Biology

PHYCOMYCETES Formatted: Left: 0.38", Top: 0.88", Bottom: 0.
63"
All the fungi included in this class are called as lower fungi
Mycelium :
The fungal filament (mycelium) of all the fungus included in this class are coenocytic and aseptate.
This type of filament is known a acellular coenocytic.
Alexopolus was a mycologist did not consider Phycomycetes as class. He dissolved

phycomycetes into four different classes.
(a) chytridiomycetes (b) Plasmodiophoromycetes

(c) Oomycetes (d) Zygomycetes
Note : The mycelium of these four classes are same in structure i.e. coenocytic & aseptate. But they
are dissimilar on the basis of sexual reproduction.
(a) Chytridiomycetes -
Asexual reproduction - By sporangiospore (zoospore & aplanosspore)
Sexual reproduction - By Planogametic copulation
Types of sexual reproduction
 Isogamous - Synchytrium
 Anisogamous - Allomyces
e.g.
  Synchtrium endobioticum - This fungi causes “Black heart of Potato” or “Wart of Potato” disease.
  Allomyces
(b) Plasmodiophoromycetes :
Asexual reproduction - By Sporangiosproe (Zoospores)
Sexual reproduction - By Planogametic copulation
Types of Sexual reproduction
 Isogamous - Plasmodiophora
eg. Plasmodiophora
(c) Oomycetes :
Asexual reproduction - By the formation of sporangiopores (zoospores) & conidia.
Sexual reproduction - By Gametangial contact
Type of sexual reproduction
 Oogamous - All the members
eg.
(1) Phytophthora infestans - Causes “late blight of potato”. This disease in known as “Famine of Ireland ” -
1845.
Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,

Vertical: 0.04", Relative to: Paragraph
53
(2) Pythium species - Causes “Damping off” disease in tobacco & “vegetable crops”
(3) Sclerospora graminicola - Causes “Green ear disease” of Bajra. The main Characteristic of this
diseases is Phylloidy (Phyllodiy - i.e. all the parts of flower are modified into green leaves).
(4) Albugo candida or Cystopus candidus - It causes “White rust disease” in the members of cruciferae
family.
(d) Zygomycetes :
Asexual reproduction - By the formation of sporangiospores (aplanopores).
Sexual reproduction - By Gametangial copulation
Types of sexual reproduction
 Isogamous - All the members
e.g.
(1)( Pilobolus : It grow s on during since it is dung loving fungi therefore it is called as coprophilous fungi. It
Preders to grow on horse dung. It is also called as “Hat thrower” or “fungal shotgun”. This name is given
on the basis of blasting of sporangium.
Note : Coprophilous fungi - The fungi which grow on dung are called corprophilous.
(2) Rhizopus & Mucur - These are known as bread mold - They prefer to grow on bread. The tip of
mycelium of Rhizopus is black coloured. Therefore this fungus looks black coloured.
ASCOMYCETES Formatted: Font: (Default) Arial, 16 pt, Bold

Formatted: Font: (Default) Arial, Bold
“The sac fungi” Formatted: Centered
Mycelium :
Uninucleate and septate.
Septa are found in mycelium of ascomycetes. Poresa re present in septa. These pores allow
cytoplasm to pass from one cell to other cell. Pores do not allow passing nucleus.
Sexual reproduction :
“Somatogamy”
Ascospores are formed during sexual reproduction. On this basis they are named as Ascomycetes.
(a) There are three stages in sexual reproduction of Ascomycetes
 Plasmogamy  Karyogamy  Meiosis.
(b) In tis two different mycelium come close to each other and fuse to form dikaryon.
(c) After this an outgrowth originates from dikryon which is called ascogenous hypha. Ascogenous hypha
develops and form as sac like structure which is called ascus (Plural - Asci). Due to this sac like ascus,
ascomycetes are called as sac fungi.
(d) Now both the nuclei reach in ascus and fuse. As a result diploid nucleus is formed. Now meiosis takes place
in the nucleus of Ascus, as a result of which haploid spores are formed which as called ascospores.
Note : Minimum four ascospores are formed in one ascus but generally 8 ascopores are formed in one
Ascus.

54
(e) After the formation of ascospores, the mycelium grows around the ascus and forms a covering which
is called as fruiting body or ascocarp.
 1 to 5 ascus are present in one ascocarp.
 4 or 8 ascospores are present in one ascus.
(f) By the rupturing of ascocarp & ascus, ascospores become free and each ascospore forms a new mycelium.

55
Three types of fruiting bodies are present in ascomycetes Formatted: Centered
A. Cleistothecium :
This is a closed and spherical fruiting body. There is no way for axcospores to come out. After
maturation it ruptures and ascospores become free.
This type o fruiting body is found in the members of subclass - Plectomycetes
eg. of Plectomycetes - Pencillim, Aspergillu,s Erysiphe
B. Perithecium :
This fruiting body is flask like. Pore is present (ostiole) of the apical part of this fruiting body for the
elimination of ascospores. On the rupturing of ascus, these ascopores come out of the pore.
This type of fruiting body is found in the membres of sub - class – Pyrenomycetes
eg. of Pyrenomycetes - Neurospora, Claviceps
C. Apothecium :
This fruiting body is like open disc.
This type of fruiting body is found in the members of sub class Discomycetes
eg. of Discomycetes - Peziza, Morchella
Note :
 The fruiting body of Morchella is edible, because it is delicious.
 The classification of class-ascomycetes is based on fruiting body.
 Ascus are naked in Yeast because fruiting body is absent in it.
(1) Penicillium : Blue or Green mold.

 P. notatum - A Flemming obtained the antibiotic penicillin from it. Penicillin is the first discovered
antibiotic. A Flemming was awarded Nobel Prize for it. But now a days more quantity o Penicillin is
obtained from P. chrysogenum. A flemming was doctor in British army and while working on
bacterium Staphylococcus, he by chance discovered the penicillin. Discovery of Penicillin was
serendipity i.e. by change discovery.
  P.griseofulvum - “Griseofulvin” an antifungla antibiotic is obtained from it.
  P camemberti & P. roquiforti - Both are used in the manufacturing of camembert cheese and
requefort cheese respeictlvly. Cheese is made by fermentation which is done by fungus.
(2) Aspergillus : Black or Brown mold of Blacky - smoky mold
 A.proliferans - An antibioic ‘Proliferin’ is obtained from it.
 A. fumigatus - It causes many diseases in humans & cattles. These disease are known as
“aspergillosis”
eg. Aspergillosis of ear - Min cause of ear pain.

Aspergillosis of lungs - Its symptoms are similar to T.B.
 A flavus - It prefer to grow on stored food (groundnut, cashew nuts etc.) and fodder. It secrets toxic
subtances. These toxic substances are known as aflatoxins.
Aflatoxins - They are carcinogenic i.e. they develop cancer. Aflatoxin causes live cancer.
  A. niger - Weed of laboratory

56
(3) Claviceps :
 Claviceps purpurea - It causes “Ergot disease” of Bajra.
 “Ergotin” (drug) is obtained from it.
 A narcotic drug (LSD) is obtained from it LSD (Lysergic aid diethylamide) is hallucinogenic drug.
(4) Morchella :- The species of Morchella are commonly called as morels. It is an edible fungus.
(5) Neurospora :- Red Pink mold  “Drosophla of plant Kingdom”. It is used for the study of genetics in Plant
kingdom.
Beadle and Tatum proposed “One gene-one enzyme theory in Genetics by experimenting on
Neurospora. They were awarded Nobel prize for it.
(6) Erysiphe :- Different species of Erysiphe causes “powrdery mildew” diseases on plants.
 E. tritici - It causes powrdery mildew of wheat.
 E. polygone - It causes powdery mildew of pea.
(7) Peziza :- It is called as cup fungi.
(8) Trichophyton & Microsporum :- It produces “Ringworm” in humans e.g. - eczema, itching.
 Trichophyton interdigitale and Tania pedis- It causes “Athelete foot disease” in humans. It is also
called as “Ring worm of foot”.
(9) Yeasts
YEAST
Yeast is an unicellular fungi - According to five kingdom classification, it should be placed in Protista.
But exceptionally it is placed in Mycota (fungi) because its life cycle is similar to class-Ascomycetes.
Yeast grows on ripened fruits like grapes, sugarcane, date palm and flowers. Mycelium is absent in
yeast. It yeast is dissolved in sugar solution then pseudomycelium is formed. Because in sugar
solution, it grows very fast i.e. it reproduces fast.
Saccharomyces
Yeasts
Schizosaccharomyes
In Yeast three types of life cycle are found

(A) Haplontic life cycle - Present in most of genera.
e.g. - Schizosaccharomyces octosporus
(B) Diplontic life cycle-

e.g. Saccharomyces ludwiggi
(C) Haplo-diplotic life cycle -

e.g. - Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Pedogamy :- Sexual reproduction by young ones. In yeast some times a bud many fuse with it’s
mother cell as perform sexual reproduction.
Adelphogamy :- Sexual reproduction between sisters. In yeast some times two daughter buds produced
from the same mother cell may fuse to perform the sexual reproduction.
57
Economic Importance :
Yeast is also called as fermentation fungi, because different types of products are formed by
fermentation with the help of yeast. Some of them are –
 Saccharomyces cerevisiae - It is used as fermentation agent in backery (bread industry) and

brewery (wine industry). So Saccharomyces cerevisiae is also called “Baker’s yeast”
 Riboflaving (vitamin B2) is obtained from Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
BASIDIOMYCETES
“Club fungi”
Mycelium :-
Septate and uni or binucleate (dikaryotic)
In basidiomyceetes, septum are of special type and they are called dolipore septum. One big pore
is present between every septum. The boundary of pore is spread on both sides, this boundary is
called as parenthosome. Due to the spreading of the boundary on both sides, the shape of septum
becomes dome shaped due to which it called as dolipore septum. This septa allow cytoplasm and
nucleus to pass from one cell to other cell.
Clamp connection : it is a tubular relationship between

two neighboring cells. With the help of this connection
the nucleus of one cell can migrate to the neighboring
cell, due to which the other cell becomes dikaryotic
(binucleate). Clamp connection is used to change
monokaryotic mycelium to dikaryotic mycelium in
basidiomycetes.
Sexual reproduction :-
Sexual reproduction is done by two methods.
(1) Somtogamy (2) Spermatization
(1) Somatogamy :-
This is the most common method of reproduction among the members of Basidiomycetes.
e.g. Ustilago, Agaricus, Polyorus, Lycoperdon
(a) First of all, the two mycelium come close to each other.
(b) Now their apical ends fuse with each other (Plasmogamy), as a result of which dikaryon is formed.
(c) Now, with the help of clamp connection all the cells of mycelium becomes binucleate or dikaryotic.
(d) Now both the nucleus of each cells fused with each other (karyogamy), due to which each cell
becomes diploid.
Now a club shaped structure is formed on every cell, which is known as basidium.
(e) After that diploid nucleus goes in to this Basidium and divides by meiosis, as a result of which four
haploid spores are formed on every basidium which re known as basidiospores.
(f) Now the surrounding fungal hyphae grows to form a fruiting body, which is known as basidiocarp.
(g) Now the basidiopores become free from basidium and produce a new mycelium through germination.

