, l. 147; %E O I
±%&7HLXVDWWHVWHGLQ9HQDIUXP&,/;DQG$OOLIDH
(&,/,;DQG3XWHROL&,/;+RZHYHUQRWHWKDWLWLVVXJJHVWHG
in ,PDJ&XPDHQRWKDW+HLXVmay be meant; and that there are
also scholars who assume that ƖƠƫưƳ is an error for ƕƵƞƫưƳ (e.g., Salomies
&DPSDQLOH01RFLWD,WDOLRWDLH,WDOLNRL [2012] 241).
0Teroni(us)2YI&,/ I2&DSXD
*tirentiumJHQSO&S ,PDJI&DSXDF±">S@7ƟUHQWLXV
/DULQXP $HVHUQLD 9HQDIUXP 7UHEXOD %DOOLHQVLV %HQHYHQWXP $HFOD-
QXP&DSXD$WHOOD3XWHROL+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL1ROD9HOLD/HMHXQH

tetineisJHQDQRPHQ"&P ,PDJ6DWLFXODF,Q/DWLQWKLV
would surely be *7HWWLQLXV 9HWWHU >9H @ ,PDJ), no doubt in some
relation to 7HWWLXV7HWWLGLXV, etc. (cf. $O¿XV: $O¿GLXV: $O¿GLXV, 2YLXV:
2YLGLXV: 2YLQLXVetc.).
*tintiriis )U ,PDJ>9HVWLQL0DUUXFLQL3DHOLJQL@F"07LQWULXV
(sic) 1I*UDLFDQLFXV1XFULQXV(clearly a visitor from Nuceria), &,/I2
E3KLODH17LQWLULXV5XIXVLQ3RPSHLL&DVWUpQQR7LQ
tirius, attested in Ligures Baebiani (&,/,;DQG3RPSHLL1057LQWULXV;
and surely 7LWLULXV(&,/;IURP&DSXDIURP9LERLVDQRWKHUUHQ-
dering of the same name.
titaies gen. ,PDJI1ROD±7KLVFRXOGEH 7LWDHXV, the relation-
ship of which to 7LWLXVwould be the same as that of $QQDHXV%DVVDHXV, etc.
to $QQLXV%DVVLXV, etc.
*ƵƫƵƫƦƫƧƴ/X ,PDJI3RWHQWLD±DFFRUGLQJWR/HMHXQHEXW
SUREDEO\ODWHULQWKHFHQWXU\,PDJ/X ,PDJI3RWHQWLD
±7LWLGLXVDWWHVWHGLQ3DHVWXP,3DHVWXPS
*titti(is)W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±FItitis3J ,PDJ
Sulmo 20 (c. 150), titieisJHQ+H ,PDJ$QDJQLD7ƱWLXV(Ben-
HYHQWXP7HOHVLD3RPSHLLHWF7LWWLXV&DSXD3XWHROLFI/HMHXQH
1RODQL, ,QVFU,W;,,, WKH)DVWL$UYDOLXP, ibid. 299) and 7HGLXV(&,/;,9WKH

)DVWL2VWLHQVHVHG9LGPDQ2, 42). Similarly, 9ƝGLXV is identical with Veidius (the equestrian
IULHQGRI$XJXVWXV39HLGLXV3ROOLRLVUHIHUUHGWRDVERWKVedius [,(SKHVRV19a; AE
1727a] and 9HLGLXV[&,/,; ,/6, 109, etc.]), and +HLGLXV(&,/I2IURP&DSXDHWF
is surely identical with +ƝGLXV(Herculaneum, etc.).
1057RWKRVHOLVWHGE\&DVWUpQQRIRU3RPSHLLDGG&,/;DQGDQLQHGLWXP
)RUWKHVXSSUHVVLRQRIWKHQDVDOFIHJ%XFN
*ƵƲƧƤƣƵƫƧƴ /X ,PDJ 1478 Teuranus ager 1 (presumably before c. 200);

ȉȡİȕȐĲȚȠȢıĲȡĮĲȘȖȩȢRIWKH6DPQLWHVLQWKH6RFLDO:DU$SSciv. 1,228;
RE Trebatius 1): 7UƟEƗWLXVDWWHVWHGLQ$HFODQXPFRPPRQ$EHOOLQXP
&DSXDFI/HMHXQH
*trebiis3R ,PDJ3RPSHL±"tre. W3R ,PDJI3RP-
SHLF±W3R W&P ,PDJI3RPSHLF±
100), tr."6D ,PDJ 1041 Bovianum 45 (n. d.): 7UƟELXV(Frigento,
$HFODQXP&DSXD1ROD3RPSHLL1XFHULD/HMHXQH
*ƵưƶƲƧƫƧƫƴJHQW/X ,PDJ9LERF±7XUHLXV6OXQHþNR
attested in &,/;DQLQVFULSWLRQZKLFKLVQRWIURP&DSXDEXWIURP
QHDU&DWDQ]DURLHDELWWRWKHQRUWKRI9LER107
*L. Upellius Mami f. Men.16$QRFI/8SHOOLXV/I0HQLELG
QR3RPSHLL8SHOOLXV(otherwise attested only in &,/III 1921) is prob-
ably identical with Opellius, a rare nomen apparently not found in the area
of &,/,;±;2VFDQú> (cf. the praenomen úpils [Salomies 2008, 29])
here being represented by <u>.
*utiis (or perhaps [-]utiis",PDJII&XPDH±OLQH8WLXV, at-
WHVWHGDWOHDVWLQ$HVHUQLD&,/,;DQG9HQDIUXP6&DSLQL
0ROLVH5HSHUWRULRGHOOHLVFUL]LRQLODWLQH9HQDIUXP [1999] 210).108
*valavennis6D ,PDJ1219 Fagifulae 1 (n. d. [but with <ú> in l. 2]): 9DOYHQ
QLXVDWWHVWHGLQ$OOLIDHDQG/XFHULD&,/,;DQGIRUDFHQWXULRQ
of the 22nd legion in Egypt.
*variis W6D ,PDJ I $X¿GHQD Q G ǍƣƲƫƧƴ (but interpreted as
ǍƣƲƫƧ
ƫƴand as a gen. of 9DUXVin ,PDJ), ǍƣƲƫƣƮDFFIHP/X ,PDJ
II/DRVF±ǍƣƲƫưƴ ,PDJ/DRVF9DULXV
7HUYHQWXP6DHSLQXP$OOLIDH%HQHYHQWXP$HFODQXP>FI/HMHXQH@
&DSXD1ROD/LWHUQXP&XPDH3XWHROL3RPSHLL9LER
±vaaviisW3R ,PDJ3RPSHLFIELVF±9DYLXV(attested
only in ,&85"FI9DYLGLXV 9DYLOLXV).
±veat[iis]"3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±9HWWHU9HFVXJJHVWV
9LDWRULXV,109 ,PDJ(with a reference to &,/;,,9HLDWLXV.
107,QIRUPDWLRQIURP0+&UDZIRUGYLD+6ROLQ
1081RWHDOVR0H¿WLV8WLDQDLQ3RWHQWLD&,/;IIHWFDQGWKHQRPHQ8WLDQXVattested in

Lucania (&,/;,QVFU,W,,,
109But this is a nomen attested only in the northern provinces (&,/III 4859; &,/;,,,D
$(>9LUXQXP@
178 2OOL6DORPLHV
*veela(siis") W3R ,PDJII3RPSHLF±7KLVLVVXUHO\

9HODVLXV9HODVVLXV which is attested at least three times in Latin inscriptions
IURP3RPSHLLQRWHHVSHFLDOO\19HODVLXV*UDWXVLQ&,/;DQGSHU-
haps nowhere else.110 ,PDJVXJJHVWV9HODHXV"
*vele[iis] +L ,PDJ$EHOOLQXPF±19HOOHLLLQ+HUFXODQHXP
&DPRGHFD I 9HOHLXV DWWHVWHG LQ$TXLQXP111 DQG$TXLOHLD
9HOOHLXV$EHOOLQXP&DSXD±LQFOXGLQJWKHIDPLO\RI9HOOHLXV3DWHUFXOXV
±1123XWHROL3RPSHLL
*veliieisJHQ&P ,PDJI6DWLFXOD±9HOLXV(attested in Ne-
apolis, 16$9HOLD5X¿QD
±vesideisJHQDQRPHQ"6L ,PDJ7HDQXP6LGLFLQXP±,I
WKLVLVDQRPHQLWVKRXOGSUREDEO\EHLGHQWL¿HGZLWK9HVLGLXV(apparently
QRWDWWHVWHGLQWKH2VFDQDUHDIRUDQDWWHVWDWLRQIURP$TXLQXPVHH5HQG
/LQF29 [1974] 45f.).
±vestirikiis&P ,PDJI$EHOODF"YHV৬>LULNLLV@" &P ,PDJ
$EHOODF"vestirikiíúíGDW&P ,PDJII$EHOODF
$9HVWULFLXV(apparently not attested in the area of &,/,;±;
*N. Vesvi(us) N. f.&,/ I2&DSXD9HVYLXV9HVELXV9HVXYLXV(these forms
EHLQJDWWHVWHGLQ3RPSHLL9HVXELXV(&,/9,
vesulliaís6D ,PDJII7HUYHQWXPF±7KLVQRPHQPXVW
apparently be interpreted as *9HVXOOLDHXV 9HWWHU 9H 6OXQHþNR QR
,PDJ). Its relation to Vesullius (attested, e.g., in Beneventum and
Histonium, &,/,;ZRXOGEHWKHVDPHDVWKDWRI$QQLDHXV ($(
>6XSLQXP@ ,PDJ I &RU¿QLXP DQG 6HSWLPLDHXV
(6XSSO,W&RU¿QLXPto $QQLXVand 6HSWLPLXV.114
110)RUDQXQFHUWDLQLQVWDQFHLQ*HQXVLDVHH&,/,;
111 5HQG/LQFQR

1120&pEHLOODF*HUYDVRQLLQ(SLJUD¿DHRUGLQHVHQDWRULR,,I
0RXQW9HVXYLXVLVDOVRNQRZQDV9HVYLXV&ROXPDQGRWKHUSRHWVDQGDVƅƟƴƤƫưƮ
ȰƲưƳ6WUDER$SSLDQ'LRFI*5DGNH5(9,,,$I
114 $QQLDHXV is attested among the Marsi ((SLJUD¿D GHOOD UHJLRQH GHL 0DUVL 122) and the
3DHOLJQL,PDJI&RU¿QLXP6HSWLPLDHXV(but 6HSWLPLHXV could in theory also
stand for *6HSWLPLHLXVDOVRLQ&RU¿QLXP6XSSO,W,,,&RU¿QLXPDQGFIDOVR>@LDHXVin
&,/,;IURP$QJXOXVLQWKHFRXQWU\RIWKH9HVWLQL 9HVXOOLDHXVKDVWKXVD6DEHOOLDQ
ULQJ ZKLFK PDNHV RQH ZRQGHU ZKHWKHU LW PLJKW QRW EH RI 6DEHOOLDQ RULJLQ ,W PLJKW EH
GHULYHGIURPWKH8PEULDQWKHRQ\PYHVXQHGDWFI/HMHXQH8QWHUPDQQ1RWH
that nomina ending in -LDHXVVKRXOGEHNHSWVHSDUDWHIURPQRPLQDHQGLQJLQDHXVof the type
/Vettius0LQI9RO8UVXOXV&,/,;$X¿GHQD 115 cf. vetis09

,PDJ,QWHUSURPLXP±LELGI,QWHUSURPLXPYHWLR
09 ,PDJ,QFHUXODH39HWWLXV6FDWRFRPPDQGHURIWKH0DUVL
LQWKH6RFLDO:DUDQGVXUHO\RI0DUVLFRULJLQFI0%XRQRFRUHLQ$
M. Dolciotti & al. [eds.], /
RPELOLFRG
,WDOLD[2007] 71), although said (in
Macrob. VDWWRKDYHEHHQD3DHOLJQLDQ5(9HWWLXVFI9HWWLXV
49HWWLXV9HWWLDQXV H 0DUVLV &LF %UXW 9HWLXV 9HWWLXV (Bovi-
DQXP9HWXV 6DHSLQXP$OOLIDH %HQHYHQWXP$EHOOLQXP &DSXD$WHOOD
3XWHROL+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL1XFHULD*UXPHQWXP
*Decius Vibellius, SUDHIHFWXV of a OHJLR&DPSDQDin 280(Liv. per&HUULQXV
Vibellius, FRJQRPLQH7DXUHDIURP&DSXD%&/LYVibel
OLXVDWWHVWHGLQ3XWHROL&,/;@
vibiiai QRPHQUDWKHUWKDQSUDHQRPHQ"GDWIHP&S ,PDJII&DSXD
±OLQHV 19LELXV1RYI3RP)ODFFXV&,/ I23R-
WHQWLD/9HLELXV2IO7U\SKR&,/;$WLQD11719LELLLQ&DSXD
(&,/;$EHOOLQXP&,/;&XPDH&,/;RI$'
and Herculaneum ($(1978, 119b);118 cf. vibies09 ,PDJ221 Ince-
rulae 2: 9ƯELXV(common in &,/,;±;
*L. Villius9I&,/ I2 ,PDJ,WDOLDFI&UDZIRUGFI
ƒȸƫƭ
ƭơưƶ on coins from Neapolis, ,PDJ1HDSROLVQR"Vil
lius3RPSHLL9ROFHLL
*viínikiís3R ,PDJII3RPSHLDIWHU9ƯQLFLXV$HFODQXP1ROD
&DOHV >7DF DQQ WKH VHQDWRULDO 9LQLFLL@ 3XWHROL +HUFXODQHXP
3RPSHLL3DHVWXP9ƯQXFLXV(Telesia, Beneventum); and cf. 9LQFLXV(&,/
9, ,/01402, mentioning also a 9LQLFLXV; &,/;,9HWF
*viniies gen. ,PDJ&DXGLXPF±9ƯQLXV, attested at least in Saepi-
num (&,/,;DQG3RPSHLL
ǍƫƫƮƭƧƮƫƴ/X ,PDJI3RWHQWLD±:HDUHVXUHO\GHDOLQJ
with *9LQLOHQLXV 9LQXOHQLXV (9HQXOHQLXV is suggested in ,PDJ), cf. 9LQLOHL
ƣƶƦƣƫƴ$XGDHXV maraei(s) 0DUDHXV meliíssaiis 0HOLVVDHXVHWF

1151RWHDOVR49HWWLXV1O>@VLQ5RPH&,/9,
2WKHUZLVH WKHUH DUH DWWHVWDWLRQV RQO\ IURP 5RPH &,/ 9, FI ,&95 ,9 D
9HQXVLD&,/,;DQG3LVDH&,/;, ,QVFU,W9,,

1177KLVLV$WLQDLQ/DWLXPQRW$WLQDLQ/XFDQLDDVVRPHVRXUFHVZRXOGKDYHLWEXWWKHSDWURQ
RI WKLV IUHHGPDQ PXVW KDYH EHHQ RI 2VFDQ RULJLQ DV WKH DEEUHYLDWLRQ 2I must represent a
UHQGHULQJRIWKH2VFDQSUDHQRPHQúpfals.
1181RWHDOVRWKH7LEHULDQVHQDWRU19LELXV6HUHQXV5(9,,,$IQRIRUWKHSUDHQRPHQ
cf. the VHQDWXVFRQVXOWXPGH&Q3LVRQH [AEHWF@

180 2OOL6DORPLHV
us 9LQXOHLXV and, e.g., 9LEXOHLXV: 9LEXOHQLXV(AE9LEXOHQXV.

The orthography <ƫƫ!LQGLFDWHVWKDWWKH>L@LVORQJDVLWLVNQRZQWREHLQ
9ƯQLXVVHH6FKXO]H
*ǍƫƲƫƮƧƫƴ JHQ D QRPHQ" &P ,PDJ II 6XUUHQWXP ± WKLV
seems to correspond to 9LUQLXV D QRPHQDSSDUHQWO\DWWHVWHGLQ 3RPSHLL
(&,/,9EEXWWKHUHLVDOVR9ƯUƱQLXV.119
*vírriis and vírríiis&S ,PDJI&DSXD±vírriieís&S
,PDJI&DSXDF±">S@virriieís &S ,PDJI
&DSXDF±">S@viriiumJHQSO&S ,PDJ&DSXD
F±">S@&S ,PDJI&DSXDF±">S
@ &S ,PDJ &DSXD F ±" >S @ &S ,PDJ
I&DSXDF±">S@9LELXV9LUULXVIURP&DSXDDWWHVWHG
LQ DQG %& 5( 9LUULXV 9LUULD 2Y " >I @ǹǼ
$HVHUQLD9LUULXV(attested in Larinum, AE9ƯULXV is probably
EHWWHUNHSWVHSDUDWH
N. Vitellius3DFI&,/ I23RWHQWLDVitelliusDWWHVWHGLQ$HFODQXP9HQD-
IUXP7HDQXP&DSXD3XWHROL+HUFXODQHXP3RPSHLL
*vuliieisJHQ3V ,PDJ872f. Nola 7 (c. 450): VuliusDWWHVWHGRQFHLQ3RP-
SHLL&DVWUpQQR
Uncertain names:
±aie(-) 3R ,PDJ3RPSHLQGFIAiedius $LHQLXV $LHQXV Aietius

$LH]LXV"
±aim(-) W6D ,PDJ%RYLDQXPF±$HPLOLXV"
±ƬǍƵ. ",PDJ0HWDSRQWXPF%&&DIDWLXV"
± Ʀƣ(-) ,PDJ/XFDQLDHWF%&įĮĲȚİı
±ha(-) ,PDJ7HDQXP6LGLFLQXPF
±vư(-),PDJ/DRVRQEURQ]HFRLQDJHRI±%&
±ppa. W6D ,PDJ%RYLDQXPF±VXJJHVWLQJp(ú)pa(íis)
±pu"W3R ,PDJ3RPSHLF±
±trbl. ,PDJ/XFDQLDF"7UHEHOOLXV
±veinav. ,PDJ&DPSDQLD&RLQDJH±
119 AE ,/*5250 (Samothrace); ,*;7KHVVDORQLFDȅȸİȚȡȚȞȓȠȣ,/$OJ

II 4580.
±>±@ƣƭƣƮƫƴ /X ,PDJI/DRVFWKLVFRXOGEH>@DODQLXV,120

unless one assumes that one of the two ĮVWKH¿UVWUDWKHUWKDQWKHVHFRQGLVDQ
anaptyctic vowel which might indicate a nomen of the type 6FODQLXV (not at-
tested, but cf. perhaps 6FODYLXV[&,/9,@
±>±@ӏOOLXQӏV&P ,PDJ+HUFXODQHXPF±"VXJJHVWLQJWKDW
WKLVFRXOGEH>2S@LOOLRQLXVEXWRQHFRXOGSHUKDSVDOVRWKLQNRI0LOLRQLXV(at-
WHVWHGLQ5RPH6SROHWLXP+DVWDDQGRQWZR&\FODGLFLVODQGV121 or )LOLRQLXV
(attested in Tuder, &,/;,
Appendix
Nomina of Numerii (or sons or freedmen of Numerii) attested in Latin inscrip-

WLRQVIURPWKH2VFDQDUHDDQGVRPHQRPLQDDWWHVWHGH[FOXVLYHO\RUDOPRVWH[FOX-
VLYHO\LQ2VFDQFLWLHVFIDERYHDWQ
M. $FFD>@N. l. Sidonius$( 1978, 119c (Herculaneum)

N. Accius1O3KLORQLFXV&,/,;)DJLIXODH
N. $FHUUR>Q@LXV3XWHR>O@DQXV&ROOLQD &,/;3RWHQWLD
N. Aeserius Rufus ,QVFU,W,,,$WLQD
N. $JUHVWLQXV(TXLWLXV3XOFKHU&DVWUpQQR3RPSHLLDQRPHQQRWIRXQGHOVH-
where)
$OHWLD N. f. &,/,;$HVHUQLD
L. $PLRV N. f. &,/,; ,2%HQHYHQWXP
N. $UFDHXV1I$UHOOLDQXV&DOHGXV&,/;3RPSHLL
N. Arellius1O3ULPRJHQHV&,/;3XWHROL
N. $YLOOLXV$($EHOOLQXP
N. %ODVLXVWKHEURWKHURI&034%ODVVLL&,/,; ,2 1717 (Frigento)
N. %RYLXV N. et M. l. Hilaru[s] &,/,;)ULJHQWR
N. &DGLXV N. [l.] Stepanus H. Solin, 2HEDOXVIQR&DSXD"
&DODWRULXV IRXQG H[FOXVLYHO\ LQ 3RPSHLL 6DOHUQXP DQG +HUFXODQHXP ZLWK
TXLWHDIHZDWWHVWDWLRQVFI&DPRGHFDI
120 For nomina ending with DODQLXV, note &DODQLXV (&,/;93DODQLXV (&,/ ,,,
6DODQLXV (&,/;,9,;HWF7DODQLXV (&,/,;HWF%XWLWVHHPVWKDWPRUH
WKDQMXVWOHWWHULVPLVVLQJEHIRUH>@ƣƭƣƮƫƴ.
121 &,/9,,QVFU,W;,,,SI&,/;,6XSSO,W10 Hasta 8; ,*;,,
3DURV6\URV
182 2OOL6DORPLHV
&&DUSRQLXV1¿OLXV&,/;&DSXD

&DVLQHLXV DWWHVWHG DOPRVW H[FOXVLYHO\ LQ %HQHYHQWXP DQG HQYLURQV &,/ ,;
*&DPRGHFDLQ0/&DOGHOOL DO>HGV@(SLJUD¿D
DWWLGHOOD;,9H5HQFRQWUHVXUO
pSLJUDSKLHLQRQRUHGL6LOYLR3DQFLHUD [2008] 948)
N. &HOHULXV Rufus &,/;G (Herculaneum)
N. &KDUDSDHXV N. f. Men. Secundus AE 1978, 119a (Herculaneum)
&UDVVLXVDWWHVWHGRQO\LQ3RPSHLLDQG+HUFXODQHXPFI&DPRGHFD
L. 'HFXPLXV N. f. Stab(ilio) &,/; ,2 &DSXD
>'HO@OLD N. l. [The]ophila, N. 'HOOLXV N. l. Menocrates &,/;&DSXD122
'HQWDWLXVDWWHVWHGRQO\LQ3RPSHLLDQGRQFHLQ5RPH
'LJLWLXVYHU\FRPPRQLQ3DHVWXPDQGDOUHDG\DWWHVWHGWKHUHLQWKHQGFHQWXU\
%&RQO\YHU\UDUHO\IRXQGHOVHZKHUH
(JQLXVNQRZQRQO\IURPWZRLQVFULSWLRQVIURP3DHVWXP
N. Eprius Nicia &,/,9 AE
)DHFLXVDWWHVWHGRQO\LQ3RPSHLL3XWHROLDQG6\UDFXVH
N. )D¿QLXV N. f. &,/; ,23XWHROL
N. )LUYLXV N. f. Fal., N. )LUYLXV N. f. Flaccus &,/,; ,2&DXGLXP
N. )LUYLXV1I*DO0D[LPXV&,/,;)ULJHQWR
)OXULXV: attested only in Beneventum (&,/,;DQG&DLDWLDAE
and once in Rome
&)UHJDQLRV N. f. &,/,; ,2 %HQHYHQWXP
N. )X¿XV Modestus &,/,;%HQHYHQWXP
N. *UDQLLRU*UDQLL1ODWWHVWHGLQ&DSXD&,/I2DQG+HUFXODQHXP&,/
;EAE 1978, 119c)124
+ROFRQLXVDWWHVWHGRQO\LQ3RPSHLL
/LPEULFLXVDWWHVWHGLQDGGLWLRQWR5RPHRQO\LQ&DSXDDQG3RPSHLLDQGLQ+D-
ODHVDLQ6LFLO\FRPELQHGZLWKWKH&DPSDQLDQWULEH)DOHUQD: &,/;
N. 0DJQLXV (freedman of Magnia Ironia) &,/;3XWHROL
[. 0]DJXOOLXV1I&RU)ODFFXV"AE$HFODQXP
0HJRQLXVW\SLFDORI3HWHOLDEXWDOVRIRXQGLQDQHDUO\LQVFULSWLRQIURP3DHVWXP
(,3DHVWXP140)
N. 0RGLXV1I3ULPXV10RGLXV1I3DXOXV&,/,;$HFODQXP
1221RWHDOVR1'HOOLXV1O&HUGRLQ5RPH&,/9,DQGƐƇƟƭƭƫưƳȆƱơƥưƮưƳ in

/HXNRSHWUD0DFHGRQLDLQ$',/HXNRSHWUD7).
)RUWKLVUDUHQRPHQQRWHWKHFRQVXO(SULXV0DUFHOOXVIURP&DSXD3,52 E 84).
124)RUD1*UDQLXV1OLQ+HUGRQLDHVHHAE 1982, 211.
Q. 0RQQLXV N. f. &,/; ,2&DSXD10XQQLXV1O$QWLRFXV&,/;

