Engineering Analysis Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S.

Al-Ne’aimi 1

Engineering Applications of ODEs of

1st Order and 1st Degree

 Falling Body Problems

In most falling-body problems there are two forces acting on the body: the force
due to gravity given by the weight w of the body, which equals mg, and the force
due to air resistance given by −kv, where v = object velocity, and k ≥ 0 is constant
of proportionality. The minus sign is because this force opposes the velocity; that
is, it acts in the upward, or negative, direction (see Figure). If g is the gravitational
constant, the downward force F on a falling object of mass m is given by mg  kv.
But by Newton’s Second Law of Motion, F  ma  m(dv / dt ), which yields the
following differential equation.

dv dv k
m  mg  kv   vg
dt dt m

EXAMPLE (1) Downward Falling Object with Air Resistance

An object of mass m is dropped from a hovering helicopter. Find its velocity as
function of time t, assuming that the air resistance is proportional to the velocity
of the object.

Solution:
dv k
The velocity v satisfies the equation  vg
dt m
where, g is the gravitational constant and k is the constant of proportionality.
Letting b  k / m, you can separate variables to obtain
dv 1
dv  ( g  bv) dt   g  bv   dt  
b
ln g  bv  t  C1

 ln g  bv   bt  bC1  g  bv  C e  bt
Because the object was dropped, v  0 when t  0; thus g  C , and it follows that

 bt g  ge  bt mg
 bv   g  g e  v  (1  e  kt / m ).
b k
Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 2

EXAMPLE (2) Upward Falling Object with Air Resistance

A 10-kg mass is given an initial velocity vo  0 near Earth’s surface. The only
forces acting on it are gravity and atmospheric resistance proportional to the square
of the speed. Assuming that the air resistance is 8 N if the speed is 2 m/s, find the
velocity of the object as a function of t.

Solution:

Since the object is falling, the resistance is in the upward (positive) direction. Hence,
mv   mg  kv 2 …………………….……… ……..(1)
where k is a constant. Since the magnitude of the resistance is 8 N when v  2 m/s,
k ( 2 )2  8
so k  2 N-s2/m2. Since m  10 and g  9.8, Eq.(1) becomes

10 v  98  2v 2  2( v 2  49 ) ……....…………..(2)
If vo  7 then v  7 for all t  0. If vo  7 separate the variables to obtain
1 1
v  …………..…………………………..(3)
v 2  49 5
1 1
Using partial fraction expansion v 
v 2  49 ( v  7 )( v  7 )
1  1 1 
  ……..(4)
14  v  7 v  7 
Substituting (4) into (3) yields
1  1 1  1
 v  
14  v  7 v  7  5
So
 1 1 

14

 v  7 v  7  v 
5
Integrating this yields
ln v  7  ln v  7  14t / 5  k
Therefore
v7
 e k e14t / 5
v7

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 3

Rewrite the last equation as

v7
 C e14t / 5 …………..………………...………..(5)
v7

which is an implicit solution of Eq.(2). Solving this for 𝒗 yields

C  e 14t / 5
v  7 ……..…….…………..………..(6)
C  e 14t / 5

Since v( 0 )  v0 , it follows from Eq.(5) that

v0  7
C
v0  7

Substituting C into Eq.(6) and simplifying yields

v0 ( 1  e 14t / 5 )  7( 1  e 14t / 5 )
v  7
v0 ( 1  e 14t / 5 )  7( 1  e 14t / 5 )

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 4

 Dilution or Mixing Problems

Consider a tank which initially holds V0 gal of brine that contains a Ib of salt.
Another solution, containing b Ib of salt per gallon, is poured into the tank at the
rate of e gal/min while simultaneously, the well-stirred solution leaves the tank
at the rate of f gal/min (see Figure below).

To find the amount of salt in the tank at any time t = ?

Let y = the amount of salt in the tank at any time t (Ib).

V0  et  ft = volume of brine at any time t,

where, V0 = initial volume,
et = volume of brine added, and
ft = volume of brine removed.

If, be = salt inflow rate (Ib/min.).

y / ( V0  et  ft )  concentration of salt in the tank at any time t.
 y 
f   = salt outflow rate (Ib/min.).
 V0  et  ft 

The time rate of change of y equal to:

dy
y  = Salt inflow rate − Salt outflow rate
dt
dy  y 
Thus,  be  f  
dt  0
V  et  ft 

f
Or y  y  be
V0  et  ft

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 5

EXAMPLE (3) Mixing Problem

A tank contains 1000 gal of water in which initially 100 Ib of salt is dissolved.
Brine runs in at a rate of 10 gal/min, and each gallon contains 5 Ib of dissolved
salt. The mixture in the tank is kept uniform by stirring. Brine runs out at 10
gal/min. Find the amount of salt in the tank after 30 min.

Solution:

Let y (t) = amount of salt in the tank at time t (Ib).

y = time rate of change of salt in the tank (Ib/min).
From the dilution equation:
f
y  y  be
V0  et  ft

The data given in this example are V0 = 1000, a = 100, b = 5, and e = f = 10.

10
y  y  5  10
1000  10t  10t
10 gal/min.

y  0.01 y  50 (which is linear D.E.)

10 gal/min.