58
Note :-
 It is belied that basidium is similar to ascus, because both of them produces spores.
 But basidiospore is different from ascospores because the origin of ascopores is endogenous and that of
basidiospores is exogenous.
(2) Spermitization :-
This types of reproduction is more commonly seen in those fungi that develop rust.
e.g. - Rust fungi – Puccinia
Three different species of Puccinia develop rust in wheat
 Puccinia graminis - Black rust or stem rust
 Puccinia recondita - Brown rust or leaf rust
 Puccinia striigormis - Yellow rust or stripe rust
Puccinia is a heteroeciou fungi i.e. the fungus that needs two types of host to complete its life cycle.
(1) Wheat (2) Barberry
Method :-
(a) In it, the infection takes place mainly on wheat plant i.e. the Barberry plant acts as an alternate host.
59
(b) First of all this fungus infect the Barberry plant. Due to the infection many cup shaped structures are Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 0.5"
formed on leaf of barberry. These structures are known as pycnidial cups (Pycnia or spermogonia).
Mycelium are filled in the pycnidial cups. Pycnidial cup are formed on upper surface of leaf, which open
out side through a pore, that is known as ostiole. Mycelium or fungal hyphae filled in the pycnidial cup
and each cell of mycelium contains one haploid nucleus. It means these hypae are haploid. Each cup
contains one type of hyphae (+ or -).
(c) Some hyphae in the each cup act as sporophore and form spores by division These spores are called as
spermatia or pycniospores. Each cup contains one type of phciospoers (+ve or -ve in separate cup).
Those hyphane on which pycniospores are not formed act as receptive hyphae.
(d) After that the phycniospores of one strain reach the receptive hyphae of other strain by air and attach
with them due to which the receptive hyphae of each cup becomes dikaryotic.
(e) Now these dikaryotic receptive hyphae divide many times and form another cup shaped structure on the
lower surface of leaf, which is known as aecidial cup. In this cup shaped structure, aeciospores are
formed from these dikaryotic hyphae. These aeciopores are dikaryotic.
(f) Now these aeciospore attack on wheat plant and develop rust disease.
(g) These aeciopores germinate on wheat plant and form dikaryotic mycelium. Uredospores are formed on
these mycelium They are also dikaryotic.
These uredospores attack other wheat plants through air. And when the growing period of wheat
plant is at its end then a new stage (new spores) teleutospore is formed instead of uredospore on
the leaf of wheat plant.
(h) Now karyogamy takes place in teleutospores as a result of which its nucleus becomes diploid. Now
basidium is formed from telutospore. After that meiosis takes place in this nucleus, due to which
basidiospores are formed on basidium. These basidiospores are haploid. These basidiospores then
again infect barberry plant through air, and form mycelium after germination, on which Pycnidial cup and
pycniospores (spermatia) are formed again.
Imp. Points
 Life cycle of Puccina - called rust cycle
 Rust cycle was discovered by Prof. K.C. Mehta. he had done a lot of hard work on rust.
 Starting of rust disease on wheat plants through aeciospores i.e. Primary infection taken
place
through aeciospores and secondary infection takes place through uredospores.
(1) Bracket or Shelf fungi :-

These are epixlyic fungi i.e. these like to grow on wood. Their fruiting body is similar to bracket therefore
they are called as bracket fungi.
eg. Polyporus
(2) Puff balls - These are saprophytic fungi. Fruiting body of puff balls is large and beautiful. It touched, fruiting
body bursts violently to release a black powder (basidiospores) out side.
eg. Lycoperdon, Clavatia

Formatted: Centered
Note :- Clavatia - A drug ‘clavatin’ is obtained from it. It is an anticancer medicine.
60
Basidiospores (+ & - )
Attack
Barberry plant
Upper surface of leaf
Mycelium Mycelium
Pycnidial cup Pycnidial cup
Pycniospores Receptive hyphae Pycniospores Receptive hyphae
Help of Air
Plasmogamy
Help of Air
Dikaryotic mycelium Dikaryotic mycelium

(+ - ) (+ - )
Divide and reach the

Lower surface of leaf
Dikaryotic mycelium (+ - )
Aeciopores cup (+ - /dikaryotic)
Aeciopores (+ - /dikaryotic)
Basidiospores (haploid)
8  4   type
4   type Attack on wheat plant
Aeciopores germinates
Meiosis
Basidium Uredospores
(+ - /dikaryotic)
Attack on new
Wheat plant
Teleutospore (diploid)
Karyogamy
Teleutospores (+ -) Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,
61
(3) Mushrooms - These are umbrella like fungi often seen growing in grounds during rainy season. Some
mushroom, are edible.
 Most delicious mushroom - Agaricus bisporus
 World’s most poisonous mushroom - Amontia muscoides
(Poisonous mushrooms are known as Toad - stool)
 Inky cap mushroom - Coprinus muscatus
(4) Smut fungi : It causes smut disease on plant. Smut diseases mainly affect the seeds of crop plant. Smut
fungi infest seeds and form black sooty spores inside the seed.
eg. Ustilago nuda or Ustilago tritici - It causes “loose smut of wheat”. This diseases spreads by
infected flowers and seeds.
Ustilago maydis - Smut of maize. This disease spreads by infected seeds.
Ustilago hordie - Covered smut of barley
Ustilago scitaminea - Whip smut of sugarcane
Note :- Prfo. J.C. Luthra discovered a technique to control smut.
(5) Agaricus : It is called as “gill fungi” because gills like pores are present in its fruitings body. It is also called
fairy rings because its fruiting body looks like rings.
Note : Basidiomycetes - It is also called as “club fungi” because a club shaped basidium is formed in it. It
is also called as “ray fungi”.
DEUTEROMYCETES
It is also called “fungi Imperfecti”, because perfect stage or sexual reproduction is absent in this calss of fungi.
Those fungi are included in this class in which sexual reproduction is absent is absent or is not discovered at yet.
Mycelium :-
Sepate and multinucleate or uninucleate.
Asexual reproduction :-
Takes place with the help of conidia.
Sexual reproduction :
Sexual reproduction is absent in this class. Instead a parasexual cyclke is present. Prasexual
cycle was discovered by Pontecorvo & Roper.
  Parasexual cycle is a method for producing variation in these fungi.
  Importance of Parasexual cycle - Mitotic recombination
  During mitosis, recombination takes place in these fungi due to which variations are develop.
e.g.
 Arthrobotrytis These are entomophagous fungi i.e. insect predating fungi. These fungi can be 

   
 Dactylella used in biological control of insect pests.

62
The fungi included in this class causes many disease.
Fungi Disease Formatted Table
(1) Alternaria solani Early blight of Potato.

(2) Cercospora personata Tikka disease of groundnut.
(3) Colletrotrichum falcatum Red rot of surgarcane.
(4) helminthosporium oryzae Leaf spot of Rice.
(5) Fusarium udum Wilt of pigeonpea.
Note : Leaf spot of rice - This disease is known as famine of Bengal (1945).
Plectenchyma - Formatted Table

Fungal hyphae closely packed together to form a false tissue which is called plectenchyma.
Plectenchyma is of two types
(1) Prosenchyma - It is rather a loosely woven tissue of hyphae. The hyphae composing it do not lose
their identity.
(2) Pseudoparenchyma - In higher fungi the hyphae become woven and intertwined into a compact mass.
The wall of hypae in the mass get fused and they lose their individuality. It bears a striking superficial
resemblance to the parenchyma tissue of higher plants and in called pseudoparenchyma.

63
KINGDOM – PLANTAE
All the multicellular eukaryotic plants are placed in Kingdom - Planate. They are autorophic i.e. they
manufacture their food by photosynthesis.
Following plant groups are included in Kingdom - Plantae

(1) ALGAE (2) BRYOPHYTA (3) PTERIDOPHYTA
(4) GYMNOSPERM (5) ANGIOSPERM
ALGAE
 Term “Algae” was given by Linnaeus.
 Phycology - Study of algae.
 Father of Phycology - Fristch  Book  “Structure & Reproduction of algae”
 Father of Indian phycology - M.O.P. Iyengar
NATURE -
(1) Algae are found in both fresh and marine water.
(2) Algae are found in many forms like filamentous, colonial.
(3) Algae is surrounded by mucilagenous sheath and below the sheath cell wall is present which is made up of
cellulose & pectin.
(4) On the basis of structure, algae are thalloid i.e. plant body is not differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
Tissue system is also absent in algae.
(5) On the basis of nutrition, algae are photoautotrophic. They have chloroplast in which photosynthetic
pigments are present. Classification of algae is mainly bases on pigments. Chl-a and  carotene are
universal pigment of algae.
REPRODUCTION
(1) Vegetative (2) Asexual (3) Sexual
Vegetative reproduction :-
(i) Binary fission - Cell is divided into two parts and nucleus is also divided into two parts by mitosis.
eg. Found only in unicellular algae
(ii) Fragmentation - Filaments break down into small pieces & from new filaments.
e.g. All filamentous algae
Asexual reproduction :-
It is a method of protection in all unfavourable conditions.
Sexual reproduction :-
(i) Male sex organ is called antheridium and female is called oogonium. The sex organs of algae are
unicellular & jacketless. But exceptionally sex organs of green algae Chara (Chara - green algae - known
as stone wort) are multicellular and Jacketed.
The Male sex organ of Chara is known as globule and female is known as nucule.
(ii) Plant body of algae is haploid so sexual repro take place through zygotic meiosis. So their life cycle is
haplontic. But exceptionally brown algae is diploid so that sexual repro. takes place through gametic
meiosis in it. So its life cycle is dipolo haplontic but Fucus (brown algae) have diplontic life cycle.
(iii) Algae reproduce by zygotic meiosis i.e. development of zygote by meiosis so embryo is not formed.

64
Sexual repro is of three types.
(a) Isogamous - Chlamydomona debaryanum, Ulothrix, Ectocarpus

(b) Anisogamous - Chlamydomonas braunii
(c) Oogamous - Chlamydomonas coccifera, Sargassum, Volvox
Note : (1) Chlamydomanas exhibits complete evolution of sexual reproduction.

Isogamous - Simplest
Oogamous - Advanced
(2) Ulothrix exhibits origin of sexual reproduction
The classification of algae is mainly based on the photosynthetic pigments. In addition to this cell wall
composition and stores food are also the base of classification.
Algae is divided into following divisions
(1) CHLOROPHYTA - GREEN ALGAE
(2) PHAEOPHYTA - BROWN ALGAE
(3) XANTHOPHYTA - YELLOW - GREEN ALGAE
(4) RHODOPHYTA - RED ALGAE
CHOLOROPHYTA
Green Algae
 Green algae is the most advanced algae. It is believed that green algae are the ancestor of the higher
plants.
 Habitat : Green algae is comopolitan in nature.
Different forms of Green algae (Structure) :

Green algae is found in many forms
(1) Unicellular :-
(i) Chlamydomonas : Motile unicellular algae. This algae moves with the help of flagella.
(ii) Chlorella - Non motile unicellular algae.

 Calving discovered “Calvin cycle” by experimenting or Chlorlela.
(iii) Acetabularia - Umbrella plant - It is the largest unicellular plant. The diameter of its cell is 10 cm.
 Hammerling experimented on Acetabularia.
(2) Coenocytic - Some green algae are coenocytic i.e. multinucleated.

e.g. Caulerpa
Note :- According to five kingdom system the algae described above should be placed in Protista but
exceptionally its life cycle is similar to green algae. Therefore it is placed in Plantae.
(3) Colonial - Some green algae are found in colonies. They form colony of cell. The number of cells in a colony
is fixed. Colony with fixed number of cells called coenobium.
eg. Volvox - Motile colony Formatted: Font color: Gray-80%

Hydrodictyon - Non motile colony (called as water net) Formatted: Font color: Red
65
(4) Multicellular filamentous - Mostly algae are multicellular filamentous.
e.g. Ulothrix - Known as pond wool
Spirogyra - Known as pond sill
Note : Some green algae are heterotrichous i.e. two types of branches prostrate and erect –
Fritscheilla, Stigeoclonium Coleochaeta (Fritscheilla tuberosa has approach to the early land plants)
(5) Multicellular thalloid or Parenchymatous - Some algae are multicellular in length & width.
eg. Ulva - Also called as sea lettuce
Photosynthetic pigments :
Chlorophyll - Chl ‘a’ and Chl ‘b’
Carotene -  carotene
Xanthophyll - Luteaxanthin and Violoxanthin - Hellow coloured.
Note: The green colour of green algae is due to chlorophyll.
Stored food : In green algae the food is stored in the form of starch
Note : On the basis of pigments (Chl ‘a’, Chl ‘b’, Carotenoids) stored food (starch) & cell wall (made up
of cellulose or pectin), green algae is considered similar to higher plants.
Economic Importance. :
(1) Food -
Chlorella is used as food, because after Spirulina, Chlorella has largest amount of protein.
(2) Antibiotics -
Chlorellin antibiotic is obtained from Chlorella.
(3) Space research -

In space, Chlorella is used as a source of food and O2.
(4) Parasitic algae -

Cephaleuros algae remains parasitically in the leaves of tea plant and cause disease ‘red rust’.
PHAEOPHYTA
Brown algae or kelps or Sea weeds.
 Brown algae are found in marine water.

