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Class 11 Geography, Tamil Nadu Board
Class 11 Geography, Tamil Nadu Board
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CAREER GUIDANCE FOR GEOGRAPHY ASPIRANTS
NRSC
IMD
xRemote Sensing:Publications and Public Relations Unit, ISRO HQ, AntarikshBhavan, New BEL Road, Bangalure-560
094; NRSC Data Centre, National Remote Sensing Centre, Balanagar, Hyderabad-500 037; Remote Sensing
xCensus of India Offices in different States.
Applications Group, Space Application Centre, SAC Post, Ahmedabad- 380 053;Indian Institute of Remote Sensing,
xNational Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC),
4-Kalidas Road, Dehradun- 248 001.
Hyderabad.
xCyclone, Rainfall and Weather Information: Indian Meteorological Department, Nungambakam, Chennai – 600 006.
VII
xSurvey of India (SoI), Dehra Dun and in different
xSurvey of India - Topographic Sheets: Map Sales Office, Electronic Complex - Block II Ground Floor, Thiru. Vi. Ka.
States.
Industrial Estate, Guindy, Chennai – 600032.
xNational Atlas and Thematic Mapping
xGeology and Minerals:Department of Geology and Mining, Thiru. Vi. Ka. Industrial Estate, Guindy, Chennai - 600
Organizaiton (NATMO), Kolkata.
032;Geological Survey of India, No A 2 -B Rajaji Bhavan, Besant Nagar, Chennai – 600090.
xRegional Planning/Town and Country Planning
xSurface and Groundwater and Climate Data: Office of the Chief Engineer, State Ground and Surface Water Resources
Organisations.
Data Centre,Tharamani, Chennai - 600 113; Central Ground Water Board. http://www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in
xNaval Hydrographic Office, Dehra Dun.
xSoil Data and Maps:Regional Head, ICAR-NBSS&LUP, P.B.No. 2487, Hebbal, Agricultural Farm, Post, Bengaluru - 560
xNational Centre for Earth Science Studies,
024.
Thiruvananthapuram.
xRainfall, Landuse, Irrigation and Crop Data:Village / Block/Taluk level Data available at Department of Economics and
xCentre for Water Resources Development and
Statistics, All District Headquarters; Department of Economics and Statistics, 259, Block II, DMS Compound,Teynampet,
Management, Kozhikode.
Chennai-600006.
xCentral Arid Zone Research Institute,
xSoil, Rainfall and Weather Data: Agro Climate Research Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore –
IndianCouncil of Agricultural Research, Jodhpur.
641003.http://tawn.tnau.ac.in/General/HomePublicUI.aspx
xCentral Research Institute for Dry Land
xPopulation Data:Census of India - Tamil Nadu, 'E' Wing, 3rd Floor, Rajaji Bhawan, Besant Nagar,Chennai – 600090.
Agriculture (ICAR), Hyderabad.
http://censusindia.gov.in/
xNational Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use
xEconomic Appraisals & Annual Statistical Abstracts of Tamil Nadu:Stationery and Printing Department, 110, Anna Salai,
Planning (NBSS&LUP), Nagpur.
Chennai-600002.http://www.stationeryprinting.tn.gov.in
xFrench Institute of Pondicherry, Puducherry.
xSoil and Watershed Atlas: Remote Sensing Centre, Agriculture Engineering Department, Nandanam, Chennai - 600 035.
xNational Institute of Malaria Research, (ICMR), http://www.aedatlas.tn.nic.in
New Delhi.
xGIS Data Layers of Tamil Nadu:Tamil Nadu Geographical Information System (TNGIS), Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005.
http://www.tngis.tn.gov.in
UPSC
UM
VIII
xTamilnadu Public Service Commission Group xDepartment of Geography,Bharathi Women’s College (Autonomous), 85, PrakasamSalai, Chennai-600 108.
services Examinations conducted by Govt.of
xDepartment of Geography, Tourism and Travel Management, Madras Christian College
Tamilnadu.
(Autonomous), Tambaram, Chennai - 600 059.
xTeachers Recruitment Board,School education
xDepartment of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous),Salem – 636 007.
and Collegiate education,Govt.of Tamilnadu.
xDepartment of Geography,Sri Vijay Vidyalaya College of Arts and Science, Nallampalli, Dharmapuri – 636807.
xDepartment of Geography,Arignar Anna Government Arts College, Namakkal – 637002.
xDepartment of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous), Coimbatore - 641 018.
xDepartment of Geography, Nirmala College for Women (Autonomous), Coimbatore – 641 018.
xDepartment of Geography, Bharathiar University Arts & Science College, Amaikulam,
PuliamParai (P.O.), Gudalur - 643 212.
xDepartment of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous), Karur – 639 005.
xDepartment of Geography, Periyar E.V.R. College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli – 620 023.
xDepartment of Geography,Government Arts College,Thiruverumbur, Tiruchirappalli – 620 022.
xDepartment of Geography,KundavaiNachiar Government Arts College for Women (Autonomous), Thanjavur - 613 007.
xDepartment of Geography, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous),Poondi - 613 503, Thanjavur District.
xDepartment of Geography, Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam- 612 002.
TNPSC TRB xDepartment of Geography, Government Arts College for Women (Autonomous), Kumbakonam - 612 002.
xDepartment of Geography,SriMeenakshi Government Arts College for Women (Autonomous),Madurai – 624 002
xDepartment of Geography, MVM Government Arts College for Women, Dindigul - 624 008..
xDepartment of Geography, Government Arts College for Women, Nilakottai - 624 208, Dindigul District.
Unit I
Fundamentals
of Geography
1
lacks sufficient geographic knowledge new lands, sea routes, prepare maps and
cannot be expected to exhibit its strength describe them. Later, its emphasis had
of resource potentials and empowerment shifted to scientific investigation of earth’s
to make decisions in real-world context. landforms, oceans and atmosphere, as well
Therefore, the knowledge of geography is as the interactions with human beings and
very much vital for the care and concern the environment.
of the earth, growth and development of In essence, geography can be defined
every country and for minimising the as a multifaceted discipline studying intra
issues related to human activity. In this and inter relationships of various spheres
context, the National Geographic Society, of the earth, collects and analyses relevant
USA defines geographic literacy as being data, applies the latest tools and methods
equipped to understand the complexity to prepare maps and visuals and provides
of the world, how our decisions sustainable solutions to human and
affect others (and vice versa), and the environmental issues of the earth.
interconnectedness of this rich, diverse,
and not-so-large world. 1.3 Evolution of Geography
This unit introduces the student to Geography had evolved over a long period
the foundations over which the subject of time. Some of the earliest geographical
had developed in the past, the content studies go back about four thousand
it offers now and the changes that it had years ago through explorations. The early
undergone. It also opens the door to explorers travelled and tried to map the new
the world of physical geography and the places. The evidences of such explorations
practical skills to be acquired to understand come from the archaeological discovery of
geography which are explained in the a Babylonian clay tablet map that dates back
units following this. to 600 BCE. During this time, Phoenician,
Chinese and Egyptian civilisations were
1.2 Defining Geography in the beginning to explore places outside
Geography is one of the oldest earth sciences their homelands. It was the ancient Greek
and its roots date back to the works of the early scholars who laid the foundations and gave
Greek scholars. The term ‘Geography’ was a solid form to geographic studies and on
coined by the Greek scholar Eratosthenes these foundations, the pillars of modern
who combined two Greek words ‘Geo’ geography were erected by others in the
(The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe). subsequent ages. The Romans, the Arabs,
Therefore, in the literary sense, geography is the Indians, the Chinese, the Germans,
the description of the Earth. Over the ages, the French, the British and the American
geography has become the art and science geographers have contributed to the
of studying the physical characteristics of development and enrichment of the subject.
the earth and man’s role in adapting to and The Greek philosophers and scientist
modifying the environment. focused on the spatial nature of human
Geography was born through and physical features of the Earth. The
explorations and discoveries. Earlier, first Greek geographer was Herodotus
the aim of geography was to discover (484 - 425 BCE) who wrote a number
2
of volumes on the human and physical discovery. Making of maps (cartography) was
geography of the Persian Empire. important in the discipline of geography due
The other early Greek contributors to to the emphasis on location of phenomena
geography are, Thales, Aristotle and on the earth surface, e.g. location of trade
Eratosthenes (276 - 194 BCE). routes, relief features and settlements.
The earlier geographers were
1.3.2 The period between 1800 -1950
descriptive geographers concerned with
The period between 1800 and 1950 was
answering questions like ‘what is where’
characterised by the work of various
on the earth and the question like ‘why it
individual philosophers who helped
is there’ came later. Geographers study the
to expand the scope of geography. The
location of the activities, carefully identify
discipline of geography became more
patterns using maps and find out the
distinct as a subject matter. Geographic
reasons for these patterns. The areas are
knowledge saw strong growth in Europe
then described based on the distribution
and the United States in the 1800s. This
of land forms, population, housing and
period also saw the emergence of a number
agriculture. They discover the linkages
of societies interested in geographic issues.
and movements between places and are
In Germany, Alexander Von Humboldt,
able to infer the spatial processes that are
Carl Ritter and Friedrich Ratzel made
working in these areas.
substantial contributions to human and
The development of geography can be physical geography. Humboldt’s publication
summarised in three phases namely (1) ‘Kosmos’ in 1844, examines the geology and
The age of discovery (1400-1800), (2) The physical geography of the earth. This work
period between 1800 and 1950 and (3) is still considered by many academics as a
The period after 1950. milestone contribution to geography.
1.3.1 The age of discovery between There are two schools of thought that
1400-1800 emerged during this period as an attempt
The period between 1400 and 1800 was when to explain the relationship between human
the subject matter and the methodology beings and their environment. These
of geography were not fully developed. were environmental determinism and
The discipline was in an embryonic possibilism. Proponents of environmental
stage. This period was characterised by deterministic school of thought such as
exploration, discovery and conquest Mackinder, Ellen Semple and Huntington
through the voyages of Vasco da Gama believed that human actions and activities
and Christopher Columbus. Numerous were moulded by the physical (natural)
journeys of geographical exploration were conditions. In several developing
commissioned by a number of Nations in countries, human beings are susceptible
Europe (Figure. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4). Most of to natural disasters such as drought,
these voyages were financed because of the famine, floods and earthquakes. Human
potential commercial returns from resource beings under such natural conditions
exploitation. The voyages also provided an usually surrender to nature. A good
opportunity for scientific investigation and example of environmental determinism is
3
the influence of the natural environment happen in the future. If we can predict
on human activities such as nomadic successfully, we can plan and limit the
pastoralism. Nomadic pastoralism is extreme possibilities.
so much dependent on the natural One of the important developments
environment. Pastoralists do very little to in this period was the use of quantitative
modify their environment. techniques in physical and human
geography. These techniques refer to various
statistical tools that are used to synthesise
the data from maps, field, laboratories and
questionnaires. Quantification came about
as a result of the expanding scope of the
discipline as well the need to understand
the processes that were becoming more
Ratzel La Blache diversified and complicated.
This quantitative revolution was
The proponents of possibilistic school
referred to as a revolution because it
of thought, such as Vidal de la Blache saw
marked a new beginning in the way the
the environment as a limiting factor rather
subject matter of geography was to be
than as a deterministic force. According
studied. The quantitative revolution
to the possibilism school of thought,
involves the use of statistics, mathematical
human beings have several alternatives in
equations and the use of deterministic
their environment and their actions are
models. Many geographers believed that
influenced by the decisions they make in
numbers are more precise, and therefore
the environment. For instance, humans
perceived as more scientific compared to
can survive in hot or extremely cold
words. The map, both as graphic language
conditions due to their ability to modify the
and visual representation, continues to be
environment to suit them. A good example
used as a geographical tool and at present
is that in many arid countries such as Israel,
with the valuable assistance of remote
humans have overcome the constraints set
sensing and Geographical Information
by the natural environment such as low
Systems, map making has become digital
rainfall, high temperatures and poor soils.
and easier especially due to advances in
1.3.3 The period after 1950 computer and software technologies.
Until 1950s, geography was more of an
1.4 Themes of Geography
art subject where facts were established
by casual observation in the field rather In any subject there will be certain themes,
than by careful measurement and around which the scholars work and
hypothesis testing. In the 1950s there was contribute. In this way, geography subject
a new development in the discipline and also has certain traditional themes. Let us
several laws were established to explain look at them carefully. In 1963, William
geographical phenomena. Using the D. Pattison identified the core themes of
laws, it is possible to predict what will geographic studies as ‘The Four Traditions
4
Figure 1.3 Vosco da Gama
HOTS
How might the ship that Columbus traveled have sailed at the time when no engine and
power fuel available?
Hudson
Christopher columbus’ Bay
voyages N
W E
Saint Lawrence
S
River
EUROPE
NORTH Mississippi
AMERICA River
ATLANTIC OCEAN
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Gulf of
Mexico
6
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04
AFRICA
2 -15
150
1498-1500
PACIFIC
OCEAN SOUTH
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AMERICA
8
formation of the new branch of study called soil, surface and groundwater, atmosphere
geomorphology, the study of landforms. are the interests of the geographers. They
study how the physical and chemical
1.5.3 Physics, Chemistry and Geography: contents are disturbed by human activities
As geography is the study of variable and vice versa.
phenomena on the earth’s surface, the
dynamic mechanism of the phenomena 1.5.4 Botany, Zoology and Geography:
requires to be studied within the framework The systematic branches of botany and
of physics. The physics of atmosphere is zoology have traditionally been confined to
studied under climatology and the physics the classification and description of various
of hydrosphere through oceanography, and kinds of species on the earth’s surface.
both the subjects investigate, interpret and Geography, being the study of the spatial
explain the atmospheric and hydrological section of earth’s surface, attempts to study
processes. The chemical contents of rocks, the distributional aspects of flora and fauna
SOCIAL SCIENCES
Anthr
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S ial
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GEOGRAPHY
ENVIRONMENT
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Bio
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B ota n
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an gra
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PHYSICAL SCIENCES
Figure 1.6 Relationship of Geography with Physical and Social Science Disciplines
9
especially with reference to climate and sociology and geography as it studies
relief. The integration among these subjects social phenomena in spatial context.
has given birth to biogeography.
1.5.7. Anthropology and Geography:
Anthropology attempts to study human races
The study of
and their classification. Both anthropology
‘apartheid’ (a system
and geography seek to identify and classify the
of institutionalised
human races on the basis of their habitat and
racial segregation as
cultural traits and attempt to study the variable
existed in South Africa) is an example
racial phenomena on the spatial context of
of anthropo-geographic study.
the earth’s surface. The relationship between
anthropology and geography has resulted in
Relationship with Social Sciences the development of ‘anthropogeography’ or
1.5.5. Economics and Geography: geography of humans.
Economics is concerned with how human
1.5.8. History and Geography:
needs and wants are satisfied with the available
History is a framework of events as per time
resources. Economic geography is concerned
and place. Geography attempts to study these
with the study of resources endowment
events with reference to the physical earth
and patterns of utilisation. The economic
and depict the places of historical events
activities of the human beings including
using thematic maps. Anyone who attempts
agriculture, fishing, forestry, industries, trade
to study any historical events of India should
and transport are studied in this branch. The
always integrate the temporal and the spatial
economic activities are highly influenced
phenomena of that period together to arrive at
by the relief and climatic factors of the
a conclusion.
region or the country. Therefore, economics
and geography have close links with each
Tamil Rulers and
other, especially for integrated resources Geographic Knowledge
development. History reveals to us that
how the Great rulers
1.5.6. Sociology and Geography:
like Raja Raja Chola or
Sociology is mainly concerned with the Rajendra Chola had trade relations with
institutional aspects of the society. A other countries of the world, especially
number of investigations including social South Asian countries by understanding
behaviour, movement of people between the relief, seasons, ocean current
rural-urban areas, spatial interactions movements etc., The sailors would have
between social groups, the relations been experts in every aspect of geography
between innovation and tradition in to move their troops, sail overseas and
trade with all known nations of that time.
rural and urban areas etc., have been
They also utilised the ocean currents to
jointly undertaken by sociologists and transport teak and other valuable timbers
geographers in different countries of the from Indonesia, Myanmar, and other
world. Social geography is the logical countries to South India.
expression of the interaction between
10
1.6 Approaches to the Study of techniques for field studies, qualitative,
Geography quantitative and cartographic analysis.
