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Transformer
Pole-mounted distribution transformer with center-
tapped secondary winding used to provide "split-phase"
power for residential and light commercial service,
which in North America is typically rated 120/240 V.[1]

A transformer is a passive electrical device

that transfers electrical energy from one
electrical circuit to one or more circuits. A
varying current in any one coil of the
transformer produces a varying magnetic
flux, which, in turn, induces a varying
electromotive force across any other coils
wound around the same core. Electrical
energy can be transferred between the
(possibly many) coils, without a metallic
connection between the two circuits.
Faraday's law of induction discovered in
1831 described the induced voltage effect in
any coil due to changing magnetic flux
encircled by the coil.

Transformers are used for increasing or

decreasing the alternating voltages in
electric power applications, and for coupling
the stages of signal processing circuits.

Since the invention of the first constant-

potential transformer in 1885, transformers
have become essential for the transmission,
distribution, and utilization of alternating
current electric power.[2] A wide range of
transformer designs is encountered in
electronic and electric power applications.
Transformers range in size from RF
transformers less than a cubic centimeter in
volume, to units weighing hundreds of tons
used to interconnect the power grid.

Principles
Ideal transformer …
An ideal
transformer is a Ideal transformer
theoretical linear equations
transformer that is
By Faraday's law
lossless and
of induction:
perfectly coupled.
Perfect coupling
.
implies infinitely
high core magnetic . . (eq. 1)[a][3]
permeability and
winding .
inductances and
. . (eq. 2)
zero net
magnetomotive Where is the
force (i.e. ipnp - isns instantaneous
= 0).[5][c] voltage, is the
number of turns in
a winding, dΦ/dt is
the derivative of
the magnetic flux
Φ through one turn
Ideal transformer of the winding
connected with source
over time (t), and
VP on primary and load
impedance ZL on subscripts P and S
secondary, where 0 < ZL denotes primary
< ∞.
and secondary.
 Combining the
ratio of eq. 1 & eq.
2:

Turns ratio

Ideal transformer and

induction law
. . . (eq. 3)

A varying current in Where for a step-

the transformer's down transformer
primary winding a > 1, for a step-up
attempts to create transformer a < 1,
a varying magnetic and for an
flux in the isolation
transformer core, transformer a = 1.
which is also
By law of
encircled by the
conservation of
secondary
energy, apparent,
winding. This
real and reactive
varying flux at the
power are each
secondary winding
conserved in the
induces a varying
input and output:
electromotive
force (EMF,
voltage) in the . . . . (eq. 4)
secondary winding
due to Where is
electromagnetic conserved power
induction and the and is current.
secondary current
Combining eq. 3 &
so produced
eq. 4 with this
creates a flux
endnote[b][4] gives
equal and
the ideal
opposite to that
transformer
produced by the
identity:
primary winding, in
accordance with
Lenz's law.
The windings are
wound around a
core of infinitely
. (eq. 5)
high magnetic
permeability so Where is
that all of the winding self-
magnetic flux inductance.
passes through
By Ohm's law and
both the primary
ideal transformer
and secondary
identity:
windings. With a
voltage source
connected to the
primary winding
...
and a load
connected to the (eq. 6)
secondary
winding, the . (eq. 7
transformer
currents flow in the Where is the
indicated load impedance of
directions and the the secondary
core circuit & is the
magnetomotive apparent load or
force cancels to driving point
zero. impedance of the
According to primary circuit, the
Faraday's law, superscript
since the same denoting referred
magnetic flux to the primary.
passes through
both the primary
and secondary windings in an ideal
transformer, a voltage is induced in each
winding proportional to its number of
windings. The transformer winding voltage
ratio is directly proportional to the winding
turns ratio.[7]
The ideal transformer identity shown in eq. 5
is a reasonable approximation for the typical
commercial transformer, with voltage ratio
and winding turns ratio both being inversely
proportional to the corresponding current
ratio.

The load impedance referred to the primary

circuit is equal to the turns ratio squared
times the secondary circuit load
impedance.[8]

Real transformer …
Leakage flux of a transformer

Deviations from ideal transformer …

The ideal transformer model neglects the

following basic linear aspects of real
transformers:

(a) Core losses, collectively called

magnetizing current losses, consisting of[9]

Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear

magnetic effects in the transformer core,
and
Eddy current losses due to joule heating in
the core that are proportional to the
square of the transformer's applied
voltage.
(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a
real transformer have non-zero resistances
and inductances associated with:

Joule losses due to resistance in the

primary and secondary windings[9]
Leakage flux that escapes from the core
and passes through one winding only
resulting in primary and secondary
reactive impedance.

(c) similar to an inductor, parasitic

capacitance and self-resonance
phenomenon due to the electric field
distribution. Three kinds of parasitic
capacitance are usually considered and the
closed-loop equations are provided [10]

Capacitance between adjacent turns in

any one layer;
Capacitance between adjacent layers;
Capacitance between the core and the
layer(s) adjacent to the core;

Inclusion of capacitance into the

transformer model is complicated, and is
rarely attempted; the ‘real’ transformer
model’s equivalent circuit does not include
derived from the following tests: open-circuit
test, short-circuit test, winding resistance
test, and transformer ratio test.

Transformer EMF equation …

If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the

relationship for either winding between its
rms voltage Erms of the winding, and the
supply frequency f, number of turns N, core
cross-sectional area a in m2 and peak
magnetic flux density Bpeak in Wb/m2 or T
(tesla) is given by the universal EMF
equation:[9]

Polarity …

A dot convention is often used in

transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or
terminal markings to define the relative
polarity of transformer windings. Positively
increasing instantaneous current entering
the primary winding's ‘dot’ end induces
positive polarity voltage exiting the
secondary winding's ‘dot’ end. Three-phase
transformers used in electric power systems
will have a nameplate that indicate the
phase relationships between their terminals.
This may be in the form of a phasor
diagram, or using an alpha-numeric code to
show the type of internal connection (wye or
delta) for each winding.

Effect of frequency …
The EMF of a transformer at a given flux
increases with frequency.[9] By operating at
higher frequencies, transformers can be
physically more compact because a given
core is able to transfer more power without
reaching saturation and fewer turns are
needed to achieve the same impedance.
However, properties such as core loss and
conductor skin effect also increase with
frequency. Aircraft and military equipment
employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce
core and winding weight.[17] Conversely,
frequencies used for some railway
Power transformer over-excitation condition caused by
decreased frequency; flux (green), iron core's magnetic
characteristics (red) and magnetizing current (blue).

Operation of a transformer at its designed

voltage but at a higher frequency than
intended will lead to reduced magnetizing
current. At a lower frequency, the
magnetizing current will increase. Operation
Construction
Cores …

Core form = core type; shell form = shell type

Closed-core transformers are constructed in

'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings
surround the core, the transformer is core
form; when windings are surrounded by the
core, the transformer is shell form.[24] Shell
form design may be more prevalent than
core form design for distribution transformer
applications due to the relative ease in
stacking the core around winding coils.[24]
Core form design tends to, as a general rule,
be more economical, and therefore more
prevalent, than shell form design for high
voltage power transformer applications at
the lower end of their voltage and power
rating ranges (less than or equal to,
nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher
voltage and power ratings, shell form
transformers tend to be more
prevalent.[24][25][26] Shell form design tends
to be preferred for extra-high voltage and
higher MVA applications because, though
more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell
form transformers are characterized as
having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio,
better short-circuit strength characteristics
and higher immunity to transit damage.[26]

Laminated steel cores …