 Brown algae are multicellular filamentous.
 Brown algae are the largest in size (up to 60 meter in length).
 Largest brown algae - Macrocystis
 Thallus of brown algae is divided into two parts :
(i) Lamina - Leafy part of photosynthetic part
(ii) Stipe - Elongated tubes called trumpet hyphae are present for food conduction in
stipe. Trumpet hyphae are analogus to sieve tubes of vascular plants.
Due to lamina and stipe brown algae look like leaf (leaf algae).
Pigments :
Chlorophyll - Chl ‘a’ , Chl ‘c’
Carotene - Only  carotene
Xanthophylls - Mainly Fucoxanthin
Note : The amount of Fucoxanthin is more in brown algae due to which this algae is brown in colour
(Xanthophylls are mostly yellow but fucoxanthin is brown) Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,
66
Stored food :
Laminarin and mannitol - both are derivatices of carbhohyddrates.
Phycocolloids :
 In the cells wall of brown algae some colloid substances like fucinic acid, alginic acid and fucoidin are
present which are known as phycocolloids.
 Phycocoloids protects brown-algae against desiccation and shocks. Phycocoloids are used in ice-cream to
make them more viscous. Alginates, salts of alginic acid used for dentury measurement.
Special name :
(1) Postelsia :
It is known s Sea palm.
(2) Ancyclonema -
Is is called Ice bloom because it grows on marine ice.
(3) Sargassum -
It is known as Gulf weed because Sargssum is a free floating algae. It grows rapidly in North Atlantic
ocean and covers thousands of hectares of area. Therefore this region is called as sargasso sea.
(4) Laminaria (Kelps)-

It is called as Devil’s Aprin.
Economic Importance :
(1) Alginates or Alginic acid - Obtained from Laminaria, Fucus, Macrocystis.
Alginates is used in the manufacturing of soap, ice-cream, polish, cream and plastic.
(2) Iodine and Bromine - Obtained from Laminaria.
XANTHOPHYTA
Yellow Green Algae

Habitat and Structure :
All the algae in this group of acellular coenocytic and are found in moist soil.
Pigments :
Chlorophyll - Chl ‘a’ , Chl ‘e’
Carotene -  carotene
Xanthophylls - Many
Note : The yellow colour of these algae is due to the presence of xanthophyll.
Stored food :
Leucosin and Oil (Leucosin is derivative of carbohydrate)
eg. Vaucheria, Botrydium, Tribonema.
Note : In Vacucheria algae some special type of spores are formed which are known as synzoospores.
RHODOPHYTA
Red Algae
(1) Red algae is second most ancient algae after blue green algae i.e. they are developed after blue green
algae.
eg. Polysiphonia
(2) Red algae mainly found in marine water. But exceptionally Batrachospermum is found in fresh water (river)
and Poryphyridium is found on land.
67
(3) Red algae are multicellular but exceptionally Prophyridium is unicellular.
(4) There is no motile stage found in life cycle of red algae and BGA i.e. cilia & flagella are absent.
(5) Cell wall of red algae is complex and made up of cellulose & pectin.
The cell was of red algae is also complicated like blue green algae. Their cell wall has many different
type of substances such as xylan, galactose, polyurinoc acid, polysulphate esters.
But in some algae calcium carbonate is also present in the cell wall. Due to which their thallus become
stony. These algae form lime stone & coral reefs
e.g. Corallina and Lithothamnion.
Pigments :
Chlorophyll - Chl ‘a’ and Chl ‘d’
Carotense - 
Phycobilins - R - phycoerythrin (red coloured) and R - phycocyanin (blue coloured)
(1) On the basis of pigments red algae is similar to blue green algae.
(2) Colour of red algae changes according to depth in sea this is called as Gaudikov’s effect.
(3) When red algae are present on the surface of the sea then their colour is blue and when they are at the
bottom, their colour is red. At the surface of sea the amount of R - phycocyanin is more while in depth the
amount of R - phycoerythrin is more.
Penetration power is maximum in ultra violet and violet light. R-phycoerythrin is only pigment to absorb
ultra violet and violet light. Due to phycoerythrin red algae are deepest algae.
(4) Gaudikov’s effect is also found in Blue - Green algae.
(5) Red algae not always red, it may be clue coloured also.
eg. Batrchospermum - This is blue coloured algae.
Stored Food :
Floridean starch - It is a primitive type of starch. Structurally floridean starch is similar to the
cyanophycean starch of blue green algae. Starch of higher plants is less branched yet floridean starch
in highly branched.
Glycogen is also highly branched so that floridean & cynanophycean starch is structurally similar to
glycogen.
Phycocolloid :
Agar, carrageen and funori phycocolloids are found in the cell was of red algae.
Reproduction :
(1) Vegetative - By fragmentation
(2) Asexual - Non motile spores [By monospore, carpospores, tetraspore]
(3) Sexual reproduction –
(i) Sexual reproduction is oogamous type.
(ii) The female sex organs are called carpogonia. They are apparently similar to archegonia of
bryophyta. Carpogonia is unicellular & jacketless but archegonia is multicellular & jacketed.
(iii) The male sex organs of red algae are known as spermatangia. Non motile spores like gametes are
formed in spermatangia which are known as spermatia.
(iv) Exceptionally life cycle of Polysiphonia is diplontic
Special points and Economic importance.
(1) Harveyella - It is a colourless parasitic algae. It remains as parasite on other algae.

(2) Porphyra – It is an edible algae.

68
(3) Gelidium and Gracilaria - Agar - Agar colloid is obtained from these. It is used to prepare culture medium
(4) Chondrus crispus - It is also called Irish moss. Carrageenin colloid is obtained from this algae. It is used as
gelating agent in food industries (i.e. to make the food item viscous)
 Capsule of medicines is also prepared from carrageenin.
(5) Haematococcus nivalis - ”Red snow” - It likes to grow on snow and impart red colour to snow.
HABITAT OF SOME IMPORTANT ALGAE

(1) Terrestrial - The algae found in moist soil & wall.
eg. Terrentofolia
(2) Epiphytes - Algae which are present on plants
eg. Protococcus
(3) Endophytes - Algae which are present inside plants
eg. Coleochaete nitelum (in Nitella plant)
(4) Epizoic - Algae which are present on animals
eg. Cladophora (present on Mollusca shell)
(5) Endozoic - Algae which are present inside the body of animals
eg. Zoochlorella and Zooxenthellae (inside the Hydra)
(6) Parasites - Algae that live as parasite and causes diseases
eg. Cephaleuros (algae remains in the leaves of tea plant)
Cephaleuros causes red rust disease of tea
(7) Thermophili - Algae found in hot water.
eg. Chlorella
(8) Cryophytes - Algae which are present in polar regions & Low Temperature.
eg. Chlamydomonas (some species)
Haematococcus nivalis (It develops red snow in polar region)
(9) Epiphloephytes - Algae arise on bark of trees.
THALLOPHYTA
(1) The term “Thallophyta” was given by “Endlcher” According to two kingdom classification, all the algae,
fungi and bacteria are placed in thallophyta, because their plant body is similar to thallus.
(2) All the tahllophytes are non vascular.
(3) In thallophyta plant is haploid i.e. gametophyte

Eg. Green algae, Red algae, yellow green algae, Dinoflagellate, Cellular slime mold.
Note : Exceptionally in some thallophytes, plant is diploid i.e. sporophytes
Eg. Brow algae, Diatoms, Acellular slime molds.
(4) In thallophyta the male sex organs are called as Antheridia and female sex organs are called as Oogonia.
Sex organs are unicellular & Jacket less [Jacket - layer of sterile cells]
(5) The sexual reproduction in thallphyta is isogamous, anisogamous and oogamous.

(6) In thallophyta, sex, reproduction takes place through zygotic meiosis, therefore embryo is not formed.
Demerits of Two kingdom classification :

(1) In two kingdom classification Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes placed in the same group.
(2) In this system photosynthetic green algae and non photosynthetic fungi are placed in same group i.e.
plantae.
(3) Two kingdom system takes unicellular and multicellular organism together.
(4) On the basis of cell was bacteria were considered as plant and put in plantae.
(5) Position of Euglena was not fixed.

69
BRYOPHYTA Formatted: Justified
 The term “Bryophyta” was proposed by “Robert Braun”

Formatted: Font color: Black
 The study of Bryophytes is known as Bryology.
 Hedwing is considered to be the father of Bryology. But according to some scientist it is believed
that Cavers is the father of Bryology.
 Father of Indian Bryology is Prof. Shiv Ram Kashyap
General characteriltics:
1. Bryophytes are the first land plant. It is believed that, they originated from aquatic plant and they come on
land through water. Because some bryophytes have characters similar to aquatic plants (eg. presence of air
canal)
2. Bryophtes are known as amphibians of the plant kingdom, because they need water to complete their life
cycle. Mostly bryophytes are found on land.
3. Bryophytes are not considered as the successful land plants because vascular tissue is absent and they
nead water for fertilization. Due to the absence of vascular tissue bryophytes can not grow very tall. The
process of water conduction in bryophytes takes place with the help of parenchyma. Parenchyma is a living
tissue.
4. Roots are absent in bryophytes. Stem and leaves of bryophytes are functionally similar to the stem and
leaves of higher plants.
5. Bryophytes are sciophytes, i.e. bryophytes prefer to grow in moist (wet) and shady places.
Life cycle of Bryophytes :

1. The plant in bryophyte is gametophyte. It is haploid.
2. Sex organs re formed on gametophyte. Sex organs are multicellular and jacketed in bryophytes. Male sex
organs are called as antheriudium and female sex organs are called as archegonium.
3. The male gametes of bryophytes are motile. These motile male gametes are called as antherozoids,
Antherozoites re comma shaped and biflagellate. Female gamete is called egg.

70
4. In Bryophyta, fertilization is done by zoodiogamy i.e. male gamete reaches the female gametes and
fertilizes it.
5. As a result of fertilization, a diploid zygote is formed. This zygote initiates the sporophytic generation.
Sporophytic generation is a diploid stage.
6. Zygote is developed by mitosis and formes sporphyte, which is known as sporogonium or embryo (2N)
7. During the development first division is transverse in zygote and second division is vertical. Third division is
also vertical but at right angle to second division, therefore an eight called embryo is formed.
Now a periclinal division takes place in every cells of eight called embryo. As a result of it a 16 called
embryo is formed. Now these sixteen cells are arranged in two layers.
(i) Outer 8 cells - Called Amphithecium
(ii) Inner 8 cells - Called Endothecium
8. Now cells of endothecium divided and form many cells which are known as sporogenous cells. Some
sporogenous cells become sterile and called nurse cells.
Remaining sporogenous cells function as spore mother cells. Now meiosis takes place in spore mother cells,
result of it haploid spores are formed. Nurse cells provide nutrition to spores mother cells.
9. The germination of spores is direct or indirect. In Liverwort & Hornworts the germination of spore is direct
i.e. each spore forms a gametophyte after germination i.e. each spore forms one thallus.
But the germination of spores in Mosses in indirect. In mosses a multicellular filament in formed after
the germination of spore. This filament of known as protonema. Now buds are formed on every cells of
protonema. Each bud develops and form a gametophyte plant. Indirect germination is best for survival.
Mosses are gregarious in nature because they appear in group.
Sexualreproduction
 Sexual reproductionininbryophytes
bryophytesininoogamous
oogamoustype
typeand
andlife
lifecycle
cycleininhalplodiplontic
halplodiplontictype.
type.
 InInBryophyta
Bryophytathe
thesporophyte
sporophyteisisdepend
dependon
ongametophyte
gametophyteThis
Thisisisaaunique
uniquecharacter
characterofofbryophyta.
bryophyta.

71
Bryophyta is divided in to three classes
1. Hepaticopsida 2. Anthoceropsida 3. Bryopsida or Musci
HEPATICOPSIDA- LIVAR WORTS

(i) All the bryophytes includes in this class have shape like liver so they are known as liverworts.
(ii) Plant body of this group is thallus like. Rhizoids and scales are present on thallus. Rhizoids are unicellular
and unbranched. Scales are multicellular.
(iii) The sporophyte of Liverworts is completely depend on gametophyte i.e. it is depend on gametophyte for
food, water and habitat.
(iv) The sprophyte of Liverwort is made up of foot, seta and capsule. (Except Riccia sprophyte is made up of
only capsule).
(v) In this class formation of spores and nurse cells takes place by the cells of endothecium. Cells of
emphithecium form only wall of sporophyte.
Amphithecium = Wall of sprophyte
Endothecium = sporogenous cells = spore mother cells + nurse cells
(vi) Elaters are present in sporophyte of some members of liverworts. (eg. Marchantia - In Marchantia nurse
cells are modified in to elaters) Elaters are hygroscopic and they help in dispersal of spores.
Eg. Of Liverworts –
Riccia, Marchantia, Cryptothallus, Reilla, Pellia, Porella

Note : In Bryophytes, sporophyte of Riccia in the simplest.
ANTHOCEROPSIDA- HORNWORTS
(i) The plant body of this group is also thallus like. Scales are absent but rhizoids are present on thallus.
Rhizoids re unicellular and unbrahcned.
(ii) The sprophyte of Hornworts is divided into foot and capsule.
(iii) The sporophyte of Hornworts is not completely depend on its gametophyte i.e. it is semiparasite because its
sprophyte is photosynthetic therefore it can manufacture its own food. So it does not depend on
gametophyte for food, It depends only for water and habitat.
(iv) In horn worts wall of sporophyte and spores are formed by cells of amphithecium. Cells of endotherium
formed only elaters.
Amphithecium = Wall of sprophyte and spores