Thus, e   e  0.01 dt  e 0.01t and the general solution is

P ( t ) dt

y e 0.01t  0.01 y e 0.01t  50 e 0.01t

d
 dt ( y e 0.01t )   50 e 0.01t  C

50 0.01t
y e 0.01t  e C  y  5000  C e  0.01t
0.01

Initial Conditions: At t = 0 , y = 100 Ib

100  5000  C e 0  C  4900
y( t )  5000  4900 e  0.01t

After 30 min: At t = 30 min, y = ?

y( 30 )  5000  4900 e  0.01( 30 )  1370 Ib

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 6

EXAMPLE (4) Mixing Problem

A tank contains 50 gallons of a solution composed of 90% water and 10%
alcohol. A second solution containing 50% water and 50% alcohol is added to
the tank at the rate of 4 gallons per minute. As the second solution is being added,
the tank is being drained at the rate of 5 gallons per minute, as shown in Figure.
Assuming the solution in the tank is stirred constantly, how much alcohol is in the
tank after 10 minutes?

Solution:

Let y = number of gallons of alcohol in the tank at any time t. You know that
y  5 when t  0 . Because the number of gallons of solution in the tank at any
time is 50  t , and the tank loses 5 gallons of solution per minute, it must lose
 5  gallons of alcohol per minute.
 y
 50  t 

Furthermore, because the tank is gaining 2 gallons of alcohol per minute, the rate
of change of alcohol in the tank is given by

dy  5  dy  5 
 2 y   y  2 (which is linear D.E.)
dt  50  t  dt  50  t 

5
 dt
e  e 50 t
P ( t ) dt
Thus,
1
 e  5 ln ( 50 t ) 
( 50  t )5
and, the general solution is

y 2 1
 dt  C
( 50  t )
5
( 50  t )5
2 ( 50  t ) 4

50  t
y  C (50  t )5
2
5
20 50  t  50  t 
@ y( 0 )  5 : C   y  20  
505 2  50 
Finally, when t  10, the amount of alcohol in the tank is
5
50  10  50  10 
y  20    13.45 gal
2  50 
which represents a solution containing 33.6% alcohol.

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 7

 Draining Tanks Problems

Let, h0  initial water level in the tank.

ht  water level at time t..
h( t )  the amount of drop of water level during time increment t .
Assuming that water level keeps dropping after the tap exit is opened, and the
reduction of water level is CONTINUOUS.

Volume of water leaving the tap exit = Volume of water LOSS in the tank

 d 2 
 2 g h( t ) t   D h( t )
2

 4  4
 

h( t )  d2 
  h( t )1 / 2  2  2 g
t D 
 
And since t  0 the 1st. order differential equation for the draining of a water
tank is expressed as:
dh( t )  d2 
  2 g  2  h( t )
t D 
 
This Equation can be solved by separating the variables and integrating as:

dh( t )  d2 
  2 g  2  dt
h( t ) D 
 

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 8

1 / 2  d2 
h dh   2 g  2   dt  C
D 
 
 d2 
2h 1/ 2
  2g  2  t  C  C  2 ho (from initial condition)
D 
 
Thus, the general solution is given by:
2
 g  d 2  
h( t )    t  h0
 2  D 2  
To determine the time required to drain the tank at any time, te ?
2
 g  d2  
Take h( te )  0 : 0     te  h0 
 D2 
 2   

D2 2h0
te  .... seconds
d2 g

EXAMPLE (5) Draining Tank

Given: Tank diameter, D = 12” = 1 ft.

Drain pipe diameter, d = 1” = 1/12 ft.
Initial water level in the tank, ho = 12” = 1 ft.
Gravitational acceleration, g = 32.2 ft/sec.

Determine the time required to empty the tank?

Solution:
2
 
D2 2h0  1  21
te     35.89 seconds
d2 g  1  32.2
 12 

EXAMPLE (6) Leaking Tank

Consider a cylindrical tank with a hole at the bottom. The tank has diameter 2m,
the hole has diameter 1 cm, and the initial height of water when the hole is opened
is 2.25 m. Find the water height in the tank at any time. When will the tank be
empty?

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 9

The outflowing water has velocity: 𝑣(𝑡) = 0.6 √2𝑔 ℎ(𝑡) (𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊’𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒘)
where h(t): water height above the hole at time t , and g: acceleration of gravity.
The contraction factor 0.6 is introduced because the stream has a smaller cross
section than the area of the hole.

Solution:

Decrease of water volume in the tank = Volume of water outflow in a time interval
−𝐴𝑡 𝛥ℎ = 𝐴ℎ 𝑣 𝛥𝑡
where, 𝐴𝑡 , 𝐴ℎ = Cross-sectional area of tank and the hole
Δh = Decrease of water height in the tank
Δt = a short time interval, Δt → 0.

