Ludwig Boltzmann

Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann (German pronunciation: [ˈluːtvɪç

Ludwig Boltzmann
ˈbɔlt͡sman]; February 20, 1844 – September 5, 1906) was an
Austrian physicist and philosopher. His greatest achievement was
in the development of statistical mechanics, which explains and
predicts how the properties of atoms (such as mass, charge, and
structure) determine the physical properties of matter (such as
viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusion). Boltzmann coined
the word ergodic while he was working on a problem in statistical
mechanics.[2]

Contents
Biography
Childhood and education
Academic career Ludwig Boltzmann

Final years Born Ludwig Eduard

Boltzmann
Philosophy
February 20,
Physics 1844
Boltzmann equation Vienna, Austrian
Second thermodynamics law as a law of disorder Empire

Awards and honours Died September 5,

1906 (aged 62)
See also
Tybein, Triest,
References Austria-Hungary
Further reading Residence Austria, Germany
External links Nationality Austrian
Alma mater University of
Vienna
Biography
Known for Boltzmann
constant
Childhood and education Boltzmann
Boltzmann was born in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian equation
Empire. His father, Ludwig Georg Boltzmann, was a revenue Boltzmann
official. His grandfather, who had moved to Vienna from Berlin, distribution
was a clock manufacturer, and Boltzmann's mother, Katharina Detailed balance
Pauernfeind, was originally from Salzburg. He received his
H-theorem
primary education from a private tutor at the home of his parents.
Boltzmann attended high school in Linz, Upper Austria. When Maxwell–
Boltzmann was 15, his father died. Boltzmann
Starting in 1863, Boltzmann studied physics at the University of distribution
Vienna. Among his teachers were Josef Loschmidt, Joseph Stefan–
Stefan, Andreas von Ettingshausen and Jozef Petzval. Boltzmann Boltzmann
received his PhD degree in 1866 working under the supervision constant
of Stefan; his dissertation was on the kinetic theory of gases. In Stefan–
1867, he became a Privatdozent (lecturer). After obtaining his Boltzmann law
doctorate degree, Boltzmann worked two more years as Stefan's
Maxwell-
assistant. It was Stefan who introduced Boltzmann to Maxwell's
Boltzmann
work.
statistics
Boltzmann factor
Academic career Epistemological
In 1869 at age 25, thanks to a letter of recommendation written idealism
by Stefan,[3] Boltzmann was appointed full Professor of Awards ForMemRS
Mathematical Physics at the University of Graz in the province of (1899)[1]
Styria. In 1869 he spent several months in Heidelberg working
Scientific career
with Robert Bunsen and Leo Königsberger and in 1871 with
Gustav Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz in Berlin. In 1873 Fields Physics
Boltzmann joined the University of Vienna as Professor of Institutions University of Graz
Mathematics and there he stayed until 1876. University of
Vienna
University of
Munich
University of
Leipzig
Doctoral Josef Stefan
advisor
Other academic Robert Bunsen
advisors Leo Königsberger
Ludwig Boltzmann and co-workers in Graz,
Gustav Kirchhoff
1887: (standing, from the left) Nernst, Streintz,
Arrhenius, Hiecke, (sitting, from the left) Hermann von
Aulinger, Ettingshausen, Boltzmann, Helmholtz
Klemenčič, Hausmanninger
Doctoral Paul Ehrenfest
students Philipp Frank
In 1872, long before women were admitted to Austrian
universities, he met Henriette von Aigentler, an aspiring teacher Gustav Herglotz
of mathematics and physics in Graz. She was refused permission Franc Hočevar
to audit lectures unofficially. Boltzmann supported her decision Ignacij Klemenčič
to appeal, which was successful. On July 17, 1876 Ludwig
Other notable Lise Meitner
Boltzmann married Henriette; they had three daughters and two
students Stefan Meyer
sons. Boltzmann went back to Graz to take up the chair of
Experimental Physics. Among his students in Graz were Svante Signature
Arrhenius and Walther Nernst.[4][5] He spent 14 happy years in
Graz and it was there that he developed his statistical concept of
nature.
Boltzmann was appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Munich in Bavaria,
Germany in 1890.

In 1894, Boltzmann succeeded his teacher Joseph Stefan as Professor of Theoretical Physics at the
University of Vienna.