,2LELG
L. 1DHYLXV1I3DQVD&,/,;6DHSLQXP11DHYLXV1I3DODW9LWXOXV
N. 1DHYLXV Moschus &,/;3XWHROL125
1HUDWLXV: the attestationsshow a heavy concentration on Saepinum and on some
other cities in the neighbouring area
N. 1LJLGLXV"&,/,9
N. 1XPHVWLXV&DOOLVWUDWXV,3DHVWXP80127
1XPLVLD1¿O0DUFHOOD&,/,;7HUYHQWXPFI11XPLVLXV1I9RO
Labeo in Rome (&,/9,DZLWKDWULEHFRPPRQLQ6DPQLXP
1XPLVWULXVDWWHVWHGRQO\LQ3RPSHLL
[.] 1XPPLXV N. f. Sucrinus &,/,;%RYLDQXP9HWXV
N. ObulciusPXOLHULVO3KDUQDFHVEE9,,,&DOHV
2UIHOOLXVIRXQGRQO\LQ$HFODQXPDQG3RPSHLL
2YLORQLXV: found only in Tegianum (&,/;
N. Pedius1O2QHVLPXV&,/,; EE9,,,%HQHYHQWXP
3HWURQLD N. f. &,/,;6DHSLQXP
3LULFDWLXV3HULFDWLXVDWWHVWHGRQO\LQ3RPSHLL
N. Pisurius Ianuarius &,/;1ROD
N. 3RQWLOLXV [---]mus &,/; ,QVFU,W,,,$WLQD/XFDQD13RQWLOL>XV@
&DPSDQXV,QVFU,WIII 1, 158 (ibid.)
3XOOLD N. l. Epicaris, N. Pullius N. l. Faustus &,/;&DSXDFI43XOOLXV
9I&,/,; ,2 1711 (Larinum)
N. 3XPLGLXV Q. f. &,/&DQG ,2&DSXD
N. Rubrius M. f. &,/; ,2&DSXD
36HUYLXVN. l. &,/I2&DSXD
6RFLO>L@D1I3ULVFD&,/;$EHOOLQXP
N. 6WHQLXV [--] Saturnin[us] &,/,;%HQHYHQWXPFISHUKDSV16WHQLXV0
f. on Delos, &,/I2 ,'
125 N. Naevii are also attested in Teate Marrucinorum (EE9,,,DQG5RPH&,/9,
Saepinum: &,/,;IIIIIAE 1927, 117. 118. 120;
$HVHUQLD 0 %XRQRFRUH 0ROLVH
5HSHUWRULR GHOOH LVFUL]LRQL ODWLQH /H LVFUL]LRQL $HVHUQLD %HQHYHQWXP &,/ ,;
1901. It may also be of interest to note that gaavieís ne[raatieís] (one should perhaps rather
H[SHFWne[raatiieís]ZDVWKHUHDGLQJRULJLQDOO\SURSRVHGE\$/D5HJLQDLQ(0DWWLRFFR
[ed.], )UDPPHQWLGHOSDVVDWR$UFKHRORJLDHDUFKLYLVWLFDWUD&DVWHOGL6DQJURH6XOPRQD[2010]
49; 6(>@IRUWKHLQVFULSWLRQ,PDJI$X¿GHQD
127$11XPHVWLXVDOVRLQ&LFAtt. 2,22,7.
184 2OOL6DORPLHV
6WODERULXVDWWHVWHGRQO\LQ3RPSHLLDQG+HUFXODQHXP
6WURQQLXVDWWHVWHGRQO\LQ3RPSHLL
9DJHOOLXVDWWHVWHGRXWVLGH5RPHDOPRVWH[FOXVLYHO\LQ%UXWWLXPLQ/RFUL9LER
and Regium
N. 9HLXV%DUFKDLQ3RPSHLL&DVWUpQQRFI
N. 9HUDWLXV$WLFWXVVLF&,/,93RPSHLL
9LVWXOHLD N. f. Lupula &,/,;$OOLIDHQRWHDOVR19LVWXOHLLLQ5RPH&,/
9,
Bibliography
&DPRGHFD *&DPRGHFD,FHWLGLULJHQWLGLUDQJRVHQDWRULRHTXHVWUHHGHFXULRQDOH
GHOOD&DPSDQLDURPDQD, Napoli 2008.
(&DPSDQLOH'LIIXVLRQHRUL]]RQWDOHGHOOHIDPLJOLHVDQQLWLFKH$WKHQDHXP±
&DPSDQLOH±WKHSDJHVRIWKLVHGLWLRQDUHTXRWHGKHUH
&DPSDQLOH (&DPSDQLOH/DWLQD ,WDOLFD6FULWWLPLQRULVXOOHOLQJXHGHOO
,WDOLDDQWLFD
$FXUDGL33RFFHWWL,,3LVD±5RPD
&DVWUpQ 3&DVWUpQ2UGRSRSXOXVTXH3RPSHLDQXV5RPH2.
&UDZIRUG 0+&UDZIRUG2QRPDVWLFVDQGWKH$GPLQLVWUDWLRQRI,WDOLD9tWHOL~LQ
5:9&DWOLQJ DOHGV2QRPDWRORJRV6WXGLHVLQ*UHHN3HUVRQDO1DPHV3UH
VHQWHGWR(ODLQH0DWWKHZV2[IRUG±
0+&UDZIRUG DOHGV,PDJLQHV,WDOLFDH$&RUSXVRI,WDOLF,QVFULSWLRQV9ROV,±,,,
London 2011 (quoted as ,PDJ).
'
,VDQWR *'
,VDQWR&DSXDURPDQD5LFHUFKHGLSURVRSRJUD¿DHVWRULDVRFLDOH5RPD
'HO7XWWR3DOPD /'HO7XWWR3DOPD/HLVFUL]LRQLGHOOD/XFDQLDSUHURPDQD3DGRYD
.HDYHQH\ $.HDYHQH\5RPHDQGWKH8QL¿FDWLRQRI,WDO\, London 1987.
/HMHXQH 0/HMHXQH/
DQWKURSRQ\PLHRVTXH3DULV
0F'RQDOG .0F'RQDOG'R3HUVRQDO1DPHVLQ6RXWK2VFDQ6KRZ,QÀXHQFHIURP
*UHHN" LQ7 0HLQHU HG 3HUVRQDO 1DPHV LQ WKH :HVWHUQ 5RPDQ :RUOG (Berlin
±
0/HMHXQH1RWHVGHOLQJXLVWLTXHLWDOLTXH;;,/HVQRWDWLRQVGHIGDQVO
,WDOLHDQFLHQQH5(/
±
0/HMHXQH3KRQRORJLHRVTXHHWJUDSKLHJUHFTXHREA±
3RFFHWWL 33RFFHWWL1XRYLGRFXPHQWLLWDOLFL3LVD
6DOPRQ (76DOPRQ6DPQLXPDQGWKH6DPQLWHV&DPEULGJH
6DORPLHV 26DORPLHV'LHU|PLVFKHQ9RUQDPHQ+HOVLQNL
6DORPLHV 26DORPLHV/HVSUpQRPVLWDOLTXHVXQELODQGHSUHVTXHYLQJWDXVDSUqVOD
publication de 9RUQDPHQLQ33RFFHOWLHG/HVSUpQRPVGHO
,WDOLHDQWLTXH3LVD±
Roma 2008.
6OXQHþNR 96OXQHþNR%HLWUlJH]XUDOWLWDOLVFKHQ2QRPDVWLN/)±
6RULFHOOL *6RULFHOOL%ROOLRVFKLVXWHJRODGDOO
DUHDGHOODJRGHO0DWHVH2HEDOXV
±
6WXDUW6PLWK -6WXDUW6PLWK3KRQHWLFVDQG3KLORORJ\6RXQG&KDQJHLQ,WDOLF2[IRUG
7LNNDQHQ .7LNNDQHQ$6DEHOOLDQ&DVH*UDPPDU, Heidelberg 2011.
7ULDQWD¿OOLV (7ULDQWD¿OOLV/HLVFUL]LRQLLWDOLFKHGDOWHVWLUHWURVSHWWLYHSURVSHWWLYD,
3DGRYD
8QWHUPDQQ -8QWHUPDQQ:|UWHUEXFKGHV2VNLVFK8PEULVFKHQ,Heidelberg 2000.
9HWWHU (9HWWHU+DQGEXFKGHULWDOLVFKHQ'LDOHNWH,%DQG7H[WHPLW(UNOlUXQJ*ORVVHQ
:|UWHUYHU]HLFKQLV+HLGHOEHUJ
:HLVV 0:HLVV7ZR6DEHOOLF3UDHQRPLQDLQ5.LP DOHGV([$QDWROLD/X[
$QDWROLDQDQG,QGR(XURSHDQ6WXGLHVLQKRQRURI+&UDLJ0HOFKHUW$QQD$UERU
1HZ<RUN±
Arctos±
SULLANUS AND SULLANI
FEDERICO SANTANGELO
,QPRGHUQVFKRODUVKLS±HVSHFLDOO\LQ(QJOLVK±LWLVQRWLQIUHTXHQWWR¿QGUHIHU-
HQFHVWRLQGLYLGXDOVXSSRUWHUVRI6XOODDVD6XOODQXVDQGWRWKHFRKRUWRI6XOOD
V
VXSSRUWHUVDV6XOODQL1,WLVZRUWKDVNLQJZKHWKHUWKLVLVERUQHRXWE\WKHDQ-
cient attestations of these words.
6XOODQXVLVPDLQO\DWWHVWHGDVDQDGMHFWLYHRUDVDVXEVWDQWLYLVHGDGMHFWLYH
DVRQHZRXOGH[SHFW3ULVFLDQDFNQRZOHGJHGDQGGLVFXVVHGDQDVSHFWRILWVPHDQ-
ing: LQQXVTXRTXHWHUPLQDQWLXPIRUPDHHWVLJQL¿FDWLRQHV GLXHUVDHLQXHQLXQWXU
TXLEXV/DWLQLIUHTXHQWHUXWXQWXULQVLJQL¿FDWLRQHSRVVHVVLXDXW3RPSHLDQXV
&DHVDULDQXV6XOODQXV7KLVLVMXVWDSDUWRIWKHSLFWXUH7KHDSSOLFDWLRQRI
WKHDGMHFWLYHLVYDVWLWPD\EHDVVRFLDWHGWRFRORQLDHDJULDGVLJQDWLRQHVSDUWHV
, DP JUDWHIXO WR$OH[DQGHU7KHLQ DQG DQ DQRQ\PRXV UHIHUHH IRU WKHLU FRPPHQWV RQ HDUO\
drafts of this note.
16HHHJ(%DGLDQ:DLWLQJIRU6XOODJRS±DW 6WXGLHVLQ*UHHN
DQG5RPDQ+LVWRU\2[IRUG±DW,G/XFLXV 6XOOD7KH'HDGO\5HIRUPHU,

6\GQH\:&0F'HUPRWW&XULRSDWHUDQG&LFHURAJP±DW
3 % +DUYH\ 6RFHU 9DOJXV 9DOJLL DQG & 4XLQFWLXV 9DOJXV LQ ( 1 %RU]D ±
5 : &DUUXED HGV &ODVVLFV DQG WKH &ODVVLFDO 7UDGLWLRQ (VVD\V 3UHVHQWHG WR 5REHUW (
'HQJOHU RQ WKH 2FFDVLRQ RI KLV (LJKWLHWK %LUWKGD\ 8QLYHUVLW\ 3DUN ± DW S
0 + &UDZIRUG 5RPDQ 5HSXEOLFDQ &RLQDJH &DPEULGJH $ .HDYHQH\ :KR
ZHUHWKH6XOODQL".OLR±56HDJHU3RPSH\$3ROLWLFDO%LRJUDSK\2[IRUG
20022IRUZKDWWKHODEHOLVZRUWK$.HDYHQH\6XOOD7KH/DVW5HSXEOLFDQ, London
2005207U|VWHU7KHPHV&KDUDFWHUDQG3ROLWLFVLQ3OXWDUFK
VLife of Lucullus7KH
&RQVWUXFWLRQRID5RPDQ$ULVWRFUDW, Stuttgart 2008ZLWKDQLPSRUWDQWTXDOL¿FDWLRQ:.
Lacey, %RQLDWTXHLPSUREL, * 5±DWDUJXHVWKDWWKHVXSSRUWHUVRI6XOODFDOOHG
themselves QRELOHVWKHFODLPUHVWVPDLQO\RQ&LF5RVF$P±ZKHUH&LFHURVSHDNVRI
a FDXVDQRELOLWDWLVDQGWKH6XOODQFRQQHFWLRQLVIDUIURPFOHDU-+HOOHJRXDUF
K/HYRFDEXODLUH
SROLWLTXHGHVUHODWLRQVHWGHVSDUWLVSROLWLTXHVVRXVOD5pSXEOLTXH3DULVQDUJXHV
that in the 3UR5RVFLR$PHULQR the word QRELOLWDVDFWXDOO\UHIHUVWROHSDUWLGHV0pWHOOLLQ
RSSRVLWLRQWR&KU\VRJRQXVDQGKLVPLQLRQV
188 Federico Santangelo
WHPSXV GRPLQDWLR DUPD UHJQXP H[HPSOXP GLHV FUXGHOLWDV XLROHQWLD ± DQG

the list could continue.2 Such a wide-ranging use is matched, although not on the
VDPHVFDOHE\RWKHUFRPSDUDEOHDGMHFWLYHV0DULDQXV&LQQDQXV6HUWRULDQXV.
The attestations of 6XOODQXVDVDQRXQDUHIHZPRVWRIWKHPDUHLQ&LFHUR
DQGXVXDOO\LQSROLWLFDOO\FKDUJHGDQGKLVWRULFDOO\LQVWUXFWLYHFRQWH[WV,QWKHVHF-
ond 9HUULQH&LFHURWDNHVRQWKHZKROHUHFRUGRIWKHGHIHQGDQWDQGUHDGVRXWWKH
DFFRXQWWKDW9HUUHVJDYHLQ%&WKUHH\HDUVDIWHUWKHHQGRIKLVTXDHVWRUVKLS
ZKLFKKHKDGKHOGXQGHU&Q&DUER4 He points out that the account is unaccept-
DEO\ YDJXH DQG LQWULQVLFDOO\ IUDXGXOHQW 9HUUHV
FODLP WKDW KH KDG OHIW
VHVWHUFHVDW$ULPLQXPZDVPDGHLQWKHIXOONQRZOHGJHWKDWWKHFLW\ZDVVDFNHG
GXULQJWKH&LYLO:DUMXVWDURXQGWKHWLPHZKHQWKHDFFRXQWZDVVXEPLWWHG&LF-
HURQRWHVWKDWWKHUHDVRQZKLFKOHG9HUUHVWREHFRPHD6XOODQXV was his wish to
EHDOORZHGWRSUHVHQWVXFKDZLOGO\LQDFFXUDWHDFFRXQW±QRWWKHGHVLUHWRVXSSRUW
the cause of the QRELOLWDV7KDWLVLGHQWL¿HGDVDPRWLYHRIPDQ\RIWKRVHZKR
MRLQHG6XOOD&LFHURLVUHIHUULQJWRWKHHDUO\VWDJHVRIWKH&LYLO:DUZKHQ6XOOD
arrived on Italian soil and received the loyalty of a number of members of the
SROLWLFDOHOLWH&LFHURODWHUSRLQWVRXWWKDW6XOODQHYHUZDQWHGWRKDYHPXFKWRGR
ZLWK9HUUHV 5
The more conspicuous cluster of uses of 6XOODQXV as a noun is in the third
VSHHFKRQ5XOOXV
DJUDULDQODZGHOLYHUHGWRWKHSHRSOHLQHDUO\%&+HUH&LFH-
2 &RORQLDH: Sall. &DW3OLQQDWDJUL&LFDJUDQGDGVLJQDWLRQHV&LF

DJUSUDHGLD&LFDJUSDUWHV: Nep. Att. 2,2;WHPSXV&LFVerr0XU49,GRP.
KDU 18, IDP3OLQ1DWGRPLQDWLR&LFDJU. 1,21, 2,70;DUPD&LF
9DWUHJQXP&LFAttGLHV: Att. 10,8,7;FUXGHOLWDV9DO0D[6HQLUD
XLROHQWLD9DO0D[.&IDOVRƵɜƮƕƾƭƭƧƫưƮƵƲɝƱưƮLQ'LRDQG;LSKLOS
'LQGRUI6WHSKDQXVLQDGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHWULXPYLUDOSURVFULSWLRQV
0DULDQXV: WULEXQXVSOHELV (DJUSDUWHV9HOODQG(XWUPRQXPHQWD
9DO0D[JORULD9DO0D[FRORQLD (Mela 2,122). &LQQDQXV: WHPSXV
&LFGRPKDU. 18, UHGVHQ. 9), dies&LFSest. 77), SDUWHV9HOOproscriptio9DO
0D[6HUWRULDQXV: PLOLWHV&LFDJU9DO0D[WHPSRUD&LFDJU.
EHOOXP&LFPhil9HOO)ORUduces&LF0DQLO. 20), DUPD (Sen.
ep H[HPSOXP 3OLQ QDW 3RPSHLDQXV and &DHVDULDQXV have a much larger
QXPEHURIDWWHVWDWLRQVHVSHFLDOO\WKDQNVWR&DHVDU
V'HEHOORFLXLOL, and pertain to a different
JHQHUDWLRQWKH\ZLOOEHH[FOXGHGIURPWKHSUHVHQWGLVFXVVLRQ
4&LFVerr±
5&IWKHGLJUHVVLRQRQ6XOODLQVerr±ZKLFKLVLQWHQGHGWRLPSO\WKDW9HUUHVLVHYHQ
ZRUVHWKDQ6XOODVHH&6WHHO7KH5KHWRULFRIWKH'HIUXPHQWRLQ-5:3UDJHG6LFLOLD

QXWUL[SOHELV5RPDQDH5KHWRULF/DZDQG7D[DWLRQLQ&LFHUR
V9HUULQHV/RQGRQ±
DW±
6XOODQXV and 6XOODQL 189
URVFUXWLQLVHVDQRWKHUWH[WWKDWRIWKHELOOLWVHOIDQGFRPPHQWVRQWKHUHIHUHQFHWR
WZRFRQVXOVZKRZHUHFRPPLWWHGHQHPLHVRI6XOOD&0DULXVDQG&Q3DSLULXV
coss%&,Q&LFHUR
VYLHZWKLVZDVMXVWDFKHDSSOR\RQ5XOOXV
SDUWWRDYRLG
referring to the year of Sulla's dictatorship and to conceal the fact that the bill ac-
WXDOO\FRQ¿UPHGWKHULJKWVRIWKH6XOODQpossessores&LFHUR
VUKHWRULFDOVWUDWHJ\
LQWKLVVSHHFKLVUHPDUNDEO\FRPSOH[DQG$'UXPPRQGKDVVKRZQWKDWLGHQ-
tifying who the Sullan possessoresPD\EHLQWKLVFRQWH[WLVQRVWUDLJKWIRUZDUG
XQGHUWDNLQJ$JDLQWKHZRUG6XOODQXV is used with a sarcastic touch: a Marian
WULEXQHOLNH5XOOXVLVWU\LQJWRFDVWXV6XOODQVQRV6XOODQRV) into disrepute. In
an earlier speech Rullus had accused his opponents of being defenders of Sulla's
policies (UDWLRQHV6XOODH&LFHUR±ZKRLVVLJQL¿FDQWO\DGGUHVVLQJDFRQWLR±UH-
torts the accusation against Rullus himself. His proposal to ratify the Sullan land
DVVLJQPHQWVLVVXI¿FLHQWWRSODFHKLPDPRQJWKH6XOODQLKHVKRXOGIUDQNO\DGPLW
to being one. The rest of his agrarian bill, with all the new envisaged land assign-
PHQWVVHHPVWREULQJEDFNWROLIH6XOODKLPVHOIDQGKLVDUELWUDU\XVHRISRZHU
7KHUHLVDQRWKHULPSRUWDQWIDFWRUWKDWOLQNV5XOOXVWRWKHOHJDF\RI6XOOD
KLVIDWKHULQODZLVWKHLQIDPRXV4XLQFWLXV9DOJXVRQHRIWKHJUHDWSUR¿WHHUVRI
WKH6XOODQSHULRGZKRZRXOGKDYHJUHDWO\EHQH¿WHGKDG5XOOXV
ELOOEHHQSDVVHG
8QOLNH5XOOXVWKRXJK9DOJXVGRHVQRWFRQFHDOKLV6XOODQFRQQHFWLRQQHTXHVH
6XOODQXPHVVHGLVVLPXODW7KHEHQH¿FLDULHVRIWKH6XOODQODQGDVVLJQPHQWVDUH
UHIHUUHGWRLQVLPLODUZD\V,QDOHWWHUKHZURWHWR$WWLFXVRQ0DUFK&LFHUR
VXPPDULVHVKLVZRUNRIOREE\LQJRQDQDJUDULDQELOOSUHVHQWHGE\&)ODYLXVLQ
ZKLFK±DPRQJRWKHUWKLQJV±KHFRQ¿UPHG6XOODQRUXPKRPLQXPSRVVHVVLRQHV.
In this case, the reference must be to the veterans of Sulla who had received some
land assignments.77KHUHIHUHQFHWR9DOJXVDV6XOODQXV must be interpreted in the
same sense.
The neatest reference to the Sullani as a JURXS in a late Republican source
is in a fragment of Sallust's +LVWRULDH0DXUHQEUHFKHU 0F*XVKLQ
XW6XOODQLIXJDPLQQRFWHPFRPSRQHUHQWVRWKDWWKH6XOODQL were planning their
HVFDSHIRUWKHQLJKWWLPH7KLVIUDJPHQWKDVEHHQUHDGDVDUHIHUHQFHWRDSKDVH
RIWKH&ROOLQH*DWHEDWWOHLQZKLFK6XOOD
VDUP\ZDVLQDGLI¿FXOWSRVLWLRQDQG
its commanders considered the possibility of an escape.8 In this case 6XOODQL does
$'UXPPRQG5XOOXVDQGWKH6XOODQpossessores.OLR±VHHHVS±
IRUDQRYHUYLHZRIWKHFDWHJRULHVRIODQGKROGHUVWKDWPD\IDOOXQGHUWKLVGH¿QLWLRQ
7 &I 'UXPPRQG 5XOOXV cit IRU D GLIIHUHQW UHDGLQJ 6XOODQ SDUWLVDQV ZKR E\
GH¿QLWLRQZHUHPHQRIVRPHFRQVHTXHQFHLQ,WDO\DVZHOODVLQ5RPH
830F*XVKLQ6DOOXVW7KH+LVWRULHV9ROXPH,%RRNV,±,,2[IRUG
190 Federico Santangelo
QRWUHIHUWRDSROLWLFDOJURXSEXWWRDQDUP\WKDWLV¿JKWLQJXQGHU6XOOD
VOHDGHU-
VKLSPXFKLQWKHVDPHZD\LQZKLFKZH¿QGIUHTXHQWUHIHUHQFHVWR&DHVDULDQL
and 3RPSHLDQLLQ&DHVDU
V'HEHOORFLXLOL. The same meaning may be found in
3OLQ\WKH(OGHUDJDLQLQFRQQHFWLRQWRWKH&LYLO:DUDQGQRWDEO\LQDUHIHUHQFH
WR3RPSH\LJLWXU6LFLOLDUHFXSHUDWDXQGHSULPXP6XOODQXVLQUHLSXEOL
FDHFDXVDH[RULHQVDXVSLFDWXVHVW. Far from pointing to a long-term political al-
OHJLDQFHWR6XOOD3OLQ\LVPHUHO\GUDZLQJDWWHQWLRQWRWKHIDFWWKDWDWWKHWLPHRI
KLV6LFLOLDQFDPSDLJQ3RPSH\ZDV¿JKWLQJXQGHU6XOOD
VVWDQGDUGV9
The only occurrence of 6XOODQL as a SROLWLFDOJURXS±RIDNLQG±LVDQHQLJ-
matic source of uncertain dating and unclear purpose, the 'HXLULVLOOXVWULEXV.10 In
WKHELRJUDSK\RI&LFHURWKH3UR5RVFLR$PHULQR earns pride of place as the mo-
ment in which the young orator showed his qualities: the 6XOODQL were on the re-
FHLYLQJHQGRIKLVDWWDFNVDGROHVFHQV5RVFLDQRLXGLFLRHORTXHQWLDPHWOLEHUWDWHP
VXDP DGXHUVXV 6XOODQRV RVWHQGLW). With the same independence of spirit (TXD
TXRQGDP6XOODQRVOLEHUWDWHSHUVWULQ[HUDWKHODWHUDWWDFNHG3RPSH\DQG&DHVDU
whom he suspected of coveting GRPLQDWLR(a term with clear Sullan associations),
SD\LQJWKHKHIW\SULFHRIH[LOH&KU\VRJRQXVDQGKLVPLQLRQVKRZHYHUPD\EH
HDVLO\DVVLPLODWHGWRWKHYHWHUDQVZKRKDGEHHQWKHEHQH¿FLDULHVRI6XOOD
VJHQ-
HURVLW\±WKHKRPLQHV6XOODQL; it is not so much question of their political loyalty,
much as it is of their personal connection with, and debt to, the Dictator. The
targets of the 3UR5RVFLR are not the senatorial followers of Sulla, or indeed the
Dictator himself (at least not directly); the polemic is carefully directed at some
individuals who are made vulnerable by their relatively low status.
3HUKDSV VXUSULVLQJO\ LW LV LQ D *UHHN VRXUFH WKDW ZH ¿QG WKH FOHDUHVW LO-
OXVWUDWLRQWKDWWKHUHPD\EHTXHVWLRQRI6XOODQVDVDSROLWLFDOJURXS$FFRUGLQJ
WR$SSLDQDIWHU6XOOD
VGHDWKWKHUHLVDGLVSXWHEHWZHHQ&DWXOXVDQG/HSLGXVRQ
WKHIXQHUDO&DWXOXVDQGưȝƕƾƭƭƧƫưƫ won the argument.11 This can only be un-
derstood as a group of people who had been on Sulla's side and were loyal to his
memory. The same word is used two chapters later, with reference to Lepidus' oath
9 &I WKH UHIHUHQFH WR YHWHUDQ FRORQLVDWLRQ LQ 6LFXOXV )ODFFXV 'H FRQGLFLRQLEXV DJURUXP
&DPSEHOO>scil. ODSLGHV] TXRV*UDFFKDQLDXW6\OODQLSRVXHUXQW).