Geography has undergone several changes
in its approach. The earlier geographers were 1.6.2. Regional Approach:
descriptive geographers. Later, geography It is otherwise called as ideographical
came to be developed as an analytical approach. It was developed by Carl Ritter
science. Today the discipline is not only
concerned with descriptions but also with
analysis as well as prediction. There are two
distinct approaches or methods to study
geography. They are:
1. Systematic approach and 2. Regional
approach
11
(1779 – 1859), a contemporary of Humbolt. into three major domains. Each one has
The regions could be classified based on a many sub divisions which deal with
single factor like relief, rainfall, vegetation, specific objectives (Figure 1.7).
percapita income or there could also be multi- a. Physical Geography b. Human
factor regions formed by the association of Geography and c. Geographic Techniques.
two or more factors. Administrative units
like states, districts and taluks can also be 1.7.1 Physical Geography
treated as regions. The main sub branches It is the study of natural features of the
of regional geography are : i) Regional earth such as land, water, air and living
studies ii) Regional analysis iii) Regional organisms. The changes taking place
development and iv) Regional planning. within and among these natural features
and their resultant features are studied
under its various branches. The branches
of physical geography are:
i. Geomorphology deals with the
distribution of land forms, their origin
and the forces causing changes over
these landforms. Geology provides
basic information to the study of
geomorphology.
1.6.3. Geographical Data Matrix:
ii. Soil Geography is a study related to soil
The matrixis a simple method of arranging
formation, soil profile, soil types, their
information in rows and columns for better
fertility level and distribution. Soil erosion
understanding of complex spatial problems.
and conservation measures are also dealt
Brian J.L. Berry adopted this method from
in this branch.
anthropology for studying geography more
iii. Climatology deals with the study of
effectively.Geographic data can be arranged in
global and regional weather and climatic
a rectangular array or matrix. Row-wise group
conditions by analysing relevant statistical
of variables represent the systematic or topical
data. Meteorology provides basic
branches of geography while, regions are
information on the composition, structure
represented by columns. Berry has explained
and the changes in the atmosphere.
that regional synthesis could be derived with
the help of a series of geographic matrices in iv. Hydrology encompasses the study of
correct temporal sequence. Each time period earth’s realm of water such as oceans and
has been taken to be equivalent to a ‘slice’ of the surface water bodies like rivers, reservoirs
three-dimensional cake. The diagram of ‘Third and ponds. It also makes a study of
Dimension’ makes it possible to examine rows underground water and its recharge and
and columns, cutting across time. also pollution of water bodies.
v. Oceanography is the study of seas and
1.7 Branches of Geography oceans. The shape, size, depth and
Based on content and the available bottom relief of ocean, distribution of
techniques, the discipline can be divided oceans, ocean currents and various
12
GEOMORPHOLOGY
SOIL GEOGRAPHY
PHYSICAL CLIMATOLOGY
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY
HYDROLOGY
GEOGRAPHY OCEANOGRAPHY
BIO-GEOGRAPHY
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
ANTHROPO GEOGRAPHY
CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY
HUMAN SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY
life forms existing in ocean are also due importance. It also tries to give
studied under oceanography. sustainable solutions to these problems.
vi. Biogeography is a study of
1.7.2 Human Geography
ecosystems over geographical space.
Human Geography is concerned with
It also analyses the changes in the
the changes made by the humans over
ecosystems. Phytogeography or
the natural or physical landscape. The
plant Geography, Zoo Geography or
ethnic and political aspects are taken into
animal geography and Ecology are the
consideration. The issues like climatic
branches of biogeography.
change, natural and anthropogenic
vii. Environmental Geography is the study
disasters are also the major concerns.
of environmental issues arising out of
misuse of various spheres of the earth i. Population Geography is the study of
and their implications. The ozone layer distribution and density of population,
depletion, global warming, melting the changing patterns in age and
of polar ice caps, rising sea level and sex composition, birth and death
other related aspects are also given rates, life expectancy, literacy level
and dependency ratio, migrations
13
at national and international level behaviour of the population, relations
and the causes and consequences of between independent states, and
migration. patterns of voting and delimitation of
ii. Settlement Geography deals with the electoral constituencies.
characteristics of rural and urban viii. Economic Geography deals with the
settlements and transportation distribution of economic activities such
network. It seeks better understanding as, primary, secondary and tertiary.
of the present landscape and plans The primary activities include food
for the future. The study is more gathering, hunting, animal rearing,
important for town and country agriculture, and mining. The secondary
planning. activities include manufacturing and
iii. Historical Geography tries to the tertiary activities include the
picturise the geography of an area service sectors such as trade, transport,
or region as it was in the past and communication and other related
studies how it has evolved over time. areas.
The forces involved in transforming xi. Medical Geography mainly deals
region such as colonisation by the with study of geographical aspects of
Europeans or a natural disaster are origin, diffusion and distribution of
also included in the study. various communicable diseases and
iv. Anthropo Geography deals with the health care planning.
distribution of human communities
1.7.3 Geographic Techniques
on the earth in relation to their
Geography has developed a number
geographical environment.
of methods and tools to investigate
v. Cultural Geography gives emphasis and identify the spatial structures and
on the location and diffusion of patterns. Besides, it also lends or borrows
customs and cultural traits such some methods and tools to measure and
as food habits, skills, clothing and investigate precise understanding of the
beliefs and social organisations and spatial locations and patterns.
their developments in different parts
i. Mathematical Geography deals with
of the earth.
the study of earth’s size and shape,
vi. Social Geography is closely related to motions of the earth, concept of time
cultural geography. It examines the and the time zones.
relationships among the social groups
ii. Statistical Geography is concerned
and their social relationships in the
with the practice of collecting,
places of their living.
analysing and presenting data that
vii. Political Geography tries to has a geographic or areal dimension,
understand the countries and their such as census data.
neighbours, problems of resources
iii. Cartography is the study of making
sharing, boundaries and territorial
maps of various scales using authentic
limits. This branch is also concerned
information.
with understanding the political
14
iv. Remote Sensing is the art, science dynamic world. The subject is more flexible
and technique of capturing the earth and accommodates many principles of
surface features using sensors or related subjects. At the same time, it lends
cameras in airplanes or satellites, concepts and knowledge to many related
processing and presenting the spatial disciplines. Owing to these changes, the
information tousers. subject is attaining more refinement,
v. Geographic Information System accuracy, precision, depth and scientific
(GIS) is a computer-based tool of rationale.
the recent decades for geographical 1.8 Geographical Tools and Skills
studies. It is used for storing, retrieving, Every day the news media report several
transforming, analysing, and displaying geographically significant events of near
data to prepare useful thematic maps. by or faraway places. Such reports include
vi. Global Navigation Satellite System the occurrence of earthquakes, floods,
(GNSS) is used to pinpoint the forest fire, landslides etc., which trigger
geographic location of a user anywhere the interests of everyone to recollect their
in the world. Airlines, shipping, travel geographic knowledge they had acquired
agencies and automobile drivers use the earlier.
system to track the vehicles and follow The essential tools of geography are
the best routes to reach the destination maps and globes and now the digital
in the shortest possible time. versions of aerial photographs, satellite
images, Geographical Information
Global Navigation Systems (GIS) and Global Navigation
Satellites System Satellite System (GNSS).These tools have
GNSS is the standard become an integral part of geography and
generic term for these products help us to visualise the
satellite navigation systems that provide spatial patterns over the surface of the
geo-spatial positioning with global or earth.
regional coverage. This term includes The GIS technique has enhanced the
the GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), skills and capabilities to compare and
Galileo (Europe), Beidou (China), overlay the digital layers to create maps
IRNSS (India) and other systems. quickly and efficiently. It helps us to study
The GPS was the first GNSS system of the areas affected by floods or cyclones or
the United States and originally used forest fire and the damages can be assessed
for military applications. Today it is
accurately and losses be estimated within
commonly used in mobiles, vehicles,
a very short span of time. The navigation
agriculture and other areas that allow us
satellites provide accurate location of
to use it in all fields of mapping.
these occurrences.
In recent years, geography aims to develop
Geography is undergoing frequent a set of marketable skills to the students
changes to tackle the challenges of the rather than preparing the students only for
the teaching in educational institutions.
15
The job market is changing frequently. and urban and regional planning. The
Therefore, the teaching methodology of satellite data from Landsat, SPOT, IRS and
the subject is to be adapted to the changing other satellites made it possible to repeatedly
trends of the society and provides a couple view each part of the earth surface at
of specialisations to the students so that they frequent intervals and thereby geographers’
could be acquainted with the global market ‘data thirst’ is considerably quenched.
and get suitable employment. The maps
still remains an important visual medium 1.8.3 Geospatial Analysis:
for geographers although the microchip A geospatial analyst designs databases,
revolution is expanding exponentially to analyses geographical data, uses
address a number of societal issues. appropriate GIS software to a wide
range of applications including defence,
1.8.1 Cartography: real estate, pollution and government
Geographers who specialise in this branch administrations. The skill helps to identify
make traditional maps, digital maps, atlases, optimum size and ideal location, establish
charts, globes and models. Quantification new or relocate existing facilities like
and cartography are considered as two hospitals, police station, banks, shopping
sides of the ‘geography coin’. Owing to centres etc.,
quantitative and computer revolutions,
handling of spatial data become easier, not 1.8.4 Environmental Impact Assessment:
only for the preparation of ‘instant maps’ This investigation requires voluminous data
but also for statistical graphs, graphic images related to physical, social, economic and
and models. Preparation of the computer- other aspects of the area under study. The
aided-maps and updating the existing ones data are collected from maps, satellites and
become easier and faster. Creation of three field and synthesised to provide meaningful
dimensional models, changing the viewing visual results. Such complex thematic visual
angle of these models and plotting the images results allow the decision makers to take
are made possible due to the introduction of appropriate steps to tackle the day to day and
computer expertise in cartography. long term environmental issues.
16
to locate facilities and optimise the existing The students of geography undergo
land for various uses. special trainings in their college level studies
and seek employment in the areas of their
1.8.6 Weather Forecasting / Nowcasting:
specialisation. Depending upon their area
At present the meteorologists are using
ground data and satellite data to forecast of specialization; geographers are employed
the wind direction, rainfall possibilities as scientists in national and state planning
and cyclone movement. However, with the commissions, water resources organizations,
advancement of satellite sensors, navigation and land use planning units, agricultural or
satellites and GIS technology it is possible to economic institutes or as demographers in
nowcast the weather conditions and provide
government and research organizations.
live cyclone movement tracts, otherwise
known as weather nowcasting.Geographers
are utilising spatial and non–spatial data HOTS
to analyse weather and climate parameters
and conduct research concerning climate
How does ground penetrating RADAR
and climate changes and forecast the earth’s
locate the archaeological site?
future climate and weather conditions and
their implications.
The geographers are also employed
1.8.7 Surveying, Utilising Large Scale
Maps/Sketches: as climatologists, geomorphologists, GIS
Surveying with specialists and hydrologists. Geography
instruments, starting background is an asset for careers in travel and
from chain survey tourism, particularly for ‘Travel Journalism’.
to differential GPS Besides these, the geography graduates apply
(DGPS), are an integral for civil services examinations conducted by
part of geography
various States of India and also the UPSC.
curriculum. The students survey and
prepare sketches of various features in an Recent developments in geography are
area. They also survey the campuses with technological in nature and mostly computer
advanced survey instruments and prepare oriented. The average geography graduate is
large scale maps. The geographical therefore well versed in the use of computers,
knowledge and training enable the and as they are trained in understanding
students to interpret large scale maps of patterns and relationships over space.
India and other countries of the world.
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), one 1.9 Geography in Tamil Nadu
of the emerging field survey instruments, A number of institutions of higher
is gaining importance not only in earth learning in Tamil Nadu have been offering
sciences discipline but also in archaeology, graduate and post graduate programmes
civil engineering, city planning and other in geography for several decades. Some
related fields. of the Departments are recognized as
17
research centers and these are engaged in Two geographical Associations are
undertaking national and international functioning in Tamil Nadu to disseminate
research projects besides conducting geographic knowledge to the students
research programmes in geography. and teachers of schools, colleges and
The departments are also engaged in universities through publishing journals,
organizing short term and long term organizing workshops and conduct talent
training programmes and workshops tests to the geography students.
to disseminate the latest geographic
knowledge and technology for the benefit 1.10 Databases for Geography
of students, researchers and teachers of Teaching and Learning
geography. Geographers are concerned about certain
global and local issues like disasters,
Annual Geography environmental problems, natural
Talent Tests for resources and other related aspects.
College / University Often these issues are discussed in the
Students and classrooms. Data relating to the issues are
School Students of Tamil Nadu necessary for better understanding of the
same and for seeking real world solutions.
The Indian Geographical Society is
A number of organizations in India are
conducting talent test examination
engaged in disseminating such valuable
to final year UG and PG geography
information through special publications,
students across the State and present
especially to the student community. The
awards and cash prizes to a tune of Rs.
schools, colleges, universities and research
15,000 (top three M.Sc. students) and
institutions can write to the following
Rs. 10,000 (top three B.Sc students)
organizations and enroll themselves
in the names of the IGS Founder
to receive the published materials like
Prof N.Subrahmanyam and the
booklets, pamphlets, satellite images,
former Head of the Department of
manuals etc. They can also enroll for short
Geography of University of Madras
term trainings / field visits / workshops
Prof. A.Ramesh, respectively.
arranged by these organizations.
The Association of Geography
Teachers of India conducts Annual
Geography Talent Tests to the school Awards to Geography
students. The talent test is conducted Teachers and Scientists
at two levels: Students of classes 7 The Indian Geographical
and 8 take Junior Level test while the Society has instituted Awards
students of classes 9 and 10 take it at in the names of renowned Geographers
the Senior Level. Prizes and certificates Prof.B.M. Thirunaranan, Prof. A.R.
are awarded to top ranking candidates. Irawathy and Prof.V.L.S.PrakasaRao to
the leading geographers who work in the
areas of geomorphology, remote sensing
and regional planning respectively.
18
The students can make use of the free transparent to it but opaque to reradiated
software available from these organizations long wave terrestrial energy. It also refers
to visualize the earth’s surfaces from space to increasing the opacity of the atmosphere
and map the existing and changing land cover through the addition of increased amounts
details, traffic density, pollution levels etc., of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane
A number of spatial information, including and chlorofluorocarbons.
satellite images can be downloaded freely Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): Local
for educational purposes such as classroom time at the prime meridian (Zero degree
teaching, preparation of maps, for project longitude), which passes through the
work, field work and other activities. observatory at Greenwich, England.