Endothecium = Elaters
72
(v) In hornworts spore forming cells and elaters forming cells are separate, so elaters are known as
pseudoelaters. Pseudoelaters are structurally and functionally similar to true elaters.
(vi) In hornworts on the basal part of sprorophyte, a special type of meristem is present. Due to the activeness
of this meristem, the sporophyte grows rapidly. It grows like the horn, of animals.
eg. Notothylus, Anthoceros
Note : Anthoceros have some Algal like characters such as -

(i) Archegonia is jacketless
(ii) In each cell of Anthoceros, only one chloroplast is present which is a character of green algae. In the
cells of higher plants, many chloroplast are present.
(iii) Pyrenoides (starch storing granules) are present in the chloroplast of Anthoceros, which in an algal
character.
(iv) Anthoceros show ancestral characters i.e. bryophytes have originated from green algae.
Note : Due to these reasons class anthoceropsida also termed as synthetic archegoniatae.
BRYOPSIDA OR MUSCI- MOSSES
(i) All the Mosses are included in this class. The plant body of mosses is made up of stem, leaves and
rhizoid. The Rhizoids present in the plants of this class are multicellular and branched. These rhizoid have
oblique septa.
Note -
The presence of leaves in gametophyte is one of the unique character of Moss. In plant kingdom not a
single gametophyte has leaves.
(ii) The sporaphyte of mass is brophyta is highly developed while the sprophyte of liverwort is the simples. The
sporphyte of moss is divided into foot, seta, capsule.
(iii) The sporophyte of mosses is also semparasite like, hat of Hornworts. i.e. it is photosynthetic. The sporphyte
absorbs the water from gametophyte with the help of foot.
(iv) Capsule is the fertile part of the sporophyte i.e. formation of spores takes place in it. Foot and seta are the
sterile part of the sporophyte.
(v) Seta helps the capsule to remains in the air, due to which the dispersal of spores can take place
conveniently.
(vi) In bryopsida cells of amphithecium form wall of sprophyte. Cells of endothecium form spores. Elaters and
nurse cells re absent in bryopsida.
Ampithecium = Wall of sporophyte
Endothecium = Spores

73
Note :
(1) In Riccia, the sporophyte is made up of only capsule i.e. the whole sprophyte is fertile in it.
(2) During evolution there occur gradual sterilization of sporophyte i.e. gradual reduction of fertile part and
gradual development of sterile part.
(3) Asexual reproduction in Marchntia takes places by fragmentation of thalli, or by the formation of
specialized structures called gemmae (sing, gemma) Gemme are green, multicellular, asexual buds,
which develop in small receptacles called gemma cups located on the thalli. The gemmae become
detached from the parent body and germinate to form new individuals.
Eg. of Mosses :
 Funari - Rope moss or Cord moss
 Andria - Granite moss
 Polytrichum - Hair cupt moss
 Fontinalis - Brook moss
 Dawsonia - Australian moss - The highest bryophyte - 45 cm.
 Buxbaumia - Saprophytic moss - Phtosynthesis absent
 Sphagunum -
- Bog moss - It likes to grow on acidic bog.
- Quaking bog
- Carpet moss or Turf moss - It spreads like a carpet on bog due to which, the swamp cannot be easily
seen.
- Peat moss - It is a fossil fuel that obtained from bog. The formation of peat takes place by the
fossilization of Sphagnum. Sphagnum grows in acidic bog. The number of bacteria are lass in bog due
to which the degradation of dead cell could not takes place. Hence it is present in the form of fossil.
- Absorbent cotton - Sphagunum can absorb water in very high amount. Therefore it is used in the form
of absorbent cotton in Europe.
HABITAT OF SOME IMPORTANT BRYOPHYTES –
(1) Some bryophytes are found in water.
eg. Riccia fluitant, Riccia obuensis.

Ricciocarpus natans, Riella, Fontinalis
(2) Some bryophytes are found in epiphytic form i.e. they grow on other plants -
eg. Dendroceros
(3) Some bryophytes are saprophytes (Non photosynthetic)
eg. Buxbaumia and Cryptothallus

74
PTERIDOPHYTA
Term pteridophyta was proposed by Haeckel

The study of pterdophytes is known as pteriodology.
Pteridophytes are known as reptiles of plant kingdom.
1. Pteridophytes are also called as vascular cryptogames. Pteridophytes are vascular plants i.e. xylem and
phloem are present in it. In pteridophytes, vessels in xylem and companion cells in phloem are absent. But
exceptionally xylem of Pteridium, Selaginella and Marsilea contains false vessels. These false vessels
formed by the modification of tracheids, so false vessels are trachieds.
Type of vascular bundle - Concentric, Amphicribal, mesrch condition and closed.
Note : Secondary growth is absent (due to absence of cambium) in pteridophytes but
exceptionally secondary growth is present in stem of Isoets.
2. Pteridophytes are called as the first successful terrestrial plants i.e. they are more adapted terrestrial plants
as compared to bryophytes. Because –
(i) Vascular tissue is present in pteridophytes.

(ii) They have roots.
3. Pteridophytes are not completely successful terrestrial plants because they need water for fertilization, so
pteridophytes grow in shady and moist places.
4. In pteridophyta, the plant body is completely differentiated in to root, stem and leaves.
 The primary root remains alive for short period. After some time it is replaced by adventitious roots.
 Stem is erect or prostrate. In some pteridophytes stem is underground, which is known as rhizome.
 On the basis of leaves, pteridophytes are of two types -
First in which stem is smaller while leaves are larger. They are known as macrophyllous
Pteridophytes.
eg. Pteridium, Pteris, Marsilea
Second, in which stem is larger and leaves are smaller. They are called s microphyllous
Pteridophytes.
eg. Equisetum, Lycopodium, Selaginella
Note : Differentiation in plant body start from bryophytes.
LIFE CYCLE OF PHERIDOPHYTES
1. Plant is sporophyte i.e. diploid.

Most of the pteriophytes re homosporus i.e. only one type of spores are formed during reproduction.
eg. Lycopodium, Pteridiu, Equisetum, Dryopteris
Exception : Some pteridophytes are heterosporus i.e. two types of spores microspores and
megaspores
eg. Selaginella, Isoetes, Marsilea, Salvinia, Azolla, Stylites.
2. Formation of spores takes place in sporangia. Sporangia is formed at the abaxial surface of leaves.
3. The leaves on which sporangia are formed are called sporohylls (reproductive leaves) and normal
photosynthetic leaves are called tropophyllas (vegetative leaves). Sporngia are present in groups, there
groups are called sorus. Many sorus are found on sporophylls. The groups of sorus are called sori. Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,
75
Note :
(1) In pteridophyta, sprophylls are also photosynthetic. This is a unique character of pteridophyta.
(2) In pteridophytes development of sporangia takes place by two method -
(a) Leptosporangiate - Each sporangium develops from single initial cell.
(b) Eusporangiate - Each sporangium develops from a group of initial cells.
  Eusporangiate is advanced character because all higher plants are eusporangiate.

4. Spore mother cells are present in sporangia. Spores are formed in these spore mother cells by meiosis and
these spores start the gametophytic generation.
5. In pteridophyta, the germination of spores isexosporic i.e. germination takes place out side the sporangia (in
soil)
6. In soil, a gametophyte is formed by the germination of each spore, which is known prothallus. The formation
of gametophyte takes place in the soil therefore it is free (independent) and autotrophic.
7. There is no relation between the main sporophytic plant and prothallus. Prothallus (gametophyte plant) is
made up of thallus and rhizoids. It is non vascular.
Note : In plant kingdom gametophyte is always non vascular.

8. Prothallus (gametophyte) is monoecious but in heterosporus pteridophytes prothallus is dioecious.
In heterosporus pteridophytes –
Microspores form - Male gametophyte
megaspores form - Female gametophyte
9. The formation of sex organs takes place on this gametophyte. Male sex organs are called as antheridium
and female sex organs are called as archegonium. The formation of male gametes takes place in Antheridia
which are called as antherozoids.
Antherooids are spiral and mutliflagellate but exceptionally antherozoied of Selaginell are spindle
shaped and Lycopodium is curved (comma) and biflagellate. Egg is formed is archegonia.
Sporophyte
(2N)
Embryo Sporophytic Sporophylls
(2N) generation
Sporangia
Zygote
(2N) Spore mother cells
Fertilization Gametophytic Meiosis

(Zoodiogamy)
generation
Egg Antherozoids
Spor
e(N)
Antheridia
Gametophytic plant
Archegonia Or Prothallus

76
10. Fertilization takes place by zoodiogamy and zygote is formed as a result of fertilization. Zygote develops
and forms and embryo. Now this embryo develops and forms a sprophytic plant with root, stem, leaf.
 Type of sexual repro. in pteridophyta is oogamous.
 Their life cycle is diplo-haplonitc type.
 The unique character of life cycle of Petridophyte is - Independent alternation of

generation i.e.
sporophyte and gametophyte are separate to each other.
Pteridophyta is divided in to 4 classes

1. Psilopsida 2. Lycopsida 3. Sphenopsida 4. Filicinae
1. Psilopsida “
The most ancient vascular plants are placed in this class. The plants in this class have many primitive
characters -
(i) Their plant body is differentiated in to stem, scaly leaves and rhizoids.
(ii) Rhizoids are present instead roots. In psiolopsia stem is under group i.e. rhizome. This rhizome
bears some aerial branches, Sporangia are formed on these branches.
Note : Vascular tissue is present only is stem.
(iii) Tropophylls are absent, scaly leaves are known as cataphyllus (Scaly leaves - dry brown coloured and
non photosynthetic. They are only for protection of sporangia)
(iv) Their leaves do not have the capacity of phytosynthesis, therefore photosynthesis is done by stem.
(v) Sporangia are formed on stem. Sporophylls are absent.
(vi) Most of the plants in this class are extinct.
Only one living genus is present in this class - Psilotum  A living fossil
Rhynia and Horneophyton - Fossil plants
2. Lycopsida or Lepidophyta or Microphyllophyta :
(i) Club mosses are placed in this class.
(ii) The plant body of club mosses in differentiated into root, stem and leaves. Club mosses are
microphyllous i.e. small green leaves are present on stem. Leaves of club moss is uninerved i.e. only
mid rib is present. Roots are adventitious.
(iii) Sporangia are formed on sporophylls. These sporophylls are not scattered on stem, instead they are
present in groups at the tip of plant. these groups are called as strobilus or cone. The strobilus of club
mosses are loose and small.
Note : In Lycopsida tropophylls and sporophylls are separate. Trophophylls are present whole year
while sporphylls are formed during reproduction. Sprophylls are present at the tip of plant in group and
formed cone (cone is photosy. structure)
Lepidodendron - Giant club moss - fossil plant

Lycopodium - Common club moss or Ground pine or Trailing evergreen
it is a medicinal plant. It is used as tonic in Homeopathic medicines.
Isoetes - Quill wort or Merlyn grass - Aquatic weed
Selaginella - Little club moss or spike moss or Bird’s nest moss
Resurrection plant - All the species of Selaginella are known as “Drought
Escapers” i.e. do not face drought condition, complete their life cycle in short
wet season. In dry season plant dries and rolls in a ball like structures. In this
stage, it passes out dry season. When we season returns plant absorbs water
and again becomes normal. So, it is also known as “resurrection plant”.
Selaginella bryopteris - It is known as “Sanjeevani” No medicinal properties.