𝛥ℎ 𝐴ℎ
=− 𝑣
𝛥𝑡 𝐴𝑡

𝑑ℎ 𝐴ℎ
= − 0.6 √2 (980) ℎ
𝑑𝑡 𝐴𝑡

𝑑ℎ 𝐴ℎ
= −26.56 √ℎ
𝑑𝑡 𝐴𝑡

𝑑ℎ 𝐴ℎ
∫ = −26.56 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
√ℎ 𝐴𝑡

𝐴ℎ
2 √ℎ = −26.56 𝑡 +𝑐 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐴𝑡
2
𝐴ℎ 2 𝜋 0.52
ℎ = (−13.28 𝑡 + 𝑐) = (−13.28 2 𝑡 + 𝑐) = (−0.000332 𝑡 + 𝑐)2
𝐴𝑡 𝜋 100

Initial Conditions: At t = 0 , h = 225 cm

225 = (−0.000332 × 0 + 𝑐)2 ⇒ 𝑐 = 15
𝒉(𝒕) = (−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝒕 + 𝟏𝟓)𝟐

Tank empty: At h = 0 , t =?
0 = (−0.000332 𝑡 + 15)2
15
𝑡= = 45181 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 12.6 ℎ𝑟
0.000332

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 10

EXAMPLE (7) Heat Condition in Solids

A metal rod has a cross-sectional area 1200 mm2 and 2m in length. It is thermally
insulated in its circumference, with one end being in contact with a heat source
supplying heat at 10 kW, and the other end maintained at 50 oC. Determine the
temperature distribution in the rod, if the thermal conductivity of the rod material
is k = 100 kW/m-oC.

Solution:

The 1st. order differential equation for heat transfer in solids in the 𝒙-direction is
derived from the Fourier Law of heat conduction as:
dT ( x )
Q  q A  k A
dx
where, Q  total amount of heat flow,
q  heat flux - a sense of the intensity of heat flow Q in a solid,
A  the area to which heat flows,
k  thermal conductivity constant,
dT ( x )  difference of temperatures between left and right surfaces, and
x = distance or thickness of heat flow

The total heat flow Q per unit time t ( Q / t ) in the rod is given by the heat source
to the left end, i.e. 10 kW [From heat flux ( Q / t )  q A  10 kW].

dT ( x ) Q 10
Or   
 83.33 0C / m
dx kA 100( 1200  10 )6

And its solution is: T ( x )   83.33x  C @ T ( 2 )  50 o  C = 216.67

Thus, the complete solution is T ( x )  216.67  83.33x

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 11

EXAMPLE (8) Heat transfer in Solids Submerged in Fluids

Determine the time required to cool down a solid object initially at 80oC to 8oC.
It is placed in a refrigerator with its interior air maintained at 5oC. If the coefficient
α = 0.002/m2-s and the contact area between the solid and the cool air in the
refrigerator is A = 0.2 m2.

Solution:

The 1st. order differential equation for the change of the

temperature of the submerged solid is expressed as:
dT ( t )
dt

   A T ( t )  Tf 
with an initial condition: T ( t )t  0  T ( 0 )  T0
h
where,   constant = ,
cV
h  heat transfer coefficient between the solid and the bulk fluid,
  mass density of the solid,
c  specific heat of solid,
V  volume of the solid,
A  contacting surface area between the solid and the bulk fluid, and
T ( t ) and T f  Solid and bulk fluid temperatures, respectively.

Substituting the given values: T f  5o C ,   0.002 / m 2  s , A  0.2 m 2

Into the above Equation and integrating leads to the solution:
dT ( t ) dT ( t )
T (t )  5
  0.0004 dt   T ( t )  5   0.0004  dt  C1
ln[T ( t )  5]   0.0004 t  C1

T ( t )  5  e  0.0004t C1  C e  0.0004t

with an initial condition: T0  80o C  C  75

Consequently, the solution T(t) is: T ( t )  5  75 e  0.0004 t

If te  required time for the solid to drop its temperature from 80oC to
8oC, we should have: T ( te )  8  5  75 e  0.0004 te

Solving the above equation for te gives: te  8047 s or 2.24 h

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 12

EXAMPLE (9) Newton’s Law of Cooling

A ceramic insulator is baked at 400°C and cooled in a room in which the

temperature is 25°C. After 4 minutes the temperature of the insulator is 200°C.
What is its temperature after 8 minutes?

Solution:

Newton’s law of cooling states that if an object with temperature T ( t ) at time t

is in a medium with temperature Tm ( t ), then the rate of change of T at time t is
proportional to T ( t )  Tm ( t ); thus, T satisfies the 1st. differential equation of the
form:
T    k (T  Tm ) ………..………..(1)

where, k = heat transfer coefficient or temperature decay constant of the

medium.

To solve Eq.(1) rewrite it as

T   kT  kTm
Since e  kt is a solution of the complementary equation, the solutions of this
equation are of the form T  ue kt where ue  kt  kTm , so u  kTme kt . Hence,

u  Tme kt  C so T  ue kt  Tm  Ce kt

Setting T ( 0 )  T0 yields C  T0  Tm , so

T  Tm  (T0  Tm ) e  kt ………..………..(2)

Now, from data given in this example: T0 = 400 and Tm = 25, Eq.(2) becomes

T  25  375 e  kt ………..………………..(3)
7
From the stated condition T ( 4 )  200 200  25  375 e  4k  e  4k 
15
Taking logarithms and solving for k yields
1 7 1 15
k   ln  ln
4 15 4 7
Substituting this into (3) yields: T  25  375 e ( t / 4 ) ln 15 / 7
and therefore the temperature of the insulator after 8 minutes is
2
 2 ln 15 / 7 7 
T ( 8 )  25  375 e  25  375   107 o C
 15 

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 13

Engineering Applications of ODEs of Higher Order

and 1st Degree

 Mechanical Vibrations
Consider the motion of an object with mass m
at the end of a spring that is either vertical (as in
Fig.1) or horizontal on a level surface (as in
Fig.2).