Final years
Boltzmann spent a great deal of effort in his final years defending his theories.[6] He did not get along
with some of his colleagues in Vienna, particularly Ernst Mach, who became a professor of philosophy
and history of sciences in 1895. That same year Georg Helm and Wilhelm Ostwald presented their
position on energetics at a meeting in Lübeck. They saw energy, and not matter, as the chief component
of the universe. Boltzmann's position carried the day among other physicists who supported his atomic
theories in the debate.[7] In 1900, Boltzmann went to the University of Leipzig, on the invitation of
Wilhelm Ostwald. Ostwald offered Boltzmann the professorial chair in physics, which became vacant
when Gustav Heinrich Wiedemann died. After Mach retired due to bad health, Boltzmann returned to
Vienna in 1902.[6] In 1903, Boltzmann, together with Gustav von Escherich and Emil Müller, founded
the Austrian Mathematical Society. His students included Karl Přibram, Paul Ehrenfest and Lise Meitner.
[6]

In Vienna, Boltzmann taught physics and also lectured on philosophy. Boltzmann's lectures on natural
philosophy were very popular and received considerable attention. His first lecture was an enormous
success. Even though the largest lecture hall had been chosen for it, the people stood all the way down
the staircase. Because of the great successes of Boltzmann's philosophical lectures, the Emperor invited
him for a reception at the Palace.[8]

In 1906, Boltzmann's deteriorating mental condition forced him to resign his position.[6] He died by
suicide on September 5, 1906, by hanging himself while on vacation with his wife and daughter in
Duino, near Trieste (then Austria).[9][10][11] He is buried in the Viennese Zentralfriedhof. His tombstone
bears the inscription of Boltzmann's entropy formula:[6]

Philosophy
Boltzmann's kinetic theory of gases seemed to presuppose the reality of atoms and molecules, but almost
all German philosophers and many scientists like Ernst Mach and the physical chemist Wilhelm Ostwald
disbelieved their existence.[12] During the 1890s, Boltzmann attempted to formulate a compromise
position which would allow both atomists and anti-atomists to do physics without arguing over atoms.
His solution was to use Hertz's theory that atoms were Bilder, that is, models or pictures. Atomists could
think the pictures were the real atoms while the anti-atomists could think of the pictures as representing a
useful but unreal model, but this did not fully satisfy either group. Furthermore, Ostwald and many
defenders of "pure thermodynamics" were trying hard to refute the kinetic theory of gases and statistical
mechanics because of Boltzmann's assumptions about atoms and molecules and especially statistical
interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics.

Around the turn of the century, Boltzmann's science was being threatened by another philosophical
objection. Some physicists, including Mach's student, Gustav Jaumann, interpreted Hertz to mean that all
electromagnetic behavior is continuous, as if there were no atoms and molecules, and likewise as if all
physical behavior were ultimately electromagnetic. This movement around 1900 deeply depressed
Boltzmann since it could mean the end of his kinetic theory and statistical interpretation of the second
law of thermodynamics.

After Mach's resignation in Vienna in 1901, Boltzmann returned there and decided to become a
philosopher himself to refute philosophical objections to his physics, but he soon became discouraged
again. In 1904 at a physics conference in St. Louis most physicists seemed to reject atoms and he was not
even invited to the physics section. Rather, he was stuck in a section called "applied mathematics", he
violently attacked philosophy, especially on allegedly Darwinian grounds but actually in terms of
Lamarck's theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics that people inherited bad philosophy from
the past and that it was hard for scientists to overcome such inheritance.

In 1905 Boltzmann corresponded extensively with the Austro-German philosopher Franz Brentano with
the hope of gaining a better mastery of philosophy, apparently, so that he could better refute its relevancy
in science, but he became discouraged about this approach as well.

Physics
Boltzmann's most important scientific contributions were in kinetic theory, including for motivating the
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution as a description of molecular speeds in a gas. Maxwell–Boltzmann
statistics and the Boltzmann distribution remain central in the foundations of classical statistical
mechanics. They are also applicable to other phenomena that do not require quantum statistics and
provide insight into the meaning of temperature.