Map Projection: A method by which
the curved surface of the Earth is shown
on a flat surface map. As it is not possible
to show all the Earth’s features accurately
Absolute Location: The exact position on a flat surface, some projections aim to
of an object or place stated in spatial show direction accurately at the expense
coordinates of a grid system designed of area, some the shape of the land and
for the location purposes. In geography, oceans, while others show correct area at
the reference system is the global grid of the expense of accurate shape.
parallels of latitudes north or south of One of the projections most commonly
equator and of meridians of longitude east used is the Mercator projection, devised in
or west of the Prime meridian. 1569, in which all lines of latitude are the
Cartography: The art, science and same length as the equator. This results
technology of making maps. in increased distortion of area, moving
Field Measurement Book (F.M.B): The from the equator towards the poles. This
FMB depicts the dimensions of each field projection is suitable for navigation charts.
boundaries and the sub divisions. In FMB The Mollweide projection shows the
the individual survey number maps are land masses the correct size in relation
maintained at a scale of 1:1000 or 1:2000. to each other but there is distortion
Each survey number is divided into of shape. As the Mollweide projection
several sub divisions. Each sub division is has no area distortion it is useful for
owned by a owner. The FMB’s also depicts showing distributions such as population
the dimensions of each field boundaries distribution. The only true representation
and the sub divisions. of the Earth’s surface is a globe.
Global Positioning System (GPS): A Nation: A culturally distinctive group
method of using satellite observations for of people occupying a particular region
the determination of extremely accurate and bond together by a sense of unity
location information. arising from shared ethnicity, beliefs and
Greenhouse Effect: The heating of the customs.
earth’s surface as shortwave solar energy Natural Resource: A physically
passes through the atmosphere, which is occurring item that a population
19
perceives to the necessary and useful to its Region: In geography, the term applied
maintenance and well-being. to an area of the earth that displays a
Ozone Layer: A gas molecule consisting distinctive grouping of physical or cultural
of three atoms of oxygen (O3) formed phenomena or is functionally united as a
when diatomic oxygen (O2) is exposed to single organisational unit.
ultraviolet radiation. In the lower atmosphere, Relative Location: The position of a place
it constitutes a damaging component of in relation to a well-known place.
photochemical smog; in the upper atmosphere, Site: The place where something is
it forms a normally continuous, thin layer that located; the immediate surroundings and their
blocks ultraviolet light. A layer of ozone in attributes.
the atmosphere (stratosphere) protects life on Situation: The location of something in
earth by absorbing ultraviolet radiation from relation to physical and human characteristics
the sun. of a larger region.
Prime Meridian: An imaginary line Toponym: A place name with reference to
passing through the Royal Observatory at topography.
Greenwich, England, serving by agreement
as the zero degree line of longitude.
20
Very short answers McGraw-Hill International Edition, New
1. Define Geography. York.
2. What are the four traditions of 3. Haggett, P. (2001), Geography: A Global
geography? Synthesis, Prentice Hall, New York.
3. List the five themes of geography.
4. Holt-Jensen, A. (2009), Geography-History
4. Write about the approaches to study
and Concepts: A Student’s Guide, Sage
geography.
Publications, London.
5. What are the three domains of
geography? 5. Morrill, R. L. (1983), The Nature, Utility
6. What is GNSS? and Value of Geography, Professional
7. Define cartography. Geographer, 35 (1), pp. 1-9.
8. What is mathematical geography? 6. Robinson, J.L. (1976), A New Look at the
9. What is the significance of man -land Four Traditions of Geography, Journal of
tradition? Geography, 75, pp. 520-530.
10. How is regional approach helpful in 7. Rogers, A. and Viles, H. A. (2003), The
studying political units? Student’s Companion to Geography,
Short answers Second Edition, Blackwell Publications,
1. Distinguish between systematic Kundli.
approach and regional approach to
8. Strahler, A. and Strahler, A. (2002),
study geography.
Physical Geography - Science and Systems
2. What is Geographical data matrix?
of Human Environment, Second Edition,
3. Write a note on remote sensing.
Wiley India, New Delhi.
Detailed answers
1. How has geography developed over 9. Waugh, D. (1995), Geography: An
the years? Integrated Approach, Nelson Canada,
2. Describe how the five themes are Ontario.
interrelated.
3. Describe how geography is related to Internet Resources
natural sciences. Open GIS Software
4. Explain any four geographic http://www.saga-gis.org/en/index.html; https://
techniques. qgis.org/en/site/; https://grass.osgeo.org/
5. What are the advantages of developing Free Satellite Data and Images
the geographical skills? https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/; https://
bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in
Online Mapping
References
https://www.openstreetmap.org; https://
1. Adhikari, S. (2015), Fundamentals of maps.google.com/; https://www.google.
Geographical Thought, Orient Blackswan, com/intl/en_in/earth
New Delhi. Online Learning Resource
2. Getis, A., Getis, J., Fellmann, J. D. (2006), www.mhhe.com/getis10e/
Introduction to Geography, Tenth Edition,
21
ICT CORNER
Modern Tools of Geography
Steps
• Use the URL or QR code to download and install ‘Mapit GIS’
app in your smartphone. Open the app and go to settings tab on
the top right corner of the page and set units of measurement
of your choice.
• Select scale icon from the bottom and place the targets by pressing ‘Balloon’ icon from
the bottom. Scale icon will provide you instant survey of distance using GPS.
• Long press the scale icon and it will transform into ‘Area mode’. Follow the same step to
drop the balloon and survey the area between any numbers of points.
• Touch the menu navigation button from the top left corner and change the map styles
you want to survey.
Website URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.osedok.gisdatacollector&hl=en
22
Unit II
Earth's rocky core formed first Galaxies are in three major forms:
when heavy elements collided and 1. Spiral Galaxies: It consists of a flat and
bound together. Dense materials sank rotating disk of stars, gases and dust.
to the center, while the lighter material It has a central concentration of stars
created the crust. The planet's magnetic known as the ‘bulge’. The Milky Way and
field probably formed around this the Andromeda are spiral galaxies.
time. Gravity captured some of the 2. Elliptical Galaxies: It contains older
gases that made up the planet's early stars with fewer gases. Messier89
atmosphere. galaxy is an elliptical galaxy.
24
Figure 2.1 Milky Way Galaxy
Internal structure:
Inner core
radiative zone Subsurface flows
convection zone Photosphere
Chromosphere
Corona
Figure 2.6 Structure of the sun
28
by gravitational attraction, producing surface is about 5,500 to 6,000 degrees
immense pressure and temperature at its Celsius.
core. There are three main layers in the At the core, the temperature is about 15
Sun's interior: the core, the radiative zone, million degrees Celsius, which is sufficient
and the convective zone (Figure 2.6). to sustain thermonuclear fusion. This is a
The core is at the centre. It is the hottest process in which atoms combine to form
region, where the nuclear fusion reaction larger atoms and in this process, released,
to give the sun power. Moving outward staggering amounts of energy. Specifically,
next come the radiative (or radiation) in the Sun’s core, hydrogen atoms fuse to
zone. Its name is derived from the way make helium.
energy is carried outward through this
Size and Distance
layer, carried by photons as thermal
radiation. The third and final region of The sun has a radius of 695,508 kilometres.
the solar interior is named the convective It is far more massive than earth and
(or convection) zone. It is also named 3,32,946 Earths equal to the mass of the
after the dominant mode of energy flow Sun. The Sun’s volume would need 1.3
in this layer. The boundary between the million Earths to fill it.
Sun's interior and the solar atmosphere is
Venus is hotter than
called the photosphere. It is what we see as
Mercury because
the visible ‘surface’ of the Sun.
Venus has an
Did you know that the Sun has an atmosphere which is
atmosphere? The lower region of the solar thicker and made almost entirely of
atmosphere is called the chromosphere. Its carbon dioxide.
name is derived from the Greek word chroma
(meaning colour), for it appears bright red Orbit and Rotation
when viewed during a solar eclipse. A thin
transition region, where temperature rises The Milky Way has four main spiral arms:
sharply, separates the chromospheres from the Norma and Cygnus arm, Sagittarius,
Scutum-Crux, and Perseus. The Sun is
the vast corona above. The uppermost
located in a minor arm, the Sagittarius arm.
portion of the Sun's atmosphere is called
From there, the Sun orbits the centre of the
the corona, and is surprisingly much hotter
Milky Way Galaxy, bringing the planets,
than the Sun's surface (photosphere) The
asteroids, comets and other objects along
upper corona gradually turns into the solar
with it. Our solar system is moving with
wind. Solar wind is a flow of plasma that
an average velocity of 828,000 kilometres
moves outward through our solar system
per hour. It takes about 230 million years
into interstellar space. to make one complete orbit around the
Therefore, the Sun has six regions: Milky Way. The Sun’s spin has an axial tilt
the core, the radioactive zone, and the of 7.25 degrees with respect to the plane of
convective zone in the interior; the the planets’ orbits. Since the Sun is not a
photosphere; the chromospheres; and solid body, different parts of the Sun rotate
the corona. The temperature of the sun’s at different rates. At the equator, the Sun
29
spins around once about every 25 days, but makes one ‘planet day’. The planets moving
at its poles the Sun rotates once on its axis around the sun is called revolution or a
every 36 Earth days. Most of the materials ‘planet-year’.
are pulled toward the centre to form our
Planets in the Solar System
Sun. The Sun alone accounts for 99.8% of
the mass of the entire solar system. The Mercury
Like all stars, the Sun will someday Mercury is the nearest planet to the sun and
run out of energy. When the Sun starts to it is the smallest planet in the solar system.
die, it will swell so big that it will engulf It does not have any satellite. It rotates on its
Mercury and Venus and maybe even Earth. own axis in 58.65 earth days while it takes
Scientists predict that the Sun is a little 88 Earth days to complete one revolution
less than halfway through its lifetime and around the sun. Mercury is 0.4 astronomical
will last another 6.5 billion years before it units away from the Sun. The sunlight
shrinks down to be a white dwarf. takes 3.2 minutes to travel from the Sun
to Mercury. Mercury is the second hottest
2.7 The Planets planet though it is nearest to the sun.
The word planet in Greek means ‘wanderer’.
The Venus
Planet is the celestial body which does
not have light or heat of its own. A planet ‘Venus’ is the second nearest planet to
should possess the following qualities: the sun. It is also called as ‘Earth’s Sister’
planet due to its similar size and mass as
a. It should orbit around the sun.
that of our Earth. It is the hottest planet
b. It should not be a satellite of any in the solar system and experiences a
planet mean surface temperature of 462qC. It is
c. Due to its own mass and self-gravity, popularly known as “Morning star and
it should get a spherical shape and Evening star” It is seen in the east sky
d. Any other celestial body should not before sunrise (dawn) in the morning and
cross in its orbit. in the west sky after the sunset (twilight).
The planets are classified in order of their It rotates clockwise i.e. east to west
distance from the sun and based on their direction on its own axis. The rotation and
characteristics. They are: orbit of the Venus are unusual in several
1. The inner planets or terrestrial planets ways. Venus is one of just two planets that
or rocky planets. Mercury, Venus, rotate from east to west. Only Venus and
Earth and Mars are called inner or Uranus have this ‘backwards’ rotation. It
terrestrial planets. completes one rotation in 243 Earth days
which is the longest day of any planet in
2. The outer planets or gaseous planets
our solar system. The Venus takes 224.7
or giant planets. Jupiter, Saturn,
Earth days to complete one revolution
Uranus and Neptune are called outer
around the sun, and it has no natural
or gaseous planets.
satellites. Venus is 0.7 astronomical units
Each planet spins on its own axis. This away from the sun. The sunlight takes 6
movement is called rotation. One rotation minutes to travel from the sun to Venus.
30
Table 2.1 Distance of the planets from the sun
Name Of The Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
Diameter (km) 4,879 12,104 12,756 6,794 1,42,984 1,20,536 51,118 49,528
Density (kg/m3) 5,427 5,243 5,514 3,933 1,326 687 1,271 1,638
Rotation Period (hours) 1,407.6 5,832.5 23.9 24.6 9.9 10.7 17.2 16.1
Length of Day (hours) 4,222.6 2,802 24 24.7 9.9 10.7 17.2 16.1
The Average distance
57.9 108.2 149.6 227.9 778.6 1,433.5 2,872.5 4,495.1
from the sun(106 km)
Orbital Period (days) 88 224.7 365.3 687 4331 10,747 30,589 59,800
Number of Satellites 0 0 1 2 67 53 27 13
(275-195 BCE) estimated size of earth from The Sun’s gravitational pull differs in
observations that the elevation of the sun force at the poles. The North Pole points
varied with position on the Earth’s surface in the same direction to the North Star
in Egypt. Observations of the following when it revolves about the Sun. If the
suggested that the Earth is a sphere. Earth would not have been tilted on its
1. Mountain peaks lit by the Sun after axis, the days and nights would have been
sunset. of same duration always.
2. Ships disappear below the horizon as
2.14 Motions of the earth
they sail across ocean.
3. The moon looks like a disc. The earth has two basic movements:
1) Rotation and 2) Revolution.
4. The Earth casts a circular shadow
during lunar eclipses.
Galactic movement:
The Earth is an oblate spheroid, bulged at
This is the movement
the equator and flattened at the poles. It is
of the earth with the
called ‘Geoid’ (Figure 2.9) meaning the earth
sun and the rest of
is earth-shaped. The bulge at the equator is
the solar system in an orbit around
caused by the centrifugal force of the Earth’s
the centre of the MilkyWay Galaxy.
rotation. The gravitational pull of the earth
This, however, has little effect upon the
is the strongest at the flattened poles and it
changing environment of the earth.
is weaker towards the equator.
1. Rotation: The spinning of the earth
HOTS around its axis is called the rotation of
the earth. The axis is the imaginary line
Chimborazo in Ecuador is higher than passing through the centre of the earth.
Mount Everest, if measured from the The earth completes one rotation in 23
centre of the Earth. Why? hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds.
It rotates in an eastward direction
35
The Vertical line gives a difference of 4 minutes for
from the earth’s
orbital plane every degree of longitude that passes
North Pole
the sun. The hour (60 minutes) is thus
23½o 1/24 of a day.
3. When you observe through a moving
Equ Tro
pi
train, trees, houses and fields on the other
ato c of
r
66½o
Can
cer side of the track appear to move in the
The plane direction opposite to that of the speeding
of the earth’s
orbit train. The apparent movement of the sun
Tro and the other heavenly bodies in relation
pic of
Cap
rico
to the rotating earth is similar. As the
rn
earth rotates from west to east, the sun,
moon, planets and stars appear to rise in
South Pole
the east and set in the west.
Figure 2.10 Tilt of the Earth’s axis 4. Rotation causes the working of the
Coriolis force which results in the
opposite to the apparent movement of
deflection of the winds and the ocean
the sun. The earth’s axis is inclined at an
currents from their normal path.
angle of 66½q to the orbital plane as it
moves around the sun. We can say, the 5. Tide is caused by the rotation of the
earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 23½q earth apart from the gravitational pull
(Figure 2.10) from a perpendicular of the sun and the moon.
to the elliptic plane. The velocity of Rotation causes a flattening of Earth at
earth’s rotation varies depending on the two poles and bulging at the Equator.
the distance of a given place from the Hence, there is a difference in diameter at
equator.The rotational velocity at the the poles and equator.
poles is nearly zero. The greatest velocity Circle of Illumination: The line around
of the rotation is found at the equator. the earth separating the light and dark
The velocity of rotation at the equator is is known as the circle of illumination
1,670 km per hour. (Figure 2.11).