The forces acting on the mass that we will

consider are: (see Fig.3)
1. the gravitational force Fgrav ,
2. the spring force Fspr ,
3. the damping or drag force Fdamp , and
4. the external or driving force F (t ) .

By Newton’s Second Law of motion:

d2x
m  Fgrav  Fspr  Fdamp  F (t ) ……………..……..(1)
2
dt
where,
 Fgrav is the downward weight of the mass, equal to: Fgrav   mg
where, m  mass of the object, and g  acceleration = 9.8 m/sec2 in MKS
units, g  980 cm/sec2 in CGS units, and g  32 ft/sec2 in British units.
 Fspr is modeled by Hooke’s law as: Fspr   k ( x  xo )
where, k  is a positive constant called the spring constant, xo and x  the
displacements of the spring without and with the mass attached.
 Fdamp  c dx , where c  0 is the so-called damping coefficient.
dt

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 14

 F (t ) is the dynamic force which may be one of the following:

 Harmonic excitation; such as F (t )  F cos(t  ) or F ( t )  F sin(t  )
or F ( t )  F e i( t  ) where, F is the amplitude,  is the frequency, and
 is the phase angle of the harmonic excitation.
 Periodic forcing; such as football forces (walking).
 Transient excitation; such as earthquakes.
 Random forcing; such as winds.

Then, Eq.(1) can be written as:

d2x dx
m c  kx  ( kxo  mg)  F ( t )
dt 2 dt

Neglecting the term ( kxo  mg ) which belongs to the mass rest position from
Eq.(1), the motion of the spring-mass-system is governed by a 2nd. order
nonhomogeneous linear differential equation written as:

d2x dx
m 2
c  kx  F ( t ) …………………………………..(2)
dt dt

The solution of Eq.(2) depends on whether the vibrating system is free or forced
and damped or undamped, in addition to degrees-of-freedom, and initial
conditions.
The system is free if it is unforced; that is, F ( t )  0 ; otherwise it is forced. The
system is undamped if c  0 (equivalently   0 ); otherwise, it is damped.
Therefore, four possible cases can be considered as follows:

(a) Free Undamped Vibrations (c  0, F ( t )  0 ). In this case Eq.(2) reduces to:

d2x
m  kx  0    n2 x  0 ……………………..(3)
x
2
dt

Its auxiliary equation is mr2  k  0 with roots, r   i n , where, n  k / m

is the (natural frequency of oscillations, in rad/sec), f  n / 2  is the
(frequency), and T  1 / f is the associated natural period (rad/sec or 1/sec).

Thus, the general solution is

x (t)  c1 cos( n t)  c 2 sin( n t) …………..…………....(3.1)

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 15

For initial conditions x (0)  xo and x (0)  x o :

xo  c1 (1)  c1  xo

x (t)  c1 n sin( n t)  c 2 n cos( n t)  x o  c 2 n  c 2  x o / n

Then, the solution becomes
x o
x (t)  xo cos(n t)  sin(n t) .……………..………..(3.2)
n
Such motion is called simple harmonic motion. Eq.(3.2) is nontrivial whenever
either c1 or c 2 is nonzero. In that case it can be expressed in the so-called
amplitude-phase form as:
x (t)  A cos(n t __ ) .………………..(3.3)
 A cos( ) cos(n t)  A sin( ) sin(n t)

where, A > 0 is its amplitude and  in 0, 2π is its phase angle. Upon comparing
Eq.(3.3) with Eq.(3.2) we see that

A cos( )  c1  xo and A sin( )  c2  x o / n

c2
A c12  c22 and   tan1 
c1

EXAMPLE (1) Free Undamped Vibrations

A mass of 10 grams stretches a spring 5 cm when at rest. At t = 0 the mass is set

in motion from its rest position with a downward velocity of 35 cm/sec. Neglect
damping and external forces.
(i) What is the displacement of the mass as a function of time?
(ii) What is the amplitude, phase, frequency, and period of the motion?
(iii) At what positive time does the mass first return to its rest position?

Solution:

Because g = 980 cm/sec2, we can find k by setting

k (5) = mg = 10 × 980 dynes  k =1960 dynes/cm.
For free undamped vibrations, the equation of motion takes the form:
d2x
m  kx  0    1960x  0
10 x    196 x  0
x
dt 2
Because n2  196 , one sees that n  14 1/sec. Therefore a general solution
of the equation of motion is:

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 16

x (t)  c1 cos(14t)  c 2 sin(14t)

and
x (t)  14 c1 sin(14t)  14 c 2 cos(14t)

With initial conditions, x(0)  0 and x (0)  −35 cm/sec:

5
x (0)  c1  0 , x (0)  14 c 2  35  c2  
2
Thus
(i) The displacement of the mass as a function of time is
5 5 3
x(t)   sin(14t)  cos(14 t  ) cm.
2 2 2

(ii) The amplitude of the motion A is 5/2 cm, the phase angle  is 3 / 2 , the
natural frequency  n is 14 1/sec, and the period T  2  / n is  / 7 sec.

(iii) The +ve. time at which the mass first returns to its rest position is t   / 14.