77
3. Sphenopsida or Arrhrophyta or Calamophyta :
(i) In this class Horse tails are included.
(ii) The plant body horse tails are differentiated into root, stem & leaves.
(iii) Their stem is nodulated i.e. stem distinctly differentiated into node and internode. Scaly leaves are
present on these nodes.
(iv) Silica is present in the epidermis of stem and leaves. Due to silicate surface, leaves become rough. it
two horse tail plants collide, then there is a dangerous change of fire in the forest.
(v) The formation of sporangia takes place on sporophylls. Sporophylls are arranged in a group and form a
tall and condensed cone. This cone is formed at the apical part of aerial stem. The stem on which cone is
formed is called as prorangiophore.
eg. Equisetum (Pipe), Sphenophylla, Hyenai
4. Filicinae :
(i) This if the largest group of pteridophytes.
(ii) Ferms are included in this class. Most of the pteridophytes are ferns.
(iii) Ferns are megaphyllous (macrophyllous) i.e. stem is small and eaves are comparatively larger and these
leaves are known as ‘Fronds’. Leavdes are multinerved.
(iv) Multicellular hair are present on the young leaf and young stem of ferms which re called as ramenta.
They are for protection.
(v) There is no difference between tropopphylls and sporophylls in fern i.e. every leaf of ferm forms
sporangia at the time of reproduction. Therefore cones are not produced in ferns.
eg. of Ferns :
Pterdium
Pteris They are called “braken fern” or “Sun fern”
Dryopteris
Dryopteris - Also called as Brook shield fern’
Adiantum - Walking fern or Maiden hair fern

This name is given to them due to rapid vegetative reproduction. Vegetative
reproduction in Adiantum takes place by means of leaf tip. It spreads very
fast.
Osmunda - Royal fern or flowering fern

Ophioglossum - Adler’s tongue fern
Marsilea - Pepper wort fern
Azolla - Aquatic fern (Smallest pteridophyte and biofertilizer)
Onychium - Golden fern
Cyathea - Lofty tree fern
Alsophila - Tree fern (Largest pteridophyte)
Chielanthus - Silver fern
Botrychium - Moon wort fern

78
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS :-
(1) Selaginella  Vivipary is present in it i.e. partial endosporic germination. Seeds habit
originated is Selaginella like pteridophytes.
 Ligulate leaves (tongue shaped) are present in it Function - Ligule is

secretory structure, which secretes water and keeps the sporanguium and the
young leaf moist.
(2) In some pteridophytes sporangia are not formed on lower surface of sporophylls -
 In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed at the axil of leaf.
eg. Selaginella
 In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed in spike
eg. Ophioglossum
 In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed in sporocarp.
eg. Marsilea, Azolla
Habitat of some important pteridophytes –
Most of the pteridophytes are found in moist soil and shady place.
(1) Aquatic - Some pteridophytes are found in water.
eg. Marsilea, Salvinia, Azolla, Isoetes
(2) Epiphytes - Some pteridophytes grow on other plants.
eg. Lycopodium phlegmeria, Ophioglossum pendiulu, Pleopeltis
(3) Xerophytes - Some pteridophytes are found in deserts.
eg. Selaginella repestris, Selaginella bryopteris
Selaginella lepidophylla

79
GYMNO SPERM
1. Term Gymnosperm given by Theophrastus.
2. Study of Gymnosperm known as Gymnospermlogy.
3. Gymnosperm & Angiosperm are collectively included under spermatophyta i.e. seed bearing plants.
4. Gymnosperm are naked seeds plant i.e. no fruit formation takes place in these plant
i.e. in gymnosperm embryo & seed formation takes place but no fruit formation occur.
5. Gymnosperm are very limited in distribution. They are mainly found in cold regions. In India Gymnosperm
are found on Himalayan mountains . Xerophyte founds on slopes of mountain & cold region therefore
gymnosperm are xerophyte.
6. All gymnosperm are vascular plants. Therefore vascular tissue present i.e. xylem & phloem. Xylem lack
vessels & phloem lack companion cells.
Note -
  Exceptionally in xylem of Gnetum, Epheddra, Welwitschia true vessels are present.
  In gymnosperm vascular bundle is Conjoint - Collarateral - Endarch - Open.
  In the vascular bundle cambium is present therefore secondary growth takes place in gymnosperms,
so that Gymnospoerms are woody plants.
7. Most of the gymnospoerms are occur at tree form - but some are present as shrub.
eg. Ephedra
Some Gymnospoerms are liana wood climbers.
eg. Gnetum ula
LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM -

1. In Gymnospoerms main plant body is sporophyte (diploid). Gymnospoerms are dioecious. i.e. male &
female plants are separate.
2. All Gymnospoerms are heterosporus. At the time of reproduction two types of spores are formed.
 Microspores - Male
 Megaspores - Female
3. These two types of spores are formed in different sporangia.
 Microspores are formed in Microsporangia, Microsporangia also term as pollen sac.
 Megaspores are formed in Magasporangia. megasporangia also term as ovule.
4. Both type of sporangia re formed on different sporophylls.
 Microsporangia are formed on Microsporophyll. It is known as stamen.
 Megasporangia are formed on Megasporophylls. It is known a carpel.
5. Both types of sprophylls are found in groups & form male cone (strobilus) & female cone.
 Gymnosperm’s cone are just like flower of angiosperm.
 Carpels of Angiosperm & Gymnosperm are different to each other.

80
Carpel of Gymnosperm –
   Carpel of gymnosperm is les modified leaf it keeps its identity.
   Ovule of gymnosperm develops openly on carpel ovule doesnot enclose in any structure.
Therefore carpel of gymnosperm is termed as open carpel.
Carpels of Angiosperm –
   Angiosperm’s carpel divide into three part ovary, style stigma.
   Ovule enclosed in ovary. Therefore angiosperm’s carpel termed as closed carpel. i.e.
angiosperm carpel is well modified leaf. Sprophyll lost its identity.
6. Meisis takes place in cells of microsporangium & megasporangium and form microspore & meagaspore
respectively.
7. In Gymnosperm (included angiosperm) germination of spores is endosporic i.e. germination of spore

akes place with is sporangia.
8. Male gametophyte form after germination of microspore. Male gametophyte is also known as pollen
grain. Male gametophyte forms male gamete.
9. In lower gymnosperm, male gametes are motile & multiciliate but in higher gymnosperm are
angiosperm male gametes are non motile due to the absence of cilia and flagella. They (higher
gymnosperm) do not require water for fertilization.
10. Female gametophyte form after germination of megaspore.
Female gametophyte of gymnosperm contains two type structures.
 Archegonia - If form egg.
 Endosperm - It provides nutrition for the development of embryo.
11. Pollen grain (male gametophyte) reach at the ovule by pollination. Pollen grains reach at the micropyle
(ovule) by wind. Anemophilly occur in gymnosperm.
FERTILIZATION -
Two types of fertilization take place in gymnosperm
(1) Zoodio - siphonogamy - This type fertilization occurs in lower gymnosperm. Male gamete is motile and
contained in pollen tube.
(2) Siphonogamy - This type of fertilization occur in higher gymnosperm. Male gamete is non motile and
transferred to female gamete (egg) by pollen tube. After Pollination male & female gametes are fused & form
a diploid zygote.
 In gymnosperm single fertilization takes place so that single zygote form through fertilization. In
Angiosperm double fertilization takes places so that two product are formed are formed after it (i) Zygote
(ii) Endosperm.
 In gymnosperm endosperm form before fertilization so it is haploid but in angiosperm endosperm are
formed after fertilization so endosperm of angiosperm is triploid.

81
Sporophyte (2N) Sporophyte (2N)
Male cone Female cone

Diploid
Microsporphylls (Stamen) Microsporphylls (Carplel)
Microsporangium (Pollen sac) Microsporangium (Ovule)

Meiosis Meiosis
Microspores (N) Microspores (N)

Germination Germination
Male gametophyte (Pollen grain) Female gametophyte
Haploid
Archegonia Endosperm
Male gametes
Female gamete (egg)
Fertilization
By
Zoodio-siphonogamy
OR
Siphonogamy
Zygote (2N)
Meiosis
Diploid
Embryo
Seed Germination (Seed=Ovule + Embryo)
Sporophyte (2N)
LIFE CYCLE OR GYMNOSPERM

82
DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE -
1. Embryo formed by the development of diploid zygote. After embryo formation ovule term as seed. (Seed 
Ovule + Embryo)
 Ovule is a sporangia. Embryo enclosed ovule because development of spore is endosporic.
 Seeds are not formed in pteridophyta because germination of spore is exosporic i.e. embryo develops
outside the sporangia.
Note :- Polymbryony occurs in gymnosperm i.e. a single seed develops many embryo.
There is two type Polyembryony

(1) Potential polyembryony - Many embryo form by fertilization of many archegonia.
eg. Cycas - Single ovule of Cycas contains two archegonia. Fertilization occurs in both
archegonia so two zygote form in a ovule. So two embryo form. Potential polyembryony is
not true polyembryony because a zygote form only one embryo.
(2) Cleavage polyembryony - Many embryo are formed by the cleavable in zygote so it is true
polyembryony.
eg. Pinus
2. Embryo enclosed is seed. Seed absorbs water & bursts. Now embryo germinate and form a new diploid
plant.
LIFE CYCLE :
Life cycle of Gymnosperm & angiosperm is diplontic because gametophytic generation is short
lived. Gametophyte is very reduced & depend on its sporophyte.
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS :
1. Antheridia is absent in gymnosperm & angiosperm i.e. pteridophyte is last group of antheridia. But
Archegonia is also absent in angiosperm. So gymnosperm is last group of archegonia.
Evolution of archegonia starts form liverworts. It is well develops in moss. Gymnosperm is last
group of it. So in this group it is very reduced.
Archegonia of liver worts - NCC = 4 - 6 VCC = 1 Egg cell = 1

Archegonia of Moss - NCC = 6 - 18 VCC = 1 Egg cell = 1
Archegonia of Pteridophyta - NCC = 1 - 2 VCC = 1 Egg cell = 1
Archegonia of Gymnosperm - NCC = Absent VCC = 1 (Short lived) Egg cell = 1
Note : neck of archegonia of Ephedra is longest.
2. During evolution Gametophyte becomes reduced & sporophyte becomes well-develop.
Very reduced - In Angiosperm

Gametophyte
Well developed - In Moss
Very reduced - In Thallophyta (Only zygote)

Sporophyte
Well developed - In Angiosperm

83
Gymnosperms are divided into two groups
(1) Cycadophyta (Lower Gymnosperm) (2) Coniferophyta (Higher Gymnosperm)
CYCADOPHYTA
Many characters of this group resemble to fern.
(A) The plants of this group are megaphyllous or macrophyllous.
(B) Presence of Ramenta.
(C) Male gamete is motile.
(D) Vascular bundle are hadrocentri.
Cycadophyta is divided into three orders.
(i) Cycadofillicales or Pteridospermae :

(a) This group includes seed fern.
(b) Now this group is completely extinct.
eg. Lyginopteris - Fossil Plant
(ii) Benettiatales :
(a) It is also a completely extinct group.
eg. Williamsonia -fossil plant
Note : Its fossils were discovered by Prof. Birbal sahani
(iii) Cycadales -
(a) Presently living Gymnosperms are included in this order.
(b) All the plants of this group are living fossils.
 Zamia pygmea - Smallest Gymnosperm

 Cycas - Fern palm or Sago palm
Sago is obtained form its stem.
 Cycas thouarsii - The diameter of its ovules is 7 cm. Its ovules, male
         gametes and egg are largest in plant kingdom.
CONIFEROPHYTA
Four orders are included in this group
(i) Ginkgoales :
(a) It is the oldest order of coniferophyta. Maximum plants of this group are extinct.
(b) Only one plant of Ginkgo biloba is present in India (In Manali). Some plants are also present in China.
Ginkgo biloba - living fossil - it is also known as “Maiden hair tree”.
Note : Exceptionally Ginkgo biloba belongs to higher gymnosperm but its male
gametes are motile and fertiliztiion by zoodiosiophonogamy.
(ii) Cordiatales :
(a) It is completely extinct group
eg. Cordaites Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,
84
(iii) Coniferales :
(a) Conifers re included in this group. (b) It is the largest group of gymnosperm
e.g. of Coniferales -
(a) Pinus (Pines) :
 Pinus species - A resin “turpentine” is obtained from it. Turpentine is used in
        varnish.
 Pinus gerardiana - It is known as “chilgoza pine”
 Pinus roxyburghii - It is known as “chirprine”.
(b) Cedrus - It is known as deodar.

(c) Taxus - It is known as Yew tree An anticancer medicine “Taxol” is obtained
from its bark.
(d) Taxodium maxicanus - The stem of this plant is thickest in the plant kingdom.
(e) Abies balsamea - A resin “Canada balsam” is obtained from it. It is used to
manufacture
permanenet slides in biology laboratory.
(f) Juniperus virginiana - An oil is obtained from this tree - “Cedar wood oil”. It is used as
cleansing fluid is biology laboratory. This oil is also used in
microscope to increase the resolving power. This oil is used as
nail polish remover.
(g) Araucaria species
 Araucaria excelsa - Christmas tree
Ornamental plants
 Aruacaria araucana - Monkey puzzle tree
(h) Sequoia species - The plants in this genus are heavy. Therefore they are called as
father
of forest.
Sequoia giganteum - It is called Red wood tree or Sherman tree. It is the largest
gymnosperm. There is only one tree of this species and that is in
California (America)
(i) Metasequoia - It is a living fossil. This plant is present in china valley.
(iv) Gnetales -
(a) They are the most advanced gymnosperm.
(b) Exceptionally members of this group have vessels in xylem.
(c) Ovule of this group is bitegmic.
(D) Archegonia is absent in the members of this group.
eg. (1) Gnetum (2) Welwitschia
(3) Ephedra - Exceptionally archegonia is present in Ephedra.
Epheddra - This gymnosperm is commonly found in Rajasthan. Ephedra is a medicinal plant.
Ephedrine
(Medicine) is obtained form it. It is an effective medicine in asthma. Athletes misuse it, so ephedrine is
restricted for them.
Cycadofillicales was first seeds plant. First time seed habit established in this group. In general way
seed habit was originated from those pteridophytes which are now extinct. These pteridophytes
were ancestor of cycadofillicales.
Seed habit originated from those pteridophyte which were jut like Selaginella. Because Selaginella
show origin of seed habit.
There is mainly two requirements for seed formation

(1) Plant should be heterosporus (2) Germination of mega spores should be endosporic

85
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
1. Palynology - Study of structure of pollengrains.
 Father of Palynology is Erdtman.