Effects of earth’s rotation: The rotation It passes through the poles and allows
of the earth causes the following effects: the entire earth to have an equal amount
of time during the daylight and night
1. The apparent rising and setting of time hours. This line can be seen from
the sun is actually caused by the space, and the exact location of the line is
earth’s rotation which results in the dependent on the various seasons.
alternate occurrence of day and night
everywhere on the earth’s surface. Revolution of the Earth
2. Rotation of the earth is also responsible The movement of the earth in its orbit
for the difference in time between around the sun in an anti-clockwise
different places on the earth. A 24 direction, that is, from west to east is called
hour period divided by 360 degrees revolution of the earth. The earth revolves
36
Figure 2.11 Circle of Illumination
39
March equinox June Solstice Septemper equinox December Solstice
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
900 N
800 N 24 hours (Constant day)
700 N 1 23 hours 1
600 N 6 18 hours 6
8 8
500 N 16 hours
400 N
10 10
300 N 14 hours
200 N
100 N
Latitude
12 12
00 12 hours
100 N
200 N
14 14
300 N 10 hours
40 N
0
16 8 hours 16
500 N
18 6 hours 18
600 N 23 1 hours 23
700 N
800 N 0 hours (Constant night)
900 N
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
40
Fact File
Geo connects History
Secret to Great Pyramid’s Near Perfect
Alignment Possibly Found!
The Great Pyramid of Giza, 4,500 years
ago, is an ancient feat of engineering.
Now an archaeologist has figured out
how the Egyptians may have aligned
the pyramid almost perfectly along the
cardinal points, north-south-east-west.
Egyptians may have used the autumn
equinox. Methods used by the ancient
Egyptians to align the pyramids along the
cardinal points are accurate.
W On the day of the fall equinox, a surveyor
placed a rod into the ground and tracked its
N
shadow throughout the day. The result was
e
Shadow lin
41
Difference between Rotation and Revolution
Rotation Revolution
Spinning of the earth from west to east on its axis. Movement of the earth around the sun in its
elliptical orbit.
It takes 24 hours to complete a rotation (or a day) It takes 365¼ days to complete one revolution
(or a year)
It is known as the daily or diurnal movement. It is known as the annual movement of the earth.
Rotation causes days and nights to alternate, tides, Revolution results in the varying lengths of day
deflection of winds and ocean currents and also and night, changes in the altitude of the midday
gives the earth its shape. sun and change of seasons.
moon as viewed from the earth. A partial The changing angles between the earth,
lunar eclipse can be observed when only the sun and the moon determine the
a part of the moon’s surface is obscured by phases of the moon. Phases of the moon
earth’s umbra (Figure 2.15). A penumbral (Figure 2.16) start from the ‘New Moon’
lunar eclipse happens when the moon every month. Then, only a part of the
travels through the faint penumbral Moon is seen bright called ‘Crescent’,
portion of the earth’s shadow. A total which develops into the ‘first quarter’.
lunar eclipse occurs when the earth With the increasing brightness it turns
umbra obscures the entire the moon’s into three quarters known as ‘Gibbous’
surface. Lunar eclipse can be seen from and then it becomes a ‘Full Moon’.
anywhere on the night side of the Earth. These stages are the waxing moon.
It lasts for a few hours due to the smaller After the full moon, the moon starts
size of the moon. waning or receding through the stages
of Gibbous, last quarter, crescent, and
Phases of the Moon
10 7
18 26
22
finally becomes invisible as dark New particular latitude receive vertical rays
Moon. from the sun. As we move north or south
The varying lengths of daylight in of this location, the sun’s rays strike at
different latitudes decreasing angles. The yearly fluctuations
in the angle of the sun’s rays and the length
It is evident from the table that the
of the days change with the continual
duration of daylight is 12 hours
change of the earth’s position in its orbit
throughout the year at the equator only.
around the sun at an inclination of 66½
As one moves away from the equator,
to the orbital plane.
the seasonal variations in the duration of
daylight increase. The seasonal variations Difference in the angle of the sun’s rays
in the duration of daylight are maximum striking different parts of the earth.
at the polar region.
Away from the equator, the sun’s rays
Effects of the spherical shape of the earth strike the earth’s surface at particular
angle. The slanting rays are spread over
Variation in the amount of solar radiation
a large area and do not heat with the
received:
same intensity as the direct rays. As
If the earth were a flat surface, we go pole wards, the rays spread over
oriented at right angle to the sun, all the
the regions beyond the Arctic and the
places on the earth would have received
Antarctic circles in an extremely slanting
the same amount of radiation. But the
manner. This is how we get the various
earth is spherical/ geoid. Hence the
temperature zones.
sunrays do not heat the higher latitudes
Lower the degree of latitude; higher the
of the earth as much as the tropics. On
any given day only the places located at temperature. Not only that, the rays striking
at a low angle must travel through a greater
43
44
Figure 2.17 Time zones of the world
thickness of the atmosphere than the rays The world time zone (Figure 2.17) was
striking at a higher angle. The rays striking formed, relating longitude and the rotation
at a lower angle are subject to greater of the earth. The Prime Meridian is the
depletion by reflection and absorption by centre of time zone extending from 7½ºW
the atmosphere. and 7½ º E longitudes. The 24 hours time
Temperature zones zone system had been developed so that
all the time zones should be referred with
The spherical shape of the earth along
respect to Greenwich Mean Time. Earth
with its movement around the sun causes
was divided into 24 time zones, each one
differences in the angles at which the sun’s
zone for one hour of the day. It is because
rays fall on the earth’s surface. This causes
earth rotates 15º of longitude in one hour
a difference in the distribution of heat on
(360º divided by 24 hours). The time when
the earth’s surface.
solar noon occurs at the Prime Meridian is
As a result, the world has been fixed as noon for all places between 7½º E
divided into three distinct heat zones or and 7½º W.
temperature zones. They are the Torrid
zone, Temperate zone and Frigid zone.
Daylight Saving Time
You will learn more about it under the
unit atmosphere. In the mid latitude countries of
Europe, North America, Australia
2.16 Time Zones of the World and South America, the day time are
longer in summer than the night. In
People during the medieval period were
spite of employing daylight duration,
using sundials and water clocks to observe
the clocks are adjusted 1 hour forward
the Sun’s meridian passing at noon. In 17th
in spring and 1 hour backward in
century, the people started using pendulum
autumn. This time is generally known
clock which did not show accurate time while
as ‘the Daylight Saving Time’ (DST).
travelling in the sea. Later chronometer was
invented in 1764. Chronometer measures
Time Zones
time accurately and the mariners widely
used this during the 19th century. But in On its axis, the earth rotates 360 degrees
many towns and cities clocks were set based every 24 hours. You can look at it as it
on sunset and sunrise. The use of local takes one day to complete a full circle.
solar time hindered the development of Divided up into an hourly rate, the earth
railways and telecommunications. A time rotates 15 degrees every hour (360/24).
zone is a region on the earth where uniform This number plays an important role in
standard time should be maintained for determining time zones. You have already
transport, commercial and social purposes. learned about the latitudes and longitudes
For example, if different time zones were and their importance in the lower classes.
followed, the trains coming from different An important factor in determining
regions, sharing single track may meet with time zones is the lines of latitude and
accidents. longitude, imaginary lines known as
latitudes and longitudes dividing the
45
earth. Latitude lines are drawn east - west 1. First, we need to know what longitudes
and they measure the location in northern the two places are located.
and southern hemisphere. The line starts 2. Next, you would need to find the
at the equator and measure distance from differences in longitude (in degrees)
0 degrees to 90 degrees north and also 0 between the two places. If both places
degrees to 90 degrees south. They also are located on the same side of the
become shorter farther away from the Prime Meridian, then the numbers
equator. On the other hand, longitude are just simply subtracted to find the
lines are drawn north - south and they difference. If they are on the opposite
measure eastern and western hemisphere. side of the Prime Meridian then the
They start at the Prime Meridian (or 0 two numbers should be added together
degree) and measure from 0 degrees to 180 to find the difference.
degrees east and 180 degrees west. Unlike 3. Third, we need to divide the difference
lines of latitude, these lines are fairly equal (measured in degrees) by 15 since
in length. The origin of this spherical there are 15 degrees in every hour.
coordinate system is at 0 degree latitude This will give us the difference in
and 0 degree longitude. This spot can be time between the two locations. So
found in the Atlantic Ocean just south if you know what time it is in one
west of Africa. Also, the two lines connect location, and the longitude of another
at 180 degrees or at the International location, then just simple addition or
Date Line (Figure 2.18). This too helps to subtraction problem will give us the
determining different time zones of the time in a different time zone. Let's
world. look at another way we may have to
Together all of the above information can calculate the difference between times
be used to calculate the difference of time of two locations.
between two locations. Another calculation you may have to make
N is over the International Date Line. This
line is strategically placed in the Pacific
Ocean so that no two neighboring cities
West to East are one day apart in time. It can be difficult
to calculate though the International Date
International date line
Gains a
Day Line when trying to determine the amount
Loses a of time difference between locations on
Day
either side. This calculation is very similar
East to West to the situation with the Prime Meridian.
+ -
Subtract a Day
We must start by finding the difference in
longitude (or degrees) of the two places.
Add a Day
47
40 minutes Destination time = initial + calculated
Destination time Initial time calculated time
time = 10:00am + 6hrs
12 noon 40minutes = 14:00pm
12:40pm 14:00pm = 4:00pm
Answer 4:00pm
Example 2
If the time at village A (long 75qW) is 5:00
pm on Friday. Calculate the time and day
at village B (long 120qE)
Solution 1. Dark energy: A theoretical form of
360q 24hrs energy postulated to act in opposition to
15q 1 hour gravity and to occupy the entire universe,
1q 4 minutes accounting for most of the energy in it
and causing its expansion to accelerate.
Village A 75qW
2. Magnetic field: A force field that is
Village B 120qE
created by moving electric charges and
We will add (west and east)
magnetic dipoles, and exerts a force
(75 120)q 195q on other nearby moving charges and
195 divided by 15q magnetic dipoles.
13hrs 3. Penumbra: The partially shaded outer
Destination time initial calculated region of the shadow cast by an opaque
time object.
5:00 13 hrs 4. Asteroids: Small rocky celestial bodies
18:00 that revolve around the Sun, like other
planets.
18:00 6:00
5. Standard time: A uniform time for
Answer 6:00am on Saturday
places in approximately the same
Example 3 longitude, established in a country or
Calculate the local time in New York region by law or custom.
(USA) longitude 75°W, when it is 10am in 6. Galactic movement: This is the
Nigeria of longitude 15°E movement of the earth with the sun and
Solution the rest of the solar system in an orbit
Initial time = 10:00am around the centre of the MilkyWay
New York = 75°W Galaxy
Nigeria = 15° E 7. Equinox: Time when the apparent
We will add (west and east) movement of the sun is overhead the
equator.
(75 + 15)° = 90°
8. Gibbous: Third quarter of moon’s
90° divided by 15° = 6 hrs
phase is known as Gibbous.
48
9. Solar flare: A magnetic storm on the c. September 5 d. December 4
sun and releases huge amounts of 7. The length of day time at 800 N during
gases. It can cause ‘Sun quakes’. summer solstice is
10. Super Nova: The explosive death a. 18hrs 27min
of a star. It obtains brightness of 100 b. 24 hrs (for 2 months)
million suns for a short time.
c. 24 hrs (for 4 months)
Evaluation d. 24 hrs (for 6 months)
50
Ivory Coast. Locations are measured Practice
in degrees away from this origin in
1. Prepare a working model of the
north, south, east and west directions.
Solar system as a group work and
23.34 degree S and 46.38 degree W is
demonstrate in the class.
probably located in:
2. Collect and prepare in a chart, the
a. Russia;
facts about the sun, planets, satellites,
b. Canada; asteroids, comets and meteors and make
c. South Africa; a news reading of each heavenly body in
d. South America the school assembly each one day.
e. None of the above. 3. Collect latest information on the
8. The circumference of the earth at the “Planet 9” and present it in the
equator or along any line of longitude classroom.
is approximately:
a. 25,000 km Reference
b. 40,000 km 1. Geography by Surender Singh.
c. 36,000 km 2. Geography by Vee Kumar publications.
d. 46,000 km. 3. Solar system. Nasa.gov.com
9. It is 1:00 PM on Friday at 90 degree W.
what time is it at 90 degree E?
a. 7:00 PM Friday;
b. 7:00 AM Friday;
c. 7:00 AM Saturday;
d. 1:00 AM Saturday;
e. 1:00 PM Saturday.
10. It is 12 Noon, Monday at 90 degree. W.
what time and day should it be at 75
degrees east longitude?
a. 11PM, Monday;
b. 11 AM; Tuesday;
c. 1 AM; Monday;
d. 11 PM; Tuesday;
e. 6 AM; Monday.
51
ICT CORNER
Time zone and Eclipses Conflicting Clocks
Steps
• Use the URL to reach the ‘Time Zone Map’ page or scan the QR code.
• Use the mouse and surf over the interactive map to observe the time variations and
current time in a particular place.
• Select ‘Eclipses’ under ‘Sun and Moon’ menu to observe eclipses and transits of
planets.
• Click ‘See list of all eclipses & planet transits worldwide (1900 to 2199)’ option form
the list and use the interactive map to identify date and paths of eclipse and transits.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
https://www.timeanddate.com/time/map/
52
Unit III
Lithosphere:
Endogenic
Processes
3.1 Introduction
Do you know that the Russians tried to dig
through the centre of the Earth? It indeed
is a daring attempt.
While the famous Voyager 1 satellite
took 26 years to exit our Solar System
(16.5 billion km away), almost the same
amount of time (24 years) was taken for
man to dig out a mere 12.3 km into the
earth’s surface.
Russia drilled Kola Super Deep bore
Figure 3.1 Kola Super Deep
hole between 1970 and 1994. The deepest
Borehole, Russia
53
8.9 KM HIGH
MOUNT EVEREST
are collectively known as geomorphic
processes. (figure. 3.3)
The process by which the earth’s surface
SEA LEVEL
Earth
movements
Endogenetic Exogenetic
Underground
water (Karst)
L A U R A S IA
Equator Equator
TETHYS SEA
GO
ND
WA
NA
LA
ND
PERMIAN TRIASSIC
250 million years ago 200 million years ago
Equator Equator
JURASSIC CRETACEOUS
145 million years ago 65 million years ago
NORTH ASIA
AMERICA
INDIA
AFRICA
Equator
SOUTH
AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
ANTARCTICA
PRESENT DAY
57
tectonic is derived from the Greek word
tekton meaning builders.