(b) Forced Udamped Vibrations [In this case c  0 and under harmonic loading
F ( t )  F cos( t ) ] Eq.(2) reduces to:

d2x F
m 2
 kx  F cos(t )  x
  n2 x  cos(t ) .……….…..(4)
dt m

Eq.(4) is a 2nd order non-homogenous linear differential equation, so its solution

is a sum of homogenous and particular solutions: x ( t )  xh ( t )  x p ( t )
The xh (t ) solution is already given by Eq.(3.1) in section (a) for FREE
UNDAMPED VIBRATING SYSTEMS, which can be re-written as:
xh (t)  c1 cos( n t)  c2 sin( n t) ………………….……….…..(4.1)
Using the method of undetermined coefficients, the particular solution is:
x p (t)  A cos( t )  B sin( t )
x p (t)   A sin( t)  B cos ( t)
 p (t)  2 A cos( t)  2 B sin( t)
x

Substituting the above equations into Eq.(4) gives:

[( k  m2 ) A] cos(t)  [( k  m2 ) B] sin(t )  F cos(t )

Equating the cosine and sine terms, yields

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 17

F
A , and B0
m(n2   2 )

F ……………………….……….…..(4.2)
Hence x p (t)  cos(t )
2
m ( n  2 )

and the general solution of Eq.(4) is:

F ….…..(4.3)
x (t)  c1 cos(n t)  c2 sin(n t)  cos t
2
m ( n  2 )

 For   n :

With initial conditions specified as x ( o )  xo and x ( o )  x o :

F x o
c 1  xo  , c2 
2
m ( n  2 ) n

Thus, the general solution with imposing initial conditions is

x o
x (t)  xo cos(n t)  sin(n t) 
F
cos(t )  cos(n t)
n 2 2
m ( n   )
….…..(4.4)
Free Undamped Vibrations
As seen that this output is a superposition of two harmonic oscillations. of the
system natural frequency n / 2  (cycles/sec) and the frequency  / 2
(cycles/sec) of the driving force.

 For   n  0 :
Two very important phenomena occur when the driving frequency becomes close
to the system’s natural frequency: resonance and beating.

Resonance: By putting (cost  1) in the particular part F

cos t
2
m( n  2 )
mentioned above, the maximum amplitude of x p (t ) is:
F /k F /k …………………….……….…..(4.5)
Amax  
1  ( / n ) 1 r 2 2

If   n , then ρ and Amax tend to infinity. This excitation of large oscillations

by matching input and natural frequencies (   n ) is called resonance.

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 18

In case of resonance, the particular solution for Eq.(4) using the modification rule
becomes:
x p ( t )  t ( A cos n t  B sin n t )

By substituting this into the Eq.(4) and equating coefficients; gives A  0 and
B  F /( 2 mn ) . Hence

F ……………………………….……….…..(4.6)
x p (t )  t sin(nt )
2 mn

We see that because of the factor t, the amplitude becomes larger and larger. So
practically speaking, systems with very little damping may undergo larger
vibrations that can destroy the system (see Fig.4 shown below).

Beats: Another interesting and highly important type of oscillation is obtained

if  is close to  n , the particular solution of Eq.(4) given before as:

x p (t) 
F
2
cos(t )  cos(n t) (   n ).
m ( n  2 )

Here can be rewritten as:

2F         ….……….…..(4.7)
x p (t)  sin n t  sin n t
2
m ( n  2 )  2   2 

Since  is close to  n , the difference n   is small. Hence the period of the

last sine function is large, and obtain slow oscillation of the type shown in Fig.5
below known as beating.

Fig.5: Forced undamped oscillation when

Fig.4: x p(t) in the case of resonance. the difference of the input and
natural frequencies is small (“beats”)
EXAMPLE (2) Forced Undamped Vibrations

A machine of mass 1000 kg is supported on a vertical flexible mounting, modelled

as single-degree-of-freedom system. The mounting has a total stiffness 50 kNm-1

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 19

but negligible damping. Any horizontal motion of the system should be ignored.
In normal operation the machine is subjected to a vertical force F ( t )  Fo sin  t
where the amplitude Fo is 2500 N. Calculate the response amplitude and the
force transmitted to the foundations when the driving frequency is (a) 20 Hz and
(b) 2 Hz.

Solution:

This problem is a case of forced undamped vibration by an applied force.

(a) We know m  1000kg Fo  2500 N
  20 Hz  2  20  125.7 rad/sec k  50 kNm 1
First find the natural frequency
k 50  1000
n    50  7.07 rad / sec
m 1000
 125.7
Then r   17.8
n 7.07

The amplitude of vibration of the machine is

F /k 2500 /( 50  1000) 0.05
Amax  o 2    1.6  10 4 m  0.16 mm
1 r 1  17.8 2  315.8
The amplitude of the force transmitted is
Fo 2500 2500
Po     7.9 N
1  r2 1  17.8 2  315.8

  2 Hz  2  2  12. 6 rad/sec   12.6

(b) r   1.8
n 7.07
Fo / k 2500 /( 50  1000) 0.05
Amax     0.022 m  22 mm
1  r2 1  1.8 2  2.24

Fo 2500 2500
Po     1116 N
1  r2 1  1.8 2  2.24

(c) Free Damped Vibrations ( F ( t )  0 ). In this case Eq.(2) reduces to:

d2x dx
m c  kx  0    2 n x  n2 x  0
x …..……..…..(5)
2 dt
dt

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 20

knowing that:
 the natural frequency: n  k / m 0
 the damping ratio:   c / 2 km  0
 the damped natural frequency: d  n 1   2 (only relevant for 0    1) .