10&IWKHVXJJHVWLRQRI/%UDFFHVL,QWURGX]LRQHDO'HYLULVLOOXVWULEXV%RORJQDZKR
argued that the '9,LVZRUNRIWKH(OGHU3OLQ\QRWLQWHQGHGIRUSXEOLFDWLRQ

11 $SS %& 2Q WKH \HDU DQG WKH ZLGHUDQJLQJ LPSOLFDWLRQV RI WKH FODVK EHWZHHQ
/HSLGXV DQG &DWXOXV VHH9$UHQD 7KH &RQVXOVKLS RI %& &DWXOXV YHUVXV /HSLGXV DQ
RSWLPDWHV versus SRSXODUHV$IIDLULQ+%HFN±$'XSOi±0-HKQH±)3LQD3RORHGV
&RQVXOVDQG res publica. +ROGLQJ+LJK2I¿FHLQWKH5RPDQ5HSXEOLF&DPEULGJH±
HVS±
6XOODQXV and 6XOODQL 191
not to wage war on the ƕƾƭƭƧƫưƫ±DQGE\H[WHQVLRQRQWKHUHVSXEOLFDitself.12

,QWHUHVWLQJO\$SSLDQ UHIHUV WR 6XOOD
V VXSSRUWHUV ZLWK WKH FROOHFWLYH ƕƾƭƭƧƫưƫ
only when the legacy of Sulla begins to be put into question. It is tempting to see
WKHGLUHFWLQÀXHQFHRID/DWLQWH[WEHKLQG$SSLDQ
VƕƾƭƭƧƫưƫ there is conceiv-
ably the 6XOODQLRIDVRXUFHWRZKLFKWKHKLVWRULDQIURP$OH[DQGULDKDGDFFHVV
6XUHO\WKHQLWLVQRWHQWLUHO\LOOHJLWLPDWHWRVSHDNRI6XOODQXV and 6XOODQL
LQGLVFXVVLRQVRISROLWLFDOKLVWRU\7KHVFDUFLW\RIWKHHYLGHQFHDQGWKHÀXLGLW\LQ
the use of those terms should however invite to caution. The individuals who re-
ceive the label of 6XOODQXVIRXJKWXQGHU6XOODLQWKH&LYLO:DUDQGWKHUHDSSHDUV
to be mention of 6XOODQL only in the immediate aftermath of Sulla's death. This
fact in itself may provide an interesting insight on the quality of Sulla's legacy in
internal politics and on the nature of the political ties that he built around himself
and his cause.
1HZFDVWOH8QLYHUVLW\
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unbestimmt, so dass auch der Frauenname $FXWDYRUOLHJHQN|QQWHZREHLPDQ
MHGRFKHKHUǸƬưƾƵʤHUZDUWHQZUGH,QlJ\SWLVFKHQ3DS\ULVLHEHQPDOEHOHJW
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i (Syracusae) 'H[LSSXV$O¿DQXVY>H@; ,/$OJ II 5581 (Thibilis) 4/X
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&,/9,
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ist bisher nicht belegt.
Antiania: AE HEp/XFXV$XJXVWL-K5XWLO>LD@
$QWLDQLD:HQQGLH/HVXQJVWLPPWGDV&RJQRPHQLVWPLWPHKUHUHQ1H[XVJHOH-
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HUNOlUW 'D]X AE 1982, 487 (Turgalium in Lusitanien) &DHVLOLD 7 I $QXOD; ,
&DFHUHV7XUJDOLXPLQ/XVLWDQLHQ,XOLD±I$QXOD; AE1RUEDLQ
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URQLDFI$QXOOD$PHULQD&I$QXOOD; ,&DFHUHV 417 (Turgalium in Lusi-
tanien) 1RUEDQD$QXOOD; ,/$OJ,,&DVWHOOXP7LGGLWDQRUXP,XQLD$QXOOD;
,$09ROXELOLV*DELQLD$QXOOD.
$QDOHFWD(SLJUDSKLFD 195
Anullina: &,/9,$QXOLQD.DMDQWRNHQQWQXUGHQ0lQQHUQD-
men $QXOOLQXV.
Apriliana: ,&85 17705 $SULOLDQHPRUWXD.
$SULOLDQXV.DMDQWRPLWHLQHP%HOHJ'D]X,&85 10249 &9DOHULXV
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ǸƱƱưƶƭƧƫƣƮƽƳ (vgl. 1188 und Rep.2 497).
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$OWHUWPHUYRQ+LHUDSROLV 40.
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$WHULDQXV.DMDQWRPLW]ZHL%HOHJHQ'D]X&,/9,&Q1XPLVL
XV$WHULDQXV;,94'RPLWLXV$WHULDQXV9,,,9DWHUAterius.
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,,,9DVHQVWHPSHO
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gebung ein rein gr. Name ƄȾƭưƳ oder eher ƄȸƭƽƳVWHFNWHLQ.XU]QDPHQHEHQ
ƄȸƭơƺƮ und anderen (vgl. Bechtel HPN IUHLOLFK VSULFKW GLH &KURQRORJLH
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/DYLQLXPRGHUDJHU/DXUHQV6NODYH3L]]DUUDVYLVLJRGDVHG9HOiV-
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den Frauennamen $XULFRPH in der Form $XULFRPH. Besser $XULFRPD festlegen:
der Name steht in der Inschrift im Dativ, wobei auch VXHVDQFWLVVLPH geschrieben
wird.
$YLDQXV.DMDQWRPLWYLHU%HOHJHQArctos'D]XAE
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-KQ&KUƄȸƫƣƮɖƇƩvƞƲƸưƶƸƩƲƩƴƵɖƸƣʴƲƧ. Ich habe nur die Belege auf-
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tilname).
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(Dyrrachium) /$QWLVWLXV%HOOLFLDQXV; $,- 491 /0%HOOLFLDQXV; AE
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%ODHVLDQXV.DMDQWRPLW]ZHL%HOHJHQRep.2'D]XAE 1984, 202
3XWHROL%&7+±SURYSURF6H[,XOLXV%ODHVLDQXV.
Burriana: AE%HU\WXV,XOLD%XUULDQD.

%XUULDQXV.DMDQWRPLW]ZHL%HOHJHQArctosDXV$WKHQ
'D]X&,/9,D /2WDFLOLXV%XUULDQXV.
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/6DPRQLFLXV&DHG>L@DQXV.
!&DHQLDQXV.DMDQWRDXV&,/9,43RPSRQLXV&DHQLDQXV. Da
aber die Mutter 3RPSRQLD&DHQLVKLHLVWGDV&RJQRPHQGHV6RKQHVGXUFKHLQH
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dann in christlichen Inschriften ,&85 5925P; ,&KU1DSROL±:LHVROOPDQ
aber &HUXOD GHXWHQ" :HJHQ GHU EHVWHKHQGHQ 6FKUHLEXQJ &HU wird man nicht
an erster Stelle an FDHUXOXVDOV1DPHQZRUWGHQNHQDXFKZHLO1DPHQEHOHJHDXI
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BACCHYLIDES BEHIND HIS METAMORPHOSES:

THE POETIC IDENTITY OF A LYRIC NARRATOR
IN THE LATE 5TH CENTURY BC1
MARGARITA P. SOTIRIOU
Introduction
Since Homer and Hesiod's time comparing men with animals or birds is within
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chylides' poetry, one could pay attention to four passages, out of his fourteen
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epinician poetry.
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ing his style and language. The function of these images as an integral issue of the
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Bacchylides as a Kean Nightingale (Ode 3)
Bacchylides composed his 7KLUG(SLQLFLDQ Ode in order to praise Hieron's single

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Bacchylides behind his 0HWDPRUSKRVHV 241
addresses Hieron by name (l. 92) praising his generosity4 and then he closes the
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[…] Hieron, in prosperity you have displayed to mortals the most

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ment; but with truth of noble deeds someone will hymn, too, the grace
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ǰƭƣƪƧơƣƫƬƣƭːƮ). The geographical attribute ƍƠƻưƳ (l. 98) connects directly the
nightingale with the island of Keos. The accusative ƸƞƲƫƮDVWKHREMHFWRIWKH
verb ȹvƮƠƴƧƫLQGLFDWHVWKHQQRWWKHFKDUPEHDXW\RUJUDWLWXGHDVLVFRP-
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ƸƞƲƫƳ here connotes not the charm or the elegance of the nightingale but the song
of the bird as a gift of friendship for Hieron, in other words the epinician song of
Bacchylides as pleasure and happiness.
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5 In that sense ƸƞƲƫƳ derives from the verb ƸƣơƲƺ.
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bibliography.
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It is widely accepted that nightingales are famous among other birds for
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es traditionally the lament and dirge.7 The bird also appears as a messenger of
spring, while its song, especially at this time of the year, is louder and repetitive;8
the nightingale remains sleepless and sings day and night.9 From Hesiod to the
later poetic tradition, nightingales are generally connected with the poets.10
Though Bacchylides might have been aware of the former literary production,
KLVZD\RISUHVHQWLQJWKHELUGLQVXFKHSLQLFLDQFRQWH[WLVQRPRUHFRQYHQWLRQDO
It rather indicates something completely new, especially by using the compound
vƧƭơƥƭƺƴƴưƳ (l. 97) as an attribute of the bird.117KHDGMHFWLYHPHDQVZLWKD
YRLFHVZHHWOLNHKRQH\DQGYDULHVGH¿QLWHO\WKHKRPHULFvƧƭơƥƩƲƶƳ.12 It is worth
noticing that both, vƧƭơƥƭƺƴƴưƳ and vƧƭơƥƩƲƶƳDUHH[FOXVLYHO\FRQQHFWHGZLWK
hymnic songs.
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9).
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ȬƦƶƲưvƟƮƩƮ ȀƲƟƪưƶƴƫƮ ɅƳ Ʀʞ ȱƵƧ ƓƣƮƦƞƲƧưƶ ƬưƾƲƩ ƸƭƺƲƩʲƳ ǰƩƦƿƮ ƬƣƭɜƮ ǰƧơƦʤƴƫƮ
ȄƣƲưƳ ƮƟưƮ ȝƴƵƣvƟƮưƫư ƦƧƮƦƲƟƺƮ ȀƮ ƱƧƵƞƭưƫƴƫ ƬƣƪƧƨưvƟƮƩ ƱƶƬƫƮưʴƴƫƮ &RQFHUQLQJ WKH
phrase ƸƭƺƲƩʲƳǰƩƦƿƮSOHDVHQRWLFHWKHH[SODQDWLRQVRIIHUHGE\DQFLHQWOH[LFRJUDSKHUVDV
HJ$SROO/H[+RPƸƲƿvƣƵưƳƬƣƪɜvƧƭƞƸƲưƶƮƵƫƮɔƭƟƥưvƧƮƵɜƮȍƴƶƸʧȎƵɜ
ǰƱƽƵːƮƸƭƺƲːƮƴƶƮƣƥƽvƧƮưƮȹƱɜƵːƮvƧƭƫƴƴːƮƙƭƺƲƩʲƳǰƩƦɠƮǰƱƽƵư˃ƸƲƿvƣƵưƳȎ
Ʀƫɔ Ƶɜ ȀƮ ƸƭƺƲưʴƳ ƦƟƮƦƲưƫƳ ƦƫƞƥƧƫƮ and (W\P 0DJQ ƙƭƺƲɜƮ ƦƟưƳ: ƙƭƺƲưƱưƫƽƮ.
ƕƩvƣơƮƧƫƦɖƬƣɚƵɜƮƟưƮƙƭƺƲƩʲƳǰƩƦƿƮǰƱƽƵư˃ƸƲƿvƣƵưƳŉȎƦƫƽƵƫȀƮȄƣƲƫƷƣơƮƧƵƣƫȱƵƧ
ƱƞƮƵƣƸƭƺƲƞŉưȝƦɖƵɘƮƸƭƺƲưʴƳȍƦưvƟƮƩƮ&IDOVR/6-VYSDOHJUHHQEURZQJUHHQ
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Bacchylides behind his 0HWDPRUSKRVHV
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determined as ƭƫƥƧơƣ, ƭƫƥƾƷƪưƥƥưƳ or ȬƯƾƷƺƮưƳ.146XFKDGMHFWLYHVWKRXJKXVHG
in different ways,15DUHLQDSSURSULDWHIRUWKHHSLQLFLDQFRQWH[WPDLQO\EHFDXVH
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contrary, the use of vƧƭơƥƭƺƴƴưƳ here connotes more precisely the nightingale's
VZHHWQHVVLQVLQJLQJHPSKDVL]LQJRQDYLVXDOL]HGDVSHFWRILWVDFRXVWLFTXDOLWLHV
FIWKH¿UVWSDUWRIWKHHSLWKHWvƧƭƫ-). Therefore, vƧƭơƥƭƺƴƴưƳ, as an attribute
of the nightingale, demonstrates here a direct connection with the sweetness of
the poetic mouth. Following the predetermined patterns of his predecessors, Bac-
chylides isolates creatively an aspect of the bird's way of singing, reassesses it
by the use of vƧƭơƥƭƺƴƴưƳDQGHPERGLHVLWLQKLVHSLQLFLDQFRQWH[WLQRUGHUWR
describe his art from another perspective.
The nightingale's continuous day and night song could only refer to Bac-
chylides and his poetry for one more reason: the repetition in bird singing symbol-
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this self-referential simile, the poet provides his audience with the necessary as-
sociations between the repetitive song of the nightingale and a second (or a third)
performance of the epinician hymnus.17 The repetitive, melodious singing of the
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146HHHJWKHWH[WVDERYHLQQ
15 In connection with Nestor (,O±WKHZLQG,OSKRUPLQ[OdRU

with the path of the poetry 3LQGOl. 9,47).
Notice especially the comments of $ULVW >'H DXGLE@ D Ƭƣɚ vƞƭƫƴƵƣ Ʀƫɔ ƵɘƮ
ȹƥƲƽƵƩƵƣƵư˃ƴƿvƣƵưƳƭƫƥƶƲƣɚƦʞƧȜƴɚƵːƮƷƺƮːƮƣȝƭƧƱƵƣɚƬƣɚƱƶƬƮƣơƬƣƪƞƱƧƲƬƣɚȀƱɚ
ƵːƮƵƧƵƵơƥƺƮƬƣɚƵːƮǰƬƲơƦƺƮƬƣɚƣȝƵːƮǰƩƦƽƮƺƮƬƣɚȱƭƺƳȱƴƣƫƳƭƧƱƵƣʴƳưȼƴƣƫƳvƩƪƧɚƳ
ǰƭƭƽƵƲƫưƳȒƸưƳƱƣƲƣƬưƭưƶƪƧʴȱƭƺƳƥɔƲưȸƬȄƴƵƫƮưȼƵʞȀƮȰƥƬˎƷƺƮʦƳƵɜƭƫƥƶƲƽƮưȼƵʞ
ȀƮƵƽƮưƫƳǰƮƫƧvƟƮưƫƳƬƣɚƤƣƲƟƴƫƮưȼƵʞȀƮƵƣʴƳƵːƮƷƪƽƥƥƺƮǱƷƣʴƳǰƭƭɔvʗƭƭưƮȬƯƾƵƩƵƫ
ƬƣɚƭƧƱƵƽƵƩƵƫƬƣɚǰƬƲƫƤƧơʕƦƫɜƬƣɚƵːƮȬƲƥƞƮƺƮƵɔƭƧƱƵɔƬƣɚƴƾƮƵưƮƣƬƣɚvɘȄƸưƮƵƣ
ƬƟƲƣƳƵɔƳƷƺƮɔƳȄƸƧƫƭƫƥƶƲƺƵƟƲƣƳ and Eust. ,O Ƒ 14: ưȽƵƺƥɔƲƬƣɚưȝƬƠƲƶƬƧƳƭƫƥƣơƮƧƫƮ
ƭƟƥưƮƵƣƫ ƬƣɚƭƫƥƾƷƪưƥƥưƫ Ƭƣƭư˃ƮƵƣƫɅƳƬƣɚȍǰƩƦƿƮƭƟƥƧƵƣƫƦɖƬƣɚvƞƴƵƫƥƯƭƫƥƶƲɔƬƣɚ
ȌƸɘƭƫƥƾƪƲưưƳƬƣɚǴƮƧvưƫƭƫƥƟƧƳȬƯƶƮưvƟƮưƶƦɖƵư˃ƭƫƥƾƳȀƱɚƵư˃ȬƯƟưƳƵɜƎơƥƶƳƬƾƲƫưƮ
Ƭƣɚ Ƶɜ ƣƱʞ ƣȸƵư˃ ȀƪƮƫƬɜƮ ƤƣƲƾƮƧƵƣƫ ƱƲɜƳ ƦƫƣƴƵưƭɘƮ ƵưƾƵưƶ ȜƴƵƟưƮ Ʀɖ Ƭƣɚ ȱƵƫ ƧȜ Ƭƣɚ
ȜƴưƦƶƮƣvƧʴƵɜƭƫƥƾƳƵˑȬƯƾƳǰƭƭɔƵɜvɖƮƭƫƥƾƳvƽƮƩƳȀƴƵɚƮȀƱơƪƧƵưƮƷƺƮʦƳƵɜƦɖȬƯƾƬƣɚ
ȀƱɚƤƧƭːƮƬƣɚưȠƮưƶƬƣɚȁƵƟƲƺƮƱưƭƭːƮƭƟƥƧƵƣƫ
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(in favor of a panhellenic reperformance); each of them reach the same conclusion from a
different point of view.
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Bacchylides as Urania's Cock (Ode 4)
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short composition of twenty verses must have been performed at Delphi, imme-
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VORQJHU)LUVW3\WKLDQ, which, although it
celebrated the same victory, was performed during a public feast in the city of
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himself demonstrating by that his willingness to praise Hieron's athletic triumph
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=˫? ǱƦƶƧƱɘƳǰ=Ʈƣ
ƯƫƷƽƲ?vƫƥƥưƳƒȸƲ=ƣƮ?ơƣƳǰƭƟƬƵƺƲ
˫˫˫?ƧƮxǰƭƭૃȁƬ=ƽƮ?ƵƫƮƽˎ
˫˫˫ư?ƶƳȀƱƟƴƧƫƴ̛ƧƮ̜ȽvƮưƶƳ
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willing spirit showered the victor with victory hymns […]
7KHPDVNRIWKHFRFNSUHVHQWVXVZLWKVRPHGLI¿FXOWLHV:K\GRHV%DFFK\OLGHV
XVHWKLVLPDJHWRGHVFULEHKLVHSLQLFLDQWDVN":K\GRHVKHFKRRVHǱƦƶƧƱƠƳ to
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most typical of all the features of the bird, which facilitates the poet to draw a
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18 Hubbard (1985) 149.

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(1985).
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ǹƦƶƧƱɘƳǰƭƟƬƵƺƲreminds a phrase from Simonides (30* $WKG
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sweetness.22,QWKHIRUPHUHSLFSRHWU\WKH+\PQVDQG3LQGDUǱƦƶƧƱəƳis often
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chylides' most favorite Muse.24+HUFDUGLQDOUROHLQWKHHSLQLFLDQFRQWH[WLVHDV\
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ƭƟƥƧƵƣƫ Ʀɖ ƱƲːƵưƳ ưȿƵưƳ ǰƱɜ ƘưƫƮơƬƩƳ ƥƲƞvvƣƵƣ ƧȜƳ ȋƭƭƩƮƣƳ ǰƥƣƥƧʴƮ
ƥƧƮƟƴƪƣƫƦɖƬƣɚȕƲƣƬƭƟưƶƳƦƫƦƞƴƬƣƭưƳƥƲƣvvƞƵƺƮƬƣɚƵʦƳƭƶƲƫƬʦƳvưƾƴƩƳ
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serve primarily as documents of the victory, we are confronted with the follow-
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of describing, once again in visual terms, his role as a messenger throughout the
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of the new day,25 so does Bacchylides: he sends to the whole world the message
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7th c. BCZKLOH3LQGDUOlDQG$HVFK\OXV$JPHQWLRQHGFRFN
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a glorious athletic event.
Bacchylides as Zeus' Eagle (Ode 5)
%DFFK\OLGHVZHDUVWKHPDVNRIWKHHDJOHLQKLV)LIWK(SLQLFLDQ2GH, honoring
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V 2O\PSLDQ 2QH.27 The prooimion of the
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of the eagle more often than Bacchylides, where it occurs once. The description
of the divine bird is inserted between two conventional themes of epinician po-
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[…] Having woven a song of praise with the help of the deep-girdled
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ruling, loud-roaring Zeus, is bold, trusting in his mighty strength, and
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West Wind, conspicuous for men to see. Even so I, too, have a myriad
of paths in every direction to praise your prowess […]
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sections the poet provides us with information concerning the eagle's place of
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in the way the small birds react: in view of the impressive bird, they crouch down
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concerning his poetic identity behind the PDVN of the bird. First comes the no-
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poetry.28 ǼƥƥƧƭưƳ is also Bacchylides, because he sends the glorious message of
Hieron's triumph to the city of Syracuse. In that sense we are confronted with the
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space) with the wings of his poetry: through the digressions of the mythological
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though the description of the eagle hunting small birds is proverbial, the at-
tribute ƭƫƥƾƷƪưƥƥưƫ indicates intention. ƎƫƥƾƷƪưƥƥưƫ in Homer are always the
heralds.%HFDXVH%DFFK\OLGHV
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small birds with the Homeric heralds provides the audience the necessary asso-
ciations between the rivals of the divine bird and the rivals of the poet underlying
that both must have a common attitude against them.
The real meaning of the passage is that great deeds must be praised only
E\JUHDWSRHWV9LVXDOL]LQJKLVSURIHVVLRQDOVXSHULRULW\ right from the beginning
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Zeus.
Bacchylides as an Island Bee (Ode 10)
Bacchylides' 7HQWK(SLQLFLDQ2GHLVDSRHPFRPSRVHGLQKRQRURI$JODRVIURP
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28 E.g. ,O±±±
29 %DFFK\O ± ǼƻƯưƮ Ɋ ƴƧvƮưƦƽƵƧƫƲƣ ƘƠvƣ ȀƳ ƍƟưƮ ȝƧƲɔƮ ƸƣƲƫƵƿƮƶvưƮ ƷƟƲưƶƴʞ
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in common to (all) men, to inform mortals of your prowess […]
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honey belongs undeniably to the archaic as well as to the classical tradition of
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or essential for their poems and move then to another.
Bacchylides' attitude is quite different. The geographical attribute ƮƣƴƫːƵƫƮ
LVXQGRXEWHGO\UHIHUUHGWR%DFFK\OLGHV
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tive ƭƫƥƾƷƪưƥƥưƳ is used to describe the qualities of his compositions, the clarity,
the sweetness and the accuracy of his words. %XW WKH TXHVWLRQ VWLOO H[LVWV ,V
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2GH Bacchylides' main concern is, then, to
praise the victor. But, if our poet is interested in the fame of his client rather than
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PRUWDOE\QRXULVKLQJKLPZLWKQHFWDUDQGDPEURVLD)URP$IULFD$ULVWDLRVFDPH
to Keos, where he taught the local population the art of apiculture.40 That's why
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EHHEHFDPHVLQFHWKHQWKHRI¿FLDOV\PEROVRI.HDQFRLQV7KLVP\WKRORJLFDOGL-
JUHVVLRQPDNHVLWFOHDUWKDWWKHEHHLVDQHYHU\GD\V\PEROIRU%DFFK\OLGHVVLQFH
his hometown has a long tradition in thyme honey production. In other words, the
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$WKHQVDUHJLRQWKDWLQDQFLHQWWLPHVZDVUHQRZQHGIRUWKHTXDOLW\RILWVWK\PH
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VKDUHVZLWKKLVSDWURQ+HFOHDUO\DLPVWRFRQQHFWKLVSDWURQZLWKWKHORFDOIRON-
lore, the tradition and the legends of his own hometown.41
Conclusion
%DFFK\OLGHVLVLQGHHGDOHVVYLVLEOHSULPDU\QDUUDWRUWKDQ3LQGDUZKRSUHIHUV
WRVSHDNDERXWKLPVHOILQHPSKDWLF¿UVWSHUVRQVWDWHPHQWV42 His choice to wear
PDVNVLVQHLWKHUVSRQWDQHRXVQRUDFFLGHQWDO7KHDERYHPHQWLRQHGPDVNVFUH-
ate a visual frame of the epinician procedure, which demonstrates intimacy. They
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VNQRZOHGJHDQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJHPSKDVL]LQJWKH
SHUVRQDOWLHVEHWZHHQSRHWDQGYLFWRUDSRHWLFGHYLFHIRUWKHHTXDWLRQRIVXEMHFW
DQGREMHFW(DFKFDVHRIVXFKSRHWLFPHWDPRUSKRVHLVOLQNHGZLWKWKHIDFWXDO
data of the epinician procedure. In that sense, poetic metamorphoses describe the
FRPPXQLFDWLYHFRQWH[WLQZKLFKHYHU\VLQJOH2GHZDVSHUIRUPHG,QHDFKFDVH
%DFFK\OLGHVHPSKDVL]HVRQDGLIIHUHQWDVSHFWRIWKHSHUIRUPDQFHDQGRQKLPSHU-
VRQDOO\DVFRPSRVLWRUDQGSHUIRUPHUHJWKHFRFNDVYLFWRU\DQQRXQFHUDFFRUG-
40 $S 5KRG ± 6FKRO LQ $S 5KRG D±F :HQGHO 6FKRO LQ 3LQG 3\WK.
D±E 'U 6FKRO LQ$U Eq. D±F .RVWHU $WKHQDJRUDV /HJ 3K\ODUFK IU
1RQQXV'LRQ6FKROLQ$ULVWIU5RVH
412QWKHWUHDWPHQWRIWKHVXEMHFWVHHWKHH[KDXVWLYHDQDO\VLVRI*HQWLOL±
423IHLMIIHU0RUULVRQZLWKIXUWKHUOLWHUDWXUH
Hubbard (1985) 149.