W E
JUAN FERNANDEZ
PLATE
ANTARCTICA PLATE
SCOTIA PLATE
Not to scale
W E
Not to scale
Plates are composed of the continental Plate margins mark the occurrence of
or oceanic landmass. The subduction the most significant landforms, including
of the oceanic plates results in the volcanoes, fold mountains, island arcs
occurrence of earthquakes and volcanoes and deep-sea trenches. There are three
adjacent to trenches. principal types of plate boundaries. They
59
Volcanic
are divergent, convergent, and transform
arc
boundaries.
ch
en
Tr
Continental
3.5.1 Divergent plate boundaries Oceanic Crust
crust
Divergent plate boundary is the margin Lithosphere Lithosphere
where two plates move apart. For
Asthenosphere
instance, the African plate and South
American plate move apart and form a
divergent plate boundary. Narrow oceans Figure 3.10 Divergent margin
represent young divergent boundaries islands such as the Azores, Ascension, St.
and wide oceans are indications of Helena and Tristan da Cunha.
old ocean basins. Ocean ridges are
the boundaries between plates of the Web link: Mid Atlantic Ridge
lithosphere. www.britanica.com/place/
atlanticocean
Atlantic Ocean
is widening at an
Secondly, rift valley is formed when
estimated rate of 1 to
two plates move apart. If a divergent
10 cm a year
boundary runs through the continent,
A fissure is created when oceanic the continent splits apart and rift valley
lithosphere separates along the oceanic is formed. The African Rift Valley of East
plate boundary. The gap is filled by magma Africa is an example.
that rises from the asthenosphere. The
3.5.2 Convergent plate boundary
magma cools and solidifies to create a new
Convergent plate boundary is the margin
oceanic crust. Hence, the divergent plate
where two plates collide with one another.
boundary is termed as the constructive
For instance, the South American plate
plate boundary. It is also called as accreting
and Nazca plate collide with each other.
plate margin.
There are two kinds of surface features
Let us see what happens in the divergent
associated with the convergent margin.
plate boundary. Firstly, submarine
The first is the ocean trench that forms a
mountain ridge is formed through the
line between the two colliding plates.
fissures in the oceanic crust when the
plates move apart.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an ideal Wadati-Benioff
example of a submarine mountain ridge zones are nothing but
in the Atlantic Ocean. It is the longest Subduction zone
mountain ridge in the world.
It extends for about 16,000 km, in a 'S'
shaped path, between Iceland in the north
and Bouvet Island in the south. It is about A trench is a narrow and deep depression of
80 to 120 km wide. It reaches above the the ocean floor. It is formed when the oceanic
sea level in some places thus forming the plate slides down underneath continental
60
plate as the oceanic plate is denser than the 3.5.3 Transform plate boundaries
continental plate. For instance, Mariana Transform plate boundary is the margin
Trench in the Pacific Ocean, is the deepest where two plates move side by side. The
trench in the world. It is formed when the lithosphere is neither destroyed nor created
Pacific plate sinks down the Eurasian plate. It is by the transform plate boundary. Hence
about 10,994 metres (10.99 km) deep. Mariana it is called as the Conservative or passive
Trench stretches for more than 2,540 km with plate boundary. The San Andreas Fault,
a width of 69 km. California, is a transform boundary that
You could take Mount Everest and separates the North American plate and
sink it in the Mariana Trench, the deepest Pacific Plates.
Subduction zone
point in the ocean, and still you have a km
of depth to reach the surface of the ocean. oceanic
Cascade
ridge
Range
When a continental plate and an oceanic Juan
plate collide with each other, denser oceanic De Fuca North
plate sinks below the lighter continental Plate American
plate, subduction zone is formed. Transform Plate
boundary San Francisco
San
A subduction zone is a boundary where Plate motion direction Andreas
one plate sinks under the other plate. It was Los Angeles fault
two plates collide each other. For instance, Figure 3.12 Transform plate boundary
the Himalayas were formed when the Indian
plate collided with the Eurasian plate. The 3.6 Convection Cell
zone marking the boundary of the two Now you may think why plates keep
colliding plates is known as suture line. moving. The plate movements are caused
As the crust is less dense than the by the convection cells. Convection cell
mantle, the newly formed magma will is the circulation of the molten materials
tend to rise to the Earth’s surface, where caused by the heat derived from the core.
it may form volcanoes. The area in the When looking at the figure.3.13 you will
subduction zone where most earthquakes understand how and why plates move in
occur is known as the Benioff zone. different directions.
High When the molten materials( magma)
Ra ntain
Plateau
e
Continental crust
or pull the plates in different directions.
Continental crust
Thus, the plates move towards each other,
Lithosphere Lithosphere
move away from one another and move
side by side. The plate movements cause
Asthenosphere
the formation of fold, fault, earthquake, and
volcano to occur. Let us see the cause, effects,
Figure 3.11 Convergent plate boundaries and distribution of the internal forces.
61
Mid-Oceanic Ridge
Ocean
Trench
Subduction
Continental Oceanic
Lithosphere Lithosphere
Cold
Convection
Cell
Hot
Outer
core
Axial Planes
3.7.1 Parts of a Fold
Hinge Lines
(fold axes) Axis Up thrown part of a fold is called anticline.
Hinge
Down thrown part of a fold is syncline.
b
line
Lim
Li m b
bisects the angle between two limbs is
b
62
A. Open (Symmetrical) B. Asymmetrical C. Overturned
D. Recumbent E. Isoclinal
1. The Andes
2. The Rockies
3. The Atlas
4. The Himalayas
5. The Alps
5. When one side of the fold is pushed so The fault plane is the flat surface
much that it lies positioned over the along which broken blocks of rock slide
other, such a fold is called recumbent past one another. A fault dip is an angle
fold. between the fault plane and horizontal
plane. Up thrown side represents the
When plates converge, the weak
uppermost block of a fault. Down thrown
rocks and sediments lying between two
side represents the lowermost block of a
plates get squeezed and folded. Parallel
fault. Sometimes it becomes difficult to
folds form long chains of fold mountain
find out, which block has really moved
ranges with high peaks. The fold
along the fault plane. Hanging wall is the
mountains are characterised by peaks and
upper wall of a fault. Foot wall represents
valleys. The tops of anticlines become
the lower wall of a fault.
the peaks and synclines become the
valleys. Intermontane plateaus (plateau A fault scarp is the steep wall like slope
surrounded by the mountain ranges all caused by faulting of the crustal rocks.
sides) may be found between the high Sometimes the fault scrap is so steep that
ranges. Example, Tibet. it resembles a cliff.
64
Footwall Block Hanging Wall Block
Normal Fault
Figure 3.18 Narmada Rift Valley, India
word meaning ‘trough’. A Rift Valley may
subsequently get filled by water and a
river may flow through it. Normally, a rift
Hanging Wall Block valley is long, narrow and very deep. For
Footwall Block example,
i. Rhine rift Valley is flanked by two
Reverse Fault Block Mountains namely the Vosges
and the Black Forest.
Figure 3.17 Normal fault and Reverse fault
When movement occurs along a normal ii. The rift of River Narmada in India lies
fault, the hanging wall slips downward. between the Vindhyas and Satpura
block mountains.
Landforms made by Normal fault are: iii. The great rift valley of Africa.
1. Rift Valley or Graben The Great Rift Valley of Africa is
When a narrow block of land drops or the longest rift valley in the world. It
subsides between two parallel normal stretches for 6,400 km from Mozambique
faults, rift valley (Graben) is formed. in the south to Syria in the north. The
Graben originates from the German depressions have become lakes. The lakes
Graben
Tectonic Stress
Epicenter
Seismic
Waves Focus
Fault Plane
67
3.9.2 Description of effects of earthquake in Richter scale
68
N
W E
Not to scale
3.10 Volcano
A volcano is an opening in the earth's crust
through which magma, gases and ash are
Figure 3.24 Earthquake,Iran-Iraq
released to the earth's surface. The molten border, 2017
rock material found in the interior of the th
On 12 November 2017, an earthquake
earth is called magma. It can be noted that with a magnitude of 7.2 on the Richter
when magma reaches the earth’s surface, it scale occurred on the Iran–Iraq border.
is known as lava (Figure. 3.25). Vent is an Areas affected: Iran and Iraq.
opening or mouth of a volcano. Fumaroles Max. intensity: VIII (Severe)
are the gushing fumes through the gap Fault: Arabian and Eurasian plates.
Casualties: 630 dead; above 8,100
in the volcano. Crater is a saucer shaped
injured; above 70,000 homeless.
depression in the mouth of a volcano. Depth: 19.0 km.
When the crater is widened, it is called as
69
Crater (if filled with water,
a crater lake is formed). Fact File
Mt. Krakatau
Cone
Vent Lava
The greatest volcanic explosion
Ash Side
Vent
known to humans is perhaps
Fumarole Mt. Krakatau in August 1883.
71
2. Mid Atlantic Region 3.11.1 Rock Types
The Mid Atlantic Region coasts has Based on their origin, the rocks are
comparatively fewer active volcanoes classified as follows:
but many dormant or extinct volcanoes, 1. Igneous Rocks
example. St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands Igneous rocks are formed out of magma and
and the Canary Islands. But the volcanoes lava and they are known as primary rocks. If the
of Iceland and the Azores are active. magma cools slowly at great depths, mineral
3. The Great Rift valley of Africa grains increase in their size. Sudden cooling (at
In Africa some volcanoes are found along the surface) results in small and smooth grains.
the East African Rift Valley. Kilimanjaro The igneous rocks are the oldest of all the rocks.
and Mt. Kenya are extinct volcanoes. The Granite, pegmatite, basalt, etc are some of the
only active volcano in West Africa is Mt. examples of igneous rocks. There are two types
Cameroon. of igneous rocks: intrusive rocks (Granite) and
extrusive rocks (Basalt-Deccan Traps).
4. Mediterranean Region
Volcanoes of the Mediterranean Granite is less dense and is lighter in
region are mainly associated with the colour than basalt rocks.
Alpine folds. Example, Mt. Vesuvius,
3.11.2 Intrusive Igneous rocks
Mt. Stromboli (known as the Light House
Intrusive Igneous rocks are formed when
of the Mediterranean Sea).
magma rises and cools within the crust.
5. Other Regions The intrusive activity of volcanoes gives
Elsewhere in the interiors of continents rise to various forms. We see them one by
of Asia, North America and Europe active one as follow.
volcanoes are rare. There are no volcanoes
1. Batholiths
in Australia.
Batholiths are large rock masses formed due
Volcanoes in India to cooling and solidification of hot magma
There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan inside the earth. It is granitic in origin.
region of India. However, Barren Island, 2. Laccoliths
lying 135 km north-east of Port Blair Laccoliths are large dome-shaped intrusive
became active in 1991 and 1995. rock connected by a pipe-like conduit
However, the other volcanic island in from below. These are basically intrusive
Indian Territory is Narcondam (Andaman counterparts of an exposed domelike
and Nicobar Islands) It is probably extinct. batholiths. The Karnataka plateau is
Its crater wall has been completely destroyed. spotted with dome hills of granite rocks.
Most of these, now exfoliated, are examples
3.11 Rocks of laccoliths.
Rock is the solid mineral material forming
3. Lapoliths
the surface of the earth. Petrology is
When the magma moves upwards, a
the science of rocks. The age of the rock is
saucer shape, concave shaped body called
determined based on Carbon-14 dating.
Lapolith is formed.
72
4. Sill compaction turn into sedimentary rocks.
Sill is a solidified sheet-like horizontal They occupy only 5 percent of the earth.
lava layer inside the earth. The near They are layered or stratified of varying
horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous thickness. Example: sandstone, shale etc. Ice
rocks are called sill or sheet, depending on deposited sedimentary rocks is called Till.
the thickness of the material. The thinner Wind-deposited sediments are called Loess.
ones are called sheets while the thick Depending upon the mode of formation,
horizontal deposits are called sills. sedimentary rocks are classified into
1. Mechanically formed sedimentary
5. Dyke
rocks: sandstone, conglomerate,
When the magma makes its way through
limestone, shale, loess, etc.
cracks and the fissures developed in the
land, it solidifies almost perpendicular 2. Organically formed sedimentary rocks:
to the ground. It gets cooled in the same geyserites, chalk, limestone, coal etc.
position to develop a wall-like structure. 3. Chemically formed: halite, potash, etc.
Such structures are called dikes.
3. Metamorphic Rocks
These are the most commonly found The word metamorphic means ‘change
intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra of form’. The metamorphic rocks form
area. These are considered the feeders for under the action of pressure, volume and
the eruptions that led to the development temperature (PVT) change.
of the Deccan traps.
Metamorphism is a process by which
2. Sedimentary Rocks the already consolidated rocks undergo
Sedimentary rocks are also called as recrystallisation and reorganization of
detrital rocks. They are formed as a result materials within original rocks. Gneiss,
of denudation. These deposits through slate, schist, diamond, marble, quartzite
Volcanic neck
Dyke Lapolith
Sill Sill
Laccolith
Stock
Dyke
Dyke
Batholith
Magma
melting
crystallization
Sedimentary Rock
Sediment
74
Figure 3.29 Rock forming Minerals
75
Students’ activity
Place the appropriate number given in the diagram in the bracket
Lacolith ( )
Batholith ( )
6
Dyke ( ) 1 7
Sill ( )
5
Chamber ( ) 4
2
Phacolith ( )
3
Lapolith ( )
Figure 3.27 Intrusive Volcanic Structures
Evaluation
I. Multiple choice
1. Orogeny: structural deformation of questions
lithosphere due to interaction between
tectonic plates. 1. The term “Lithosphere”
2. Conorod boundary: Margin between was introduced by
the upper crust and the lower crust. a. Alfred Wegener
3. Shearing fault: the fault is created by b. Joseph Barrel
shearing along the plate boundary.
c. Alexander Von Humbolt
4. Laccoliths: are large dome-shaped
intrusive rock connected by a pipe. d. Kiyoo Wadati
5. Lapolith: When the magma moves 2. The boundary between the upper crust
upwards, a saucer shape, concave and lower crust is termed as
shaped body called lapolith. a. Guttenberg margin
6. Syncline: down slope of a fold
b. Lehmann Boundary
7. Crest: the top of the fold.
c. Conorod boundary
8. Catasrophism: sudden movements of
the earth caused by plate movements. d. Mohorovicic boundary
9. Metamorphism: the process by which 3. Who postulated the continental drift
both igneous and sedimentary rocks theory?
get changed into metamorphic rocks.
a. Kober b. Holmes
10. Rock cycle: a continuous process
through which old rocks are c. Taylor d. Wegener
transformed into new ones. 4. Odd one out
76
a. The Eurasian plate 10. Solidified sheet-like horizontal lava
b. The North American plate layer inside the earth is called as
c. The Pacific plate a. Dyke
d. The African plate b. Batholith
5. One among the given is the deepest c. Sill
trench in the world. d. Lacolith
a. The Mariana Trench
b. The Sandwich Trench II. Brief answer
c. The Puerto Rico Trench 1. Define Diastrophism.
d. The Sunda Trench 2. Why is the inner core solid?
6. It is a type of fold where one limb is 3. Distinguish between Mohorovicic
steeper than the other. boundary and Lehman boundary.
a. Symmetrical fold 4. Write the significance of the Ring of
b. Asymmetrical fold Fire.
c. Over turned fold 5. List the types of volcano based on their
d. Recumbent fold frequency of eruption .
7. The longest rift valley in the world is
a. The Narmada rift valley III. Short answer
b. The African rift valley 1. Write a short note on the Convection
c. The Baikal rift valley cell.
d. The Rhine rift valley 2. Name the types of plate boundary.
8. One of the following zones accounts 3. Why do plates keep moving?
for 68% of the earthquakes on the 4. Name the types of fold.
surface of the earth.