Most chemists, since the discoveries of John Dalton in 1808, and

James Clerk Maxwell in Scotland and Josiah Willard Gibbs in
the United States, shared Boltzmann's belief in atoms and
molecules, but much of the physics establishment did not share
this belief until decades later. Boltzmann had a long-running
dispute with the editor of the preeminent German physics journal
of his day, who refused to let Boltzmann refer to atoms and
molecules as anything other than convenient theoretical
constructs. Only a couple of years after Boltzmann's death,
Perrin's studies of colloidal suspensions (1908–1909), based on
Einstein's theoretical studies of 1905, confirmed the values of
Avogadro's number and Boltzmann's constant, convincing the
world that the tiny particles really exist. Boltzmann's 1898 I2 molecule
diagram showing atomic "sensitive
region" (α, β) overlap.
To quote Planck, "The logarithmic connection between entropy
and probability was first stated by L. Boltzmann in his kinetic
theory of gases".[13] This famous formula for entropy S is[14][15]

where kB is Boltzmann's constant, and ln is the natural logarithm. W is Wahrscheinlichkeit, a German

word meaning the probability of occurrence of a macrostate[16] or, more precisely, the number of
possible microstates corresponding to the macroscopic state of a system — the number of (unobservable)
"ways" in the (observable) thermodynamic state of a system that can be realized by assigning different
positions and momenta to the various molecules. Boltzmann's paradigm was an ideal gas of N identical
particles, of which Ni are in the ith microscopic condition (range) of position and momentum. W can be
counted using the formula for permutations

where i ranges over all possible molecular conditions, and where denotes factorial. The "correction" in
the denominator account for indistinguishable particles in the same condition.

Boltzmann was also one of the founders of quantum mechanics due to his suggestion in 1877 that the
energy levels of a physical system could be discrete.

Boltzmann equation
The Boltzmann equation was developed to describe the dynamics
of an ideal gas.

where ƒ represents the distribution function of single-particle

position and momentum at a given time (see the Maxwell–
Boltzmann distribution), F is a force, m is the mass of a particle, t
is the time and v is an average velocity of particles. Boltzmann's bust in the courtyard
arcade of the main building,
This equation describes the temporal and spatial variation of the University of Vienna.
probability distribution for the position and momentum of a
density distribution of a cloud of points in single-particle phase
space. (See Hamiltonian mechanics.) The first term on the left-hand side represents the explicit time
variation of the distribution function, while the second term gives the spatial variation, and the third term
describes the effect of any force acting on the particles. The right-hand side of the equation represents the
effect of collisions.

In principle, the above equation completely describes the dynamics of an ensemble of gas particles, given
appropriate boundary conditions. This first-order differential equation has a deceptively simple
appearance, since ƒ can represent an arbitrary single-particle distribution function. Also, the force acting
on the particles depends directly on the velocity distribution function ƒ. The Boltzmann equation is
notoriously difficult to integrate. David Hilbert spent years trying to solve it without any real success.

The form of the collision term assumed by Boltzmann was approximate. However, for an ideal gas the
standard Chapman–Enskog solution of the Boltzmann equation is highly accurate. It is expected to lead
to incorrect results for an ideal gas only under shock wave conditions.

Boltzmann tried for many years to "prove" the second law of thermodynamics using his gas-dynamical
equation — his famous H-theorem. However the key assumption he made in formulating the collision
term was "molecular chaos", an assumption which breaks time-reversal symmetry as is necessary for
anything which could imply the second law. It was from the probabilistic assumption alone that
Boltzmann's apparent success emanated, so his long dispute with Loschmidt and others over Loschmidt's
paradox ultimately ended in his failure.

Finally, in the 1970s E.G.D. Cohen and J. R. Dorfman proved that a systematic (power series) extension
of the Boltzmann equation to high densities is mathematically impossible. Consequently, nonequilibrium
statistical mechanics for dense gases and liquids focuses on the Green–Kubo relations, the fluctuation
theorem, and other approaches instead.

Second thermodynamics law as a law of disorder

The idea that the second law of thermodynamics or "entropy law"
is a law of disorder (or that dynamically ordered states are
"infinitely improbable") is due to Boltzmann's view of the second
law of thermodynamics.