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of his patron.
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ably, his artistic force builds the core of all the above mentioned poetic transfor-
PDWLRQV%LUGPDVNVDUHDSSURSULDWHIRUVXFKPHWDPRUSKRVHVEHFDXVHELUGVFDQ
HDVLO\EHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHHOHPHQWVRIÀLJKWDQGZLQJVPHWDSKRUVVRIDPLOLDU
in epinician poetry.44%DFFK\OLGHV
SRHWU\LVOLNHWKHVHFUHDWXUHVH[FHSWSHUKDSV
IRUWKHFRFNLWÀLHVDERYHWKHHDUWKLQWKHVN\SURYLGLQJDOLPLWOHVVSUDLVHRI
his addressee's deeds, which last forever. Moreover, bird wings and the wings
RIWKHSRHWU\UHFDOOSRVVLEO\WKH+RPHULFZLQJHGZRUGVZKLFKPHDQVZRUGV
WKDWÀ\WRWKRVHZKRFDQXQGHUVWDQGȄƱƧƣ ƱƵƧƲƽƧƮƵƣ in contrast to ǴƱƵƧƲưƳ
v˃ƪưƳDSKUDVHWKDWLQGLFDWHVWKHZRUGVDVVRXQGIURPWKHVSHDNHU
VPRXWKWR
his addressee.45
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Bibliography
:*$UQRWW%LUGVLQWKH$QFLHQW:RUOGIURP$WR=/RQGRQ±1HZ<RUN
/ $WKDQDVVDNL ǰƧơƦƧƵư ƱɔƮ ƵƟvƧƮưƳ ƒƫ ƸưƲƫƬƟƳ ƱƣƲƣƴƵƞƴƧƫƳ Ƭƣƫ Ƶư ƬưƫƮƽ ƵưƶƳ ƴƵƩƮ
ƣƲƸƣƻƬƠƬƣƫƱƲƿƫvƩƬƭƣƴƫƬƠƱƧƲơưƦư+HUDNOHLRQ
$3%XUQHWW7KH$UWRI%DFFK\OLGHV&DPEULGJH0DVV±/RQGRQ
'&DLUQV%DFFK\OLGHV)LYH(SLQLFLDQ2GHV7H[W,QWURGXFWRU\(VVD\VDQG
,QWHUSUHWDWLYH &RPPHQWDU\ 7UDQVO E\ ' / &DLUQV DQG - * +RZLH $5&$
&DPEULGJH
+)UlQNHO(DUO\*UHHN3RHWU\DQG3KLORVRSK\WUDQVOE\0+DGDVDQG-:LOOLV2[IRUG
1975.
7*HO]HUƏư˃ƴƣƣȸƪƫƥƧƮƠƳ, %HPHUNXQJHQ]XHLQHP7\S3LQGDULVFKHUXQG%DFFK\OLGHLVFKHU
(SLQLNLHQ0+±
%*HQWLOL3RHWU\DQG,WV3XEOLFLQ$QFLHQW*UHHFH)URP+RPHUWRWKH)LIWK&HQWXU\ (transl.,
ZLWKDQLQWURGXFWLRQE\$7K&ROH%DOWLPRUH±/RQGRQ
7$+DGMLPLFKDHO%DFFK\OLGHVDQGWKH(PHUJHQFHRIWKH/\ULF&DQRQ, London 2011.
T. Hubbard, 7KH3LQGDULF0LQG (Mnemosyne Suppl. 85), Leiden 1985.
5&-HEE%DFFK\OLGHV7KH3RHPVDQG)UDJPHQWVHGLWHGZLWK,QWURGXFWLRQ1RWHVDQG3URVH
7UDQVODWLRQ&DPEULGJH
M. Kaimio, &KDUDFWHUL]DWLRQRIWKH6RXQGLQ(DUO\*UHHN/LWHUDWXUH&RPPHQWDWLRQHV+X-
PDQDUXP/LWWHUDUXP+HOVLQNL
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*URQLQJHQ±$PVWHUGDP
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H. Maehler, %DFFK\OLGHV$6HOHFWLRQ&DPEULGJH
443LQG3\WK1HP 7,22, ,VWK3DH. 7B

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$'0RUULVRQ7KH1DUUDWRULQ$UFKDLF*UHHNDQG+HOOHQLVWLF3RHWU\&DPEULGJH
51QOLVW3RHWRORJLVFKH%LOGHUVSUDFKHLQGHUIUKJULHFKLVFKHQ'LFKWXQJ6WXWWJDUW±/HLS]LJ
1998.
*3DWWHQ3LQGDU'V0HWDSKRUV$6WXG\LQ5KHWRULFDQG0HDQLQJ, Heidelberg 2009.
5-3HQHOOD0DQDQGWKH:RUG7KH2UDWLRQVRI+LPHULXV%HUNHOH\±/RV$QJHOHV±/RQGRQ
2007.
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2009.
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performed at, the festivities dedicated to Dionysos. The theatrical competitions in these occa-
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the poet and his hero are scrutinised acutely. The merging of the motives of the author and the
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IRUHVHHSQEXW%LOHVPDQDJHVWRSURYLGH a fresh angle on the discussion with his
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lists and setting up commemorations for successful dramatists LVH[DPLQHGLQFRQQHFWLRQZLWK
the agonistic themes and forms of .QLJKWV,QWHUWH[WXDO%LRJUDSK\LQWKH5LYDOU\RI&UDWL-
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than the original performance. The obvious challenge to Biles's analysis on the revision of the
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new contestants with partially old material.
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in )URJV. ,QGLVFXVVLQJWKHSRHWLFVRIFRPSHWLWLRQLQ$ULVWRSKDQHVLWLVQRWVXUSULVLQJWKDWWKLV
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ever, Biles sets out to argue that the theme of agon is not limited only to the latter part of the
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especially the role of Dionysos in connection with poetical agon. The relationship between
agon in )URJVDQGWKH$WKHQLDQWKHDWUHDXGLHQFHDQG $ULVWRSKDQHV
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even bigger role could have been appointed to the fragments in order to further support the
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tophanes and ancient comedy.
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problematic nature of different approaches to the dialogues, but also his respectful attitude
towards the reader attempting to deal with such problems. This attitude is apparent from the
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The other two principles, holism and organicism, are less successfully applied. Instead
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the main themes in Wolfgang Wieland's 3ODWRQXQGGLH)RUPHQGHV:LVVHQV (1982), which,
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approach and the concept of irony. The Straussian approach might be called a branch of esoteri-
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cism which emphasises that philosophers hide their criticism of popular beliefs behind irony,
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instance of irony in the $SRORJ\. The problem in many cases is that the interpretation seems
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He argues that the $SRORJ\LVWKHNH\WRWKH3ODWRQLFFRUSXVDQGEDVHGRQWKHGUDPDWLFGDWHVRI
the dialogues, he suggests that the $SRORJ\may be the missing fourth dialogue, 3KLORVRSKHU
from the tetralogy of the dialogues 7KHDHWHWXV,6RSKLVW,and6WDWHVPDQS7KHDSSURDFK
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and the same Socrates and of one and the same philosophy but they are also all produced with
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own argument that science/philosophy is necessarily against an omnipotent god because a ra-
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VRXQG*UHHNWRWKH$SRORJ\ with the Delphic oracle story, because in Socrates' interpretation
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V$SRORJ\ that this brother is the only possible,
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V7LPDHXV, provides a
crucial foundation for this development.
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who has read the 7LPDHXVNQRZVLVIDUIURPZKDWLVRIIHUHG$OUHDG\LQWKHFRPPHQWHGWH[W
physics is entangled with mathematics, ethics and theology. Nature is both mathematical and
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geometric bodies, thus rendering the whole material world geometrical. Furthermore, whatever
is made of these elements is constituted of complicated proportions, resulting in an understand-
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purposes, and the cosmos has a structure with both aesthetic and moral value. This means that
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the divinity of the visible cosmos.
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distance, however, cannot but guide what the editor considers as valuable in the commentary.
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an admirably reliable and handy tool.
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Edited and translated by J. L. LIGHTFOOT /RHE &ODVVLFDO /LEUDU\ +DUYDUG 8QLYHUVLW\
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The last few decades have witnessed an astonishing growth in interest in the poetry of the Hellenis-
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OLPDFKXVDQGRWKHUVXSHUVWDUVRI+HOOHQLVWLFOLWHUDWXUHDVZHOODVRQVRPHZKDWKD]LHU\HWQRWOHVVHU
¿JXUHVOLNH(XSKRULRQIRUH[DPSOH$FRVWD+XJKHV±&XVVHW(XSKRULRQ2HXYUHSRpWLTXHHW
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poetry but also for a broader audience. This, of course, raises concerns because of the erudite
De novis libris iudicia
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very useful tool.
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catalogue poetry, the sense of literary history and scholarship. The Introduction ends with a
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Lightfoot also instructs the reader to consult the indispensable online Hellenistic Bibliography
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+HOOHQLVWLF&ROOHFWLRQ starts with the original ƱưƫƩƵɘƳǵvƣƬƣɚƬƲƫƵƫƬƽƳ3KLOLWDVRI
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SRHWVEXWKHLVHTXDOO\NQRZQIRUKLVVFKRODUO\ZRUNǼƵƣƬƵưƫƥƭːƴƴƣƫ, a glossary of arcane
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we possess only scattered fragments of his oeuvre: the longest continuous fragment is merely
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characteristics of Hellenistic poetry; the few fragments from the elegiac poem ƇƩvƠƵƩƲ are
SDUWLFXODUO\LOOXPLQDWLQJ/LJKWIRRWDFNQRZOHGJHVWKDWLQ&DOOLPDFKHDQDQG$UDWHDQDHVWKHW-
LFVWKHUHFRXOGEHDWOHDVWDSDUWLDODOOXVLRQWR3KLOLWDV
VXSSRVHGWKLQQHVVƭƧƱƵƽƳ), which was
either physical or metaphorical (p. 5).
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EXWSXUVXHGDOLWHUDU\DQGVFKRODUO\FDUHHULQ$QWDJRQLG3HOODDQGODWHULQ3WROHPDLF$OH[DQGULD
ZKHUHKHZDVHPSOR\HGE\3WROHP\,,3KLODGHOSKXVWRFRUUHFWWKHWH[WVRIWUDJHG\%HLQJDWUXH
SRHWDGRFWXVKLVRXWSXWZDVUDWKHUYDULHGDORQJZLWKWKHVFKRODUO\ZRUNVKHZURWHWUDJHGLHV
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ȆƲƺƵƫƬɔ
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+HUPHVLDQD[ RI &RORSKRQ LV WKH ZULWHU RI ƎƧƽƮƵƫưƮ, which is the longest continu-
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though Lightfoot argues that ƎƧƽƮƵƫưƮ
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ƎƧƽƮƵƫưƮQDPHGDIWHU+HUPHVLDQD[
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of famous punishments.
Arctos
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whose legacy on the Latin SRHWDHQRYL is famously portrayed in 7XVFZKHUH&LFHURGH-
fends Ennius from the scorn of the FDQWRUHV(XSKRULRQLV. Euphorion's poetry possessess some
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QRWH[FHVVLYHO\REVFXUH1LPLVHWLDPREVFXUXV(XSKRULRZURWH&LFHURdivSHUKDSV
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NLQJGRP7LPHKDVQRWEHHQNLQGWRKLVSURVHZRUNVDQGZHNQRZRQO\WKHWLWOHVRIVRPHRIKLV
ZRUN+RZHYHUZHSRVVHVVDFRQVLGHUDEOHDPRXQWRIKLVYHUVHRIWKHSDJHVRI+HOOHQLVWLF
&ROOHFWLRQ, Euphorion governs as much as 277 pages. Lightfoot concludes that Euphorion is
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opaque poet in this collection and poses a great challenge to the translator. Lightfoot manages
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WRQDYLJDWHWKURXJK(XSKRULRQ
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from the ƋƲʘƯLVDEHZLOGHULQJH[SHULHQFHHYHQZLWK/LJKWIRRW
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datic War and then brought to Rome, but eventually freed ƦƫɔƵɘƮƱƣơƦƧƶƴƫƮ7HPSRUDOO\3DU-
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In conclusion, Lightfoot's +HOOHQLVWLF&ROOHFWLRQ is the most valuable aid for a student
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untranslated, the same passage is however translated fully in Euphorion fr. 80.
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as ancient as our history of sharing our lives with other species.
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The contents are divided into twelve main chapters, preceded by an introduction and
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gustan period.
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which was socially approved by the educated.
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do learn quite a lot here.
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als and behaviour were often under scrutiny: the dancers were typically accused of immoral-
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Sophistic, is the proper education, SDLGHLD, as well as what it meant to be included as one of
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very clear manner of the controversial stance that pantomime had as a public form of entertain-
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tomime affected the viewer very effectively, it could teach harmful and morally questionable
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tries to twist the nonverbal (i.e. pantomime) to the verbal (i.e. word, education, literature). This
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opens up an image of Lucian as a prime pantomime. The closeness of a professional public
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tiquity and how it was, on the one hand, admired and esteemed, and, on the other, despised and
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number of chapters and a larger number of subchapters. The author's style seemed at points
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a welcome feature in academic writing. Most importantly, though, 6LOHQW(ORTXHQFHPDNHVD
SLYRWDOVWHSWRZDUGVGDQFHEHLQJWDNHQDVDPHDQLQJIXODFDGHPLFVXEMHFW
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&LFHUR&DWLOLQDULDQV. Edited by ANDREW R. DYCK&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV&DPEULGJH±

1HZ<RUN,6%1KESE;9,,SS*%3
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V&DWL
OLQDULDQV, or at least &DWLOLQLDULDQIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHDWVFKRROWKLVKDYLQJEHHQWKH¿UVWELW
RI&LFHURWKH\KDGWRSHUXVH)URPWKHSRLQWRIYLHZRI&LFHURDQGRUWKH&DWLOLQDULDQVthis
LV QRW QHFHVVDULO\ D JRRG WKLQJ IRU RQH FRXOG GHVFULEH &LFHUR
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beginning (with 4XRXVTXHWDQGHPDEXWHUHand all the rest) as a bit on the heavy side, and I
DPTXLWHVXUHWKHWH[WDVDZKROHZLOOKDYHOHIWTXLWHDQXPEHURIWHHQDJHUVZLWKPL[HGIHHO-
LQJVDQGSHUKDSVHYHQWKHZLVKQHYHUWRUHWXUQWRWKLVSDUWLFXODUZRUNDJDLQ,WFRXOGWKHQEH
DUJXHGWKDWLWZRXOGEHSUHIHUDEOHWRKDYHRQH
V¿UVWWDVWHRIWKH&DWLOLQDULDQV at a more mature
age. Reading the four &DWLOLQDULDQVwith some attention is certainly worth the trouble, for both
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the people, and many other features (e.g., some of the material in &DW,9PDNHWKLVFROOHFWLRQ
most interesting reading. It is thus with satisfaction that one observes the publication of this
FRPPHQWDU\DLPHGDWDGYDQFHGXQGHUJUDGXDWHVDQGJUDGXDWHVWXGHQWVE\RQHRIWKHPRVW
HPLQHQW&LFHURQLDQVFKRODUV
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VW\OHHWF$WWKHHQGWKHUHDUHWKUHH$SSHQGLFHVGHDOLQJZLWKWKHKLVWRULFDOVRXUFHVFLWHGLQ
the commentary, the date of &DWWKHFRPPRQYLHZWKDWWKHVSHHFKZDVGHOLYHUHGRQ
1RYHPEHUEHLQJPDLQWDLQHGDQGZLWKSURVHUK\WKP$VIRUWKHWH[WRIWKHVSHHFKHVLWVHHPV
WREHEDVHGRQWKDWRI0DVORZVNLZLWKVRPHPRGL¿FDWLRQVOLVWHGRQS7RFRPPHQWXSRQ
a detail or two, I am not sure that it was a good idea to dispense with LXUH!LQIRUWKH
advantages of this addition seem to me more than obvious (there seems to be no point in L.
&DHVDUVLPSO\REVHUYLQJZLWKRXWFRPPHQWWKDWKLVPDWHUQDOJUDQGIDWKHUKDGEHHQNLOOHGDORQJ
with his son). In 1,20, DOLTXDVin GXELWDV«DELUHLQDOLTXDVWHUUDVseems to me most unat-
Arctos
tractive (DOLTXRLQDGGXFHGLQWKHFRPPHQWDU\LVLQP\YLHZDELWGLIIHUHQW,QWKH

reading XUEHVin XUEHVFRORQLDUXPDFPXQLFLSLRUXP (corresponding to WXPXOLVVLOYHVWULEXV)
seems to me practically meaningless, and perhaps something should have been done about this,
HVSHFLDOO\DV'\FNKLPVHOIKDVDQHYHQEHWWHUHPHQGDWLRQWKDQDUFHVZKLFK*DUDWRQLRIIHUV
namely PXULUHOHJDWHGWRWKHFRPPHQWDU\,QWKHQRWHRQWKHWH[WRIWKHSKUDVHHLHFLW
0RPPVHQIRUZKDWLVQRUPDOO\IRUPXODWHGDVdelevit seems to have been inspired by HLHFLWH[
urbeFLWHGRQWKHVDPHSDJHLQWKHQRWHRQWKHWH[WRI
$VIRUWKHFRPPHQWDU\,PXVWVD\WKDW,IRXQGLWYHU\LPSUHVVLYHHVSHFLDOO\FRQVLGHU-
LQJWKDWZULWLQJDJRRGFRPPHQWDU\RQDQDQFLHQWWH[WLVVXUHO\WKHPRVWGLI¿FXOWWDVNDSKL-
lologist can face. Even if the author is in total command of the material, there is always the
question of what to comment upon and what to leave out, and even in this case one might argue
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SWKDWiis (in 2,20 6XOODVLWLLVDELQIHULVH[FLWDQGXVLVWKHGDWRIDJHQWRUSWKDW
QRUDWis contracted from QRYHUDW2QWKHRWKHUKDQGRQHZRXOGKDYHOLNHGWRKDYHWKHDXWKRU
V
opinion, e.g., on QDPin 2,21 (QDPLOOXGQRQLQWHOOHJRTXDPREUHP etc.), where QDPdoes not
VHHPWRKDYHLWVPRVWFRPPRQPHDQLQJ
IRU
EXWSHUKDSVUDWKHUWKDWRIVRPHWKLQJOLNH
PRUHR-
ver' (2/' 4).
But these are of course minor details which do not obscure the fact that in my opinion
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QHHGHG DQG D QLFH EDODQFH EHWZHHQ SKLORORJLFDO DQG KLVWRULFDO PDWWHUV$OO WKH ERRNV KDYH
most informative separate introductions, but there are shorter introductions also to various sec-
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too, has a gift with words; note, e.g., the comment on PHGLRFULWHUODEHIDFWDQWHPLQWKLVLV
VDLGQRWVRPXFKLQH[WHQXDWLRQRI*UDFFKXVDVLQFRQWUDVWWR&DWLOLQH
VJUDYHUWKUHDW,DOVR
OLNHGHJWKHQRWHRQWKHPDLRUHVZHUHDSSHDOHGWRE\&LFHURDVDQDXWKRULW\RQD
YDULHW\RIWRSLFVRUWKDWRQLPSXGHQV… applies to those who pursue their individual
LQWHUHVWVDWWKHH[SHQVHRIWKHQRUPVRIVRFLHW\RUWKDWRQQHORQJXPVLW… assures
WKHUHDGHUOLVWHQHUWKDW&LFHURLVFRPLQJWRWKHSRLQW,QWKHFRPPHQWDU\RQWKHGD-
tive PLKL(in TXLPLKLDFFXEDQWHVLQFRQYLYLLVHWFUHFHLYHVWKHVSOHQGLGFRPPHQWmihiNHHSV
&LFHURSUHVHQWDVWKHGLVDSSURYLQJREVHUYHUEXWLVQRWWREHUHQGHUHGLQ(QJOLVKDXWKRUV
RI/DWLQJUDPPDUVPLJKWZLVKWRWDNHQRWHRIWKLV
2IFRXUVHWKHUHDUHDOVRGHWDLOVRQHFRXOGDUJXHDERXW2QSLWLVVDLGWKDWLSVLin
1,10 (in FXPLOOLLSVLYHQLVVHQWTXRVHJR«YHQWXURVHVVHSUDHGL[HUDPPHDQVLQSHUVRQEXW
P\IHHOLQJLVWKDWVRPHWKLQJOLNHH[DFWO\WKRVHSHUVRQVZRXOGFRPHFORVHUWRZKDW&LFHURLV
VD\LQJ2QS,¿QGLWKDUGWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHFRPPHQW+HUHLWEHFRPHVFOHDUHWFRQ
(VLKRF«RSSUHVVXV$VIRUHWLDPDWTXHHWLDPin 2,27, I have always thought that it means
VRPHWKLQJOLNHDJDLQDQGDJDLQEXWRQSZHDUHWROGWKDWLWPHDQVHDUQHVWO\ZKLFKRI
FRXUVHPD\DPRXQWWRSUHWW\PXFKWKHVDPHWKLQJ,QWKHFRPPHQWDU\RQFRQFHUQLQJWKH
SURSKHF\RIWKH6LE\OOLQHERRNVUHJDUGLQJWKHWKUHH&RUQHOLLDSDVVDJHZKLFKLQP\RSLQLRQ
PXVWSURYHWKDWWKH&RUQHOLL&LQQDHZHUHDOVRSDWULFLDQVWKRXJKWKLVLVQRWH[SOLFLWO\DWWHVWHG
DQ\ZKHUHWKHDXWKRUSZRQGHUV+RZGLG/HQWXOXV¿QGRXWDERXWWKHSURSKHF\"+H
IXUWKHUREVHUYHV,WGRHVQRWVRXQGOLNHWKHNLQGRIWKLQJWKHTXLQGHFLPXLUL would report pub-
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in the actual passage, not only the IDWD6LE\OOLQD but also the KDUXVSLFXPUHVSRQVD are adduced
as sources for this story, and in my view the formulation VHHVVHWHUWLXPLOOXP&RUQHOLXPDG
TXHPUHJQXP«SHUYHQLUHHVVHWQHFHVVH (note especially LOOXP) cannot be interpreted otherwise

than as showing that HYHU\ERG\NQHZDERXWWKHVWRU\
2OOL6DORPLHV
7KH&DPEULGJH&RPSDQLRQWR/XFUHWLXV. Edited by STUART GILLESPIE±PHILIP HARDIE&DP-

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7KH&DPEULGJH&RPSDQLRQWR7DFLWXV. Edited by A. J. WOODMAN&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

&DPEULGJH±1HZ<RUN,6%1KESE;9,
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This is a review of two companion volumes from the &DPEULGJH&RPSDQLRQ series. Discuss-
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WKHVDPHVHULHVOLNHWKHVHWZR,QVXFKDYROXPHRQHH[SHFWVWKHFRQWULEXWRUVWRPDVWHUWKHLU
VXEMHFWDQGDVLWLVQRWXVXDOWRRIIHUQHZDQGRULJLQDODUJXPHQWVWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWWKLQJWR
EHH[SHFWHGIURPDFKDSWHULQDFRPSDQLRQLVHDVLQHVVRIFRQVXOWDWLRQDQGFODULW\RIH[SRVLWLRQ
There is an inherent inconsistency in the established aim of the companion volumes
VWDWHGH[SOLFLWO\RQS[YLQWKH&RPSDQLRQWR7DFLWXV). First, the authors of chapters should
manage to say something that is accessible and interesting to the non-specialist (ranging from
WKHK\SRWKHWLFDOJHQHUDOUHDGHUWRVFKRODUVZRUNLQJRQRWKHUDVSHFWVRIDQWLTXLW\$WWKHVDPH
WLPHKRZHYHUWKHDXWKRUVVKRXOGFRYHUWKHLU¿HOGDGHTXDWHO\UHSRUWWKHYLHZVRISUHYLRXV
VFKRODUVDQGSUHIHUDEO\DOVRPDNHWKHLUSHUVRQDOYRLFHKHDUG5HYLHZLQJUHFHQWVFKRODUVKLS
and providing a useful account of the topic for the non-specialist are not necessarily goals eas-
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to the views promoted by previous generations, and reporting the entire tradition together with
modern viewpoints in an article of average length while holding on to the ideal of clarity may
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The results of this can be seen in that too often the chapters fail to present their basic in-
formation lucidly enough to provide the non-specialist (say, a university teacher coming from
VRPHRWKHUDUHDRIDQFLHQWVFKRODUVKLSZLWKDTXLFNDQGHDV\UHYLHZRIWKHFHQWUDOWRSLFV7KH\
PD\VHUYHDVVWDWHRIWKHDUWUHSRUWVIRUUHDGHUVIDPLOLDUZLWKWKHVXEMHFWEXWLIWKH\DUHOLPLWHG
WRWKLVWKH\IDLOWRVHUYHRQHRIWKHWZRH[SOLFLWDLPVRIFRPSDQLRQV
*LYHQWKHVHGRXEWVUHJDUGLQJWKHQDWXUHDQGJRDOVRIFRPSDQLRQVLWLVDSOHDVXUHWR
note that in both volumes there are many good chapters that do succeed in combining these
two aspects.
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ZRUNV DQG HQWLWOHG
7H[WV,ZRXOGOLNHWRVLQJOHRXWWKHFKDSWHUVE\7KRPDVRQWKH*HUPDQLD*ROGEHUJRQ
the 'LDORJXV0DOORFKRQWKH&ODXGLDQ$QQDOV) and Keitel (on the Neronian $QQDOV) as good
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7RSLFVLVRQHRIWKHPRVWLQWHUHVWLQJLQWKHZKROHYROXPH7KHFKDSWHUE\2DNOH\RQODQ-
JXDJHDQGVW\OHLVUHZDUGLQJHYHQWRWKHQRWLQVLJQL¿FDQWQXPEHURISHRSOHIRUZKRP7DFLWXV

270 Arctos
ODQJXDJHUHPDLQVWKHPRVWDVWRQLVKLQJIHDWXUHRIKLVOLWHUDU\SHUVRQ,QWKHIRXUWKDQG¿QDOVHF-
WLRQ7UDQVPLVVLRQWKHFKDSWHUE\0DUWLQZKRVHODVWVFKRODUO\FRQWULEXWLRQWKLVLVFIWKH
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There is a considerable difference in the scope of material to be discussed in the two
YROXPHVWKHZKROHRHXYUHRI7DFLWXVVHWDJDLQVWWKHVROHVXUYLYLQJZRUNRI/XFUHWLXVWKH'H
UHUXPQDWXUD3HUKDSVSDUWO\EHFDXVHRIWKLVOHVVWKDQKDOIRIWKH/XFUHWLXVYROXPHLVDERXW
/XFUHWLXVDQGKLVZRUN7KHUHVWDUHDERXWYDULRXVSKDVHVLQWKHUHFHSWLRQRIWKH'HUHUXP
QDWXUD,WLVRIFRXUVHRQO\QDWXUDOWKDWDZRUNZLWKVXFKDVSHFLDOSODFHLQWKHKLVWRU\RIVFL-
ence and an intriguing reception history should have a companion where these aspects are
adequately covered. But the volume as it stands now should have included the word 'reception'
in its title.
7KH ¿UVW FKDSWHU DIWHU WKH LQWURGXFWLRQ:DUUHQ
V RQ /XFUHWLXV
UHODWLRQVKLS WR *UHHN
SKLORVRSK\LVH[FHOOHQW)DUUHOO
VFKDSWHURQWKHVWUXFWXUHRIWKH'HUHUXPQDWXUD can be recom-
mended for its clarity. Interesting but not as clear in their content or style are the chapters by
6FKLHVDURRQ/XFUHWLXVDQG5RPDQSROLWLFVDQG*DOH/XFUHWLXVDQGSUHYLRXVSRHWLFDOWUDGL-
WLRQV7KHFKDSWHUE\2EELQNRQWKHH[LJXRXVIUDJPHQWVRI/XFUHWLXVIURPWKH+HUFXODQHXP
OLEUDU\QLFHO\H[SDQGVWKHUHDGHU
VSHUVSHFWLYHRQ/XFUHWLXVHYHQLILWLVE\QHFHVVLW\UDWKHU
speculative.
$PRQJWKHFKDSWHUVRQWKHDIWHUOLIHRI/XFUHWLXVWKHFKDSWHUE\5HHYHRQWUDQVPLVVLRQ
LQWKH0LGGOH$JHVLVWKHPRVWLQWHUHVWLQJWRWKHDYHUDJHFODVVLFLVWHYHQLIUDWKHUFRPSDFWLQ
LWVH[SUHVVLRQ$QLQWHUHVWLQJDQGZHOOZULWWHQFKDSWHULVWKHRQHE\-RKQVRQDQG:LOVRQRQ
Lucretius and the history of science.
Kenney's chapter on language and style is good, but is more about style than language,
DQGRQHZRXOGKDYHKRSHGWRVHHDFKDSWHURQODQJXDJHSURSHUDVZHOOZKHUHIRUH[DPSOH/X-
cretius' taste for archaism or other aspects of his language would have been discussed in more
detail. The absence of such a chapter is probably a by-product of the volume's policy to be (to
FLWHWKHEDFNFRYHUFRPSOHWHO\DFFHVVLEOHWRWKHUHDGHUZKRKDVUHDG/XFUHWLXVRQO\LQWUDQV-
ODWLRQ,QVXFKDYROXPHDPRUHSKLORORJLFDOO\RULHQWHGUHDGHUZLOO¿QGOHVVXVHIXOPDWHULDO
2QHWKLQJWKDWUHDGHUVRIFRPSDQLRQVZLOOFHUWDLQO\EHORRNLQJIRUDUHWKHELEOLRJUDSKL-
FDOUHIHUHQFHVRIYDULRXVFKDSWHUVDPRQJWKHPWKH)XUWKHUUHDGLQJVHFWLRQV7KHOHQJWKDQG
QXPEHURIFRPPHQWVLQWKHVHVHFWLRQVYDULHVUHPDUNDEO\LQERWKYROXPHV,QSDUWWKLVLVD
natural result of the varying range of materials covered by the individual chapters, but more
editorial guidance might have rendered them more useful down the line.
The ambitious goal of these companions means that not all chapters will satisfy all po-
tential users, but some of them do, and all will probably satisfy at least some of their potential
users.
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7KH&DPEULGJH&RPSDQLRQWR+RUDFH. Edited by STEPHEN HARRISON&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\