 Father of Indian Palynology - P.K.K. Nair.
2. Palaeobotany - Study of fossil plants. Father of Palaeobotany- Seward
 Father of Indian Palaeobotany - Birbal Sahani.

  Birbal Sahani institute of Palaeobotany (National Institute of Palaeobotany) located at Lucknow.
3. Pharmacognosy - Study of medicinal plants. Father of Pharmacognosy - Dioscorides. Indian contributors
 Rishi Charak wrote “Charak Sanhita”

 Rishi Parashar - he wrote “Vriksha Ayurveda”
4. Plant Pathology - Study of pathogenic diseases of plants. Genetic diseases are studied under genetics.
 Deficiency diseases are studied under plant physiology.

 Father of plant pathology - De Bary
 Father of Indian plant pathology - E.J. Butler
5. Plant physiology - Study of mechanism of plant processes.
 Father of plant physiology - Stephan Hales

 Father of Indian plant physiology - J.C.Bose.
 Professor Nanda and Professor Ranjan are other famous Indian plant physiologists.
6. Plant Embryology - Study of embryogenesis in plants. It also includes the study of sporogenesis,
developement of gametophytes, Pollination of fertilization.
 Father of plant embryology - Wolff.

 Father of Indian plant embryology - Panchanan Maheshwari.
 S.C. Maheshwari, the son of late P. Maheshwari, is famous Indian plant embryologist.
7. Plant ecology - Study of plant in relation to their environment.
 Father - Reiter.
 Indian Father - R.Misra
 Prof. T.N. Khushoo is famous Indian Environmentalist.
8. Plant breeding - Science which deals with the development of new varieties of plants.
 Plant breeding in an application of Genetics

 Father of Genetics and plant breeding - Mendel
 Indian Father - B.P.Pal
 Father of Green Revolution - Norman Borlaugh. He developed Mexican varieties of wheat and several
high yielding varieties of potato. For this contribution, Norman Borlaugh was awarded Nobel prize for
international peace (1970).
 Father of Green Revolution in India - M.S. Swaminathan. By mutation breeding he developed high
yielding and Rust-resistant varieties of wheat like Sharbati sonora.
9. Phytosociology - Study of structure of plant community.

86
10. Phytogeography - Study of geographical distribution of plants.
11. Phytochemistry (Biochemistry)- Study of plant chemicals and their reactions.
 Father of Biochemistry – Leibig
12. Molecular biology - Study of Nucleic acids.
13. Phycology - Study of algae.

 Father of phycology - Fristch
 Fristch wrote a book “Structure and Reproduction of Algae”.
 Father of Indian phycology - M.O.P. Iyengar.
14. Mycology or Mycetology - Study of fungi.

 Father of Mycology - Mitcheli, Mitcheli wrote a book “Nova Plantarum Genera”.
 Father of Modern Mycology - De Bary.
 Fries - Linnaeus of Mycology. Book of Fries is “Systema Mycologicum”.
 Father of Indian Mycology - B.B.Mundker/E.J. Butler
 E.J. Butler is also considered as father of Indian Mycology and plant pathology.
 T.S. Sadasivan, C.V. Subramanian and B.C. Lodha are Indian mycologists of international fame.
15. Bryology - Study of Bryophytes.

 Father of Bryology - John Hedwig and Cavers
 Father of Indian Bryology - Professor Shiv Ram Kashyap
 Professor Shiv Ram Kashyap was oldest Indian Botanist. Professor Birbal Sahani and Professor K.C.
Mehta were students of Shiv Ram Kashyap. The name of Shiv Ram Kashyap is still alive through his
cine actress daughter Kamini Kaushal.
16. Pteridology - Study of Pteridophytes.

 Father - Bower
 Indian Father - S.S.Bir
17 Gymnospermology - Study of Gymnosperms

 Father - Chamberlain
 Indian Father - Dogra.
18. Plant taxonomy -

 Father of Indian plant taxonomy - Father Santapau
 Father Santapau was associated to Indian Botanical Garden, Calcutta.
19. Spermology - Study of seeds.
20. Pomology - Study of fruits
21. Anthology - Study of flowers
22. Dendrology - Study of trees and shrubs
23. Dendrochronolgy - Determination of age of trees.
24. Silviculture - Study of forest cultivation

87
25. Arboriculture - Cultivation of ornamental trees.
26. Horticulture - Cultivation of vegetables (Olericulture), fruits (Pomiculture) and flowers (floriculture).
27. Pedology or Edaphology - Study of soil for crop cultivation.
28. Agronomy - Study of agricultural practices like preparation of fields, sowming of seeds, Irrigation,
manuring, harvesting etc.
29. Limology - (Fresh water ecology) - Ecological study of fresh water lakes.
30. Ethanobotany - Study of folk uses of plants (uses of plants by tribal peoples).
 Father of Ethanobotany - Hrshberger
31. Microbiology - Study of microbes (Bacteria, viruses, Mycoplsma etc).

 Father of Microbiology - Louis Pasteur / Leeuwenhoek
 Father of modern Microbiology - S.A. Waksman (Soil microbiologist)
32. Bacteriology - Study of Bacteria.

 Father of Bacteriology - Leeuwenhoek / Louis Pasteur.
 Father of modern Bacteriology - Robert Koch
33. Virology - Study of viruses

 Father of virology - Iwanowsky
34 Aerobiology - Study of air borne living things like pollengrains, spores, Bacteria etc. Most abundant
living organisms in air are bacteria.
35. Space biology - study of effects of space conditions of living beings.
36. Actinobiology or Radiation biology - Study of effects of radiations on living beings.
37. Phenology - Study of seasonal variations in plant communities.
38. Bio-nomics - Study of interactions of plant like the symbiosis, predation parasitism etc.
39. Ethalogy - Study of behaviour of organisms.
40. Anthropology - The science of man and mankind, including the study of the physical and metal
constitution of man his cultural development, social conditions, as exhibited both in the present and the
past.
41. Entomolgy - A branch of zoology which deals with structure, habits and classification of insects.
42. Fishery - The occupation or industry of catching fish or other products of the sea, lakes or rivers.
43. Poultry Science - Science dealing with domestic fowls, such as chickens ducks and geese.
44. Sericulture - The breeding and treatment of silkworms for producing raw silk.
45. Apiculture - The rearing of bees; beekeeping especially for commercial purposes.
46. Dairy Technology - The application of science for the manufacture of milk products.
47. Psychology - The branch of knowledge which deals with the human mind, its behaviours and mental
qualities.
48. Forensic science - Application of scientific knowledge to the questions of civil and criminal law (includes
use of finger-prints, blood typing, identification of narcotics, etc.)
49. Human Reproductive Biology - The science of understanding and regulating human reproduction.
50. Physiotherapy - The treatment of diseases, bodily weakness, or defects by physical remedies, such as
massage and exercise.

88
51. Genetic Engineering - Involves genetic manipulations to produce an organism with a new combination of
inherited properties.
52. Biomedical Engineering - Production of spare parts for man, implants, artificial limbs, heart-lung
machines etc.
53. Phytophysics (Biophysics) - Study of physical activities of plants.
54. Bio-matrics or Bio-statistics - Use of statistics in Biology, like the statistical analysis of data obtained
form experiments.
55. Agrastology - Study of grasses and grass lands.
56. Cecidology - Study of pathogenic tumors in plants.
57. Exobiology or Xenobiology - Study of life on other planets.
58. Cryobiology - Study of effects of low temperature on living beings. Cryopreservation is technique
concerned with preservation of living things t low temperature for e.g. the preservation of semen in liquid
nitrogen.
59. Speleology - Study of fauna (animals) and flora (plants) of caves.
60. Gerontology - Study of aging, i.e., effects of age of living beings.
61. Teratology - Study of abnormalities in embryo.
62. Physiognomy - External appearance of community (vegetation). It is determinated by the growth form of
dominant species.
SOME GENERAL BRANCHES

1. Eugenics - Improvement of individuals yet to borne by the application of genetic principles like selective
mating. Father of Eugenics - Galtan and Peerson.
2. Euthenics - Science of better living - Improvement of individuals already borned by providing better
environment, good food, education and Training.
3. Euphenics - Study of control of genetic diseases.
Ecospecies - It contains one or more ecotype which although interfertile (capable of interbreeding), do
not produce viable offsprings due to some natural interruption (mountain, ocean etc.).

89
HERBARIUM
HERBARIUM : The collection or depository of dried plant specimens in known as Herbarium.

 The collection of specimens requires regular field visits. We have to get information about the place,
habitats season and the time of collection.
ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENTS :
1. Digger (Trowel or Pick) : In the field, one requires digger for digging roots.
2. Secateur: Secateur is required for cutting twigs of trees and shrubs for herbarium specimens.
3. Vasculum :  The vasculum is a container made up of tin or aluminum sheet. It is some what
oval on the end and usually 45 to 60 cm long.
 The collected specimens are carried in a boc called vasculum to avoid loss of
moisture and distortions by drying and shriveling up.
4. Polythesne bags : Polythene bags are also used for carrying the specimens.
5. Field note book : Taxonomy students carry a field not book for recording every detail rather than depending
upon the memory.
 As far a possible, the following information should be collected and noted down in the field diary.
(a) Name of locality and exact place of collection (b) Local name of plant, if any.
(c) Approximate size. (d) Flowering and/or fruiting.
(e) Date of collection (f) Soil characteristics
(g) Economic uses, if any (h) Botanical name [if known]
(i) Field number of specimen.
6. Portable plant press :

 This is an equipment by means of which fresh
specimens are pressed flat, without folds and
become quickly dried.
 The standard size of plant press is 12 × 18
inches. A good portable presses consist of
two metallic frames holding thick mesh of
galvanized iron and arrangement to tie the
two Frames in adjustable belts.
 Between the metallic frames are kept drying
sheets of blotting paper (size 12 × 18 inches)
and between the blotters are keeps folded
newsprint sheets (wrappers), in each of which
the collector places one kind of plant.
 After keeping the specimens in the newspaper
folders, the two frames are securely fastened
by straps.
COLLECTION OF PLANT SPECIMENS :

The following things should be kept in mind while collecting plant specimens for making herbarium.
(1) The plant specimen should be either in the flowering or the fruiting condition, preferably both.
(2) Herbaceous plants should be collected with underground parts as far as possible.
(3) In case of woody plants a twig of about 25 cm will form a good specimen. In help in comprehension of
phyllotaxy and inflorescence of plant.
(4) It is always good to collect atleast four specimens of each plant.