In particular, it was Boltzmann's attempt to reduce it to a

stochastic collision function, or law of probability following from
the random collisions of mechanical particles. Following
Maxwell,[17] Boltzmann modeled gas molecules as colliding
billiard balls in a box, noting that with each collision
nonequilibrium velocity distributions (groups of molecules
moving at the same speed and in the same direction) would
become increasingly disordered leading to a final state of
macroscopic uniformity and maximum microscopic disorder or
the state of maximum entropy (where the macroscopic uniformity
corresponds to the obliteration of all field potentials or Boltzmann's grave in the
[18] Zentralfriedhof, Vienna, with bust and
gradients). The second law, he argued, was thus simply the
entropy formula.
result of the fact that in a world of mechanically colliding
particles disordered states are the most probable. Because there
are so many more possible disordered states than ordered ones, a system will almost always be found
either in the state of maximum disorder – the macrostate with the greatest number of accessible
microstates such as a gas in a box at equilibrium – or moving towards it. A dynamically ordered state,
one with molecules moving "at the same speed and in the same direction", Boltzmann concluded, is thus
"the most improbable case conceivable...an infinitely improbable configuration of energy." [19]

Boltzmann accomplished the feat of showing that the second law of thermodynamics is only a statistical
fact. The gradual disordering of energy is analogous to the disordering of an initially ordered pack of
cards under repeated shuffling, and just as the cards will finally return to their original order if shuffled a
gigantic number of times, so the entire universe must some-day regain, by pure chance, the state from
which it first set out. (This optimistic coda to the idea of the dying universe becomes somewhat muted
when one attempts to estimate the timeline which will probably elapse before it spontaneously
occurs.)[20] The tendency for entropy increase seems to cause difficulty to beginners in thermodynamics,
but is easy to understand from the standpoint of the theory of probability. Consider two ordinary dice,
with both sixes face up. After the dice are shaken, the chance of finding these two sixes face up is small
(1 in 36); thus one can say that the random motion (the agitation) of the dice, like the chaotic collisions of
molecules because of thermal energy, causes the less probable state to change to one that is more
probable. With millions of dice, like the millions of atoms involved in thermodynamic calculations, the
probability of their all being sixes becomes so vanishingly small that the system must move to one of the
more probable states.[21] However, mathematically the odds of all the dice results not being a pair sixes is
also as hard as the ones of all of them being sixes, and since statistically the data tend to balance, one in
every 36 pairs of dice will tend to be a pair of sixes, and the cards -when shuffled- will sometimes
present a certain temporary sequence order even if in its whole the deck was disordered.

Awards and honours

In 1885 he became a member of the Imperial Austrian Academy of Sciences and in 1887 he became the
President of the University of Graz. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of
Sciences in 1888 and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1899.[1] Numerous things
are named in his honour.