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tion of Horace's Odes,QDGGLWLRQWKHERRNFRQWDLQVEULHIFKDSWHUVRQ+RUDFH
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ground of the Odes. Lyons then turns his attention to the question of whether Horace was also
a composer of songs. He highlights the hypothesis that Horace's Odes were originally songs, as
LVDOVRVXJJHVWHGE\WKHWLWOH&DUPLQDDQGQRWMXVWSRHPVDVZDVWKHFRPPRQEHOLHILQWKH
twentieth century. Lyons also wants to point out that Horace was not musically illiterate, bas-
ing his statements mainly on the references to music and musical instruments that occur in the
Odes7KHDXWKRUIXUWKHUJLYHVDEULHIDFFRXQWDERXWDQFLHQW*UHHNPXVLFWKHRU\ZKLFKXQIRU-
WXQDWHO\RYHUVLPSOL¿HVIRUH[DPSOHWKHXVHRIPRGHVLQGLIIHUHQWJHQHUD/\RQVDOVRFRPPLWV
a slight solecism when he erroneously describes EDUELWRQDVDVPDOOHULQVWUXPHQWPRUHOLNHD
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of the melody used in the hymn 8WTXHDQWOD[LVZKLFKZDVWKHVRQJZKHUH*XLGRG
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VWKH2GHWR3K\OOLV, but he does not claim that the
melody in question was composed by Horace himself. He bases his hypothesis on the manu-
VFULSWNQRZQWRVFKRODUVDV0ZKLFKLQFOXGHVWKH2GHWR3K\OOLV with neume notation. It
must be noted that Lyons is not the original discoverer of the fact that the ode in M425 and
8WTXHDQWOD[LV are sung with the same melody (as he also admits on p. 222), this having been
QRWLFHGPXFKHDUOLHU/\RQVUHIHUVWR*HUDUG$EUDKDP
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that the melody of the 2GHWR3K\OOLVLVWKHVRXUFHWKDW*XLGRXVHGZKHQKHLQYHQWHGWKHVRO-
PL]DWLRQV\VWHPEHFDXVH0LVWKHRQO\NQRZQHDUO\PHGLHYDOPDQXVFULSWFRQWDLQLQJWKH
same melody as that used in 8WTXHDQWOD[LV+HDOVRVXJJHVWVWKDWWKHUHDVRQZK\*XLGRGRHV
not mention that he employs the melody used in one of Horace's Odes is that, because of the
pressures of religious politics, it would not have been proper to use such a profane melody in
UHOLJLRXVPXVLF$IWHUWKLVWKRXJKWSURYRNLQJHQLJPD/\RQVLQWURGXFHVKLVWUDQVODWLRQRIWKH
Odes.
The English verse translation is aimed at students without a developed understanding of
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the 2GHWR1HREXOH. In general, he puts weight on the requirements of English rhyme and does
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when translating FLWKDUD as 'guitar' and WLELDDV
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OLEHUWLHVZLWK+RUDFH
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PDNHV+RUDFH
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history and literature.
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quainted with Horace's Odes and his life. The chapter on the origin of the melody of 8WTXHDQW
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XVHG,WLVXQOLNHO\WKDWWKHVHWZRVRQJVZHUHWKHRQO\RQHVZLWKWKLVPHORG\+RZHYHUHYHQ
Lyons does not claim that Horace himself would have been the composer of the melody that
is found in M425, and it is evident that there is no connection between the actual music that
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entgangen, dass ƆƽƲƫƱƱưƳQRFKHLQPDOLQ.OHLQDVLHQEHOHJWLVWLQ.RU\NRVLQHLQHUFKULVWOLFKHQ
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has been manipulated for political and nationalist ends. Stephenson sets out to undermine the
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butcher engaged for decades in a systematic attempt to eliminate utterly neighbouring Bulgar-
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peaceful rhythm and that the emperor's supremely glorious or bloodthirsty (depending on one's
ideological point of view) reputation was largely a propagandistic creation of later times.
7KHERRNLVGLYLGHGLQWRHLJKWFKDSWHUVEXWLWFDQEHVHHQDVFRQVLVWLQJHVVHQWLDOO\RI
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Bulgarian campaigns. Here Stephenson's main argument is that, instead of a protracted war of
attrition aiming at and ending in the total political and administrative incorporation of Bulgaria
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chance to occupy the rival realm only when the opportunity presented itself, and even then
leaving the local power structures largely intact as local magnates were simply incorporated
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The rest of the study is devoted to charting the posthumous development of Basil's im-
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Bulgarian victories or the use of the brutal epithet ƅưƶƭƥƣƲưƬƵƽƮưƳ%XOJDU6OD\HULQWKHDUW
and literature dating from Basil's reign or the immediately following period. In contrast, chap-
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SHULRG ZKHQ WKH %\]DQWLQHV IRXQG WKHPVHOYHV FRQIURQWHG ZLWK D VHFRQG %XOJDULDQ (PSLUH
DIWHU±)LQDOO\FKDSWHUV±H[SORUHWKHZD\VLQZKLFKDQLGHDOL]HG%DVLOWKH%XOJDU
6OD\HUZDVPDGHSDUWRIWKHQDWLRQDOLVWP\WKDQGZDUWLPHSURSDJDQGDLQ*UHHFHLQWKHHDUO\
20thFHQWXU\HVSHFLDOO\GXULQJWKH%DONDQFRQÀLFWVZLWKWKHPRGHUQ%XOJDULDQVWDWH
7KHERRNLVZHOOZULWWHQDQGWKHPDLQDUJXPHQWVDUHJHQHUDOO\FRQYLQFLQJWKRXJKWKH
reader sometimes has the frustrating impression that, no matter how seductive the evidence
presented by Stephenson is, there is simply not enough surviving material from the period to
HVWDEOLVKKLVVXJJHVWLRQVDVIDFW7RWDNHMXVWRQHH[DPSOHWKHDXWKRUKDVWRFRQFOXGHWKDWZH
FDQQRW NQRZ ZKHWKHU WKH SHULRG ± FRQVLVWHG RI FRQVWDQWZDUIDUH DV WKH ROGHU DF-
counts would have us believe), or a formal truce between Basil and the Tsar Samuel (Stephen-
son's suggestion), or simply a relatively calm period punctuated by raiding on a smaller scale
6KHSDUG
VWKHRU\:KDWLVHVWDEOLVKHGIRUFHUWDLQLVWKDW6N\OLW]HV
FKURQLFOHFDQQRWEHUHDGDV
GHFLVLYHSURRILQIDYRXURIWKHROGHUYLHZ6LPLODUO\WKHEXONRIFKDSWHUFRQVLVWVHVVHQWLDOO\
RIDUHIXWDWLRQRIWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWZRZHOONQRZQZRUNVRIDUWWKHHPSHURU
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depicting Basil's Bulgarian triumph, but this does nothing of course to rule out the theoretical
possibility that such a depiction simply hasn't survived. In contrast, when tracing the origins of
WKHHSLWKHW%XOJDU6OD\HU6WHSKHQVRQWUHDGVRQ¿UPHUJURXQGDVWKHPDWHULDOSUHVHQWHGLQ
chapter 5 seems to leave little room for an origin contemporary to Basil himself.
Such limitations stem, of course, from the fragmentary nature of the material available
and are not due to the author. Despite relying on many DUJXPHQWDHVLOHQWLR and presenting
ideas which can well be challenged, overall the study should be considered a success as it man-
DJHVWRGHPRQVWUDWHH[DFWO\KRZWKLQLVWKHLFHWKDWPDQ\WUDGLWLRQDODFFRXQWVRI%DVLO
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and reputation tread on, offering a revised view which, if not indisputable, at least seems much
more credible than the previous one.
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FDODFFRXQWRIDFRQWURYHUVLDO%\]DQWLQHHPSHURU
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later reputation, 7KH/HJHQGRI%DVLOWKH%XOJDU6OD\HUcan also be recommended to a wider
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reminder of the perils of recreating history for political purposes. It is a tragic irony that the
UHDO%DVLOODWHULGROL]HGDVDFKDPSLRQRIYLROHQWQDWLRQDOLVPVHHPVWRKDYHDFWLYHO\SURPRWHG
LQWHUPDUULDJHDPRQJWKH%\]DQWLQHDQG%XOJDULDQDULVWRFUDFLHVDQGLQFRUSRUDWHGWKHODWWHULQWR
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a shrewd, pragmatically minded ruler with an interest in preserving the stability of his multi-
cultural empire.
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278 Arctos
7KH2ULJLQVRI7KHDWHULQ$QFLHQW*UHHFHDQG%H\RQG)URP5LWXDOWR'UDPD. Edited by ERIC

CSAPO and MARGARET C. MILLER&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV1HZ<RUN,6%1
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The origins of theatre and the relation of ritual and drama have been discussed in many re-
search areas from the 19th century onwards. This volume is a thorough and many-sided contri-
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culture, while the third introduces comparative cases from other cultures. Each part begins
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LQWKHFRQWH[WRIDQFLHQWWKHDWUH7KHYROXPHHQGVZLWK3DUW,95LFKDUGV6HDIRUG
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remind us of the importance to revise studies that hold a central position in scholarship, a good
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following chapters aim at answering this question, each handling the archeological material
from slightly different angles.
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scattered, and, in line with that, Smith concludes the chapter with a cautious statement (p. 72):
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masts/padded dancers and drama cannot in fact be proven. What becomes clear already in the
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says about regional practices and how these may have been used by painters in other areas and
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though it is tempting to see dancers that are named on a vase as representatives of pre-dramatic
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by anthropology, namely, that ritual activity be described as systematically as possible, set in
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comedy as evolving out of solos performed by the leaders of phallic processions and tragedy
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SHUIRUPDQFHVFRQVWLWXWLQJSURWRW\SHVRIKLVWRULFDOFKRUDOVRQJDQGGDQFHUDWKHUWKDQGRFX-
PHQWDU\HYLGHQFHRIULWXDOSUDFWLFHVRIPDVTXHUDGLQJDVDVLOHQS+HGLVFXVVHVGLIIHU-
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RI'LRQ\VXVDQG$ULDGQHRIZKLFKRQHRIWKHPRVWIDPRXVLVWKH3URQRPRV9DVHWKHIXOOHVW
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and dance, Hedreen states that the vase paintings contribute to this argument, that is, the choroi
280 Arctos
of silens are not a literary innovation of the late 5th century but rather a much earlier concept
(p. 184). When the author compares the wedding scenes on vases with the concluding passage
LQ;HQRSKRQ
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LVRIDPXFKODWHUGDWHWKDQWKHYDVHVWKHFRPSDULVRQLVXVHIXOEHFDXVHLWKHOSVXVWRVHHWKDW
WKHVFHQH>RQWKHYDVHV@FDQEHXQGHUVWRRGDVDIRUPRIGDQFHS7KLVLVLQGHHGWKH
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have been used in the title.
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XQGHUWKHWLWOH)URPULWXDOWRQDUUDWLYHSS±+HYLHZVWKHVHVFHQHVDVSUHVHQWLQJ
PLPHWLFGDQFHDQGWKXVWKHNRPDVWVIRUPDQHVVHQWLDOOLQNEHWZHHQFXOWLFGDQFHDQGGDQFH
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NRPDVWV WR GLWK\UDPE DQG FRPHG\ GLVFXVVLQJ QRW RQO\ WKH YDVHV EXW DOVR OLWHUDU\ SDVVDJHV
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cautious when he states that the mimetic narrative dances can be seen as catalysts for dithy-
ramb and drama (p. 217).
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shall dance!' (Eur. %DFFK 'LRQ\VXV
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UHPLQGVWKHUHDGHURIWKHLPSRUWDQWG\QDPLFEHWZHHQGUDPDULWXDODQGWKHLUVRFLDOFRQWH[W
7KHLGHDWKDWWKHUHZRXOGEHQRLQLWLDWLRQWR'LRQ\VXVZLWKRXWGDQFLQJHVSSS±LV
inspiring for a dance historian; it underlines the aspect of dance as an effective medium of
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LQWKHFRQFOXGLQJVHFWLRQ.RZDO]LJDUJXHVSWKDWWKHFKRURVPD\EHXQGHUVWRRGDVWKH
PHGLXPWKDWPDNHV*UHHNWKHDWUHDULWXDOWKDWLVWKHFRPPXQLFDWLRQZLWKWKHJRGLVLQWKLV
VSHFL¿FJDWKHULQJRISHRSOHPDGHSRVVLEOHWKURXJKGDQFHFKRURV
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3DWWRQSS±7KH¿UVWFDVHEH\RQGWKHERXQGDULHVRIDQFLHQW*UHHFHLV(J\SW5RQDOG-
/HSKURQZULWHVDERXW5LWXDOGUDPDLQDQFLHQW(J\SWSS±7KLVDUWLFOHSURYLGHVDQ
RYHUYLHZRIVRPHRIWKHUHOHYDQWWH[WV7KHDUWLFOHKRZHYHUODFNVFODULW\ZKHQGLVFXVVLQJWKH
GDWHDQGODQJXDJHRIWKHWH[WVLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRNQRZZKHWKHUDWH[WLVZULWWHQLQ(J\SWLDQDQG
LQZKDWIRUPRULQ*UHHNDQGRQHFDQQHYHUEHWRROLJKWKHDUWHGDERXWWKHYDVWWLPHVSDQRIWKH
material from Egypt. Without the information that papyrologists or Egyptologists are familiar
ZLWKIRUH[DPSOHZKLFKSDS\UXVSXEOLFDWLRQVGHDOZLWKWH[WVRQO\ZULWWHQLQ(J\SWLDQRULQ
*UHHNWKHUHDGHUPD\EHUDWKHUFRQIXVHGRUHYHQLJQRUDQWRIWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKHLVVXHRI
ODQJXDJH2QHH[DPSOHLVWKHGLVFXVVLRQRID3WROHPDLFGRFXPHQWWKHWH[WGDWHVWRWKH*UHHN
SHULRGEXWWKHUHDGHULVQRWJLYHQLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWLWVODQJXDJHS±)XUWKHULWLVDELW
FRQIXVLQJWRUHDGFKDSWHU*UHHNVRXUFHVDVRQHZRXOGH[SHFWVRPHWKLQJPRUHWKDQMXVW
EULHI GLVFXVVLRQV RI WZR SDVVDJHV RI +HURGRWRV SS ±$V WR WKH GLVFXVVLRQ DERXW WKH
PDVNVSS±LWZRXOGEHJRRGWRFRQVLGHUWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIDSDQWRPLPHSHUIRUPDQFH
WKDWLVWKHSHUVRQZKRZHDUVWKHPDVNGRHVQRWQHHGWRVSHDNKLPVHOIEXWFDQWHOOWKHVWRU\
ZLWKRXWZRUGVHVSHFLDOO\ZKHQWKHWUDGLWLRQRIWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHDQFLHQW*UHFR5RPDQSDQ-
WRPLPHFODLPVWKHRULJLQRIWKHJHQUHWRGHULYHIURPWKH(DVW$OH[DQGULDDQG&LOLFLD$OO
in all, the role of Egyptian sources and culture deserves to be discussed and studied in depth in
respect to theatre, drama and religious public performances in the ancient world, and this paper
is one step in that direction.
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serves also as a reminder of how cultural practices change over time: they can be incorporated
LQQHZRXWVLGHUSUDFWLFHVRUEHLQÀXHQFHGE\RWKHUUHOLJLRQVDQGFXOWXUHVIRUH[DPSOHDOLY-
ing religious performance.
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XUJ\DQGWKHQWKHVRFDOOHGTXHPTXDHULWLV:KRPGR\RXVHHN"FHUHPRQ\3HWHUVHQYLHZV
the TXHPTXDHULWLV ceremony as a liturgical drama, a ceremony included in the Easter morning
church celebrations that has dramatic elements. What caught my attention was the brief men-
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ZKROH$VVKHSXWVLWLQTXRWLQJ5R\5DSSDSRUWRQSHUIRUPHUVLQULWXDOVDQGFRPSDULQJ5DS-
SDSRUW
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HQWRILWVH[LVWHQFHRQWKHLQVWDQFHVLWLVSHUIRUPHGRQLWVSHUIRUPHUV@IRUGUDPDWLFZRUNVQR
matter how enshrined they have become in the literary canons of their respective cultures: if it
LVQRWSHUIRUPHGDSOD\LVDOLWHUDU\DUWLIDFWDVNHOHWRQRIDOLYLQJDQGOLYHGHQWLW\FDSDEOHRI
EHLQJVWXGLHGEXWQHYHUWKHOHVVKDOIGHDGS$QGHYHQWKRXJKZHFDQQRWJREDFNLQWLPH
WRSDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHWKHDWULFDOGLVSOD\VDWWKHWKHDWUHRI'LRQ\VRVLQ$WKHQVLQWKHth century
%&ZHVKRXOGQRWLJQRUHWKHSHUIRUPDQFHDVDZKROHLIZHDUHWRVWXG\DQFLHQWSOD\VRUWKHDWUH
as an institution.
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UHWXUQWRWKHWH[WDQGWKHQ¿QGWKHQH[WSLFWXUHUHIHUUHGWR,WZRXOGKDYHEHHQPRUHFRQYHQLHQW
WRSULQWWKHLOOXVWUDWLRQVDWWKHHQGRIWKHERRN,QWKHLQGH[WKHUHFRXOGEHPRUHGHWDLOHGLQIRU-
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282 Arctos
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dance.
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These days, introductions to various areas of ancient culture are frequently being published,
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:LWKWKHSULPHTXDOLW\ZRUNE\PDQ\VFKRODUVLQWKHUHFHQWSDVWWKHQHZLQWURGXFWLRQWR*UHHN
tragedy by Ruth Scodel faces intense competition.
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,QWKH¿UVWIRXUFKDSWHUV6FRGHOVHHNVWRSURYLGHWKHQHFHVVDU\EDFNJURXQGIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJ
*UHHNWUDJLFGUDPD'H¿QLWLRQVRI*UHHNWUDJHG\DQFLHQWDQGPRGHUQDSSURDFKHVWRWUDJHG\
and its origins, and festivals and competitions are discussed, as well as the historical and intel-
OHFWXDOFRQWH[WLQZKLFK*UHHNWUDJHG\H[LVWHG7KHPLVVLRQRIHTXLSSLQJWKHUHDGHUZLWKDQ
DELOLW\WRDQDO\VHWUDJLFWH[WVLVODXGDEO\FDUULHGRXW$IWHUHDFKFKDSWHUDOLVWRIIXUWKHUUHDGLQJ
and sources is given in a very user-friendly fashion, as Scodel does not only FDWDORJXHWKHWH[WV
EXWDOVRFRPPHQWVRQWKHPEULHÀ\7KHIROORZLQJHLJKWFKDSWHUVDUHGHGLFDWHGWRDQDO\VHVRI
seven chosen plays and one trilogy (3HUVLDQV and the 2UHVWHLDWULORJ\E\$HVFK\OXV$QWLJRQH
and 2HGLSXVWKH.LQJ by Sophocles, and 0HGHD, +LSSRO\WXV, +HOHQ, and Orestes by Euripides).
The selection of the plays is a successful one, as the plays are different enough from each other
to enable Scodel to raise various points of view, possibilities, and thematic considerations. In
my opinion, the analysis of +HOHQ is the strongest. ([DPLQLQJ WKH SOD\ 6FRGHO VXFFHHGV LQ
¿QGLQJDUHPDUNDEOHEDODQFHEHWZHHQPDNLQJWKHSOD\XQGHUVWDQGDEOHDQGDWWKHVDPHWLPH
GHPRQVWUDWLQJWKHJHQXLQHGLI¿FXOWLHVLQLQWHUSUHWLQJRIWKHSOD\
7KH¿QDOFKDSWHU7UDJLF0RPHQWVLVGLYLGHGLQWRWZRSDUWVVRPHZKDWFRQIXVLQJ-
O\DVWKHVHFWLRQVGRQRWIRUPDQHQWLW\$W¿UVW6FRGHORIIHUVDFRPSDULVRQRI$HVFK\OXV
6RSKRFOHVDQG(XULSLGHVDVWUDJLFZULWHUV,QWKHODWWHUSDUWRIWKHFKDSWHUWKHDIWHUOLIHRI*UHHN
tragedy is discussed. Scodel covers both topics properly, but the tragic tradition especially
FRXOGKDYHEHHQGLVFXVVHGLQPRUHGHWDLODVLWLVVXFKDFHQWUDOSDUWLQXQGHUVWDQGLQJ*UHHN
tragedy.
7KHVKRUWFRPLQJVRIWKHERRNDUHIHZDQGGLVDJUHHPHQWVDUHODUJHO\DPDWWHURIWDVWH
)RURQHWKLQJDODUJHUQXPEHURIH[FHUSWVIURPWKHWUDJHGLHVFRXOGKDYHEHHQH[SOLFLWO\ODLG
RXWWRDLGWKHGLVFXVVLRQDVRSSRVHGWRJLYLQJMXVWWKHQXPEHUVRIYHUVHV$VWKHWLWOHRIWKH
ERRNVXJJHVWV*UHHNWUDJHG\DQGQRW &ODVVLFDO*UHHNWUDJHG\PRUHGLVFXVVLRQFRXOGKDYH
EHHQDFFRUGHGWRWKH+HOOHQLVWLFHUD2FFDVLRQDOO\RQHPLJKWVD\WKDW6FRGHORYHUVLPSOL¿HV
WKHVXEMHFWPDWWHU)RUH[DPSOHVKHZULWHVWKDWWKHWUDJHGLDQVSURGXFHGDQGGLUHFWHGWKHLURZQ
SOD\VS6RPHWLPHVWKH\GLGQRWDQGRIWHQZHFDQQRWNQRZZKHWKHUWKH\GLG0RUHRYHU
LWLVQRWHYHQVHOIHYLGHQWZKDWSURGXFLQJDQGGLUHFWLQJDFWXDOO\PHDQWLQWKHYDULRXVFRQWH[WV
RI*UHHNWUDJHG\$GPLWWHGO\WKHVHVLPSOL¿FDWLRQVDUHODUJHO\GXHWRWKHLQWURGXFWRU\QDWXUH
RIWKHERRN,QDQ\FDVH what Scodel presents as simple facts and what as more debatable and
FRPSOH[PDWWHUVLVRIJUHDWLQWHUHVWWRVSHFLDOLVWVDQGQRQVSHFLDOLVWVDOLNH
7KH ERRN KDV QR LOOXVWUDWLRQV7KLV HGLWRULDO GHFLVLRQ VHHPV TXHVWLRQDEOH DV D QRQ
VSHFLDOLVWUHDGHUFRXOGFHUWDLQO\KDYHEHQH¿WHGIURPVRPHYLVXDODLGDQGFODUL¿FDWLRQV$PRUH
LPSRUWDQWUROHIRUYLVXDOPDWHULDOZRXOGDOVRKDYH¿WWHGZHOOZLWK6FRGHO
VPXOWLIDFHWHGDS-
proach.
However, the positives easily overweigh the negatives. Scodel's general approach is
to be commended, and especially praiseworthy is her readiness to present her views on many
debatable issues. Scodel writes in a sharp and thoughtful style, and a reader with little previous
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to tragedy: tragic pleasure and FDWKDUVLV2ZLQJWRLWVFRPSOLFDWHGQDWXUH'/0GHDOVZLWK
FDWKDUVLVVHSDUDWHO\LQWKH$SSHQGL[&DWKDUVLVDQGWKHHPRWLRQVLQWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIWUDJHG\
in the Poetics
7RWKHLQWHUHVWLQJTXHVWLRQRIZK\$ULVWRWOHFKRVHSLW\DQGIHDUDVthe very emotions
DULVLQJ IURP WUDJHG\ '/0 DQVZHUV RI FRXUVH E\ DGGXFLQJ *RUJLDV
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DQ\H[SHUWLVHDVDQH[DPSOHRI,QGR(XURSHDQGUDPDWLFDUWSS±'/0VXJJHVWVWKDW
HPSKDVL]LQJSLW\DVWKHHPRWLRQDOH[SHULHQFHRIWUDJLFDUWVHHPVWREHXQLTXHWRWKH*UHHNV
±EDVHGSHUKDSVRQWKHLQÀXHQFHRIWKHLUJUHDWVXEWH[W+RPHU
VHSLFV'/0UHIHUVDWYDULRXV
times to the concluding scene of pity in the ,OLDG+RZHYHUODWHURQVKHVSHDNVRIWKHSOHDVXUH
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that is, that mourning functions not only as an outlet of emotions but also as a way to put one's
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284 Arctos
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treatise 'LVVRL/RJRL7KHIDFWWKDWWKHHPRWLRQVIHOWZKLOHH[SHULHQFLQJDGHFHSWLYHDUWZRUN
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emotions they arouse in the audience: the tragic emotions as depicted by the interlocutors in
3ODWR
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VWUHDWPHQWRI3ODWRLV
VXFFLQFWEXWLQFOXGHVWKHPRVWUHOHYDQWSDVVDJHV0RVWLQWHUHVWLQJO\VKHQRWHVWKDWWKHVWDJ-
LQJRIWKH$SRORJ\ reminds one of the tragic plot (an innocent man is condemned) and that
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pity (eleosEHFDXVH6RFUDWHVGLGQRWIHDUGHDWKDQGGLGQRWPDNHDVKRZRIKLVVXIIHULQJFI
PhdH±S$FFRUGLQJWR'/03ODWR
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fuse the aesthetic emotions of the audience with real life ones (the emotions of the performer
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,Q PDNLQJ WKLV DUJXPHQW '/0 TXRWHV QRW RQO\ WKH Poetics and the 5KHWRULF (III,
E±EZKHUH$ULVWRWOHSUHVHQWVWZRNLQGVRIeleosRQHFDXVHGE\UHDOHYHQWVDQG
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'H PHPRULD and 'H DQLPD pertaining to the similarities and differences between imagina-
tion (SKDQWDVLD), which includes anticipation and memory. The underlining supposition, to
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VRPHWKLQJWKDWKDSSHQHGIRUWKHH\HVRIWKHPLQGSS±)XUWKHUPRUH'/0VXJJHVWVWKDW
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emotions needing an imaginative involvement of the spectator/reader. Thus, DLM interprets
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HVVHQWLDOO\RXUKXPDQDQ[LHW\LQWKHIDFHRIIXWXUHFDODPLWLHVEDVHGRQWKHUHPHPEUDQFHRU
NQRZOHGJHRISDVWRQHVDQGSLW\DUHDOL]DWLRQWKDWHYHU\RQHLVH[SRVHGWRWKLVIHDULQVRPH
way or another. However, tragic emotions as aesthetic emotions still remain quite obscure and
tragic pleasure even more so.
DLM has successfully used the current blossoming of research on the Poetics2QHRI
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GLIIHUVLQRQHLPSRUWDQWUHVSHFWIURP%HO¿RUH
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vorced from pity and fear (p. 107), DLM suggests that pity and fear are essential emotions
for the IRUPDWLRQ of the pleasure of tragedy. The crucial passage for this idea is in the Poetics
E
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ZKLFK ZDV QRW MXVW SOHDVXUH GHULYHG IURP DFFXUDWH PLPHVLV. Tragic pleasure also needs the
activating of memory and detachment from the tragic events (p. 128). Tragic pleasure can
EH FRPSDUHG WR WKH SRWHQWLDOO\ SRVLWLYH DVSHFWV RI PRXUQLQJ WKH SOHDVXUH RI PRXUQLQJ
whereby case we not only process our sorrow, but also through memory create an image of the
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DVWKHUHVXOWRIDFRPSOLFDWHGPHQWDOSURFHVVRIUHDOL]LQJDQGUHFRJQL]LQJWUDJLFSLW\DQGIHDU
the question arises how tragic pleasure is connected with FDWKDUVLV. She does not deal with this
SUREOHPLQKHU$SSHQGL[ZKLFKHVVHQWLDOO\LVDVXUYH\RIWKHPRVWQRWDEOHYLHZVSHUWDLQLQJ
to FDWKDUVLV.
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WLRQV3DUW,,LVDQDQDO\VLVRIWKHRFFXUUHQFHVRIWKHGHVFULSWLRQVRISLW\DQGIHDULQVRPHWUDJ-
HGLHVZKRVHVHOHFWLRQLVEDVHGRQWKHGLYHUVLW\RIVW\OHVS,QDGGLWLRQWRWKHDERYH
PHQWLRQHGWUDJHGLHV'/0EULHÀ\KDQGOHV6RSKRFOHV
2HGLSXVLQ&RORQXV and Philoctetes and
Euripides' 0HGHD and +HOHQ. Her main observation is that tragic characters not only reveal
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to their situation. This guiding can, however, have a different effect on the internal audience
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7KHIHDUIRULQVWDQFHZKLFK2G\VVHXVIHHOVZKLOHVHHLQJ$MD[
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spectators of this scene are not in imminent danger and this is also the reason why they can feel
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YDULHW\RILQVWDQFHVLQWKHVHWUDJHGLHV,QWKLVZD\VKHPDNHVKHUSRLQWFOHDUHUWKH$ULVWRWHOLDQ
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The emphasis is on the philosophy of the mind and aesthetics instead of the ethico-political
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LVWRWHOLDQWUDJLFHPRWLRQV7KHH[SRVLWLRQLVFOHDUDQGHDVLO\FRPSUHKHQVLEOH6RPHWLPHVKRZ-
HYHUWKHUHDGHUZRQGHUVLI'/0KDVJLYHQHQRXJKWKRXJKWWRKHUWDUJHWDXGLHQFH±WKHH[SHUWV
RUWKHQRYLFHVRUWKRVHLQEHWZHHQ"6KHGRHVIRUH[DPSOHSRLQWDOWKRXJKRQO\LQDIRRWQRWH
out the obvious fact that Politics9,,,KDVVRPHWLPHVEHHQKHOGDVDPRGHOIRUFDWKDUVLVLQWKH
PoeticsSQ5HJUHWWDEO\WKHUHLVQRLQGH[ORFRUXP.
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7KH&DPEULGJH&RPSDQLRQWR*UHHNDQG5RPDQ7KHDWUH. Edited by MARIANNE MCDONALD and