5. Draw a volcano and label its parts.
a. The Mediterranean – Himalayan
zone
IV. Detailed answer
b. The Circum Pacific zone
1. Describe the Interior of the Earth with
c. The Mid Atlantic zone
a diagram.
d. The African rift valley zone
2. Explain continental drift theory.
9. One among the given is the world’s
3. Explain the types of plate boundaries.
highest active volcano.
4. Draw a diagram and describe the stages
a. Mt. Vesuvius
of the rock cycle.
b. Mt. Stromboli
5. On the outline map of the world, mark
c. Mt. Cotopaxi the distribution of volcanoes and
d. Mt. Krakatau describe briefly about them.
77
V. Practice 3. Fundamentals of Geomorphology
1. Prepare in the cardboard sheet Richard John Huggett
jigsaw puzzle of fitting plates in their
Web Reference
respective boundaries.
2. Prepare a working model of the active 1. h t t p s : / / 3 . b p . b l o g s p o t . c o m /
volcano and demonstrate in the class. O 1 f RT h Z c WC g / V 7 n m Ump O i d I /
AAAAAAAAAmY/xyFJKGV04
3. Make a model of types of Fold and
ysOG275yupB5JhGnbDU0l_JwCLcB/
Fault using available resources, label
s1600/Dis.png
them, and present to the class.
2. h t t p s : / / w w w . y o u t u b e . c o m /
watch?v=_5q8hzF9VVE
Reference
3. h t t p s : / / v o l c a n o e s . u s g s . g o v / . . . /
1. Physical geography: fundamentals of This_D ynamic_Planet-Teaching_
the physical environment V. Ettwein Companion_Packet.pd
and M. Maslin
4. h t t p s : / / w w w . y o u t u b e . c o m /
2. Introducing Physical Geography, John watch?v=PDrMH7RwupQ
Wiley & Sons.
78
ICT CORNER
Lithosphere Morphing Boundaries
Steps
• Use the URL to land on ‘Google Earth’ or scan the QR code from your smartphone.
• Open “Google Earth” app and type “Everest” in the search box to explore the
folded mountain structure created by tectonic collision.
• Type volcano name in search box and explore the landscape formed by its eruption.
• Roll over the globe using your mouse and zoom in and zoom out to explore the
land mass and its tectonic plate extensions.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
79
Unit IV
Lithosphere:
Exogenic Processes
Chapter Outline
4.1 Introduction
At Mahabalipuram, Chennai, the 6
4.2 Exogenic Processes
meter high and 5-metre wide rock
4.3 Weathering estimated to weigh over 250 tons is
4.4 Mass wasting known locally as Krishna's Butter Ball.
4.5 Gradational Processes Its original Tamil name is "Vaanirai
4.6 The River Kal" which literally translates to
"Stone of The Sky God”
4.7 Glacier
Look at the figure above Krishna's
4.8 Ground water
Butter ball inserted on the top and
(Karst Topography)
let's discuss:
4.9 Wind
• What, do you think, made this
4.10 Waves (Coast) rock stone to get this shape?
• Guess how many years it might
have taken to get such a shape.
Learning Objectives: • Think about how it is standing
• Understand how external forces balanced?
reshape the surface of the earth.
• Distinguish between physical weathering
4.1 Introduction
and chemical weathering.
• Identify the different types of mass Let’s recall that you have learned in the
wasting and its characteristics. previous chapter about geomorphic
processes - Endogenic processes in detail.
• Distinguish between the actions of
Now we deal with the exogenic processes.
various gradational agents.
The forces which act on the earth’s exterior
are called as exogenic forces or external
80
forces. The action of exogenic forces results 4.3.1 Physical weathering
in wearing down the rock and hence, they Physical Weathering is the disintegration
are considered as land wearing forces. of rock mainly induced by elements of
weather. It produces smaller, angular
4.2 Exogenic Processes
fragments of the same rock. It is caused by
The processes which occur on earth’s the change in temperature, pressure, water
surface due to the influence of external and wind. Physical weathering is further
forces are called as exogenic processes. divided into different categories. They are
Weathering, mass wasting and denudation thermal weathering, frost wedging and
are the major exogenic processes. The exfoliation.
elements of nature capable of doing
these exogenic processes are termed as 4.3.1.1 Thermal weathering
gradational agents. For instance, the wind, In arid and semi-arid areas, the temperature
river, glacier, waves and ground water. increases, heat up and expand the rocks
during the day and contract the rock
4.3 Weathering materials when cooling at night. Under
Weathering is the process of disintegration extreme temperature conditions, due to
and decomposition of rocks. It is due to alternate expansion and contraction, the
the action of climate, plants, animals and rocks crack and eventually split. The thermal
other living organisms which cause the weatherings are of two types. They are;
rocks to break down physically, chemically (a) Granular disintegration and
and biologically. (b) Block disintegration
There are three types of weathering. Alternate expansion and contraction of
They are physical weathering, chemical minerals of varying properties in the
weathering and biological weathering. rocks due to temperature changes, makes
81
Figure 4.2 Exfoliated Rock( left) and Granular (right)
the rocks break down into small pieces rocks and freezes, the pressure exerted on
(Figure 4.2). Due to this, the breakup the rock is enough to wedge the walls of
of rocks occurs, grain by grain. This is the crack farther apart, thus expanding
known as granular disintegration. and deepening the crack. Thus, frost
Block disintegration occurs in rocks wedging results in weathering of rock.
such as granite rock. So in the areas of jointed 4.3.1.3 Exfoliation
igneous or layered sedimentary rocks due
Rocks generally heat or cool more on the
to the great diurnal range of temperature,
surface layers. The alternate changes in
the rocks may break up along the joints and
temperature could cause their outer layers
cracks into a large rectangular shaped blocks.
to peel off from the main mass of the rock in
4.3.1.2 Frost Wedging concentric layers just as the skin of an onion.
Almost all liquids contract when frozen, The process by which curved layers of rock
but when water freezes it becomes larger breakaway from the rock beneath them
in size or takes up more space. As water leaving behind dome shaped monoliths
expands it puts great pressure on rocks. is called exfoliation (Figure 4.2). It is also
When water enters into the cracks of called as ‘onion weathering’. Exfoliation
occurs commonly in the arid areas.
W te
Wa
Water
ter IC
CE
ICE
82
4.3.2. Chemical Weathering in exposing the rock surfaces to chemical
Chemical weathering is the decomposition changes with the penetration of moisture and
of rock. For example it creates altered air. Human beings by removing vegetation
rock substances, such as kaolinite (china for agriculture and other activities also
clay) from granite. The types of chemical help in mixing and creating new contacts
weathering are as follows: between air, water, and minerals in the rock
i. Solution: Some soluble minerals in materials. Plant roots make a great pressure
the rock get dissolved when come on the rock materials mechanically breaking
in contact with water. Over a long them apart.
period minerals get washed away from
rock and sometimes leading to the
formation of caves.
ii. Oxidation: When oxygen combines
with water and iron, it weakens the rock
and breaks it. Example, rusting of iron.
iii. Hydrolysis: It is the chemical
breakdown of a rock substance when
combined with water and forms
an insoluble precipitate like clay
Figure 4.4 biological weathering
mineral. The most common example
of hydrolysis is feldspar found in
4.4 Mass wasting
granite changing to clay.
iv. Carbonation: Carbonation is the Mass wasting is the movement of a large
mixing of water with carbon dioxide mass of rock, soil and debris downward by
to make carbonic acid. This acid the pull of gravity. It is also called a mass
reacts with minerals in the rocks. movement or slope movement. It may
This type of weathering is important happen suddenly or slowly. Generally, mass
in the formation of caves. wasting is classified by the type of material
involved (mud, soil, and rock) and type
v. Hydration: It is the absorption of
of motion (fall-free-falling pieces, slide-
water into the mineral structure of the
material moves along the rock slope and
rock. Hydration expands volume and
flow–material mixed with water).
also results in rock deformation. A
good example of hydration is the 4.4.1 Types of Mass Wasting
absorption of water by anhydrite, Following are the types of mass wasting:
resulting in the formation of gypsum. Rock falls
4.3.3 Biological Weathering Rock falls occur when pieces of rock
Biological weathering is the alteration of break from a cliff. Frost wedging may also
rock by the action of plants, animals, and eventually loosen large blocks causing them
man. Burrowing and wedging by organisms to fall. The accumulation of rock debris at
like earthworms, termites, rodents, etc., help the base of a steep slope is called talus.
83
QR CODE
Figure 4.5 Mass movement
Slump
Great mass of bed rock moves downward
by rotational slip from a high cliff is
known as slump. Most common reason
for slumping is erosion at the base of
the slope which reduces the support for
overlying sediments.
Debris Slide
Debris slide is more extensive and occurs
Figure 4.6 Rock fall on a larger scale than slump but there is
a little amount of water. The materials
Rockslides involved in debris slide are a mixture of
Rockslides usually follow a zone of soils and rock fragments.
weakness. Presence of water increases
Debris flows
slippage. Collisions down the slope
generally break the rock mass into rubble Debris flow is defined as mass wasting event in
that eventually results in rockslides. which turbulence occurs throughout the mass.
Debris flow includes earth flows, mudflows,
Landslides and debris avalanches. Debris flow occurs
Landslides occur when a large piece of when the rock or soil mass loses coherency
rock breaks off and slides down hill. It is when lots of water is involved. Debris becomes
often initiated by earthquakes and very mixed up completely and flows as liquid mud.
heavy rain. It often carries large boulders which can be
84
very destructive. When earth material moves A mudflow
down a hillside as a fluid-like mass, it is called Mudflow is a liquid mass of soil, rock debris
an earth flow. These flows typically occur in and water that moves quickly down a well
humid areas on steep slopes with thick, clay- defined channel. They occur most often in
rich soil that becomes saturated with water mountainous semiarid environments. A
during storms. mudflow originating on a volcanic slope is
called a lahar.
Debris avalanche
The deadliest type of debris flow is the
debris avalanche. It is a rapidly churning
mass of rock debris, soil, water, and air that
moves down steep slopes. The trapped air
may increase the speed of an avalanche
by acting as a cushion between the debris
and the underlying surface
Figure 4.7 Debris flow
86
called as the deposition. When a river where two rivers join is called as the
moves in a gentle slope, its speed confluence. The mountain which has two
reduces and river begins to deposit its river systems draining on either side of the
load. The river starts depositing larger slope is termed as the water divide.
materials first and smaller and finer 2. The Middle Stage
materials are carried further down to
Middle stage is the matured stage of a river.
the mouth of the river.
Vertical erosion or deepening of the valley
4.6.1 Stages of the River is significantly reduced. Lateral erosion
The course of a river includes the upper is the dominant work. Due to the lateral
stage, the middle stage, and the final stage. erosion of this stage, the widening of the
Each stage of the river is dominated by a valley occurs. The volume of the river water
kind of work. Let’s discuss the stages of a increases and the slope of river is moderate.
river, the main work and the landforms The depth of the river is deep here.
made in each stage. 3. The Lower Stage
1. The Upper Stage This is the final stage of a river where the
The upper stage of a river is also called valleys are extremely broad and it has
the youthful stage or mountain stage. The generally gentle slope. The valley becomes
velocity and speed of the stream are very almost flat which is called a peneplain.
high because the slope here is steep. The Most of the peneplain forms low residual
vertical erosion is the most dominant work
here. The valley is formed here. The place Students activity
where a river starts is called a source. In
Look at the diagram, read the table
the mountain stage, the number of small
of content carefully and fill in the
streams originates from different locations.
columns with suitable words.
They are called Tributaries. The place
87
hills with steep slopes which are called as Canyons are extended form of gorges.
Monadnocks. The main work of the river Canyons represent very deep, narrow but
in this stage is the deposition. The depth of long valleys. The steepness of the valley
the river is shallow here. When the main sides depends on the nature of the rocks.
river splits into many small rivers, they are The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River in
called as the distributaries. The place where the state of Arizona, USA having a length
the river ends is called mouth of the river. of 482.8 kilometers and depth of 2088.3
(for example: Sea coast, Lake.) meter is the largest canyon in the world.
The Canyon of Gandikota is situated on the
4.6.2 Landforms by the Erosional Work
Pennar River in Andhra Pradesh is known
of River
as the Grand Canyon of India.
The significant landforms resulting from
erosion by rivers include gorge, canyon, V-Shaped Valley The valleys made by the
V-Shaped Valley, waterfall, pothole, rivers are erosional landforms. The valley
structural bench, river terrace, river is formed in the youthful stage of the
meander, ox-bow lake, peneplain, etc. river erosion. Due to the steep slope and
large volume of water, the river cuts its
Gorges are formed due to active down bed vertically forming narrow and deep
cutting of the valleys. So, a Gorge is a river valley. This is called as V-shaped
narrow and deep river valley which has valley.
steep slopes.
Rapids and waterfalls
Rapids are stream sections with extremely
strong currents, numerous obstacles, and steps
in their streambeds. A waterfall is a vertical
drop in a streambed. Both water fall and rapids
are formed by vigorous erosion. Series of a
waterfall in a river is called as Cascade.
Plunge pool
A plunge pool is a deep depression in
a stream bed at the base of a waterfall.
It is created by the erosional forces of
falling water at the base of a waterfall.
Angel Falls, in
Venezuela, is Earth’s
highest waterfall
(979 m).
Hogenakal falls, Dharmapuri, Tamil
Nadu some times is called as the
Figure 4.9 Gorge Niagara of India.
88
Figure 4.10 The Canyon of Gandikota, the Pennar River in Andhra Pradesh
Gandikota, Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh is known for its spectacular gorge
formed by river Pennar that cuts through the Erramala hills. This handsome piece of
Nature’s architecture is known as the Hidden Grand Canyon of India. Magnificent
Gandikota fort is located majestically on top of this gorge. Belum Cave found here is
the second largest cave system in the India. In fact, geologists have also found surplus
deposits of Quartz in the stalactite and stalagmite formations of the cave. Adjacent
to Gandikota fort, lies a magnificent lake that is believed to have been established by
emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya using water from the Pennar river.
89
Figure 4.11 Hogenakal waterfalls, Dharmapuri, Tamil Nadu
Areas of deposition
Areas of erosion
92
(a) Structure of a simple delta
Sea or Lake
Turbidity
Current
Topset
beds
Lagoon Lagoon
Students activity
Label the following diagram of landforms made by the river.
Journey of a river
key words
Mouth
Tributary
Meander
Delta
Source
Floodplain
Ox bow lake
Confluence
93
flows through and deposits its load on 1. Continental Glaciers
its either side. Example, Tiber River of The continental glaciers are found in
Italy polar regions. In these areas, all the
precipitation is in the form of snow. The
4.7 Glacier snow that falls from year to year gradually
A glacier is a huge mass of ice that moves gets accumulated. As a result, these regions
slowly along the mountain slope. The term are covered by an extensive ice mass.
“glacier” comes from the French word This is known as ice sheet or continental
glace which means ice. Glaciers are often glacier. It is estimated that the maximum
called “rivers of ice”. It forms where the thickness of the ice sheets of Greenland
accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation is 3,400 meter, while the maximum
over many years. thickness of the ice sheet of Antarctica is
The places where the snow lies for 4776 meter. Sometimes, the ends of the ice
the whole year are called snowfields. sheet projects outwards over the sea. The
The imaginary line above which there is waves of the sea strike against them and
a permanent snowfield is known as the break the ice sheets into blocks of floating
snow line. The snowfields are always ice known as Icebergs.
situated above the snow line. The snow line
2. Ice Caps
differs according to latitude, amount of
snowfall, the direction of the wind and It is the covering of snow and ice on the
the physical features of the region. Snow oceans of poles. The ice caps can cover
starts melting below the snow line. Under vast areas with the extensive accumulation
the pressure of the upper layers, the of snow and ice. Example, Svartissen ice
lower layers of the snow field begin to cap in Northern Norway.
melt causing the mass of snow to move 3. Mountain and Valley Glaciers
down slope as glacier. Glacier moves These are also known as Alpine glaciers.
at an average speed of 1meter per day. They flow like tongues of ice down through
Over 96 percent of the glaciers occur in the mountain valleys from the ice caps.