See also
Energetics
Boltzmann brain

References
1. "Fellows of the Royal Society" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150316060617/https://royalso
ciety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/). London: Royal Society. Archived from the original (htt
ps://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/) on 2015-03-16.
2. Walters 1982, §0.1, p.2
3. Južnič, Stanislav (December 2001). "Ludwig Boltzmann in prva študentka fizike in
matematike slovenskega rodu" (http://www.kvarkadabra.net/2001/12/ludwig-boltzmann/)
[Ludwig Boltzmann and the First Student of Physics and Mathematics of Slovene Descent].
Kvarkadabra.net (in Slovenian) (12). Retrieved 17 February 2012.
4. Jäger, Gustav; Nabl, Josef; Meyer, Stephan (April 1999). "Three Assistants on Boltzmann".
Synthese. 119 (1–2): 69–84. doi:10.1023/A:1005239104047 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%
3A1005239104047). "Paul Ehrenfest (1880–1933) along with Nernst, Arrhenius, and
Meitner must be considered among Boltzmann's most outstanding students."
5. "Walther Hermann Nernst" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080612133921/http://chem.ch.hu
ji.ac.il/history/nernst.htm). Archived from the original (http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nernst.
htm) on 2008-06-12. "Walther Hermann Nernst visited lectures by Ludwig Boltzmann"
6. Cercignani, Carlo (1998) Ludwig Boltzmann: The Man Who Trusted Atoms. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 9780198501541
7. Max Planck (1896). "Gegen die neure Energetik" (https://zenodo.org/record/1423910).
Annalen der Physik. 57 (1): 72–78. Bibcode:1896AnP...293...72P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.
edu/abs/1896AnP...293...72P). doi:10.1002/andp.18962930107 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F
andp.18962930107).
8. The Boltzmann Equation: Theory and Applications, E.G.D. Cohen, W. Thirring, ed., Springer
Science & Business Media, 2012
9. "Eureka! Science's greatest thinkers and their key breakthroughs", Hazel Muir, p.152,
ISBN 1780873255
10. Boltzmann, Ludwig (1995). "Conclusions" (https://books.google.com/?id=apip-Jm9WuwC&p
g=PA207). In Blackmore, John T. (ed.). Ludwig Boltzmann: His Later Life and Philosophy,
1900-1906. 2. Springer. pp. 206–207. ISBN 978-0-7923-3464-4.
11. Upon Boltzmann's death, Friedrich ("Fritz") Hasenöhrl became his successor in the
professorial chair of physics at Vienna.
12. Bronowski, Jacob (1974). "World Within World" (https://archive.org/details/ascentofmanbron
00bron). The Ascent Of Man. Little Brown & Co. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-316-10930-7.
13. Max Planck, p. 119.
14. The concept of entropy was introduced by Rudolf Clausius in 1865. He was the first to
enunciate the second law of thermodynamics by saying that "entropy always increases".
15. An alternative is the information entropy definition introduced in 1948 by Claude Shannon.
[1] (https://archive.is/20070503225307/http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/pap
er.html) It was intended for use in communication theory, but is applicable in all areas. It
reduces to Boltzmann's expression when all the probabilities are equal, but can, of course,
be used when they are not. Its virtue is that it yields immediate results without resorting to
factorials or Stirling's approximation. Similar formulas are found, however, as far back as the
work of Boltzmann, and explicitly in Gibbs (see reference).
16. Pauli, Wolfgang (1973). Statistical Mechanics. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-
66035-8., p. 21
17. Maxwell, J. (1871). Theory of heat. London: Longmans, Green & Co.
18. Boltzmann, L. (1974). The second law of thermodynamics. Populare Schriften, Essay 3,
address to a formal meeting of the Imperial Academy of Science, 29 May 1886, reprinted in
Ludwig Boltzmann, Theoretical physics and philosophical problem, S. G. Brush (Trans.).
Boston: Reidel. (Original work published 1886)
19. Boltzmann, L. (1974). The second law of thermodynamics. p. 20
20. "Collier's Encyclopedia", Volume 19 Phyfe to Reni, "Physics", by David Park, p. 15
21. "Collier's Encyclopedia", Volume 22 Sylt to Uruguay, Thermodynamics, by Leo Peters, p.
275