J. MICHAEL WALTON&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV&DPEULGJH,6%1
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7KH&DPEULGJH&RPSDQLRQ series has offered easily digestible, well-written and reliable es-
says on many research topics in classics since the 1980s. This volume presents a many-sided
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part), each essay being followed by endnotes and suggestions for further reading. The volume
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have are only a thin slice of the whole. The volume succeeds in presenting the central themes
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into thematic details. This is a good companion for teachers and students in classics, history,
and theater and dance studies.
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drama: person/individual, game, play, education, entertainment, religious ritual and the polis.
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that were the main venue for drama in religious public displays, ritual in general and on stage
(i.e., ritual in the play itself), the gods on stage and some theological issues.
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outsider, as well as the modern interpretations of Poetics.
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er that there were numerous other theatrical activities in antiquity besides tragedy and comedy
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church may be credited.
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mainly on vases. The content of the essay is, however, a good introduction to the images
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author pondering on how space was used in the theatrical performances in order to create the
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chitecture as a visual display of status especially in Rome.
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reader is guided to the essential feature of any drama in the ancient world. This chapter is
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the reasons for our need, in discussing dance in antiquity, to cover every possible aspect as if
otherwise the reader would not get the main point.
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lies not in the words alone but in its entirety.
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ined as a commercial enterprise, which balances the discussion of theatre from the religious
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authors. The individual contributions deal with the question how certain career patterns were
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concept of a literary career as a conscious literary construction by the author himself. When
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when he, in short, has ambitions to place himself somewhere on the literary map, he can be
said to have a literary career. Furthermore, the sign of a decent literary career is the progression
from one genre to another (preferably from humble topics via didactic writings towards grand
epic) and in its ideal form it follows the patterns of the Roman FXUVXVKRQRUXP. The poet to
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real historical biography, they do not need to be identical but an author usually adds compo-
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enough preserved production, including different genres, etc.) limit the number of potential
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more than the fragments that we now have had been preserved.
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said that the Roman writers included here are discussed in a most interesting way. Besides
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KH[DPHWHUVRIORZVHUPR style and ascending to lyric but then ending his career with the VHUPR
style of his last epistles. Lucilius, on the other hand, could be said to have consciously chosen
an anti-career and refused to follow a FXUVXV KRQRUXP 3URSHUWLXV
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deathbed. Several sources state that the dying poet wanted to have the $HQHLG burnt, but those
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can be observed as a later much repeated pattern (the same can be said of other aspects of the
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from Rome means death and his last poem was to be destroyed. This of course turns out to be
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The reception of ancient literary careers is discussed in chapters which touch upon
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Borges. Without going into details, all these articles can be described as offering profession-
ally, yet also entertainingly formulated views on the discussed writer's careers and show how
models from classical literature were interpreted and in many cases reinvented. In his article,
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have one. What he had was a professional career serving the commercial needs of the stage:
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actual life, his production and literary life in general and can be recommended to all those
wishing to consider new perspectives on literary studies.
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for a long time, inconsistency within these poems was considered a problem that needed to be
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add to one's understanding of the poems.
The author considers it important to discuss epic tradition utilising a broad time frame.
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common to epic inconsistencies. What should be thought about Roman poets' tendency to co-
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poets' political attitudes on the grounds of their inconsistent ideas about chaos, order, and the
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the epic tradition. It draws attention to various ways in which the internal audience, as well
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epic poets from their canonical position as interpreters of their age, and allows them a right to
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study encourages us to consider Roman epic from various viewpoints, and to continue discus-
sion of its goals and ideals.
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one of the most intricate questions of Latin linguistics and literary studies: how and to what
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are vital to any student of Roman literature or of linguistic variation and change.
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ously ambiguous terms 'colloquial' and 'literary' as precisely as possible.
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point but the dichotomy 'colloquial'/'literary' cannot be equated with the dichotomy speech/
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another serious problem is that the terms are used inconsistently among scholars. It is well
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to that of high-status people, may occur in both these senses even in a single study.
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VL¿FDWRU\WHUP7KHUHIRUHPRVWOLQJXLVWVWHQGWRUHSODFHLWZLWKPRUHVSHFL¿FWHUPVWKDWGR
not confuse diaphasic and diastratic variation. The concept of register appears a useful tool
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refrains from offering any.
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and, secondly, by the grammarians and commentators. The analysis of the rhetoricians, heavily
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sible to identify characteristics of 'ordinary language' on the basis of certain usages assigned to
'simple style'. It is, however, the grammarians who appear to be more aware of (or interested
in) register variation in their discussions of the YLWLDRUDWLRQLV. The term LGLRWLVPXV in particular
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7KH FRUH RI WKH LQWURGXFWRU\ SDUW RI WKH ERRN LV FOHDUO\ FKDSWHU LQ ZKLFK $QQD
&KDKRXGWULHVWRFRQVWLWXWHDUHDVRQDEOHVHWRIFULWHULDWRGLVWLQJXLVKWUXO\FROORTXLDOIHDWXUHV
IURPDOOHJHGRQHVWKDWLVIURPWKRVHWKDWDUHH[SOLFDEOHLQRWKHUZD\V&KDKRXGV\VWHPDWLFDOO\
scrutinises the possible opposites of 'colloquial' (dichotomies between colloquial vs. intellec-
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SRUWDQWREVHUYDWLRQVDERXWWKHWHPSRUDOGLPHQVLRQ¿UVWDVZHGHDOZLWKDOPRVWDPLOOHQQLXP
RI/DWLQOLWHUDWXUHZKDWLVFROORTXLDODWDVSHFL¿FGDWHPD\QRWEHVXFKDWDQRWKHUSRLQWRI
time; second, in many studies the unquestioned reference point for evaluating the colloquial is
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FRQWHQWVKHUVHOIZLWKWKLV$XJXVWDQSRLQWRIUHIHUHQFH,QFRQFOXVLRQ&KDKRXGSUHVHQWVDOLVWRI
VW\OLVWLFLQGLFDWRUVRIFROORTXLDOLVPEDVHGRQWKHDVVHVVPHQWRIWKHLUFRQWH[WDQGGLVWULEXWLRQ
6HYHUDOTXHVWLRQVUHPDLQXQGHUVWDQGDEO\XQDQVZHUHGIRUH[DPSOHWKHRQHFRQFHUQLQJWKH
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&KDSWHUZULWWHQE\(OHDQRU'LFNH\LVDPXFKUHTXLUHGEXWUDWKHUGLVFRXUDJLQJVXP-
PDU\RIWKHWKHRUHWLFDOEDFNJURXQGLOOXVWUDWHGLQWKHSUHYLRXVFKDSWHUV,QP\RSLQLRQWKHLQ-
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'colloquial', even though the moral of the story seems to be, roughly put, that it is legitimate
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chapters on condition that these premises are not assumed to be automatically interconnected.
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it need not represent others.
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ages in the divine discourse of the $HQHLG,ZLOOGHDOKHUHZLWKWKHFKDSWHUVWKDW,¿QGWKHPRVW
important.
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&LULORGH0HORGUDZVDWWHQWLRQWRWKHIDFWWKDWWKHrd person suusLVXVHGLQSRVWPRGL¿HUK\-
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tion could possibly be interpreted by applying the same semantic argument that de Melo uses
when discussing the status of the phrase VXXVVLELWKHGLI¿FXOWLGHQWL¿FDELOLW\RIWKHrd person
compared to the 1st and 2ndSHUVRQV'H0HORFRQWUDU\WR6WHSKHQ-+DUULVRQFKDSWHU
does not consider structures of type VXXVVLEL colloquial.
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lous discussion of a wide range of potential colloquialisms, the authors consider only KDEHW
KDELWDW), EHQHIDFLV and some frequentative verbs to be truly colloquial.
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¿JXUHLWLVDSXUHO\OLQJXLVWLFSKHQRPHQRQXVHGDVDIRFXVLQJGHYLFHDFFRUGLQJWRFRPSOH[
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HLWKHUUKHWRULFDORUFROORTXLDOFRQWH[WVEXWPD\EHUDWKHUDIHDWXUHXVHGLQLPLWDWLQJRUDOGLV-
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poets and playwrights indicates that the adverbial change may have originated in poetry where
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simultaneous instrumental and adverbial value from very early on. In prose, this development
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VHDUOLHUVWXGLHVRQDGMHFWLYHPHQWH. I would,
however, regard with reservation Bauer's suggestion that the origin of this shift was in the crea-
tive freedom of the poet. The motivation could be sought, instead, in the semantic potential of
these noun phrases (perhaps cross-linguistically). In any case, further research on this interest-
ing topic is required.
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epitomes *HWLFD and 5RPDQD. The main outcome of the article is to show how cautious one
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is able to prove, on the base of a comparison between the *HWLFD and its sources, that many
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instead of Latin.
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EHWZHHQWZR0HURYLQJLDQELVKRSV)URGHEHUWDQG,PSRUWXQXV7KH¿YHOHWWHUVDUHZULWWHQLQD
seemingly simple style abounding with vulgar features but, in spite of this, employ various lit-
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ture and is able to demonstrate quite convincingly that the letters are genuine. Her claim that
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remains, however, a matter of opinion.
294 Arctos
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Latin genre of scholastic FROORTXLDWKDWLVPRGHOFRQYHUVDWLRQVIRU/DWLQVWXGHQWVRI/DWH$Q-
WLTXLW\DQGWKH0LGGOH$JHV7KHJHQUHVHHPVSRWHQWLDOO\SUROL¿FEXW/DSLGJHFRQFHQWUDWHVRQ
¿QGLQJRXWLIWKHWH[WNQRZQDV'HDOLTXLEXVUDULVIDEXOLV was written in sub-Roman Britain
or not. The manuscript dates to the 10thFHQWXU\/DSLGJHFRQFOXGHVWKDWEHFDXVHWKHWH[WFRQ-
tains several common vulgar features and does not resemble Medieval Latin, it 'could arguably
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through a systematic study, the intricacy of the often so vaguely utilised concepts 'colloquial'
and 'literary'. It seems that colloquialism, whatever that may be, is best seen as a continuum
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GL HWj LPSHULDOH. Studi sul vocabolario dell'evergesia 1. Herder, Roma 2007. ISBN 978-88-
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Questo libro, il cui tema è nato da una tesi di laurea discussa nel 1987 a Roma (sotto la supervi-
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familiare (ȹƫƽƳƪƶƥƞƵƩƲƱƣƵƠƲvƠƵƩƲ), da un altro, a enti e referenti pubblici quali il GHPRV,
la polis, la provincia, la bouleHFF,PRWLYLSHUO
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ma tipicamente si trattava di riconoscimenti per personaggi (uomini e donne) resesi benemeriti
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prima parte, suddivisa in 15 capitoli tematici, costituisce un'utilissima raccolta di più di 150
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nerebbe solo se questa parola fosse preceduta da un nome femminile. Se invece, nella riga 10,
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Here we have another volume in the series (SLJUD¿DDQ¿WHDWUDOHGHOO

2FFLGHQWH5RPDQR, vol.
7 in the series (and vol. 17 within the series 9HWHUD$VYRORIDQGGHDOWZLWK5RPH
YROZLWKWKH,WDOLDQUHJLRQV9,±;,YROZLWKWKHUHJLRQV,,±9YROZLWKUHJLRI (Latium),
vol. 5 with the north-western provinces from the $OSHV0DULWLPDHto Britain, and this volume
LVQRZRQ6SDLQLWDSSHDUVWKDWRQO\$IULFDDQGWKHRFFLGHQWDOSURYLQFHVHDVWRI5DHWLDDUH
OHIW:KHWKHUWKHVHYROXPHVZLOOPDWHULDOL]HRQHGD\UHPDLQVXQNQRZQWKLVYROXPHFHUWDLQO\
GRHVQRWFRQWDLQDQ\LQGLFDWLRQDVWRWKHIXWXUHSODQVRIWKHVHULHVQRZHGLWHGE\*/*UHJRUL
To be quite honest, there have been moments when I have wondered whether the in-
scriptions pertaining to the amphitheatrical world are not receiving more attention than they
VKRXOG$OWKRXJKLWFDQQRWEHGHQLHGWKDWWKHDPSKLWKHDWUHSOD\HGDQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQWKH5R-
man world, there are after all many other institutions for which the source material is mainly
HSLJUDSKLFDODQGPDQ\RWKHUFDWHJRULHVRILQVFULSWLRQVRIZKLFKRQHZRXOGOLNHWRKDYHWKH
material collected and illustrated on this lavish scale. However, at the same time it must be
observed that the volumes on the HSLJUD¿DDQ¿WHDWUDOHare of interest not only to those dealing
VSHFL¿FDOO\ZLWKDPSKLWKHDWUHVDQGZLWKZKDWHYHULVJRLQJRQLQWKHPIRUJODGLDWRULDOJDPHV
etc. are often mentioned also in inscriptions not primarily devoted to amphitheatrical events.
Even only a passing mention of something relevant to this particular series in (say) an inscrip-
tion in honour of a local notable secures the inclusion of this inscription in the relevant volume,
normally with photographs, bibliographical indications and so on. In fact, in the case of many
,WDOLDQKRQRUL¿FLQVFULSWLRQVEHORQJLQJWRWKHPXQLFLSDOVSKHUHDFDWHJRU\RILQVFULSWLRQVRI-
ten mentioning various games, etc.), the HSLJUD¿DDQ¿WHDWUDOHYROXPHVDUHWKHSODFHWRORRNIRU
photos and bibliographical information.
,QDQ\FDVHZKDWZHKDYHLVWKHYROXPHFRYHULQJ6SDLQ2IFRXUVHWKHWH[WVDOWKRXJK
IRXQGLQ6SDLQGRQRWDOOUHIHUWR6SDQLVKPDWWHUV7RVD\QRWKLQJRIQRWKHZHOONQRZQV
FGHSUHWLLVJODGLDWRUXPPLQXHQGLV), for instance no. 4 ($(>QRW@UHIHUVWRD
procurator DGIDPLOLDPJODGLDWRULDPRSHUDWLQJQRWLQ6SDLQEXWLQ1,WDO\DQGLQ
3DQQRQLDH

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WKH PDQ
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procurator of the YLFHVLPDKHUHGLWDWLXPin Lusitania and Spain; and no. 5 (&,/,, ,/6
UHIHUVWRDSURFXUDWRURIWKHOXGXVPDJQXVin Rome, later promoted to the procuratorship
RI%DHWLFD2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHLQVFULSWLRQVRIYDULRXVJODGLDWRUVIRXQGLQ6SDLQHVSHFLDOO\
LQ&RUGXEDQRIIREYLRXVO\DOOSHUWDLQWR6SDLQLWVHOI
7KH ERRN VWDUWV ZLWK D VHFWLRQ FDOOHG (VFOXVLRQL S II GHYRWHG WR LQVFULSWLRQV
ZKLFKKDYHEHHQVHHQDVUHOHYDQWE\RWKHUVFKRODUVEXWQRWMXGJHGDVSHUWDLQLQJWRWKHDPSKL-
WKHDWUHE\WKHHGLWRU,QWKHEHJLQQLQJSIWKHUHDUHVRPHRPLVVLRQVZLWKRXWQXPEHUV
(mostly of archaeological nature but also a few inscriptions, e.g., that of a GLVVLJQDWRURI&RU-
duba, &,/II2WKLVVHFWLRQEHLQJIROORZHGRQS±E\DOWRJHWKHUH[FOXGHG
LQVFULSWLRQVPDQ\RIWKHPDSSHDULQJLQWKHERRNRI$&HEDOORV/RVHVSHFWiFXORVHQ+LVSDQLD
URPDQDRIIXUQLVKHGZLWKQXPEHUV7KLVVHFWLRQLVRILQWHUHVWDVPDQ\RIWKHWH[WVDUH
important and as all of these inscriptions, too, have been equipped with a bibliography and
PDQ\DUHLOOXVWUDWHGE\SKRWRVQRWHHVSQR &,/,, ,/6QR &,/,,
,/65512 (in this and the following cases, the reference to ,/6is not given); &,/,,DEF
,/6QR &,/,, ,2DUHIHUHQFHWR%'tD]$ULxR(SLJUDItDODWLQDUH
SXEOLFDQD de +LVSDQLD>@&PLJKWKDYHEHHQRIXVHQR &,/,, ,/6
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there is a reference to an unpublished inscription from the amphitheatre in Emerita mentioning
DQ8PPLGLXV,,YLUand ÀDPHQ.
7KLV VHFWLRQ LV IROORZHG E\ WKH HGLWLRQ SURSHU S II 7KH ¿UVW FKDSWHU LV RQ
/
DPPLQLVWUD]LRQHGHLPXQHUDPXFKRILWLVRFFXSLHGE\WKUHHWH[WVWKHFKDSWHUVRQspec
WDFXOD in the OH[FRORQLDH*HQHWLYDH,XOLDH and in the OH[,UQLWDQDand by the VFGHSUHWLLV
JODGLDWRUXP PLQXHQGLV, already mentioned above. The commentaries, which are quite sub-
VWDQWLDODUHLPSRUWDQWFRQWULEXWLRQVWRWKHVXEMHFW,I,PD\FRPPHQWRQWKHWH[WRIQRWKH
OH[,UQLWDQD,DPVXUHWKDWWKHUHDGLQJLQ$OLQHPXVWEHTXDQWXP (non TXDQWDP); and in
the VHQDWXVFRQVXOWXP on the gladiators, I would prefer TXDHFDXVDinstead of TXDHFDXVD in
line 2f. and VDQFW^D`H in line 8. The rest of this chapter consists of inscriptions of procurators
QRVDQGIRUZKLFKVHHDERYHDQGRISHUVRQVEHORQJLQJWRWKHFDWHJRU\RISHUVRQDOH
VXEDOWHUQR ,Q WKH QH[W VHFWLRQ ,, WKLV VHFWLRQ WRR RI LQWHUHVW DOVR IURP WKH SRLQW RI YLHZ
of the average epigraphist), we have inscriptions referring to various games, e.g., no. 8 (&,/
,,PHQWLRQLQJ;;SDULDJODGLDWRUXP,WKLQNWKHVWRQHVKRXOGKDYHEHHQGHVFULEHGDV
PDUPRUTXDGUDWXPUDWKHUWKDQDVTXDGUDWXV,QQR&,/II2 7, 221), the commentary
might have said something on FLUFLHQVLEXV(instead of FLUFHQVLEXV), a form which seems to
EHDWWHVWHGPDLQO\LQ6SDQLVKLQVFULSWLRQV1RLVWKHPRVWLQWHUHVWLQJLQVFULSWLRQLQKRQRXU
RI09DOHULXV3URFXOLQXVIURP6LQJLOLAE &,/II2 5, 789) mentioning, apparently
IRUWKH¿UVWWLPHOXGLSULYDWL.
Section III (nos. 17ff.) collects the inscriptions of gladiators and of other persons in-
volved in gladiatorial activities (e.g., a GRFWRU UHWLDULRUXP in no. 18). The inscriptions
PDQ\RIWKHPDVPHQWLRQHGDERYHIURP&RUGXEDDUHIROORZHGE\DQ$SSHQGL[ZKLFKOLVWV
HLJKWIUDJPHQWVRIYDVLFHUDPLFLFRQVFHQHJODGLDWRULHEXWDOORIWKHPDOVRZLWKLQVFULSWLRQV
VRPHRIWKHPXQSXEOLVKHGQRZLWKWKHWH[W&ODGXV0HQWRQLDQXVYLFLW2SORPDFKXV), no.
41 with /&DVVLX>V@YLFLW7KHODVWVHFWLRQ,9LVGHYRWHGWRLQVFULSWLRQVSHUWDLQLQJWRWKH
amphitheatres themselves. Here we have, e.g., the inscription of the amphitheatre of Emerita
QR AERI%&DQGWKHIUDJPHQWVRIWKHLQVFULSWLRQRIWKHDPSKLWKHDWUHRI
7DUUDFRDVUHFRQVWUXFWHGE\*$OI|OG\QR7KHUHDUHDOVRWKHLQVFULSWLRQVIRXQGRQVHDWV
LQVRPHDPSKLWKHDWUHVLQVRPHFDVHVZLWKQDPHVQRV±1R &,/,,
,WDOLFDE\WKHZD\+EQHUFDQQRWKDYHZULWWHQVDHFXORTXDUWR«WULEXHQGRHVWVHHPVWR
preserve a name ending in WDPLXV (>@WDPLL1DWDOLV+EQHUWKLQNVRI>3R@WDPLXV (attested
DVVLJQXP,.DMDQWR6XSHUQRPLQD>@EXW,ZRQGHUZKHWKHURQHFRXOGQRWWKLQNRI
the only nomen ending in WDPLXV, namely *XWDPLXV, the only attestation of which is, it is true,
298 Arctos
not from Italica, but at least from Spain (&,/,,FISODWHUHGLWLRQVRIWKLVWH[WDUH

WREHLJQRUHG7KLVVHFWLRQDOVRFRQWDLQVLQVFULSWLRQVPHQWLRQLQJZRUNVLQDPSKLWKHDWUHVQRV
ERWKPHQWLRQLQJZRUNRQORFDVSHFWDFXORUXPDQGOXRJKLGLFXOWRDQQHVVLDJOLDQ¿WH-
DWULQRV±7KHVHWH[WVDOOVHHPWREHYRWLYHLQVFULSWLRQVIRXQGZLWKLQDPSKLWKHDWUHV
(e.g., no. 58 dedicated to &DHOHVWLV1HPHVLVIRXQGQHOODSDUHWHGHVWUDGHOO
DFFHVVRVHWWHQWULRQ-
DOHRIWKHDPSKLWKHDWUHDW(PHULWD
$WWKHHQGRIWKHERRNWKHPDWHULDOLVSUHVHQWHGLQWDEHOOHULHSLORJDWLYHHJJODGL-
DWRUVZLWKQRPLQDDQGJODGLDWRUVZLWKRXWQRPLQDWDEOHVDQGRQSIZKLFKDUHIRO-
ORZHGE\FRQVLGHUD]LRQLJHQHUDOLSIIZKLFKHQGZLWKDOLVWRIDOODPSKLWKHDWUHVIRXQG
in Spain, including those not attested in epigraphical sources.
,QVXPWKLVERRNFRQWDLQVDZHDOWKRILQIRUPDWLRQRILQWHUHVWQRWRQO\WRWKRVHVFKRODUV
who deal with amphitheatres and the amphitheatrical world but also to the general classical
scholar.
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7KH2[IRUG+DQGERRNRI3DS\URORJ\. Edited by ROGER S. BAGNALL2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