Antarctica and Greenland. The piedmont glaciers form continuous
ice sheets at the base of mountains. The
The world’s largest valley glaciers or Alpine glaciers are found
glacier is the Lambert in higher regions of the Himalayas and
Glacier in Antarctica, on all such high mountain ranges of the
more than 96 km wide world.
and 435 km long and 2,500 metres deep..
4.7.2 Characteristics of Glaciers
4.7.1 Types of Glaciers A moving ice mass or glacier possesses
The Glaciers are of three types. They are; certain characteristics of movement,
speed, and surface structure. The rate of
1. Continental Glaciers
movement of the glacier is very slow.
2. Ice Caps
The rate of movement or the speed of a
3. Mountain and Valley Glaciers
glacier depends upon the size of the glacier
94
and the slope of the valley. Sometimes, the The chief erosional landforms by the
surface of the glacier forms cracks known as glaciers are as follow:
Crevasses. Crevasses are the deep fissure of
variable width in the surface of a glacier. These
crevasses are dangerous to the Mountaineers.
96
Figure 4. 19 Types of Moraines
97
Figure 4.20 Karst features
2. Doline 4. Uvala
A doline is a closed depression draining Series of smaller sinkholes coalesce into a
underground in karst areas. It can be cylindrical, compound sinkhole is called uvala.
conical, bowl or dish shaped. The diameter 5. Polje
ranges from a few meter to many hundreds of
Polje is an elongated basin having a flat
meters. The name doline comes from dolina,
floor and steep walls. It is formed by the
the Slovenian word meaning valley.
coalescence of several sinkholes. The basins
3. Lappies often cover 250 square km and may expose
Lappies are the irregular grooves and “disappearing streams.” Most of these basins
ridges formed when most of the surfaces of have steep enclosing walls that range from
limestone are removed by solution process. 50 to 100 meter in height, giving rise to the
name “blind valley.”
6. Caves
Caves normally have an opening through
which cave streams are discharged. Caves
HOTS
98
having an opening at both the ends are 1. Curtains
called tunnels. Rain water drips from long crack in a cave
roof forms a continuous strip of calcites. It
is called as curtains.
2. Stalactite
Drops of water containing dissolved
limestone seep down through cracks in
the cave roof. Drops of water lose carbon
dioxide and deposit calcite. Overtime
deposition of calcite forms pillars hanging
down from the roof of the cave. It is called
as stalactite and where the stalactite
stretches towards the sides are known as
Helactites.
3. Stalagmite
Deposition of calcite forming icicles
growing upward from the cave floor is
called as stalagmite.
Stalactites are calcium carbonate
Figure 4.22 Curtains deposits hanging as icicles while
Stalagmites are calcium carbonate deposits
4.8.2 Depositional Landforms due to which rise up from the floor.
Ground water
The following depositional features are
formed within caves.
99
4. Pillar
When both the stalagmite and stalactite
join together, it is known as pillar.
4.9 Wind
The wind is the main geomorphic agent
in the arid region. Wind in arid region has
greater speed which causes erosional and
depositional activities in the desert. The
landforms which are created by erosional
and depositional activities of wind are
called as Aeolian Landforms.
Action of the wind
The action of the wind is carried in the
following ways;
1. Deflation: Removal of sand and dust
particles by wind. It forms depression
in the desert. When depression is Figure 4.24 Oasis (Top)
filled with water, it is called as Oasis. Mushroom rock (Bottom)
2. Abrasion: Action of wind in which
sand particles carried by the wind erosion in the lower part of the rock than
strike against the rock. the top. These result in the formation of
3. Attrition: Sand particles carried by the rock pillars shaped like a mushroom with
wind striking each other is known as narrow pillars with broad top surfaces.
attrition. 3. Yardang
4.9.1Erosional Landforms of Wind Yardangs are extensively grooved, fluted,
1. Deflation Hollows pitted and irregular rock ridges or reliefs
When deflation causes a shallow of about 1 to 10 meters high running
depression by persistent movements parallel to the prevailing winds. They are
of wind, they are called as deflation caused by differential erosion. When the
hollows.
sand-laden wind corrades zones of softer
2. Mushroom Rock or weaker rock between harder vertical
A mushroom rock, also called rock ridges from old lake sediment where soft,
pedestal, or a pedestal rock, is a naturally consolidated rock and bedrock surfaces
occurring rock whose shape, as its name
are eroded into alternating ridges and
implies, resembles a mushroom.
furrows. Large-scale yardangs are found
In deserts, a greater amount of sand
in Egypt (near Kom Ombo, north of Lake
and rock particles are transported close to
the ground by the winds which cause more Aswan).
100
run for long distances, sometimes several
HOTS
kilometres.
Zeugen
Zeugen is a landscape of alternate
horizontal ridges and furrows made by
the action of wind abrasion. It may be as
high as 30 m height.
101
called abrasion. Abrasion is also called 1. Sea cliff is steep rocky coast rising
as the corrasion. almost vertically above seawater is
2. Hydraulic action: The waves force water called sea cliff.
and air into the cracks in the rock. The 2. Wave Cut Platform: Rock cut flat
parcel of air can be compressed by the surfaces in front of a cliff are called
surging water and the waves retreat, air wave-cut platform. They are slightly
expands explosively, weakening the joints concave upward. It is also formed
and cracks and causing the rock to break. when blowhole is collapsed.
This is called the Hydraulic action.
3. Corrosion: The action of dissolving
soluble rocks by waves is termed as the
corrosion or solution.
4. Attrition: Eroded materials like
boulders and rocks knock together to
wear out into smaller particles. This is
called attrition.
Figure 4.27 Sea cliff and wave cut platform
Terms related to coast
3. A sea cave is a hollow excavated by waves
• Sea shore is the zone of land between in a zone of weakness on a cliff. The cave
high tide and low tide depth is greater than the entrance width.
• Shore line is boundary between Sea caves usually form at points of
land and water. geological weakness, such as bedding planes,
• Backshore is the beach zone starting joints, and faults. A 90 meter long sea cave
from the limit of frequent storm is found in the Loliem beach in Canacona in
waves to the cliff base. Goa. The world’s most extensive cave is 1.5 km
long Matainaka cave in New Zealand.
• Foreshore is the portion of the
beach subject to wave action during
non-storm conditions.
• Offshore is the shallow zone of the
continental shelf
• Coastline is the boundary where the
land meets the sea
• Swash is the waves washing up the
beach.
102
emerging from the top. If blowholes The eroded materials are transported by
become enlarged, they may collapse. the waves in different ways. The materials
involved in the transportation by sea
waves include silt, sand, gravel, cobble,
pebble and boulder.
Sand spit
Offshore sand bar
Tombolo
Evaluation b. Erode
I. Multiple Choice c. Dharmapuri
Questions d. Coimbatore
1. Which of the following 4. The swirling movement of the
is the chemical falling water into the plunge pool
weathering process? is called
a. Exfoliation a. Plunge pool
b. Frost Wedging b. Groove
c. Carbonation c. Rapids
d. Thermal expansion d. Eddying
2. Feldspar found in Granite changing to 5. A winding curve or bend in a river
clay is the most common example of a. Ox-bow lake
a. Oxidation b. Flood plain
b. Carbonation c. Meander
c. Solution d. Levees
d. Hydrolysis 6. A bowed or curved delta with the
3. Which district in Tamil Nadu has the convex margin facing the body of
highest frequency of landslide? water, also called as fan delta.
a. Nilgiris a. Arcuate Delta
104
b. Bird’s foot Delta 18. Explain how a meander changes into
c. Abandoned Delta an Oxbow lake.
d. Truncated Delta 19. Distinguish between Barchans and Seif
7. Coleroon (Kollidam) river is a dune.
distributary of 20. Explain Moraine and list out its types.
a. The Bhavani River IV. Detailed answer
b. The Palar River 21. List the landforms made by the river
c. The Pennar River and explain any two landforms with
diagrams.
d. The Cauvery River
22. Describe the erosional landforms of
8. An amphitheater-shaped hollow basin
wind with diagrams.
cut into a mountain ridge by glacier.
23. Elucidate the landforms made by the
a. Arete
wave erosion and draw the appropriate
b. Cirque
diagram.
c. Horn
V. Practice
d. Fjord
24. Make a diorama of landforms made by
9. The formation of irregular grooves and the wind as a group work and show to
ridges when most of the surfaces of the class explaining how each landform
limestone are removed by solution process. is made.
a. Lappies 25. Group Work: Make a working model
b. Polje of a river course with all the landforms
c. Cave using available materials and
d. Nunataks demonstrate it in the class.
10. One among the given is formed when
the arch is collapsed.
a. Stack Reference
b. Cave 26. Wikipedia
c. Blow hole 27. Physical geography: fundamentals of
the physical environment V. Ettwein
d. Wave cut platform
and M. Maslin
II. Very short answer
28. Introducing Physical Geography, John
11. Define exogenic processes.
Wiley & Sons.
12. What is an exfoliation?
29. Fundamentals of Geomorphology
13. How are rock flow, slide and fall
Richard John Huggett
different from one another?
14. List the types of Delta.
15. How is Spit different from Tombolo?
Web Reference
III. Short Answer
16. Compare physical weathering and 1. Web link: Read More at https://www.
chemical weathering. l iveh i stor y i n d i a . c om / ge ol o g i c a l -
17. Explain how a cave changes into stack. wonders/2017/05/24/gandikota-the-
grand-canyon-of-india-2
105
ICT CORNER
Lithosphere Change is Constant
Steps
• Use the URL to reach ‘Plate Tectonics’ simulation page.
• Download JAVA binary file from the page and install it .Click ‘Play’ button to run
the JAVA applet.
• ‘Plate tectonics’ crust page will open. Modify temperature, composition and
thickness of the crust and measure the density and depth using the scale provided.
• Select ‘Plate Motion’ page and drag the crust form to converge or diverge motion
and observe the exogenic process.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/plate-tectonics
106
Unit V
Hydrosphere
108
excluding Middle East, has the largest run may have their origin through tectonic
off of 13,300 km3/year followed by North activity, volcanic activity, river, glacier and
America with 12,000 km3 per year. wave action or sometimes meteoric origin.
Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal and Wular Lake
A nationwide water have been formed by earth movements.
resources information Lake Baikal is the deepest freshwater lake
system, “Generation in the world. Caspian Sea is the largest salt
of Database and water lake in the world.
Implementation of Web Enabled
Water Resources Information System Fact File
(India-WRIS) in the country” Tmc ft, is the abbreviation for
contain all aspects of water resources one thousand million cubic
and related data provide data and feet (1,000,000,000 = 1 billion),
information in public domain through commonly used in India with
India-WRIS Web GIS portal. reference to volume of water in a
reservoir or river flow.
Lakes: Lakes are larger bodies of water
with outlet through a river or stream. Lakes
Activity: List the major rivers from the map, find their source and mouth.
Name of the river Source Countries through Sea or ocean it Type (Delta
which they flow drains into or estuary)
Amazon. R
Nile .R
Yangtzekiang. R
Ganga. R
109
in higher latitudes. Permafrost is the
Saltwater intrusion condition prevailing when water freezes
If excessive water is above and below the ground, (including
taken from the aquifers rock or soil) for more than two consecutive
along the coast, the years. Most permafrost regions are located
sea water enters the coastal aquifer. in high latitudes, but alpine permafrost
This process is termed as saltwater may exist at high mountains in much
intrusion. lower latitudes.
Fact File
5.4 Cryosphere
Mount Kilimanjaro (5895m) in
Cryosphere includes the water in frozen Tanzania, Africa, located closer to
state. Glaciers, ice sheets, ice caps, lake the equator has permafrost.
and river ice, permafrost, seasonal snow
and ice crystals in the atmosphere together
form cryosphere. Earth’s climate is highly Seasonal snow and ice crystals are
influenced by the extent of cryosphere as confined to middle latitudes and high
it controls the energy budget of the earth mountains in lower latitude. Sea ice is
(Figure 5.2). frozen ocean water. Its formation, growth
Perennial ice cover is found in and melting are all confined to the ocean.
Greenland and Antarctica as ice sheets, An ice shelf is a thick, floating slab of ice
as mountain glaciers and as permafrost that forms where a glacier or ice flows
Ice cap
Snow
Snow
Lake/River Iceberg
Ice
Glacier
Glacler Ice Sheet
Seaice IceSheif
Permafrost
Sea
Land
High-tide low-tide
Cliffs Backshore Breaker line Breaker line
Foreshore Offshore
(exposed at low-tide) Nearshore
High-tide High-tide
Contiguous Zone
(up to 12 miles)
Land
Area
Continental Shelf (deep sea bed)
SRI
100
LANKA
SRI
NE
LANKA
C ZO
50
N
MI
00
C
E
E
650E 700 750 800 850 900 950 V
SI
North Indian Ocean with Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal .The dashed Lines OU C LU
TER EX
LIMIT OF
demacrate India’s EEZ,Which covers about 2 million sq,km, Which is roughly
60% of India’s land area.India’s coastline including islands is about 7000 km long.
fathoms. The width of the continental shelf abyssal plain is called continental slope. The
varies according to the nature of the rock slope angle varies from 5° to 60°. It occupies 9%
beneath the crust. If the crust is dynamic of sea floor. This is the region in oceans where
then the shelf would be narrow and vice landslides, turbid currents, large sediment
versa. Continental shelves are formed due to slumps, under water canyons, gorges cut by
either any one or combination of the factors the currents and rivers occur. The deposit
like fluvial deposits, marine erosion, tectonic from the continental shelves immediately falls
forces, and the fluctuations in sea level in the down here. The origin of continental slope is
past. Continental shelves are well known for believed to be due to erosional, tectonic and
oil, natural gas, mineral deposits and coral aggradational processes.
reefs. World famous fishing grounds like
Grand Bank are situated here. The world’s Continental rise
widest continental shelf (1210 km long) is The area between the continental
located along the coast of Siberia, in Russia. slope and the sea floor is known as the
Continental shelf on the east coast of continental rise. This part is noted for
India is formed by deltas of the Ganga, the the accumulation of sediments similar to
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery. the alluvial fans near the foot hills in the
On the West coast of India the continental land. It represents the boundary between
shelves are formed due to faulting and continents and abyssal plain. It constitutes
consequent submergence. about 5% of the oceanic area.
Continental
Shelf
Continental
Slope
Continental
Abyssal Rise
plain
Figure 5.8 Ocean relief
T - TRENCH
R - RIDGE
121
The average depth normally measured in the unit of degree
of the Indian Ocean is Celsius by thermometers. The major
3890m. Sunda deep near source of heat energy for ocean water
Java is the deepest part is the radiation from sun. The heating
of this ocean (7450m). and cooling capacity of water differs
Madagascar and Sri significantly from that of land.