Further reading
Roman Sexl & John Blackmore (eds.), "Ludwig Boltzmann – Ausgewahlte Abhandlungen",
(Ludwig Boltzmann Gesamtausgabe, Band 8), Vieweg, Braunschweig, 1982.
John Blackmore (ed.), "Ludwig Boltzmann – His Later Life and Philosophy, 1900–1906,
Book One: A Documentary History", Kluwer, 1995. ISBN 978-0-7923-3231-2
John Blackmore, "Ludwig Boltzmann – His Later Life and Philosophy, 1900–1906, Book
Two: The Philosopher", Kluwer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 1995. ISBN 978-0-7923-3464-4
John Blackmore (ed.), "Ludwig Boltzmann – Troubled Genius as Philosopher", in Synthese,
Volume 119, Nos. 1 & 2, 1999, pp. 1–232.
Blundell, Stephen; Blundell, Katherine M. (2006). Concepts in Thermal Physics (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=vuBHXwAACAAJ). Oxford University Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-19-
856769-1.
Boltzmann, Ludwig Boltzmann – Leben und Briefe, ed., Walter Hoeflechner, Akademische
Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt. Graz, Oesterreich, 1994
Brush, Stephen G. (ed. & tr.), Boltzmann, Lectures on Gas Theory, Berkeley, California: U.
of California Press, 1964
Brush, Stephen G. (ed.), Kinetic Theory, New York: Pergamon Press, 1965
Brush, Stephen G. (1970). "Boltzmann" (https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofsci001gill). In
Charles Coulston Gillispie (ed.). Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York: Scribner.
ISBN 978-0-684-16962-0.
Brush, Stephen G. (1986). The Kind of Motion We Call Heat: A History of the Kinetic Theory
of Gases. Amsterdam: North-Holland. ISBN 978-0-7204-0370-1.
Cercignani, Carlo (1998). Ludwig Boltzmann: The Man Who Trusted Atoms (https://archive.
org/details/ludwigboltzmannm0000cerc). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198501541.
 Darrigol, Olivier (2018). Atoms, Mechanics, and Probability: Ludwig Boltzmann's Statistico-
Mechanical (https://books.google.com/?id=APBIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA376&lpg=PA376).
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-881617-1.
Ehrenfest, P. & Ehrenfest, T. (1911) "Begriffliche Grundlagen der statistischen Auffassung in
der Mechanik", in Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften mit Einschluß ihrer
Anwendungen Band IV, 2. Teil ( F. Klein and C. Müller (eds.). Leipzig: Teubner, pp. 3–90.
Translated as The Conceptual Foundations of the Statistical Approach in Mechanics. New
York: Cornell University Press, 1959. ISBN 0-486-49504-3
Everdell, William R (1988). "The Problem of Continuity and the Origins of Modernism:
1870–1913". History of European Ideas. 9 (5): 531–552. doi:10.1016/0191-6599(88)90001-
0 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0191-6599%2888%2990001-0).
Everdell, William R (1997). The First Moderns (https://archive.org/details/firstmodernsprof00
ever). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gibbs, Josiah Willard (1902). Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics, developed with
especial reference to the rational foundation of thermodynamics. New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons.
Johnson, Eric (2018). Anxiety and the Equation: Understanding Boltzmann's Entropy. The
MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03861-4.
Klein, Martin J. (1973). "The Development of Boltzmann's Statistical Ideas". In E.G.D.
Cohen; W. Thirring (eds.). The Boltzmann Equation: Theory and Applications. Acta physica
Austriaca Suppl. 10. Wien: Springer. pp. 53–106. ISBN 978-0-387-81137-6.
Lindley, David (2001). Boltzmann's Atom: The Great Debate That Launched A Revolution In
Physics (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780684851860). New York: Free Press.
ISBN 978-0-684-85186-0.
Lotka, A. J. (1922). "Contribution to the Energetics of Evolution" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/pmc/articles/PMC1085052). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 8 (6): 147–51.
Bibcode:1922PNAS....8..147L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1922PNAS....8..147L).
doi:10.1073/pnas.8.6.147 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.8.6.147). PMC 1085052 (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1085052). PMID 16576642 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pubmed/16576642).
Meyer, Stefan (1904). Festschrift Ludwig Boltzmann gewidmet zum sechzigsten
Geburtstage 20. Februar 1904 (https://archive.org/details/festschriftludw00meyegoog) (in
German). J. A. Barth.
Planck, Max (1914). The Theory of Heat Radiation (https://archive.org/details/theoryofheatr
adi00planrich). P. Blakiston Son & Co. English translation by Morton Masius of the 2nd ed.
of Waermestrahlung. Reprinted by Dover (1959) & (1991). ISBN 0-486-66811-8
Tolman, Richard C. (1938). The Principles of Statistical Mechanics. Oxford University Press.
Reprinted: Dover (1979). ISBN 0-486-63896-0

External links
Uffink, Jos (2004). "Boltzmann's Work in Statistical Physics" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entrie
s/statphys-Boltzmann/). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2007-06-11.
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Ludwig Boltzmann" (http://www-history.mcs.st-a
ndrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Boltzmann.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive,
University of St Andrews.
Ruth Lewin Sime, Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics Chapter One: Girlhood in Vienna (https://w
ww.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/lisemeitner.htm) gives Lise
Meitner's account of Boltzmann's teaching and career.
Eftekhari, Ali, "Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906). (http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00001
717/02/Ludwig_Boltzmann.pdf)" Discusses Boltzmann's philosophical opinions, with
 numerous quotes.
Rajasekar, S.; Athavan, N. (2006-09-07). "Ludwig Edward Boltzmann".
arXiv:physics/0609047 (https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0609047).
Ludwig Boltzmann (https://www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=13105) at the
Mathematics Genealogy Project
Weisstein, Eric Wolfgang (ed.). "Boltzmann, Ludwig (1844–1906)" (http://scienceworld.wolfr
am.com/biography/Boltzmann.html). ScienceWorld.
Ludwig Boltzmann (https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/1518) at Find a Grave

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