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(pb).
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YDULRXVZD\VRILQWHUSUHWLQJKLVWRU\IRURYHUDWKRXVDQG\HDUVLQ$QWLTXLW\7KHVXUYLYDOFLU-
cumstances of papyrus and similar writing materials are better in Egypt than elsewhere, but
as this +DQGERRNillustrates, papyrologists nowadays deal with the whole of the ancient world
IURPWKH5RPDQIRUWUHVVDW9LQGRODQGD*UHDW%ULWDLQWRWKH1HDU(DVW6HHLQJWKDWWKHWRSLFLV
so vast, it is understandable that the volume comprises almost 700 pages.
(YHQWKRXJKDVWKHHGLWRU5RJHU6%DJQDOOVWDWHVLQWKH,QWURGXFWLRQS;;KDQG-
ERRNVWHQGWREHFRQVXOWHGRUUHDGLQSDUWUDWKHUWKDQFRQWLQXRXVO\WKLVYROXPHFRQVWLWXWHVD
FRKHUHQWZKROH7KXV,VOLJKWO\GLVDJUHHZLWK%DJQDOOVWLOORQS;;$OWKRXJKVRPHUHSHWL-
WLRQKDVEHHQH[FLVHGVRPHUHPDLQVDQGVRPHFRQWHQWLRQUHPDLQVWRR,QP\RSLQLRQWKHUH
is surprisingly little repetition, and the contention is hardly recognisable.
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absence of a list of candidates rests solely on the silence of the literary sources. She interest-
LQJO\SRLQWVRXWWKDWJLYHQWKHQXPEHURIQDPHVDNHVLQ¿IWKFHQWXU\$WKHQVWKHUHZRXOGKDYH
EHHQDPDMRUULVNRIFRQIXVLQJWKHFDQGLGDWHVZLWKHDFKRWKHUGXULQJDQRVWUDNRSKRULD had
there not been a list of candidates before an RVWUDNRSKRULD6KHWKHQPDNHVDWHPSWLQJVXJJHV-
WLRQRID¿[HGOLVWZLWKWKHIXOOQDPHVRIWKHFDQGLGDWHV$FFRUGLQJWR0LVVLRXWKLVZRXOG
H[SODLQWKHDPRXQWRIRVWUDNDZLWKRQO\WKHVLQJOHQDPHRIDSHUVRQLQVWHDGRIKLVIXOOQDPH
7KHOLVWZRXOGDOVRKDYHPDGHWKHFXPEHUVRPHWDVNRIFRXQWLQJWKHYRWHVOHVVGLI¿FXOW6KH
also argues that the list was a means of protecting freedom of speech and opinion and thus was
in accordance with democratic values.
7KHSUHYDLOLQJVFKRODUO\FRQVHQVXVVHHPVWREHWKDWFLWL]HQVZHUHDOORZHGWRJLYHWKHLU
RVWUDNRQWRVRPHRQHZKRZDVOLWHUDWHDQGOHWKLPZULWHWKHQDPHRIWKHFDQGLGDWH&KDSWHUV
DQGVHWWKHLUVLJKWVRQWKLVOLWHUDF\WKURXJKLQWHUPHGLDULHV2QHFDVHXVXDOO\JLYHQDVDQ
H[DPSOHRIOLWHUDF\WKURXJKLQWHUPHGLDULHV±0LVVLRXFDOOVWKLVVHFRQGKDQGOLWHUDF\±LVWKH
IDPRXV$ULVWHLGHVDQHFGRWHTXRWHGRQSDFFRUGLQJWRZKLFKWKHULJKWHRXVSROLWLFLDQ$ULV-
WHLGHVZURWHKLVRZQQDPHRQDQRVWUDNRQEHFDXVHDQLOOLWHUDWHFLWL]HQZKRZDVQRWDZDUHRI
ZKRKHZDVWDONLQJKDGDVNHGKLPWRGRLW
0LVVLRXIXUWKHULQYHVWLJDWHVVHFRQGKDQGOLWHUDF\E\UHH[DPLQLQJWKH$NURSR-
OLVRVWUDNDDOOEXWRQHRIZKLFKKDYHWKHQDPH7KHPLVWRNOHVLQVFULEHG$FFRUGLQJWR2VFDU
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DWHFLWL]HQV$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVYLHZWKHFLWL]HQVGLGQRWQHFHVVDULO\KDYHWREHOLWHUDWHEXWWKH\
might have had professional scribes.
Broneer's assumption has so far gone unchallenged. Missiou refreshingly re-analyses
WHQRIWKH$NURSROLVRVWUDND6KHTXHVWLRQVWKHSUHGRPLQDQWYLHZRIKDQGVFDOOVWKLVDV-
VXPSWLRQDP\WKSDQGFRQFOXGHVTXLWHFRQYLQFLQJO\WKDWDOPRVWDVPDQ\>KDQGV@DV
WKHRVWUDNDSURGXFHGWKH$NURSROLVRVWUDNDS0LVVLRXDOVRQRWHVWKDWWKH$FURSROLVRV-
WUDNDDUHQRWDVZHOOZULWWHQDVRQHZRXOGH[SHFWIURPDSURIHVVLRQDOVFULEH6KHDUJXHVWKDWLW
ZDVWKHLQGLYLGXDOFLWL]HQVWKHPVHOYHVZKRSUHSDUHGWKHRVWUDNDDQGWKHSXUSRVHRIWKHPDNHUV
RIWKH$FURSROLVRVWUDNDZDVWRLQÀXHQFHWKHLUIHOORZYRWHUVDQGPDNHLWHDV\IRUWKHPWRYRWH
IRU7KHPLVWRNOHV
,Q&KDSWHUWKHPDWHULDOFRQVLVWVRIORQJHURI¿FLDOLQVFULSWLRQVVXFKDVWKHhoroi and
WKHDUFKDLFRZOV0LVVLRXDOVRDWWHPSWVWR¿QGRXWZKDWWKHSULPDU\ZRUNLQJPDWHULDOZDV
and who wrote the administrative documents. She argues that since writing on stone was a slow
process and information could not have been transmitted rapidly enough, OHOHXN{PHQD JUDP
PDWHLD (whitened wooden tablets) must have been in use. There are no direct sources but, as
0LVVLRXSRLQWVRXWZHNQRZIURPOLWHUDU\VRXUFHVWKDWWKHODZVRI6RORQIRUH[DPSOHZHUH
written on wooden D[RQHV.
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WKHGHPHVS$FFRUGLQJWR0LVVLRXDOOWKH6RORQLDQFODVVHVLQFOXGLQJWKHWKrWHV, were
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WKrWHVFODVV$JDLQVWWKHJHQHUDOO\DFFHSWHGYLHZ0LVVLRXDOVRDUJXHVWKDWDOOWKHSXEOLFWDVNV
UHTXLUHGOLWHUDF\DQGWKDWWKHSHRSOHWKDWDVVLVWHGWKHFRXQFLOORUVLQOLWHUDU\WDVNVPDLQWDLQHG
WKHUHFRUGDQGZHUHUHVSRQVLEOHIRURWKHUURXWLQHZRUNZHUHQRWVNLOIXOSXEOLFVODYHVEXW$WKH-
QLDQFLWL]HQV6KHEDVHVWKLVDUJXPHQWRQDFRPSDULVRQRIWKHPHDQLQJVRIWKHZRUGVGrPRVLRV
and K\SrUHWrV WKDW RFFXU LQ WKH VRXUFHV$FFRUGLQJ WR 0LVVLRX .OHLVWKHQHV JDYH WKH SRZHU
WRWKHGrPRVDVDZKROH7KHUHDUHGHPRJUDSKLFDOJURXQGVIRUWKHDUJXPHQWDFFRUGLQJWR
0LVVLRXWKHSODFHVLQWKH&RXQFLOFRXOGQRWKDYHEHHQ¿OOHGZLWKRXWWKHWKrWHV class that
IRUPHGWZRWKLUGVRIWKHDGXOWPDOHFLWL]HQU\LQ$WKHQV
The starting point of the study is the democratic nature of Kleisthenes' reforms and the
JHQHUDODQWLHOLWLVWVSLULWRI$WKHQLDQVRFLHW\7KHVHDVVXPSWLRQVDUHIDPLOLDUIURPWKHYDVWOLWHU-
DWXUHFRQFHUQLQJGHPRFUDWLF$WKHQVDQGUHPDLQKHUHXQGLVSXWHGE\0LVVLRX,QVXPKRZHYHU
the material consists of primary documents and there are numerous fresh and tempting argu-
PHQWVUHJDUGLQJRVWUDFLVPDQGWKH$NURSROLVRVWUDNDDVZHOODVWKHDFFHVVRIWKHWKrWHV class
Arctos
WRWKH&RXQFLO$OOLQDOOWKHFKDOOHQJHLVWKDWWKHPDWHULDOLVVRPHWLPHVKDUGO\VXI¿FLHQWHVSH-
FLDOO\WKHVXJJHVWLRQRIZKLWHQHGRUZD[HGZRRGHQWDEOHWVDVSULPDU\ZRUNLQJGRFXPHQWVLV
EDVHGRQUDWKHUOLWWOHHYLGHQFH2QWKHRWKHUKDQG0LVVLRXDGPLWVKHUVHOIWKDWWKHHYLGHQFHLV
UHODWLYHO\LQVXI¿FLHQW+RZHYHUVSHFXODWLYHLWPLJKWEH0LVVLRXKDVPDQDJHGWRSURYLGHDSHU-
VXDVLYHDUJXPHQWWKDWOLWHUDF\ZDVSDUWRIWKHVRFLDODQGSROLWLFDOKLVWRU\RIGHPRFUDWLF$WKHQV
6XYL.XRNNDQHQ
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sull'origine, ecc.). L'immagine complessiva sembrerebbe di duplice carattere, frutto di due
WUDGL]LRQLHWQRVWRULRJUD¿FKHIUDORURGLVWLQWHDJOLRFFKLJUHFRURPDQLGDXQODWRL3DUWLUDS-
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barbari dall'altro (mondo scito), caratteristiche, ambedue, irrimediabilmente inferiori ai valori
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la vicenda probabilmente risulta più complicata di quanto qui sostenuto; si vedano, a proposito,
OH PLH RVVHUYD]LRQL LQ 9HVWD DQG$WKHQV LQ7KH *UHHN (DVW LQ WKH 5RPDQ &RQWH[W 3URF
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basilare per tutti i futuri studi sul regno arsacide, ma è anche destinata a diventare lettura ob-
EOLJDWRULDSHUFKLXQTXHVLRFFXSLGHOOHYDULHSHUFH]LRQLSUHVVRLJUHFLHLURPDQLGLDOWULSRSROL
e culture.
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7KH2[IRUG+DQGERRNRI6RFLDO5HODWLRQVLQWKH5RPDQ:RUOG. Edited by MICHAEL PEACHIN.

2[IRUG+DQGERRNVLQ&ODVVLFVDQG$QFLHQW+LVWRU\2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV2[IRUG±1HZ
<RUN,6%1;9,SS*%3
7KHVFRSHRIWKLVYROXPHDVLQGLFDWHGLQLWVWLWOHLVRXWULJKWGDXQWLQJ2QHPLJKWZHOODVN
whether there is any human activity (beyond mere physiological processes) that does not entail
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groups of individuals. True, there is a scholarly tradition to cite. Ramsay MacMullen's classic
from 1974 was entitled 5RPDQ6RFLDO5HODWLRQV, but as the concerns of that slim volume were
IXUWKHUVSHFL¿HGLQVLGHWKHERRNLWZDVFOHDUWRLWVUHDGHUVWKDWLWGLGQRWSXUSRUWWREHDQ\WKLQJ
HOVHWKDQDVWXG\RQDVHOHFWLRQRIVSHFL¿FDVSHFWVRIUXUDOUXUDOXUEDQXUEDQDQGFODVVUHOD-
tions. In the title of a multi-authored tome of the 2[IRUG+DQGERRN6HULHV the element 'social
UHODWLRQV
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is further substantiated by a glance at the actual topics featured between its covers. Dealt with
LVDKRVWRIPRVWGLYHUVHDVSHFWVRIVRFLDOOLIHDQGKXPDQH[LVWHQFHIURPELUWKWRODVWULWHV
Moreover, in addition to chapters dealing with the Roman family, primary and rhetorical edu-
cation, philosophy as socio-political upbringing, law and social formation (grouped together in
a section entitled 0HFKDQLVPVRI6RFLDOL]DWLRQFRQVWLWXWLQJ3DUW,,HOLWHVHOIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ
SXEOLFVSHDNLQJWKH6HFRQG6RSKLVWLF5RPDQVRFLHW\LQWKHFRXUWURRPSXEOLFHQWHUWDLQPHQW
DQGVRFLDOL]LQJDWWKHEDWKV&RPPXQDO&RQWH[WVIRU6RFLDO,QWHUDFWLRQ3DUW,9KRQRUIULHQG-
ship, hospitality, dining and violence (0RGHVRI,QWHUSHUVRQDO5HODWLRQV3DUW9WKHUHLVDQ
entire section with individual chapters on literature, epigraphy, papyri and coins on the ration-
DOHWKDWWKH\UHÀHFW0HFKDQLVPVRI&RPPXQLFDWLRQDQG,QWHUDFWLRQ3DUW,,,7KHVHH[DPSOHV
LOOXVWUDWHWKHDOPRVWH[FHVVLYHPLVFHOODQ\RIWKHVXEMHFWVDGGUHVVHG
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sults of the multifarious research that since the 1970s has been devoted to the individuals and
groups constituting the Roman community, and to their interaction in particular, and, on the
RWKHUWRPDNHDQDWWHPSWDWFRQ¿JXULQJWKHVWXG\RI5RPDQVRFLDOUHODWLRQVLQQRYHOZD\VDQG
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Whereas there are in my mind several unnecessary or at least unwarranted inclusions
among the themes featured, there is also a number of quite odd omissions. Though a principal
VXEMHFWPDWWHURIWKHYROXPHLVGHFODUHGWREHWKHJURXSVWKDWFRQVWLWXWHGWKH5RPDQFRPPX-
QLW\WKHFRYHUDJHLVQRWZKDWUHDVRQDEO\PLJKWEHH[SHFWHGLQWKLVUHJDUG:KLOHDZKROHVHF-
tion contains individual chapters on what is termed 0DUJLQDOL]HG3HUVRQV3DUW9,,±VODYHV
women, children, prostitutes, entertainers, magicians and astrologers, bandits and physically
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than that they represent groups that have received no or little scholarly attention before the last
few decades) and while another section, entitled 6RFLHWLHV:LWKLQWKH5RPDQ&RPPXQLW\3DUW
9,FRQWDLQVFKDSWHUVRQUHVSHFWLYHO\FROOHJLDWKH5RPDQDUP\*UDHFR5RPDQFXOWLFVRFLH-
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social history. The section with 3UHIDWRU\0DWHULDO3DUW,DOVRIHDWXUHVDQLQWURGXFWRU\HVVD\
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was at the core of Roman (Hellenistic) culture. The conceptual tool for achieving this was the
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remains limited in relation to the current debate.
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an ideological theme (in monuments and other ways of commemoration) to underline the his-
torical parallelisms between contemporary eastern threats, with Rome as the defender of the
western world.
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elites in this Roman-style urban transformation. To Spawforth, this supports a picture of active
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how much the rest of the provincial community engaged in this cultural dialogue. This aspect
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whole cultural landscape for reasons of 5HDOSROLWLNEXWDOVRWRSURPSWDSUHIHUUHGNLQGRI+HO-
Arctos
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Forays into archaeology and the theoretical side of 'Romanity' are of a more limited nature, but
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be recommended to anyone interested in this area and in this period.
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tion and dominance and responses to this as about moral discourse as the linchpin of cultural
change and the (positive) responses to this discourse by the provincial elite. This is, however,
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on responses to Roman imperialism stresses the diversity of local responses, which certainly
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nature of our evidence leads us to concentrate on the elite but to bypass other strata of society,
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past decade or so. The apologetic tone has been shed, and together with the rehabilitation of
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only the barbarian interaction with Mediterranean civilisations, but also their 'factual' archaeo-
logical cultures and, not less importantly, the reception and use of ancient 'barbarian' identities
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barbarity within ancient studies, attempts have reappeared to bring into negotiation literary
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muddle our understanding.
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ism. Such hidden presentiments, while almost unavoidable in ancient barbarian studies, do not
diminish the overall value of any contribution as long as they are recognised.
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vides all the mandatory caveats concerning the use of archaeological evidence. Bonfante's ped-
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of their pictorial elements that allow some rather nuanced conclusions to be drawn both about
the local elite culture of the area, and the preferences concerning consumption and decoration
that emerge from the international models for these VLWXODH.
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mythologisation of the Western landscape itself. That said, one is left yearning for more de-
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writing. Keyser's contribution could be paired with that particular group of Westerners that the
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standards certainly allowed for a more inclusive attitude towards the Romans, other factors at
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Scythians are represented in this collection by two contributions that together form a
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V0LUURURI+HURGRWXV (1980, transl. 1988) and comparing the archaeo-
logical remains of burial practices with the literary testimony. Rolle, for her part, believes that
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and cautious readers may feel slightly uneasy with the sweeping connections that the Eurasian
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with Scythian structural remains, whether tombs or JRURGLVKFKH.
Arctos
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ples of the north, are approached in this collection from the direction of pictorial studies and
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to argue for pictorial polysemy in ancient mythological imagery can be a very convenient thing
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of a prophetic voice, whether iconographic or literary.
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usual warnings regarding the circularity of the ethnonym with a theory previously advanced by
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ethnic categories need not have stemmed from linguistic commonalities among the barbarian
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but having done this concisely, Wells proceeds to point out the sheer literariness and tenden-
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the *HUPDQL are understandably approached through archaeological sources, and by the end
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most interesting.
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tuali Serbia e Bulgaria e della Repubblica di Macedonia. Tra i temi trattati, come era da aspet-
tarsi, maggior enfasi viene data alla storia militare (insieme alla rete stradale), ma sono illustra-
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political sphere, what it meant for the style of empire or emperorship, rather than in the re-
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represented a new Tetrarchic style emperor who preferred to identify with the frontiers rather
than Rome.
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but these terms do not describe anything that critical historians have not already been doing for
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traditional interpretation of the circumstances surrounding the battle of the Milvian Bridge
with its emphasis on the religious sphere, the second part, chapters nine to ten, offers a new
reconstruction of events with an emphasis on the strictly political sphere. Finally, one should
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a classic case of style over substance.
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the battle of the Milvian Bridge, whatever it was that is usually referred to now as his 'vision',
although he does not commit himself as to the nature of this phenomenon. However, he refuses
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sign of divine favour or his subsequent efforts on behalf of the religion whose god, so he be-
lieved, had shown him this favour. Emperors had always paid some attention at least to alleged
omens, some emperors more than others, and had often made determined efforts to propagate
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become the last one standing.
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the father of Magnentius was from Britanny when he was actually from Britain (p. 48), and the
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of its contemporary nature and its independence from the literary traditions, the numismatic
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this period. If anyone requires a concise, accurate, and well-written discussion of any aspect
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una sepoltura, che trova chiari confronti nelle prassi antiche romane. Nel capitolo sul suicidio
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sia delle opinioni sul suicidio sia delle norme in riguardo, entrambe individuabili nei dibattiti e
nelle legislature in ambienti tanto pagani quanto cristiani.
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sa: 7KH+DUPRQLFVRI1LFRPDFKXVDQGWKH3\WKDJRUHDQ7UDGLWLRQ (1975) and 7KH0DQXDORI
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sion of melodic space, the intervallic and continuous movement of sound, and the relationship
between harmonic theory and astronomy. Music's role as a mirror-image of the cosmos and,
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inspired by musical and philosophical writings from antiquity to modern times. The themes
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JHQHUDWHV DUWL¿FLDO GLDORJXHV EHWZHHQ DQFLHQW DQG PRGHUQ DXWKRUV E\ TXRWLQJ SDVVDJHV WKDW
VKHIHHOVKDYHVLPLODUPLQGVHWVRUFRQFHSWV$VWRWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIDQFLHQW*UHHNPXVLFDO
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&RPRWWL:LQQLQJWRQ,QJUDPDQG:HVWLQVWHDGRIVWDWLQJKHURZQFRQFOXVLRQV2QWKHRWKHU
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against these views (p. 10, n. 18; p. 24, n. 47), but still trusts her own instincts and does not
furnish any counter-evidence to support her claims. However, these are minor details. What
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professionals.
There are many deceptive typos in the diagram displaying the names of ratios (p.
¿JWKHUDWLRRIȀƱɛƱƧvƱƵưƳLVZULWWHQHUURQHRXVO\1/LQVWHDGRI1/5, the ratio of
ȀƱƫƵƧƵƲƞƱƧvƱƵưƳ4/LQVWHDGRI4/5 and ƵƲƫƴƧƱɛƱƧvƱƵưƳ2/LQVWHDGRI/5. There is
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tient ratios as fractions instead of using number to number ratios, which is the prevailing man-
ner of presenting musical intervals mathematically. Levin does use number to number ratios
HOVHZKHUHLQWKHERRNZKHQVKHGHDOVZLWKPDWKHPDWLFDODSSURDFKHVWRLQWHUYDOVDQGKHQFH
WKHSUHVHQWFKDUWZRXOGKDYHEHHQPRUHXVHIXOLIWKHUDWLRVZHUHH[SUHVVHGLQWKHXVXDOZD\IRU
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3URVODPEDQRPHQRV is omitted from both the lesser perfect system (p. 142, n. 24) and
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thagorean OHLPPDWDGRHVQRWH[LVWLQWKHWH[WVRIDQFLHQW*UHHNDXWKRUV
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ous, as the number of semitones is seven.
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which the octave is divided into 1,200 equal units.
The hemiolic chromatic tetrachord is presented erroneously as ¾, ¾, 1¾ (p. 202). In
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Levin confuses the information when she reports that the intervals of Eratosthenes' dia-
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diatonic semitone).
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the 7 , the 11thWKHth and the 14th tone differ from the Equal Temperament, because this fact
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harmonic science or contemporary music theory. Who, then, is the potential reader to whom
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the reader must be cautious with the concepts and details presented. Some of the errors seem
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that the ancient concept of philosophy was substantially broader than the modern one (p. 7).
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with.
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comparative scholarship on Socrates, which is suggested by Dorion. The editor has tried to
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suspicious intellectual activities than a parody of the historical Socrates (p. 85). In the essay by
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redirected it to purely moral ends, and in the process transformed it into the seed of the august
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argues that we can reconcile Socratic religion with Socratic rationality. In his detailed philo-
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commitment to research on the historical Socrates.
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the 5HSXEOLFas his source although it has not been considered a plausible source for Socrates'
views since the early 20thFHQWXU\*ULVZROGDUJXHVWKDWWKLVFKDUDFWHULVDVXSHUSKLORVRSKHUIRU
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Hugh H. Benson (8) discusses the Socratic method. He argues that HOHQFKRVthough
not the only way for Socrates to discuss, is a distinctive and coherent method. Benson argues
subtly for his non-constructive view on HOHQFKRV$FFRUGLQJWRKLPWKHSRLQWRIHOHQFKRV is to
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Socrates the self was simply our rational self and the irrational parts of the self are not essential
(p. 214).
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Melissa Lane (11) argues in an original way and rather convincingly for a new understanding
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moral psychology. The new element is that in his rationalistic interpretation of the Socratic
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Socrates' posthumous fame is partially due to the fact that his trial and death did not have their
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icon.
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ate to demand more of them. In the case of this particular volume, one would certainly have
wished the individual papers to have been in discussion with each other.
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sical parapegmata as well as discussions on the relevance of their Egyptian and Mesopotamian
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plete with high quality editions and translations of most of the original sources.
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Arctos
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GDUUHIRUPWUDFNDOPRVWH[FOXVLYHO\OXQDU cycles, since the reform made the calendar a better
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pegmata.
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JXHVWKDWWKHSUHRFFXSDWLRQRIWKHPDNHUVRISDUDSHJPDWDZLWKWKH0RRQZDVDOPRVWHQWLUHO\
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manuring, were timed to lunar phenomena. This included not only the lunar phases, but also
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or below it (a distinction which is relevant in astrology). Interestingly, the logic of the lunar-
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parapegmata was weather forecasting, this was not the only use of these devices, and their use
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RIWKHVHYHUDOLPSRUWDQWSRLQWVPDGHE\/HKRX[DERXWFDOHQGDUVDQGSDUDSHJPDWDQDPHO\
WKDWFRQWUDU\WRZKDWPDQ\KDYHDVVXPHGWKHIDFWWKDWWKH\WUDFNFHUWDLQWHPSRUDOF\FOHVLV
QRWHYLGHQFHRIWKHH[LVWHQFHDQGXVHDWWKHVDPHWLPHRIDIXOOEORZQFDOHQGDUV\VWHP,QD
similar manner the author also refutes other fanciful calendrical reconstructions that have been
suggested based on parapegmata.
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nature of the VLJQ in parapegmata. Here he presents some important and well-formulated argu-
ments for the need for a serious revaluation of the two observational claims made about para-
pegmata; one by the ancients themselves that the connection between a meteorological phe-
nomenon and an astronomical one was based on observation, and the other made by modern
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convincingly argues that neither claim holds true: a storm and a star cannot (usually) be si-
multaneously observed and thus at least some interpolation was necessary. This in turn would
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predated the connection between the stars and weather, and this also requires regular and me-
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cord of observation, i.e. in no single year can one observe all stars in all positions without the
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WKHJURXQGVWKDWWKH\JHQHUDOO\LQGH[WKHGDWDWKH\SUHVHQWWRDFDOHQGULFDOGDWH, either as a
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GLGQRWREVHUYHWKHVWDUDQGWKHQWXUQWRWKHSDUDSHJPDWDWRVHHWKHZHDWKHURQHVKRXOGH[SHFW
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argues, the date, instead of the astronomical phenomenon, had become the sign that was ob-
VHUYHG$VHPLRWLFVKLIWRFFXUUHGLQZKLFKWKHVLJQVZKLFKZHUHWLHGWRWKHRPLQDZHUHWKH
dates of a canonised calendar. This idea has far-reaching implications for the study of ancient
(and probably also medieval) astrology, where ephemerides, the successor genre of parapeg-
mata, were paramount, and often entirely superseded actual observation.
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Egypt, and mainly arrives at the conclusion that the very different institutional and ideologi-
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DVWURPHWHRURORJ\GLGQRWSDVVRQIURP(J\SWDQG%DE\ORQWR*UHHFH%XWWKLVLVKDUGO\VXU-
prising, because meteorological traditions must necessarily describe local weather. Different
climates require different meteorological and agricultural traditions.
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long at the crossroads between what have for us become very separate disciplines, and thus re-
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+RZHYHUWKHZRUNLVVRPHZKDWXQHYHQDQGWKHUHDUHVRPHWKLQJVRQHZRXOGKDYHZLVKHGKDG
been included or pursued further; for instance, it seems strange that when the heliacal risings
are described to the beginner (commendable in itself), nonetheless, the relationship of para-
pegmata to later ephemerides are hardly touched upon and their difference from astronomical
WDEOHVLVQRWHYHQPHQWLRQHG7KLVLVVWUDQJHEHFDXVHWKH$UDELFDVWURQRPLFDOWUDGLWLRQIHDWXUHV
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tion of lunar stations, the DQZD
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tied together by a strict focus on the parapegmata as a distinct group of sources.
The many useful analyses, not to mention the considerable contribution made in the
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nells has built a career in comparative religion, and the ambitious breadth of the monograph
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view will be provided instead.
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the history of scholarship receive plentiful attention, which is a pleasant surprise not always
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and interpretations.
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the importance of personal religious conviction.
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for an encyclopaedia-length overview. Even so, the clearly-written chapters rich with illustra-
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accessible without smoothing over scholarly debates and problematic evidence.
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that it was an unimportant ritual (p. 104).