The auxiliary equation of Eq.(5) is

c k
r2  r 0 OR r 2  2 nr  n
2
0
m m

 c  c 2  4 mk
with roots, r1  OR r1   n  n  2  1
2 2m 2

The nature of the solution depends upon whether  is less than one, equal to one,
or greater than one.

CASE I: c 2  4 mk  0 OR (   1) (Overdamping)

In this case, r1 and r2 are distinct real roots and the solution is given by:

x (t)  c1 e r1t  c 2 e r2 t
…..…..(5.1)
(  n  n  2  1 )t (  n  n  2  1 )t
OR x(t)  c1 e  c2 e

In this case, oscillations do not occur due to strong damping force (high-viscosity
oil or grease) compared with a weak spring or small mass.

CASE II: c 2  4 mk  0 OR (   1) (Critical damping)

c
This case corresponds to equal roots: ( r1  r2   ) OR ( r1  r2   n )
2m
and the solution is given by:

x (t)  (c1  c 2 t ) e  ( c / 2 m ) t
…………………….…………....(5.2)
 n t
OR x (t)  ( c1  c 2 t ) e

In this case, the damping is just sufficient to suppress vibrations, and any decrease
in the viscosity of the fluid leads to vibrations of the following case III.
CASE III: c 2  4 mk  0 OR (   1) (Underdamping)
Here the roots are complex:

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 21

c 4 mk  c 2
r1    i where  
2 2m 2m

OR r1   n  n  2  1   n  i n 1   2 and the solution is

2
given by:
x (t)  e  ( c / 2 m ) t (c1 cos t  c 2 sin t )
..…....(5.3)
OR x (t)  e  nt (c1 cos n 1   2 t  c 2 sin n 1   2 t )

In this case, the motion decays to zero as time increases.

A typical graph is shown in Fig.(6) beside.

Fig.6: Case III: Underdamping

EXAMPLE (3) Free Damped Vibrations

A spring with a mass of 2 kg has natural length 0.5 m. A force of 25.6 N is

required to maintain it stretched to a length of 0.7 m. Suppose that the spring is
immersed in a fluid with damping constant c = 40. Find the position of the mass
at any time if it starts from the equilibrium position and is given a push to start it
with an initial velocity of 0.6 m/s.

Solution:

From Hooke’s Law, the force required to stretch the spring is

k (0.7−0.5) = 25.6  k =128 N/m.
For free damped vibrations, the equation of motion takes the form:
d2x dx
m c  kx  0  2 x
  40 x  128 x  0  x
  20 x  64 x  0
2 dt
dt
The auxiliary equation is r 2  20r  64  ( r  4 )( r  16)  0 with roots  4 and
 16, so the motion is overdamped and the general solution is given by:

x (t)  c1 e  4 t  c 2 e  16 t

Substituting the initial condition x(0)  0, gives

c1  c 2  0  c1   c 2 .

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 22

Then, differentiating, x (t) we get

x (t)  4 c1 e  4 t  16 c 2 e  16 t
So x (0)  4 c1  16 c 2  0.6 Graph of the position function for the
overdamped motion in Ex.(3).

Since c 2   c1 , this gives 12 c1  0.6 or c1  0.05. Therefore

x(t)  0.05 (e  4 t  e  16 t )

(d) Forced Damped Vibrations. Under harmonic loading, F ( t )  F cos(t )

Eq.(2) will be:

F (t )
  cx  kx  F cos(t )  x
mx   2 n x  n2 x  ………..(6)
m

Eq.(6) is a 2nd order non-homogenous linear differential equation, so its solution

is a sum of homogenous and particular solutions: x ( t )  xh ( t )  x p ( t )

All possible cases for the homogeneous solution xh (t ) are already given before
in Section (c) for FREE DAMPED VIBRATIONS.

To find x p (t ) solution use the method of undetermined coefficients:

x p (t)  A cos( t )  B sin( t ) ………………….……..(6.1)

x p (t)   A sin( t)  B cos ( t)

 p (t)  2 A cos( t)  2 B sin( t)
x

Substituting the above equations into Eq.(6) gives:

[( k  m2 ) A  cB] cos(t)  [-cA  ( k  m2 ) B] sin(t )  F cos(t )

( k  m 2 ) A  cB  F
By equating the cosine and sine coefficients, gives:
 cA  ( k  m 2 ) B  0
Solving this system of equations for A and B yields:
k  m 2 c
AF , BF
( k  m 2 ) 2   2 c 2 ( k  m 2 ) 2   2 c 2

Introducing the dimensionless natural frequency, damping and frequencies ratios

k
 Undamped natural frequency: n  2
, k  mn
m

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 23

 Damping ratio: c c c c
   ,  2  n
cc 2 mn 2 km m
 frequencies ratio: 
r
n

2
m ( n  2 )  ( 2  2 ) 2  4  2 2 2  F
AF   n n
 A
m 2 ( n
2
 2 ) 2  2 ( 2 m n ) 2 
2
( n  2 )  m

n4  ( 1  r 2 ) 2  ( 2r ) 2  F [( F/m)/ n2 ] ( 1  r 2 )

  A   A
n2  (1  r 2 )  m ( 1  r 2 ) 2  ( 2r ) 2
and
( 2 m n )  ( 2  2 ) 2  4  2 2 2  F
BF   n n
 B
m 2 ( n
2
 2 ) 2  2 ( 2 m n ) 2  2  n  m

n4  ( 1  r 2 ) 2  ( 2r ) 2  F [( F/m)/ n2 ] ( 2r )

 B  B
n2  ( 2 n )  m ( 1  r 2 ) 2  ( 2r ) 2

With A and B the particular solution is x p (t)  A cos( t )  B sin( t )

To present the solution with amplitude and phase angle:

Assume x p (t)  X cos( t  φ) ………………………………..……….…..(6.2)

where, X is the amplitude and φ is the phase angle of the response.