90
PREPARATION OF HERBARIUM
(A) Pressing of Specimens :

 The specimen should be carefully displayed on the pressing sheet
(blotters or News print sheet)
 The larger specimens which can not fit easily on the sheet should be bent into a V, N or W shape.
 Since it is difficult to arrange the aquatic plants on the sheet when they are removed form water, they
should be taken on unprinted news sheet floated on the water and such sheet with specimen should be
placed in the pressing sheet.
(B) Drying of Specimens :

For drying, the press containing specimens is placed
in the sun. The press if opened after 24 hr., the
specimens are rearranged, placed between the
fresh blotters and then again tightly bound in the
press. The wet blotters removed should be dried
usually by placing them in the sun.
(C) Mounting of Specimens :

1. After drying, the specimens are ready for mounting.
They are mounted on herbarium sheets of standard
size 11.5 inches × 16.5 inches. Herbarium sheets
are usually made up of heavy hand-made card sheets
which are very durable.
2. Several adhesives generally sares, are used for

attaching specimens to the sheet.
Collephote tapes are not recommended for this
purpose as they are not permanent and come cut
easily after some time.
3. Usually one specimen should be mounted on each

herbarium sheet. Dissected parts and loose parts
such as fruits and seeds are placed in paper packets
pasted to the mounting sheet.
4. For the preservation of herbarium sheet for a long

period after the mounting of plant; it is treated with
CuSO4 or mercuric chloride.
HERBARIUM LABELS :
After mounting the specimen, a level is glued on the lower right hand corner of the sheet. The label
provides information taken from the field note-book. The label should include atleast the following data:
(1) A label heading indicating the name of institution with which specimen originated and the region of the
collection
(2) The name of family (3) The botanical name of the plant with authomy
(4)The locality of collection (5) The date of collection.
(6) The habitat. (7) The field notes.
(8) The name of the collector. (9) The collector’s field number.
(10) The vernacular name and local uses if any.
FILLING OF HERBARIUM SHEETS :

 The mounted and properly identified specimens are stored systematically in special wooden or steel
cabinets.
 All the pasted speciments are sprayed with fungicide like 0.1% solution of mercuric solution. DDT,
Nepthalene and carbon di-suphie to chek the growth of fungus. Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,
91
HISTORY OF TAXONOMY
1. Moreover, the biologists considerably depend on taxonomic studies of fossils connecting links for drawing
evolutional relationships among the organisms.
2. Theophrastus :.......
3. Dioscorides :
(A) He wrote a book “Mteria Medica”
(B) In this book he gives description of 600 medicinal plant species. This description includes identification
and uses of medicinal plants.
(C) First of all Dioscorides rejected the “Doctorine of signature” which was given by Paracelsus.
(D) This principle was blind faith about medicinal plants. According to this principle signature of god is
present in the form of special shape on every plant and shape shows medicinal importance of plant.
For Example : Liverwort is a plant, shape of this plant is liver like. According to “Doctorine of signature” this
plant should be use in liver disease. But there is no any use of this plant in medicine.
4. John Ray - England :

(A) Time - 1627 - 1705
(B) He wrote the book “Historia Generalis Plantarum” and
(C) John Ray described more than 18,000 plants and animals in his book. “Methodus Plantarum”
(D) He gave the concept of species.
(E) He coined the term species for a group of morphologically similar organisms.
On the basis of growth habit he classified the plants in two groups
1. Herbae - Herbs 2. Arborae - Trees and shrubs
5. Tournefort :
(A) Time - 1656 - 1708
(B) He proposed the Modern concept of genus.
(C) The term Genus was first proposed by Tournefort
6. Linnaeus :
Cari Von Linne was born in Sweden. As a child, the developed an interest in plants. On persuasion he joined
the medical school, though this parents wanted him to be a minister. Medical course being closely related to
plants then, Linne continued with the collection, study and description of plants. After completing medical
degree in 1739, he went to Holland and became the personal physician of a wealthy government official.
There he also studies and described all the plants of his emplyer’s garden. At the age o 22, he published his
first paper on sexuality of plants. Later he published 14 treaties and also brought out famous Systema
Naturae from which all fundamental taxonomical researches emanated. Hit system of classification was a
simple scheme for arranging plants for identifying them again. Linne with his lectures and publications of
Latin become Carolus Linnaeus.
7. Adanson :
In his book “Families des planets, he first arranged 58 families of plants in a natural system.

92
8. De Jussie brothers - Antoine, Bernard and Joseph - France :
Book of De Jussie brother is “Genera Plantarum Secundum Orinnes Naturals Disposita”. De Jussie brother
proposed the first complete natural classification of plant kingdom. They classified plant kingdom in three
groups -
1. Acotyledonae 2. Monocotyledonae 3. Dicotyledonae
Note : De Jussie brothers employed the characters of embryo in taxonomy.
9. A.P. De Candolle : ..........
10. John Lindley - England :
First distinguished the Cryptogams and Phanerogams. The name cryptogames was first used by Linnaeus
and the name phanerogams was first used by Therophrastus.
11. Bentham and Hooker : .........
12. Eichler : ..........
13. E. Bessey : Bessey proposed new name for dicot and monocot
Dicot - Oppositifolia These new names are based on phyllotaxy

Monocot-Altermifolia i.e. arrangement of leave on stem
14. Hutchinson (1926), England :
Hutchinson was also related with Royal Botanical Garden. Hutchison proposed phylogenetic classification of
flowering plants. In his book “The families of flowering plants”, he described 411 families of flowering plants.
Hutchinson for the first time states that monocots are more advance then the dicots.
15. Karl Menz : ......
16. Oswald Tippoo : ........
17. Takhatajan, 1966 (Russia) :
in his book “Flowering plants - Origin and dispersal,” he proposed new names to some plants groups -
Angiosperms = Magnoliophyta
Dicots = Magnoliatae
Monocots = Liliatae
There is one famous statement of Takhtajan about the importance of Phylogeny in taxonomy -
18. Willis, 1966 :
Book of Willis is “Dictionary of flowering plants and ferns”.
19. Haeckel : ......
20. Copeland : .......
21. R.H. Whittaker : . Five Kingdom classification was proposed in 1969 by R.H. Whittaker.

93
SOME SPECIAL POINTS
1. (i) Cladogram : Family tree (line diagram) representing evolutionary relationship
(Ancestory of evolution) of organisms.
(ii) Dendrogram : Family tree based on numerical taxonomy.
2. Key - A scheme for identification of plants and animals in known as a Key. Taxonomic keys are based on
the contrasting characters. Separate taxonomic keys are required for each taxonomic category like family,
genus or species. These are more useful in identification of unknown organisms. Being analytical in nature
these are generally of two types : (a) Yoked or indented and (b) Bracketed.
The indented key provides sequence of choices between two or more statement of characters of species.
The user has to make correct choice for identification.
3. Based on these structure of plant body and the method of sexual reproduction, bryophytes are divided
into three classes- Hepaticae (Hepaticopsia), Anthoceroatae (Anthoceropoida) and Musci (Bryopsida).
The Pteriophyta is divided into four classes, viz. Psilopsid, Lycopsida, Sphenopsida and Pteropsida, on the
basis of organisation of plant body including the nature of leaf, vascular system and location of sporangia.
These are further divided into three classes - Cycadopsida, Coniferopsida and Gnetopsida on the basis of
nature of leaves, wood, vascular system and reproductive structures.
4. A typical pteriodphyte are represented by fern has a plant body differentiated into distinct underground stem
like rhizome, bearing roots, and aerial shoot with leaves. It helps the plant to regenerate if the aerial parts are
destroyed by fire or animals. The pteridophytes have primitive vascular system. Adiantum, yet another well
known fern shows a characteristic mode of multiplication. Whenever its leaf tip comes in contact with soil it
develops adventitious roots and forms a new plant as such it is also called the walking fern. You might have
observed a similar mechanism of vegetative propagation through runner s and suckers.
The leaves are of two types. Some ferns have simple leaves with a single vein whereas the others have
compound leaves, comprising several leaflets (pinnules) life the flowering plants. The compound leaves in
Adiantum with black shining petiole are beautifully arranged to provide appearance of a maiden’s hair.
Hence it is also given the name maiden hair fern.
5. The common members of phycomycetes are Albugo, Mucor and Saporolegnia.
6. Bacteria :
(i) Epulopisium fishelsoni whish was discovered in the intestine of the brown surgeon fish, in as large
600 m and wide as 80 m .
(ii) In bacteria, membranes are different from those in eukaryotic cells in that they lack sterols such as
cholestrol. However, in some bacteria pentacylic sterol like molecules, termed as hopanoids, are
present. These hopanoids re known to stabilise the bacterial membrane.
(iii) The reserve materials of bacteria are stores in the cytoplasm an inclusion bodies or storage granules.
These are not bounded by any granules. These are not bounded by any membrane systems and lie
free in the cytoplasm e.g., phosphotae granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen
granules. Some other inclusion bodies may be surrounded by a single layer non-unit membrane,
which is 2-4 nm thick, e.g., poly-b-hydroxybutyrate granules, sulphur granules, carboxysomes and
gas vacuoles. Other remarkable organic inclusion bodes are the gas vacuoles, which usually occur in
cyanobateria, purple and green photosynthetic bacteria and few other aquatic forms that re free-
floating (plaktonic). These are basically aggregates of a number of small, hollow cylindrical gas
vesicles. Gas vesicles are not permeable to water but are permeable to water but are permeable to
atmospheric gases. Because of gas vacuoles, these bacteria keep floating on or near the surface of
water. These vacuoles help the organisms in positioning themselves in the water column for trapping
sunlight for photosynthesis, o for avoiding intense sunlight. The two major inorganic inclusions are the
polyphosphate granules or the volutin granules and sulphur granules. These granules take
different colours with basic dyes, therefore, they are also termed as metachromatic granules. The
volutin granules are phosphate polymers and function as a storage reservoir for phosphate. Some
bacteria also store sulphur temerily as sulphur granules. Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,
94
BOTANICAL GARDENS, HERBARIA AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE
(1) Oldest botanical garden is “Padua Botanical Garden” Italy (Established - 1545).
(2) Largest Botanical garden in the world is Toyal Botanical Garden, Kew Surrey, England, established by
William Aiton, 1759.
(3) Largest herbarium of the world is “Museum of Natural History”- Paris- with a collection of 8880000
specimens.
(4) Largest Botanical Garden of Asia in Indian Botanical Garden, Sibpur, Kolkata. Established by Rober Kyd,
1786.
 Largest herbarium of Asia is Central National Herbrium located in Indian Botanical Garden, with a
collection of 25 lack specimens.
 Indian Botanical Garden is famous due to the presence of “Great Banyan Tree” in its campus.
 In campus of Indian Botanical Garden Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is present which is established
by William Rouxburgh 1890.
 BIS  Botanical Survey in India is done by BSI
(5) National Botanical Garden, Lucknow, National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) is located in National
Botanical Garden.
(6) Forest Botanical Garden, Dehradun - Forest Research Institute (FRI) located in Forest Botanical Garden.
(7) Lloyd Botanical Garden - Darjeeling.
(8) CDRI - Cenral Drug Research Institute - Lucknow
(9) CAZRI - Central Ariz Zone Researh Institute - Jodhpur.
(10)CIMAP - Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Lucknow
(11)IARI - Indian Agriculture Researh Inst. (Pusa Inst.) - New Delhi
(12)Birbal Sahni Institute of Paleobotany (National inst. of paleobotany) - Lucknow
Comparison of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons

Character Dicotyledons Monocotyledons
Morphology Tap roots Adventitious root

Reticulate venation Parallel venation
Tetra - or pentamerous flowers Timorous flowers
Anatomy Vascular bundles arranged in a Vascular bundles scattered in
ring numbering 2-6 the ground tissue, many in
Open and with cambium number Closed and without
cambium.

95
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ALGAE AND FUNGI
Algae Fungi Formatted: Centered
1. The chlorophyll is present in algae. The chlorophyll is absent in fungi.

2. Algae are autotrophic and synthesize organic Fungi are heterotrophic thus, obtain their food
food materials by a process of photosynthesis. materials as saprophytes or parasites.
3. The cell wall is made up of cellulose impregnated The cell wall is made up of chitin of fungal
with pectic compounds. cellulose
4. The thallus is filamentous or consists of true The thallus is consists of filamentous mycelium
parenchyma. and form pseudoparenchyma.
5. Algae usually present in places where light is Fungi grow in dark or diffused light.
available.
6. The reserve food material is in the form of starch.

The reserve food material is in the form of oil
and glycogen.
7. The sexual reproduction in primitive algae is The sexual reproduction in primitive fungi is
simple and in advanced algae it is progressively complex and in advanced fungi it is simple and
complexed. reduced.
COMPARATITIVE ACCOUNT OF THREE DOMAIN OF CARL WOESE’S SYSTEM Formatted Table
Characters Bacteria Archaea Eukarya
Habitat Soil, water and air Soil, water and air specially in Specially in soil and water
(cosmopolitan), In all unfavourable habitats or
kinds of habitats extreme habitats
Cellular Unicellular, prokaryotes Unicellular prokaryotes

Mostly Multi Cellular
organisation eukaryotes
Cell wall Made up of mucopeptide Cell wall do not made up of Cell wall consist of chitin
mucopeptide instead consist of and cellulose. In animalia
complex polysaccharisdes and cell was is lacking.
polypeptides
Intron in RNA Absent Present Absent
BRYOPHYTA Formatted Table
S.No. Characters Hepaticae Anthocerotae Musci

1. Common Name Liverwort Hornword Moss
2. Rhizoids Unicellular and Unicellulr and Multicellular and branched with
unbranched unbrahcned oblique septum.
3. Leaf The leaves found in Absent The leaves are invariably spirally
foliose forms and are arranged with prominent mid rib.
never spiral. The leaer
withtout a mid rib
4. Scales Present Absent Absent

5. Sporogonium Usually simple It has only The sporogonium
Or structure with foot, foot and capsule show well organized
sporophyte sedt and capsule foot, seta and capsule