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is quite obvious at least in tragedy, which offers us several basic literary representations of
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may distort the historiography of this research area.
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ent conclusions or interpretations of the same phenomenon is, of course, the use of different
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opinione (espressa in Arctos>@±FKHD5RPDGHYRQRHVVHUHVWDWLHIIHWWXDWLDE-
battimenti di animali anche (!) in maniera del tutto profana.
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natural.
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She is a lunar deity, too, a protectress of women in childbirth, as well as a chthonic goddess.
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source and does not really discuss the accuracy of Servius as an authority on early Latin or Ro-
man religion or on the cult of Diana at Nemi.
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healing sanctuaries and their relationship to Hippocratic medicine is very interesting and offers
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,WDOLFFXOWXUHWKDWZDVSUREDEO\LQÀXHQFHGE\VDQFWXDULHVDQGSKLORVRSKLFDOVFKRROVRI0DJQD
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330 Arctos 46 (2012)
written and gives a good, although in part speculative, overview on different aspects of the
goddess Diana and her cult at Aricia.
Marja-Leena Hänninen
G. MAX BERNHEIMER: Ancient Gems from the Borowski Collection. Introduction Sir JOHN
BOARDMAN. Verlag Franz Philipp Rutzen, Ruhpolding – Mainz am Rhein 2007. ISBN 978-3-
938646-08-3. 120 pp., 645 ils. EUR 48.
Questo bel volume, con una prefazione di Sir John Boardman, è dedicato alle gemme intagliate
che fanno parte delle cospicue collezioni Borowski custodite nel Bible Lands Museum a
Gerusalemme. Il gruppo dei 163 oggetti presentati è costituito da sigilli d'avorio, gemme incise,
paste di vetro, cammei di pietre varie, e anelli di vari tipi e materiali, che si datano nell'arco di
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a un pubblico generale, i commentari sono molto concisi con pochi riferimenti al materiale
parallelo oltre alla glittica. A molti lettori probabilmente sarebbe piaciuto trovare più commenti
VXOODFRPSDUVDGHLPRWLYLLFRQRJUD¿FLLQYDULFRQWHVWLFXOWXUDOLHUHOLJLRVL/HLPPDJLQLDFRORUL
non sempre rendono giustizia agli oggetti catalogati, essendo esse a volte oscurate o dalla
struttura della pietra o dal colore di rivestimento della stessa. Risultano inoltre poco chiare
DOFXQH GHOOH ULSURGX]LRQL IRWRJUD¿FKH GHOOH LPSURQWH ODVFLDWH GDOOH JHPPH &LRQRQRVWDQWH
Ancient GemsIDSLHQDPHQWHRQRUHD(OLH%RURZVNLFKHJLjDJLRYDQHHWjVLLQWHUHVVzGHOOH
gemme, meritandosi il dottorato nel 1946 a Ginevra con una dissertazione sui sigilli orientali
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p. 10).
Mika Kajava
HERMANFRID SCHUBART – GERTA MAASS-LINDEMANN: Toscanos 1967–1984. Toscanos. Die

phönizische Niederlassung an der Mündung des Río de Vélez. Lieferung 2: Grabungskampag-
nen in der Siedlung von Toscanos (1967 und 1978), an den Befestigingen des Alarcón (1967,
1971 und 1984) und in der Nekropole Jardín (1967–1976). DAI, Madrider Forschungen 6, 2.
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EUR 209.
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uno dei più importanti luoghi di commercio fenici (o fenicio-punici) della penisola iberica. Il
presente volume, elaborando sulle scoperte provenienti dagli scavi condotti dall'Istituto Ar-
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sezioni 1 (1969) e 3 (1982) del sesto volume delle "Madrider Forschungen". Le tracce della
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sorprende, essendo gli autori i massimi esperti della materia.
Mika Kajava
KIM BOWES: +RXVHVDQG6RFLHW\LQWKH/DWHU5RPDQ(PSLUH'XFNZRUWK'HEDWHVLQ$UFKDHRO-

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12.99.
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vigorously debated in the past few decades. These two slim volumes, published in 2010, con-
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ment. The second aim is to offer new points of view based on new analyses of historical con-
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two on the archaeology of Later Roman houses and the third on developments in the study of
the history of the period. The fourth chapter proposes new directions for the study of domestic
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illustrated. Most of the images are reproductions of ground plans and drawings from earlier
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Traditionally, the Late Roman house seems to have a life of its own quite separate from
what happened before on the site as well as in Roman society in general. Bowes effectively
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The study has been based on a very limited number of town houses and villas which tend to
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common architectural element connected to the Late Roman period is the apse, which has been
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sites and the emergence of detailed archaeological analyses of these buildings have shown that
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house was also usually a direct continuation of an earlier building, a phase and not an inde-
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of interpreting the house as a means whereby the house owner could dominate his social infe-
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papers given in the 2000s and then adapted to form a coherent whole. This has resulted in a
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domestic architecture. House forms become more complicated, but change comes slowly and
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associated with symposia appears quite late and suggests changes in the ways the symposium
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general.
In the fourth chapter, Nevett moves forward in time and travels to the island of Delos,
which has long been held as an important meeting point between eastern and western cultures.
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space. Nevett is able to discern two different types of houses based on the access and visibility
of the interior space from the entrance. Most of the houses form a secluded environment, which
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lying this pattern is a varying use of space and adaptation to different needs and requirements
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fact distributions and social groups inside houses. Nevett analyses the contents of houses with
respect to short-term changes such as seasons and also tries to trace long-term changes based
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sources suggest a use of space according to the availability of natural light, warmth or coolness
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it after Bowes's deconstruction of the underlying paradigms of the study of Late Roman houses
suggests the need for yet another re-interpretation.
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for use in the classroom as a basis for further discussions and papers on the topic. Despite the
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period to Roman times.
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the main points of the discussion.
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scribed bases supporting female portrait statues as a means of reconstructing their original
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are not surprising in a patriarchal society where female identity is shaped by men, the display
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importance of women's role within the family and the city's cults.
The physical appearance of portrait statues is analysed in the two following chapters,
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displayed as fully clothed. In ancient society, clothing was immediately associated with wom-
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also associated with a number of feminine virtues such as industriousness, modesty, and chas-
tity. However, as Dillon correctly points out, the representation of female bodies draped in
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and a means by which elite women were visually set apart from the rest of the female popula-
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and particularity of the represented women. While agreeing with Dillon's social reading of the
draped statues, I would add that the erotic potential of the female statues, which were dedicated
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session.
The clothed body surely conveys notions of one's social status, but it is also the repre-
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certain homogeneity in spite of the adoption of a variety of facial proportions and hairstyles.
The author suggests some possible interesting reasons for this quasi-anonymity of the female
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have had the possibility of sitting for a male artist of the artisan class for her portrait. Moreover,
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roles within the family (as a daughter, wife, and mother) and society (as priestess), the associa-
tion between real physiognomy and personal identity was not the primary concern in female
portraiture. Rather, it was the visual representation of an ideal beauty which was the most typi-
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The adoption of an idealising style for the representations of female portraits is still at-
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and gesture of covering her pubes with her hand. Moreover, while Dillon focuses only on the
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material for further discussion and deeper understanding of ancient society.
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of the funeral as a manifestation of political authority and can thus combine the ideological
development, clearly connected with the eastern Mediterranean, with the simultaneous urbani-
sation process.
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as well as the secondary literature and modern methodology. Sometimes the conceptual treat-
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ceptual space where elite groups transformed their prestige into political authority; therefore it
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same time, the funerary landscape transformed the physical landscape of the early city into a
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material culture, but are also, according to her, at the centre of political endeavours. She may
in this respect go too far; it is hard to believe that the elites of these early cities had to wait for
funerals before being able to display their political authority.
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the Eastern Mediterranean, differences (and similarities) between female and male burials and
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of the economy of early Etruria remains unsatisfactory. Landowning was certainly the basis
for the political power of the elite. But one could assume that even in this period, more power
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than that of farmers.
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Roman landscapes have been discussed from various points of view over the past few decades.
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in those discussions commenting on both literary and archaeological sources. Scholars concen-
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on landscape theories in various disciplines from sociology to art history to architecture. It is
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chapter is the core of the volume and concentrates on literary case studies. In the last main
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production as much as it discusses aesthetics and RWLXP. Italy is presented in more utopian and
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natural landscapes and again relate to history, memory, mythology and social status.
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region and suggests possible lines of sight even to the other side of the river, maybe all the way
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deep inside the architectural space. The third section is on the porticusEXLOWE\3RPSH\DQG
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1980s, much has been gained by the use of the interdisciplinary historical method, even with
anthropological and psychoanalytic approaches. The amphitheatre itself as an architectural
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and its dissemination in the early Empire. She analyses sensitively its development against
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Livy's suggestions of gladiatorial games being popular in South Italy, at least in the late fourth
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to have been the physical setting of gladiatorial games to the end of the republican period.
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between the army and arena activities is indeed a strong one.
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originally cantilevered from the upper parts of the facades of private houses, later reached out
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traces the emergence of elements of later established amphitheatres, such as hypogea, stretched
awnings, the oblong, or rather oval, space, and (temporary wooden) seating, that is, spectacula.
The wooden structures in the Forum Romanum seem to have constituted the canonical type for
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the Imperial architecture in the opus caementicium technique).
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treatment. The author presents both a list of the geographical distribution of these early stone
amphitheatres, and a more detailed catalogue of republican amphitheatres in and outside Italy.
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industry and infrastructure. The authors represent a new generation of scholars and they man-
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cuss infrastructure. The original papers have almost all been presented in various conferences
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of photographs, drawings and maps has not been underestimated and they are large and legible.
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raise an eyebrow.
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The probable planned effect of the usually three-dimensional elements in an otherwise two-di-
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an eclectic combination, which was intended to display the house owner's intellectual interests
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images of labour conducted by the cupids are not references to the libertine status of the house
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cus and a cryptoporticus. She considers the literary sources for the use of the terms and notes
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above-ground passageway, which is covered and has windows/doorways. Both elements were
used in diverse ways in the villa plans.
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etc., have been placed in comparison to the vista from the front door. In most cases these mate-
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with productive and economic elements, particularly the IXOORQLFDH. Flohr argues that although
the old atrium houses were converted to industrial use, in most cases some parts of the house
retained their residential functions. The opportunistic combination of production and habita-
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discusses the process of pottery production as well as its social and economic relationships.
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old question of lead contamination of water in the Roman world. They determined the lead
content of the lime deposited by hard water in the walls of cisterns and water pipes by sampling
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in Herculaneum as well as cross-culturally to previous studies on lead accumulation and its
effects on humans. The results are still preliminary, but point towards a high content of lead in
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pipes, but the continuous renovations of the whole water system resulted in lead being present
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intentionally turned into large gutters. The changes in the central area had repercussions for the
whole of the city and these had to be dealt with.
The short chapters of the volume give a wonderful glimpse into what is being done in
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wanting more.
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David Woods D.Woods@ucc.ie
ISSN 0570-734-X
Sastamala 2013
Vammalan Kirjapaino Oy

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MIKA RISSANEN 7KHHirpi SoraniDQGWKH:ROI&XOWVRI&HQWUDO,WDO\ 115

OLLI SALOMIES 7KH1RPLQDRIWKH6DPQLWHV$&KHFNOLVW 

FEDERICO SANTANGELO SullanusDQGSullani 187

HEIKKI SOLIN $QDOHFWDHSLJUDSKLFD&&/;;,,&&/;;;9 

MARGARITA SOTIRIOU %DFFK\OLGHV%HKLQG+LVMetamorphoses: 7KH3RHWLF 

(29 VIII 1957 – 14 VI 2012)

AMICI COLLEGAE DISCIPULI

ERBE LEPORINE NELLA MEDICINA GRECA ANTICA

10:HOOPDQQ'LH3ÀDQ]HQQDPHQGHV'LRVNXULGHV+HUPHV  lKQOLFKZLH

/OR\G VRSUDQ ±9)UHQFK0LGZLYHVDQG0DWHUQLW\&DUHLQWKH5RPDQ:RUOG

$JHVJHS  VHFRQGRFXLPRVWYHUEDOUHPHGLHVDUHTXLWHGHYRLGRIDQ\UDWLRQDO

YG DG HV 0 0RLVVLGHV &RQWULEXWLRQ j O

$&  ±-)DXFRXQDX1RWHVXUO

14 La lepre esce all'aperto, durante il crepuscolo o di notte, ad alimentarsi di vegetali freschi e

DOODFRQL]]D18 e ad una imprecisata erba profumata,19 come un'erba da foraggio

18 &LRpDOODFRVLGGHWWDƬɝƮƶƨƣo anche pulicaria ('LWWLJLDYLVFRVD). L'etimologia del termine

passo teocriteo: ǰƬƣƮƪːƦƧƳƷƶƵɝƮXQDSLDQWDVSLQRVD 6FKYHWLQ7KHRF,9D:HQGHO 

/DSULPDDWWHVWD]LRQHGHOWHUPLQHULVDOHD'LRVFRULGH  FLRpDO,VHFRORG&

25$QGUp VRSUDQ HELEOLRJUD¿DFLW

TXHVWDSLDQWDLOFXPLQRGHOOHOHSUL ưȜƦɖƭƣƥư˃ƬƾvƫƮưƮƬƣƭư˃ƴƫƮ), espressione che potrebbe

È attestata, del resto, anche nelle lingue moderne, l'abitudine linguistica di

NEW PROSOPOGRAPHICAL DATA

1. The woman [---]lia Calligone

LIPHDVXUHGFRUUHFWO\PHDQVWKDWWKHSLSHLVRIHQRUPRXVVL]H  while the letters

7 6HH 07K 5DHSVDHW&KDUOLHU 3URVRSRJUDSKLH GHV IHPPHV GH O

2. Ti. Claudius Liberalis, likely a plumbarius

bars of L and E are very short.

GRPXV e su SOXPEDULLArctos  ±HVS±

3. The senator Asellius Rufus Aemilianus

RIWKH$LVSUHVHUYHG 7KDWVWDPSVRIFpes in length were quite frequent is shown in my

published the ¿VWXODVWDPSVIURP5RPHNQRZQDURXQGWKH\HDUGHSHQGVRQDPDQXVFULSW

$V(GZDUG'ąEURZD Q KDVUHPDUNHGLWLVWREHH[SHFWHGWKDW$VHOOLXV

lii are found in &,/; ERWKIURP3XWHROL DQGHLJKWLQ5RPH LQ&,/9, $PRQJ

4. Furius Placidus vir clarissimus, from Italy to France

In a recent publication, a team of three French archaeologists discuss the water

 For Rome, see &,/9,&,/;JLYHVWKHWZR/XFLL$VHOOLLIURP3XWHROL2QHRIWKHP

 0$UGKXLQ ±$ %DOPHOOH ± < 5DEDVWp /

DPpQDJHPHQWVK\GUDXOLTXHVLQ&$EDGLH5H\QDO±63URYRVW±39LSDUG HGV /HVUpVHDX[

SUHVHUYHWKHFRPSOHWH5DQJ]HLFKHQYLUFODULVVLPXV, but one might be inclined

GD$XJXVWRDO,,,VHFROR&&*  ±HVSQZKRDOVRVXJJHVWHGWKDW

&DPRGHFD FLWQ Q

5. A new plumbarius from Rome, via Gothenburg45

&ROOHFWLRQV$QQ$UERU± EDFNJURXQG ±QRV± OHDGSLSHV 

6HH&DPRGHFD± FLWQ ±DQG3/5(,3ODFLGXVQRDQHQWU\ZKLFKGRHV

not cite the ¿VWXOD stamp, nor does the 3/5(DWWULEXWHLWWRDQ\ERG\HOVH)XULXV3ODFLGXVGRHV

LQ5RPHLQ$SULORUJDQL]HGE\$QQD%OHQQRZ 8QLYHUVLW\RI*RWKHQEXUJ ZKRDOHUWHG

cUVVNULIW  Y±[[L

&RJQRPLQDSOXPEDULRUXP(SLJUDSKLFD  ±HVS

2SXVF5RP  ±1RULVRXUWH[WFLWHGLQ%(7KRPDVVRQ±03DYHVH$6XUYH\

RATIONAL MUTINY IN THE YEAR OF FOUR EMPERORS

The art of mutiny

1 W. S. Messer, &3K  ±0HVVHUJLYHVDPXFKODWHUGDWH  IRU/LSVLXV

the military history of the early Empire.

ROBERT CONNAL 5DWLRQDO0XWLQ\LQWKH<HDURI)RXU(PSHURUV

ULRIKE EHMIG & +DUPRQLDPXQGL±(LQHLQGLJHQH*RWWKHLWJULHFKLVFKH

MIKA KAJAVA ZDQRKN&K 59

TUA KORHONEN 2Q+XPDQ$QLPDO6H[XDO5HODWLRQVKLSVLQ$HOLDQ

CHRISTIAN LAES /DWLQ,QVFULSWLRQVDQGWKH/LIH&RXUVH5HJLR,,, 95

OLLI SALOMIES 7KH1RPLQDRIWKH6DPQLWHV$&KHFNOLVW

HEIKKI SOLIN $QDOHFWDHSLJUDSKLFD&&/;;,,&&/;;;9

MARGARITA SOTIRIOU %DFFK\OLGHV%HKLQG+LVMetamorphoses: 7KH3RHWLF

10:HOOPDQQ'LH3ÀDQ]HQQDPHQGHV'LRVNXULGHV+HUPHVlKQOLFKZLH

/OR\GVRSUDQ±9)UHQFK0LGZLYHVDQG0DWHUQLW\&DUHLQWKH5RPDQ:RUOG

$JHVJHSVHFRQGRFXLPRVWYHUEDOUHPHGLHVDUHTXLWHGHYRLGRIDQ\UDWLRQDO

YG DG HV 0 0RLVVLGHV &RQWULEXWLRQ j O

$&±-)DXFRXQDX1RWHVXUO

passo teocriteo: ǰƬƣƮƪːƦƧƳƷƶƵɝƮXQDSLDQWDVSLQRVD6FKYHWLQ7KHRF,9D:HQGHO

/DSULPDDWWHVWD]LRQHGHOWHUPLQHULVDOHD'LRVFRULGHFLRpDO,VHFRORG&

25$QGUpVRSUDQHELEOLRJUD¿DFLW

TXHVWDSLDQWDLOFXPLQRGHOOHOHSULưȜƦɖƭƣƥư˃ƬƾvƫƮưƮƬƣƭư˃ƴƫƮ), espressione che potrebbe

LIPHDVXUHGFRUUHFWO\PHDQVWKDWWKHSLSHLVRIHQRUPRXVVL]H while the letters

7 6HH 07K 5DHSVDHW&KDUOLHU 3URVRSRJUDSKLH GHV IHPPHV GH O

GRPXV e su SOXPEDULLArctos±HVS±

RIWKH$LVSUHVHUYHG7KDWVWDPSVRIFpes in length were quite frequent is shown in my

published the ¿VWXODVWDPSVIURP5RPHNQRZQDURXQGWKH\HDUGHSHQGVRQDPDQXVFULSW

$V(GZDUG'ąEURZDQKDVUHPDUNHGLWLVWREHH[SHFWHGWKDW$VHOOLXV

lii are found in &,/;ERWKIURP3XWHROLDQGHLJKWLQ5RPHLQ&,/9,$PRQJ

For Rome, see &,/9,&,/;JLYHVWKHWZR/XFLL$VHOOLLIURP3XWHROL2QHRIWKHP

0$UGKXLQ ±$ %DOPHOOH ± < 5DEDVWp /

DPpQDJHPHQWVK\GUDXOLTXHVLQ&$EDGLH5H\QDO±63URYRVW±39LSDUGHGV/HVUpVHDX[

SUHVHUYHWKHFRPSOHWH5DQJ]HLFKHQYLUFODULVVLPXV, but one might be inclined

GD$XJXVWRDO,,,VHFROR&&*±HVSQZKRDOVRVXJJHVWHGWKDW

&DPRGHFDFLWQQ

&ROOHFWLRQV$QQ$UERU±EDFNJURXQG±QRV±OHDGSLSHV

6HH&DPRGHFD±FLWQ±DQG3/5(,3ODFLGXVQRDQHQWU\ZKLFKGRHV

not cite the ¿VWXOD stamp, nor does the 3/5(DWWULEXWHLWWRDQ\ERG\HOVH)XULXV3ODFLGXVGRHV

LQ5RPHLQ$SULORUJDQL]HGE\$QQD%OHQQRZ8QLYHUVLW\RI*RWKHQEXUJZKRDOHUWHG

cUVVNULIWY±[[L

&RJQRPLQDSOXPEDULRUXP(SLJUDSKLFD±HVS

2SXVF5RP±1RULVRXUWH[WFLWHGLQ%(7KRPDVVRQ±03DYHVH$6XUYH\

1 W. S. Messer, &3K±0HVVHUJLYHVDPXFKODWHUGDWHIRU/LSVLXV

70HVVHUDERYHQ

RI6RFLDO,VVXHV±'UXU\DQG5HLFKHUDOVRHPSKDVLVHWKHFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQ

20-RVHSK%-±)RU$VKDERYHQWKLVSDVVDJHLVGHVLJQHGWRGHPRQVWUDWHIRU

6HH*()&KLOYHUJRS±IRUWKHFORVHUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQWKH6\ULDQOHJLRQV

K. Wellesley, 7KH<HDURIWKH)RXU(PSHURUV, London 2000, 141.

D. Hume, $7UHDWLVHRI+XPDQ1DWXUHYRO/RQGRQ±

'LR±7DFLWXVhist.FODLPVWKDWWKHLQLWLDOPDVVDFUHVKRFNHGHYHQWKRVHZKR

RQ0\FHQDHDQ6WXGLHVWHQWDWLYHO\SURSRVHGDVVRFLDWLQJZDQRTHZLWKWKH3\OLDQ

ưƹ,is evidently based on the element*ǍƩƮRIXQNQRZQRULJLQIRUWKHREYLRXV

'DYLHVLQKHUGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHWUHDWPHQWRIWKHV\OODELFٙr/ in Mycenaean: $WWLH0HPRULH

GHVWLQHGIRUVDFUL¿FHVHHWKHOLWHUDWXUHFLWHGLQArctosQHVS-7.LOOHQ

±0HDQLQJRIƣȢƪ5%HHNHV*ORWWD±±SDVVLPEULJKW

Homeric tone, Nonn. 'LRQ ȐƮưƱƫƬƽƴvˎGD]]OLQJGHFRUDWLRQȐƮưƱƫ

$FDGHPLD5RVWRFKLHQVLVHPKLED1890/91... SXEOLFHSULYDWLPTXHKDEHQGDUXPS

SORXJKLQJR[HQƤƽƧưȠƮưƱƧ (,OOdDQGLVIRXQGDVDPDQ

Davies (eds.), $&RPSDQLRQWR/LQHDU%0\FHQDHDQ*UHHN7H[WVDQGWKHLU:RUOG II (2011),

*7KH¿UVWGUDIWRIWKLVSDSHU7KHQRWRULRXVNLQGRI]RRSKLOLDLQ$QWLTXLW\ZDVSUHVHQWHGDW

WKH0LQGLQJ$QLPDOV&RQIHUHQFH8WUHFKW-XO\±,DPJUDWHIXOWRWKHFRPPHQWDWRUV

$GRJRUDUDPRUDJRRVH±$HOLDQPHQWLRQVWKHGLIIHUHQWYHUVLRQVIHOOLQORYHZLWK*ODXFHWKH

11/&DOGHU&UXHOW\DQG6HQWLPHQWDOLW\2[IRUG%HLUQHDERYHQ±&IDOVR

15'DYLGVRQDERYHQ±

WRULDQEXWLWLVREYLRXVWKDWWKHVHWDOHVRZHPRUHRIWKHLUVW\OHWRSDUD-

19*DUFtD9DOGpVDERYHQHVSHFLDOO\.LQGVWUDQGDERYHQ&RQFHUQLQJ

the word ǰƮƵƟƲƺƳUHWXUQORYHORYHIRUORYHUHFLSURFDOORYHZDVWKHDIIHF-

*UHHN0\WKLQ6'HDF\±.)3LHUFHHGV5DSHLQ$QWLTXLW\, 75.

female point of view in Euripides' ,RQ±

RIWKHYLROHQWOXVWVRIPDQ0RUI±D7KXV3OXWDUFKFOHDUO\QRWHVWKDW

involving a shepherd and a sheep (IDE6HHDOVR&DOGHUDERYHQ±

41 2QDWWLWXGHVWRWKHOXVXVQDWXUDH, see R. Kearney, 6WUDQJHUV*RGVDQG0RQVWHUV, London

DYDQWL Gj OXRJR D SUREOHPL GLI¿FLOL QHOO

JUDQGHGHOODYHQHWD5HSXEEOLFD$UFKLYLRYHQHWR±H±

¿QRDLWHPSLGL0DUFDQWRQLR6DEHOOLFRF±DSSUH]]DWDSHUODFRP-

19=DEELDVRSUDQ

20$UQDOGLVRSUDQÊQRWRLOSURFHVVRGLFRPSLOD]LRQHDWWUDYHUVRLOFRGLFHGLODYRUR

6XOODOHWWHUDVLYHGDDQFKH$&DULOHH*)HGDOWR/HRULJLQLGL9HQH]LD, Bologna 1978,

,OFRUSRFKHFRQWLHQHODFURQDFDGL5DYDJQDQLHGLGRFXPHQWLGHOOHPLVXUH[RVSLWD

ELDQFRLOVHFRQGRFRQLOUDSSRUWRGHOGRJHU±Y6LQRWDQRLQROWUHLWUHWLSLGLFDUWDTXHOOR

comuni fra la &KURQLFD9HQHWLDUXP ed il codice torinese dell'([WHQVD%LEOLRWHFD1D]LRQDOHGL

46HH/DXUHQFH±7UL¿OzIRUD¿UVWVDPSOHRIPRVWSURPLVLQJUHVHDUFK7KHHYLGHQFHIRU