By substituting x p (t), x p (t) and x p (t) into Eq.(6):

X [ ( k  m2 ) cos(t  φ)  c sin(t  φ) ]  F cos(t )

Using the trigonometric relations below in the above equation

cos(ω  φ)  cosωt cosφ  sin ωt sin φ
sin(ω  φ)  sin ωt cosφ  cosωt sin φ

X [ ( k  m2 ) cos φ  c sin φ ]  F

We obtain: Solving these equations for
2
X [ ( k  m ) sin φ  c cos φ ]  0
X and φ yields:
 c 
φ  tan1 
F
X , 
( k  m2 ) 2  c 2 2  k  m2 

Introducing the dimensionless ratios mentioned before.

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 24

The amplitude is:

F F /m
X 
2
( mn  m2 ) 2  ( 2 m n ) 2 2 2
( n  2 ) 2  ( 2  n) 2
2
F / m n
X 
2 2  2
(1  )  ( 2 )
2
n n

(F / k )
X ……………………..……….…..(6.3)
2 2 2
( 1  r )  ( 2 r )

OR X   st M

F
where,  st   deflection under the static force F and M  magnification factor.
k
(F / k )
OR X  A2  B 2 
( 1  r 2 ) 2  ( 2 r ) 2
and the phase angle is:

1  2 mn  1  2  n r 
2
φ  tan  tan
 m  2  m 2   2  2 
 n   n 

 2r 
φ  tan1  
2
 1 r 

 B  2r 
OR φ  tan1    tan1   …………………..……….…..(6.4)
 A 2
 1 r 

EXAMPLE (4) Forced Damped Vibrations

An air compressor of mass 100 kg mounted

on an elastic foundation. It has been
observed that, when a harmonic force of
amplitude 100N is applied to the
compressor, the maximum steady state
displacement of 5 mm occurred at a

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Sdof Oscillator with Viscous Damping and External Force.
Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 25

frequency of 300 rpm. Determine the

equivalent stiffness and damping constants
of the foundation.

Solution:

X  Steady state displacement = 5 mm

F  Forcing amplitude = 100 N
 max  Frequency for max displacement = 2  300  10 rad/sec.
60
As shown in figure, the air compressor can be modelled as sdof spring-mass-
damper. So, for forced damped vibration system the D.E. of motion is

  cx  kx  F cos ( t )
mx

And the steady state solution is given by:

(F / k)
X
( 1  r 2 )2  ( 2r )2
X will be maximum if the denominator is minimum.

Hence
d
dr

 ( 1  r 2 )2  ( 2r )2  0
d
Or  ( 1  r 4  2 r 2  4 2 r 2 )  4 r 3  4 r  8 2 r  0
dr

Or r 0 Or r 2  1  2 2 Or r  1  2 2

For r  1  2 2
(F / k)
X max 
( 1  1  2 2 )2  4 2 ( 1  2 2 )
(F / k) (F / k)
 
4 4  4 2  8 4 4  2  4 4
(F / k)

2 1   2

(F / k) 100
So given X max  5  10 3   5  10 3  ..…(1)
2 1   2
k 2 1   2

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 26

Also, n2  k / m  k / 100

 10 10000 2
r   1  2 2   1  2 2 …..…(2)
n k / 100 k

Equating (k) from Eqs.(1 and 2), gives

100 10000 2
Or k 
3 1  2 2
5  10 2 1   2

1 4
Or 
 2 ( 1   2 ) ( 1  2 2 )2
1  4 4  4 2   4 (  2   4 )  0

( 4  4 ) 4  ( 4  4 ) 2  1  0

101 .4091  4  101 .4091  2  1  0

Or
101.4091 ( 101.4091)2  4( 101.4091)( 1 )
 
2
 9.9603  10  3 or   0.0998
2  101.4091

100 10000 2 10000 2

k  
3 1  2 2 1  2( 0.0998 )2
5  10 2 1   2

 100.7  10 3 N / m  100.7 kN / m

100.7  103 c
c  2  0.0998 100   633.396 N.s/m where  2 n
100 m

EXAMPLE (1) Floating Body

The cylindrical buoy of diameter 60 cm is floating in water with its axis vertical.
When depressed downward in the water and released, it vibrates with period 2
sec. What is its weight?

Solution:
Buoyancy force, FB = – Weight of displaced water, W
FB = Mass × Acceleration = 𝑚𝑦”
W = Volume of displaced water × Specific weight of water = – 𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑦 𝛾

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 27

𝒎𝒚” = – 𝝅 𝒓𝟐 𝒚 𝜸
where y = displacement of cylinder from its
equilibrium position.