96
COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FIVE KINGODM
S. Kingdom Cellorganization Meansof mobility Mode of Nutrition Reproduction Members
No. and cell types
1 Monera Unicellularpr Motile by Byphotosnthesis or Asexual,binary Archae bacteria,
karyotic, lacks main Means of absorption fissin or eubcteria blue green
cell organelles Flagella budding algae, my
coplasmas
2 Protista Unicellular, Non motile By photosynthesi Assexual and Protozoans
eukaryotic, or motile orabsorption sexual Euglena, slime
All cell By means Or some time reproduction moulds
Organelles Of flagella holozoic
present or cilia
3 Fungi or Multicellular but Lackmotility, By absorption Asexual and Fungi (bread mould,
Mycota eukryotic motilityin sexual yeast etc.)
plastic absent gamates reproduction
4 Plantae Multicellular, Lack motility Predominatnly Asexual Plants (algae
eukryotic, plastid (non-motile Photosynthetic vegetative and mosses, ferns
and all other cell forms) motility in sexual conifers flowering
Organanelles Gametes reproduction plants)
present
5 Animalia Multicellular, Motile form Heterotrophic Mainly Animls (worms
eukaryotic, motility by mode sexual insects, Amphibians,
plastid absent muscle fibres Of nutriction mainly reproduction reptiles mammals
and all other cell by ingestion. etc.
organelles present
CLASSES OF ALGAE AND THEIR MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

Classes Common Major Stored Food Cell Wall Flagellar Habitat
Name Pigments Number and
Position of
Insertions
Chlorophyceae Green Chlorophyll Starch Cellulose 2-8, equal, Fresh water
algae a,b apical brackish
Water salt
Water
Pheophyceae Brown Chlorophyll Mannitol, Cellulose and 2-unequal, Fresh water
algae a,c, laminarin algin lateral (rare) brackish
fucoxanthin water salt
water
Rhodophyceae Red Chlorophyll Floridean Cellulose Absent Fresh water
algae a,d, starch (some)
phycoerythin brackish
water, salt
water (most)

97
NOMENCLATURE, CLASSIFICATIOIN, SPECIES CONCEPT
1. Most acceptable concept of species is : 10. The basis unit of classifications is :

(1) Static concept (2) Biological concept (1) Genus (2) Species
(3) Typological concept (4) Genetic concept (3) Order (4) All of the above
2. Artificial system of classification classifies plant 11. Suffix for sub species is :
on the basis of : (1) Phytina (2) Oideae
(1) One or two characters (3) Ineae (4) None
(2) Phylogenetic trends
(3) Many naturally existing characters 12. Individuals of same species having non-genetic
(4) None of the above differences due to environment are called :
(1) Biotypes (2) Ecotype
3. The term new systematic was introduced by : (3) Ecophenes (4) None
(1) Linnaeus (2) Bentham
(3) Hutchinson (4) Husley 13. Morphologically similar but reproductively
isolated species are called :
4. Group of organisms that closely resemble each (1) Neontological species
other and freely interbreed in nature, constitute a (2) Sibling species
(1) Species (2) Genus (3) Allpatric species
(3) Family (4) Taxon (4) Morpho-species
5. ICBN was first revised in : 14. Plant nomenclature means :

(1) 1961 (2) 1964 (1) To give names to plants without any rules
(3) 1975 (4) 1753 (2) Noemnclature of plants under the
internations rules
6. The term taxon refers to : (3) Nomenclature of plants in local language
(4) Nomenclature of plants in English language
(1) Name of a species
15. Taxonomy refers to :
(2) Name genus (1) Plant classification
(2) Plant nomenclature
(3) Name of family (3) Plant affinity
(4) All the above
(4) A taxonomic group of any rank
16. Which of the following is a correct name :
7. The herbarium specimen on whose basis a new (1) Solanum tuberosum
species is described for the first time is called as (2) Solanum Tuberosum
(1) Syntype (2) Holotype (3) Solanum tuberosu Linn
(4) All the above
(3) Pratype (4) Neotype
17. Systematics deals with :
8. The scientific naming of plants begain with (1) Classification
publication of Linnaueus book : (2) Nemonclature
(3) Plant description
(1) Genera plantarum (2) Systema naturae (4) Plant exploration
(3) Species plantarum (4) Charaka sanhita 18. Scientific name of Mango plant is Mangifera
indica (Linn.) Santapau in the above name
9. Which book most impressed the opinion of Santapau refers to :
taxonomis : (1) Variety of Mango
(2) A taxonomist who proposed the present
(1) Enquiry into plants (2) Origin of life nomenclature in honour of linnaeus
(3) Genera plantarum (4) Origin of species

98
(3) A scientist who for the first time described (3) Reproductive pars are more conservative
Mango plant than vegetative parts
(4) A scientist who changed the name proposed (4) None of these
by Linnaeus and proposed present name
28. Individuals of some species having genetic
19. Type specimen selected from the original variation and occur in same environment are
material in case the holotype is missing, is called called -
(1) Lectotype (2) Neotype (1) Biotypes (2) Ecotype
(3) Syntype (4) Partype (3) Ecophenes (4) Ecads
20. Phylogeny refers to : 29. The smallest unit of classification is :

(1) Family
(1) Natural classification (2) Order
(3) Genus
(2) Evolutionary classification (4) Species
30. The binomial system of nomenclature was
(3) Evolutionary history initially proposed by :
(1) Magnus
(4) Origin of algae (2) Bauhin
(3) Caesalpinno
21. Static concept of species is given by : (4) Discorides
(1) Linnaeus (2) Bentham
(3) Koch (4) Mayr 31. Biochemical resemblances are used in the
identification of :
22. In taxonomy the first step is : (1) Protistan species
(1) Identification (2) Nomenclature (2) Moneran species
(3) Classification (4) Affinities (3) Fungal species
(4) Higher plants
23. The suffix - inae signifies the rank :
(1) Tribe (2) Subtribe 32. Concept of phylogeny was proposed by :
(3) Suborder (4) Sub family (1) John Ray
(2) Lamarck
24. Species living in different geographical areas are (3) Ernest Haeckel
called : (4) Darwin
(1) Allochronic (2) Allopatic
(3) Sympatric (4) Sibligs 33. A division is formed by combining several :
(1) Orders (2) Families
25. A large number of unknown species of plants (3) Classes (4) Tribes
and animals re believed to the present in :
(1) Temperate forests (2) Antarctica 34. An international code of botanical nomenclature
was first proposed in the year :
(3) Taiga (4) Tropical forest (1) 1930 (2) 1830
(3) 1913 (4)1813
26. Biological concept of species proposed by :
(1) Linnaues (2) Mayr 35. For declaration of new species of higher plants
what characters are used :
(3) John Ray (4) De Candolle (1) Floral character of new species
(2) Anatomical characters of new species
27. For higher plants, flowers are chiefly used as a (3) Physiological character of new species
basis of classification, because - (4) Character of endosperm
(1) These show a great variety in colour 36. The standard size of herbarium sheets is :
(1) 11.5” × 16.5” (2) 15.5” × 16.5”
(2) It can e preserved easily (3) 18.5” × 10.5” (4) 20.5” × 21.5”
99
37. Which statement is true -
(1) Tautonyms do not occur in plants 45. Herbrium is :
(2) Tautonyms do not occur in animals (1) A garden where medicinal plants are grown
(3) Tautonyms normally occur in animals and
some time occur in plants (2) Garden where herbaceous plant are grown
(4) Tautonyms occur only in bacteria (3) Dry garden
(4) Chemical to kill plants
38. Trinomial nomenclature of classification was
proposed by : 46. The year of publication of “Species plantarum” :
(1) Linneaus
(2) Husley and Stricklandt (1) 1853 (2) 1857
(3) John-Ray (3) 1753 (4) 1786
(4) Theophrastus
39. Most of the botanical names re drawn from the
following language : 47. The biological concept of species is mainly
(1) German (2) Greek based on :
(3) Latin (4) Spanish (1) Morphological features
(2) Morphology and method of reproduction
40. Evolutionary classification is called : (3) Method of reproduction only
(1) Artificial system (4) Reproductive isolation
(2) Natural system
(3) Phylogentic system 48. A duplicate of holotype is called :
(4) None of the above (1) Isotype (2) Syntype
(3) Neotype (4) Paratype
41. Which of the following statements regarding
nomenclature is correct : 49. Term taxom given by :
(1) Generic name always begins with capital (1) Adolf Mayer (2) Linaeus
letter whereas specific name with small letter (3) Darwin (4) Koch
(2) Scientific name should be printed in italics
(3) Scientific name when types or handwritten 50. Which of the following is a species :
should be underlined (1) Tamarindus (2) Indicus
(4) All the above (3) Indica (4) Tamarindus indicus
42. The systematic arrangement of taxa is called : 51. Tautonyms re valid names according to :
(1) key (2) Taxonomy (1) NCBN (2) Species pantarum
(3) Geneology (4) Hierarchy (3) Gener plntarum (4) ICZN
43. Which is the most important by generally not 52. Practical significance of taxonomy is :
used criteria for the identification of the species - (1) Classification
(1) Interbreeding (2) To understand diversity
(2) Morphology (3) To understand evolution
(3) Genetic material (4) Identification of organism
(4) None
53. Which name of invalid :
44. Number of obligatory categories in taxonomy (1) Name not published in species plantarum
are: (2) Name proposed prior to 1961
(1) 7 (2) 8 (3) Name whish is not in latin
(3) 9 (4) 5 (4) Name for which holotype is not designated
100
54. Which system classified a plant in more than one
groups : 55. Authod of book “Flora British Indica” :
(1) Practical classification (1) Father Santapau
(2) Artificial classification (2) J.D. Hooker
(3) Natural classification (3) Willim Rouxburgh
(4) Phylegenetic classification (4) G. Bentham
NOMENCLATURE, CLASSIFICATION, SPECIES CONCEPT ANSWER KEY
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 1 4 1 3 4 2 3 4 2 4 3 2 2 4
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 3 3 4 1 3 1 1 2 2 4 2 3 1 4 2
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 1 1 3
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55
Ans. 3 4 1 1 4 4 4 4 1 2

101

Biology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHYCOMYCETES Formatted: Left: 0.38", Top: 0.88", Bottom: 0.

Alexopolus was a mycologist did not consider Phycomycetes as class. He dissolved

(a) chytridiomycetes (b) Plasmodiophoromycetes

Types of sexual reproduction

Types of Sexual reproduction

Type of sexual reproduction

 Oogamous - All the members

Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,

Types of sexual reproduction

 Isogamous - All the members

ASCOMYCETES Formatted: Font: (Default) Arial, 16 pt, Bold

 Plasmogamy  Karyogamy  Meiosis.

Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,

 1 to 5 ascus are present in one ascocarp.

 4 or 8 ascospores are present in one ascus.

Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,

(1) Penicillium : Blue or Green mold.

  P.griseofulvum - “Griseofulvin” an antifungla antibiotic is obtained from it.

(2) Aspergillus : Black or Brown mold of Blacky - smoky mold

 A.proliferans - An antibioic ‘Proliferin’ is obtained from it.

eg. Aspergillosis of ear - Min cause of ear pain.

  A. niger - Weed of laboratory

Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,

(7) Peziza :- It is called as cup fungi.

In Yeast three types of life cycle are found

(B) Diplontic life cycle-

(C) Haplo-diplotic life cycle -

 Saccharomyces cerevisiae - It is used as fermentation agent in backery (bread industry) and

Clamp connection : it is a tubular relationship between

Sexual reproduction is done by two methods.

(1) Somtogamy (2) Spermatization

Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,

Three different species of Puccinia develop rust in wheat

 Puccinia graminis - Black rust or stem rust

 Puccinia recondita - Brown rust or leaf rust

 Puccinia striigormis - Yellow rust or stripe rust

through aeciospores and secondary infection takes place through uredospores.

(1) Bracket or Shelf fungi :-

eg. Lycoperdon, Clavatia

Pycnidial cup Pycnidial cup

Pycniospores Receptive hyphae Pycniospores Receptive hyphae

Dikaryotic mycelium Dikaryotic mycelium

Divide and reach the

Aeciopores cup (+ - /dikaryotic)

 Most delicious mushroom - Agaricus bisporus

 World’s most poisonous mushroom - Amontia muscoides

(Poisonous mushrooms are known as Toad - stool)

 Inky cap mushroom - Coprinus muscatus

Note :- Prfo. J.C. Luthra discovered a technique to control smut.

Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,

Fungi Disease Formatted Table

(1) Alternaria solani Early blight of Potato.

Plectenchyma - Formatted Table

Plectenchyma is of two types

Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,

Following plant groups are included in Kingdom - Plantae

(1) Vegetative (2) Asexual (3) Sexual

Formatted: Position: Horizontal: 7.44", Relative to: Page,

(a) Isogamous - Chlamydomona debaryanum, Ulothrix, Ectocarpus

Note : (1) Chlamydomanas exhibits complete evolution of sexual reproduction.

Algae is divided into following divisions

(1) CHLOROPHYTA - GREEN ALGAE

(2) PHAEOPHYTA - BROWN ALGAE

(3) XANTHOPHYTA - YELLOW - GREEN ALGAE