√𝛑 𝒓𝟐 𝜸/𝒎 = 𝝎𝟎 hence 𝒚” + 𝝎𝟎 𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎

This is a homogeneous linear ODE with constant

coefficients. The general solution is 𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑐1 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 𝜔0 𝑡

𝟐𝛑
cos and sin have the period = = 2 sec  𝜔0 = π
𝝎𝟎
𝛾
𝜔0 2 = π 𝑟 2
𝑚
2 2
9800 (N/m3 )
𝑚 = π 0.3 (m ) 2 = 281 kg
𝜋 (N/kg m)
𝑊 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 281 × 9.81 = 2754 N.

EXAMPLE (2) Vibration of Water in a Tube

If 1.0 liter of water is vibrating up and down under the influence of gravitation in
a U-shaped tube of diameter 2 cm, what is the frequency? Neglect friction.

Solution:

𝒚” + 𝝎𝟎 𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎
Weight of vibrating water = 𝜋 𝑟 2 2𝑦 𝛾
𝛾
𝜔0 2 = 2π 𝑟 2
𝑚
9800
𝜔0 2 = 2π 0.012 = 2.5
1
1 𝜔
Frequency = = 0 = 0.4 sec −1
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 2π

Engineering Applications of Simultaneous ODEs

EXAMPLE (1) Mixing Problem Involving Two Tanks

Tank T1 and T2 contain initially 100 gal of water each. In T1 the water is pure,
whereas 150 Ib of fertilizer are dissolved in T2. By circulating liquid at a rate of
2 gal/min and stirring (to keep the mixture uniform) the amounts of fertilizer in
the tanks change with time. How long should the liquid circulate so that T1 will
contain at least half as much fertilizer as there will be left in T2?

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 28

Solution:

Let y1 (t), y2 (t) = amount of fertilizer in T1 and T2 at time t (Ib).

y1’, y2’ = time rate of change of fertilizer in T1 and T2 (Ib/min).

y’ = Fertilizer inflow rate - Fertilizer outflow rate (Balance law)

2 2
𝑻𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝟏: 𝑦1′ = 𝑦2 − 𝑦
100 100 1
𝐷𝑦1 + 0.02 𝑦1 − 0.02 𝑦2 = 0
(𝐷 + 0.02) 𝑦1 − 0.02 𝑦2 = 0 … … … . . (1)

2 2
𝑻𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝟐: 𝑦2′ = 𝑦1 − 𝑦
100 100 2
𝐷𝑦2 − 0.02 𝑦1 + 0.02 𝑦2 = 0
−0.02 𝑦1 + (𝐷 + 0.02) 𝑦2 = 0 … … … . (2)

Using Crammer’s rule:

0 −0.02 𝐷 + 0.02 0
[ ] [ ]
0 𝐷 + 0.02 −0.02 0
𝑦1 = 𝑦2 =
𝐷 + 0.02 −0.02 𝐷 + 0.02 −0.02
[ ] [ ]
−0.02 𝐷 + 0.02 −0.02 𝐷 + 0.02
For y1:
[(𝐷 + 0.02)2 − 0.0004] 𝑦1 = 0
(𝐷2 + 0.04 𝐷 + 0.0004 − 0.0004) 𝑦1 = 0
(𝐷2 + 0.04 𝐷) 𝑦1 = 0
𝑚2 + 0.04 𝑚 = 0 ⇒ 𝑚 = 0, −0.04 ⇒ 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒄𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝒕
𝒚′𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝒕
For y2:

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi

Chapter 1: Ordinary Differential Equations ODEs 29

[(𝐷 + 0.02)2 − 0.0004] 𝑦2 = 0 ⇒ 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒄𝟑 + 𝒄𝟒 𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝒕

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒚′𝟏 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑞. (1):

𝐷𝑦1 + 0.02 𝑦1 − 0.02 𝑦2 = 0 … (1)
−0.04 𝑐2 𝑒 −0.04𝑡 + 0.02(𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −0.04𝑡 ) − 0.02(𝑐3 + 𝑐4 𝑒 −0.04𝑡 ) = 0

Coefficients of const.: 0.02 𝑐1 − 0.02 𝑐3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐3 = 𝑐1

Coefficients of 𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝒕 ∶ −0.04 𝑐2 + 0.02 𝑐2 − 0.02 𝑐4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐4 = −𝑐2
∴ 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒄𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝒕 and 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒄𝟏 − 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝒕

Initial Conditions: At t = 0 , y1 = 0, y2 = 150 Ib

0 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑒 0 ⇒ 𝑐1 = −𝑐2
150 = −𝑐2 − 𝑐2 𝑒 0 ⇒ 𝑐2 = −75 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐1 = 75
∴ 𝒚𝟏 = 𝟕𝟓 − 𝟕𝟓 𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝒕 and 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟕𝟓 + 𝟕𝟓 𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝒕

Both functions approach 75 Ib as t → ∞, a reasonable result, because the

distribution of fertilizer in the water will reach equilibrium.
When 𝒚𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒚𝟐 : At t = ? 𝒚𝟏 = 50 Ib
50 = 75 − 75 𝑒 −0.04 𝑡
1 ln 3
25 = 75 𝑒 −0.04 𝑡 ⇒ = 𝑒 −0.04 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑒 0.04 𝑡 = 3 ⇒ 𝑡 = 0.04 = 27.5 min
3

Assistant prof. / Dr. Rafi’ M.S. Al-Ne’aimi