Lanka are the most prominent islands
present in Indian Ocean. Andaman and Factors affecting horizontal
Nicobar islands in the Bay of Bengal are distribution of ocean temperature
the raised part of mountains that are the The factors affecting distribution
extension of Arakan Yoma which forms of ocean temperature are latitude,
a part of Himalayas. Reunion Island is prevailing winds, ocean currents and local
located on a Hot spot. weather.
Not to scale
18
0 0 16
14
12
10
400S 8
6
4
2
800S
0
-2
18
00 16
14
12
10
400S 8
6
4
2
800S
0
-2
_
_
Polar
relief and the
Tropical _ 2,000
submarine ridges
_ Temperate
1,000 _ 4,000 with shallow water do not allow
free mixing of open sea water. The
Depth(m)
Depth(m)
Fact File
_
125
Distribution of salinity
Activity
On an average the salinity decreases from
equator towards the poles. The highest Identify regions of high salinity and
salinity is observed between 20° and low salinity.
40° north latitudes because this zone
Compare the salinity of Arabian
is characterized by high temperature,
Sea and Bay of Bengal and find the
high evaporation but less rain than the
reason for the same.
equatorial region.
Find out the reason for low salinity
The marginal areas of the oceans
on east coast of Asia and West coast of
bordering the continents have lower
North America.(Figure 5.15)
salinity than their interior due to addition
Why does the salinity vary along
of fresh water to the marginal areas
the west coast of South America?
through the rivers (Figure 5.15).
Very high salinity is recorded in Lake
Von, Turkey (330‰ ) Dead Sea (238‰) Fact File
and Great Salt Lake, Utah, USA (220‰). Isohaline is an imaginary line drawn
to join places having equal salinity.
Raking refers to the use Salinity of Dead Sea is 8.6 times
of a rake, a traditional saltier than other oceans. The shore
wooden tool with the of Dead Sea is 423m below sea level.
long handle and long It has the lowest elevation on land.
pointed wooden toothed spade at the The sea is 377m deep. The high salt
bottom for collecting salt. content will make people float on the
sea. The high salt content has made
the Dead Sea devoid of life in it.
126
Salinity (ppt)
more than 37
37
36
35
34
less than 34
128
World -Ocean currents
1500 1200 900 600 300 00 300 600 900 1200 1500
800 800
N
La
br
ad
C
dC ian W E
or
nlan rve
g
C.
ee
0
60 No 600
Gr Berling S C.
. o
St. Johns ic C London hi
N. Pacific C. ant as
New York Atl Oy
ry C.
400 N 400
am
C
North alifo Stre North C.
io
Cana
lf sh
Pacific Gyre rn Gu Atlantic ro
Ku
ia
C
N Equa torial C.
li
N. Equatorial C.
ma
N. Equatorial C.
So
0
0 00
S Equatorial C.
S. Equatorial C. S. Equatorial C.
ustralian C.
u s t r a l i a n C.
Benguela
Peru C
sC
Pacific Gyre South Indian
a
.
ulh
Durban
il C
.
E. A
Ag
Braz
C.
400 Gyre 400
.A
W
West Wind Drift West Wind
800 800
1500 1200 900 600 300 00 300 600 900 1200 1500
Not to Scale
Cold Current Warm Current
130
the influence of Roaring Forties. of the earth. It joins the labrador
It splits into two branches and one cold current near New Found land,
moves south around the Cape Horn Canada after passing through the
into the Atlantic Ocean and the strait of Florida. The Gulf Stream was
Other one moves northward along discovered by Ponce de Leon in 1513.
the Peruvian coast due to deflection
and joins the Peru Current.
3. Gulf Stream.
Gulf Stream starts from the Gulf of
Mexico and carries warm waters
into the colder latitudes. It is a warm
current. It bends with the coastline
up to 40th parallel after which the
direction is almost to the east, due
to the force and the direction of the
westerlies and the deflective force
131
S. No. World’s Fishing banks Confluence of ocean currents
The Grand bank (Atlantic Ocean,
1. Gulf Stream and Labrador current
Western Europe)
The Agulhas bank (Atlantic Ocean, Benguela cold current and Agulhas
2.
South west Africa) warm current
The Dogger bank (Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic drift and canary cold
3.
North east of N.A) current
The Reed bank (South China Sea, Kuroshio Warm current and Oyashio
4.
Pacific Ocean) Cold Current
South Equatorial warm current and
5. The Pedro bank (India Ocean)
W. Australian cold current
132
Normal Situation El Nino Situation
Near equator the water of the Pacific Near equator the warm water in the
Ocean is warmer in the western side Pacific Ocean extends from western
and cooler in the eastern side due to side to eastern side suppressing the
upwelling of the cold current. upwelling of the cold water.
Air (Walker) circulation is dominant Air (Walker) circulation is dominant in
in the western Pacific Ocean. The the eastern part of Pacific Ocean. The
air ascends in the western side and air ascends in the warm eastern Pacific
descends over the cooler eastern side Ocean.
Heavy rain is experienced in the Heavy rain is experienced in the
western warmer region and dry eastern warmer region and dry
conditions prevail in the cooler region. condition prevails in the western part.
The Southeast Asia and Australia Southeast Asia and Australia
receive heavy rain on normal years. experience dry weather conditions.
West coast of South America West coast of South America receives
experiences dry weather. heavy rainfall.
134
Increase of temperature in the east La Nina
Pacific Ocean is correlated with normal La Nina is just the opposite to the condition
monsoon conditions in India while the of El Nino. When trade winds are strong,
increase of temperature in the central colder water up wells on the East Pacific
Pacific has high correlation with drought Ocean, walker air circulation is confined
conditions in India. When temperature to the west Pacific, wet condition in
increases further to the west it suppresses Southeast Asia and dry weather in South
the Indian Monsoon. America is observed.
The difference in the atmospheric
pressure between the west and east
International Research
tropical Southern Pacific Ocean is
Institute Climate
referred to as Southern Oscillation.
Prediction Centre
Meteorologists have established a close
predicts and forecasts
inter link between Southern Oscillation
El Nino occurrences. Scientists are in
and occurrences of El Nino and La Nina
the opinion that El Nino can cause
events. The acronym ‘ENSO’(El Nino
Global Warming and it also increases
Southern Oscillation) is often used to
the frequency of El Nino occurrence.
study both the phenomena.
135
Fact File Glossary
Peruvian fishermen named the Abyssal plains: An extremely large, flat,
weather phenomenon El Nino under water plain on the deep ocean floor.
meaning ‘little boy’ or ‘New born Continental rise: is area between the
Christ’ and La Nina meaning ‘Little continental slope and the sea floor.
girl’ as the phenomenon was first Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): extends
noticed during Christmas time. from the base line to a maximum of 200
nautical miles (370.4 km).
Isthmus: A narrow steep of land that
5.12 Thermohaline circulation connects two large land masses and
separates two bodies of water.
As the name indicates there is a large
scale churning of ocean water due to Hot spot: An area is the mantle from
difference in temperature and salinity. where rocks melt and magma rises through
The down welling of ocean water occurs circular to form volcano.
in the extreme ends of Atlantic Ocean one Permafrost: is the condition prevailing
near the Norwegian coast and another when water freezes above and below the
at Weddell Sea. Upwelling of cold water ground, (including rock or soil) for more
occurs in the North Pacific Ocean and than two consecutive years
in the Indian Ocean. This cycle of water Trace elements: A chemical element
movement within the Global Ocean is also present in minute amount in a particular
known as Conveyor Belt (Figure 5.20). The sample or environment.
slow, steady and three dimensional flow Isohaline: is an imaginary line drawn to
of water in the conveyor belt distributes join places having equal salinity
dissolved gases and solids, mixes nutrients
Swell: is a type of wind-generated waves
and carries it to various ocean basins.
that is not affected by the local wind.
This cycle provides a stabilizing effect on
Thermohaline circulation: is large
climate of the earth. If it is disturbed, it is
circulation of ocean water due to difference
capable of causing sudden climatic change
in temperature and salinity.
within the period of a few decades. The
conveyor belt is a simplified version of
actual circulation in the oceans.
136
Evaluation c. Planetary winds
I. Choose the correct d. Revolution of earth
answer 9. ------------- is a warm current
1. River Ganga has its a. Labrador b. Gulf stream
source from -------- c. Oyashio d. Circum polar drift
a. Gangothri glacier b. a spring 10. The only sea surrounded by water all
c. a laked d. a waterfall sides is --------------------------
2. The permeable rocks that can hold a. The Dead Sea
water and allow water to pass through b. The Sargasso Sea
them are called --------. c. The South China Sea
a. Groundwater b. Saturated zone d. The Aral Sea
c. Rock d. Aquifers
3. An -------- is ice floating in open water II. Very short answer
that has broken off from glaciers or
ice shelf. 1. Define Permafrost.
a. Ice shelf b. Ice quake 2. Differentiate High Tide from Low Tide.
c. Iceberg d. Sea ice 3. Define Contiguous Zone.
4. The -------- Ocean is the youngest ocean. 4. Why is the Dead Sea called so?
a. Indian b. Southern 5. How is a tide different from an ocean
c. Arctic d. Atlantic current?
5. Mid oceanic ridges are located on the
-------- plate boundaries III. Short answer
a. Divergent b. Convergent 1. Write a short note on Exclusive
c. Transform d. Subducted Economic Zone.
6. The temperature of the sea surface 2. Distinguish between sea mounts and
is highest not near Equator but few guyots.
degrees -------- of the Equator
3. Write briefly about the Abyssal plain.
a. South b. South east
4. List the factors affecting salinity of a
c. Northeast d. North
place.
7. ------------- waves transmit energy in all
three states of matter 5. Write about the significance of ocean
currents.
a. Transverse b. Longitudinal
c. Orbital d. Primary
IV. Detailed answer
8. Tides are caused by -------------
1. Describe the relief of the ocean with
a. Rotation of earth
diagram.
b. Gravitational pull of moon and sun
137
2. Explain the factors affecting the
horizontal distribution of ocean References
temperature. 1. Oceanography S. Lal
3. Draw the ocean currents of North 2. Oceanography for Geographers, R.C.
Atlantic Ocean and bring out their Sharma and M.Vatal
influence on climate in North America
and Europe. 3. Oceanography Savindra Singh
138
ICT CORNER
Ocean Currents Streams and Storms
Steps
• Use the URL to reach ocean current page.
• Click ‘earth’ option from the left bottom side of the page. Click ‘Play’ button to
start and stop the animation. Use ‘Control’ menu to change the date.
• Select ‘Ocean’ from ‘Mode’ menu and toggle between ‘Currents’ and ‘Wave’ menu
from ‘Animate’ option to observe the global ocean currents.
• Select ‘Currents’ and ‘SST’ or ‘SSTA’ options from ‘Overlay’ menu to observe
temperature anomaly. Roll the globe and zoom in and out to view the animation.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
https://earth.nullschool.net/
139
Unit VI
Atmosphere
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Composition of the Atmosphere Students must be able to
6.3 Temperature and Heat Budget • Understand the composition and
6.4 Atmospheric Pressure and nature of atmospheric layers.
Winds • Understand the vertical and
6.5 Humidity, Condensation and horizontal distribution of
Clouds temperature in the atmosphere.
6.6 Air Masses and Fronts • Explain the mechanism of formation
6.7 Precipitation of various wind systems of the world.
6.8 Atmospheric Disturbances • Identify various forms and types of
(Cyclone and Anti Cyclone)
precipitation.
140
The ancient Greeks called the tilt of
latitude as ‘klima’, literally meaning ‘slope’ 1% Other gases
or ‘inclination’. Then the earth was divided
21% Oxygen
into seven latitudinal regions, called
‘klimata’. The word came into modern 78% Nitrogen
European languages as clime or ‘climate’,
denoting the average weather condition.
Figure 6.1 Components of Atmosphere
6.2 Composition of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is essential for the surface. Water vapour, aerosols and tiny
survival of all the organisms on the earth. solid particles occur in varying quantities as
The atmosphere is a blanket of gases suspended material. These are responsible
and suspended particles that entirely for weather phenomena as they have ability
envelope the earth. It extends outward over to absorb and release heat energy.
thousands of kilometres from the earth’s
km
60 mesosphere
48
upper limit for
military jet aircraft
22mi(35km)
40 ozone layer
Weather ballons
11-19mi(18-30)
stratosphere
31
passenger airplane
thunderstorm cloud 8mi(13km)
up to 8mi(13km)
19
Mount Everest
5.5mi(8.8km)
10
troposphere
aurora
thermosphere
meteors
low orbit
lo
space shuttle
185km (115mi)
80
50 mesosphere
stratosphere
10
Troposphere
Ozone layer
Figure 6.4 Thermosphere
144
atmosphere and they cause chemical to produce the ozone hole in Antarctic
reactions that break down ozone springtime.
molecules and reduce the concentration of Satellite images of the earth over last
them. Nitrogen oxide released by emitted decades observed that the atmospheric
by supersonic aircrafts can also destroy ozone layer is getting thinner. On October
the ozone molecules to break down. 2, 2015, the ozone hole was recorded to
Ozone-depleting substances are present its maximum size of 28.2 million sq.km
throughout the stratospheric ozone over Antarctica (Figure 6.5). The size of
layer because they are transported great the ozone hole is larger than the size of
distances by atmospheric air motions. continent of North America. The ozone
The severe depletion of the Antarctic holes over Antarctica allow the ultraviolet
ozone layer known as the “ozone hole” radiation to enter and cause global
occurs because of the special atmospheric warming, skin cancer, eye cataract and
and chemical conditions that exist there even blindness.
and nowhere else on the globe. The very Depletion of the ozone layer has
low winter temperatures in the Antarctic consequences on human, animal, plants
stratosphere cause polar stratospheric and micro organisms. This typically
clouds (PSCs) to form. Special reactions results from higher UV levels reaching
that occur on PSCs, combined with the us on earth. Research confirms that high
relative isolation of polar stratospheric levels of UV rays cause non-melanoma
air, allow chlorine and bromine reactions skin cancer.
UV 1. UV causes a
F F chlorine atom
CFC molecule
C C to break way from
the CFC molecule.
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl
Cl
Stratosphere
Cl Cl
O O
O O
Cl O Cl
free chlorine O O O O
O free chlorine
O3-ozone ClO2- chlorine O2- oxygen free oxygen CIO-chlorine O2- oxygen
monoxide molecule from stratosphere monoxide molecule
2. The free chorine 3. The chlorine atom 4. A free oxygen atom 5. The result is
atom hits an ozone plus one oxygen atom hits the chlorine another free chlorine
molecule. away. monoxide molecule. atom.
6. Free chlorine will continue to deplete ozone in the stratosphere.
145
To protect the ozone layer for our Terrestrial radiation supplies more heat
future generation, avoid using products energy to the atmosphere due to its long
which are emitting pollutants such as wave length.
aerosol sprays, blowing agents for foams b. Conduction
and packing materials, as solvents and as
The heat energy from the earth’s surface is
refrigerants.
transferred to the lower atmosphere which
is directly in contact with the surface by
The Dobson Unit
the process of conduction.
(DU) is the unit of
measurement for total c. Convection and advection
ozone. The movement of air molecules in vertical
and horizontal direction is called as
‘convection and advection’ respectively. This
movement carries heat energy to the various
parts of the earth and at different altitudes.
Heat budget
The heat energy reflected, absorbed and
radiated back into the space equals the
energy received by the earth. Incoming
radiation and the outgoing radiation
pass through the atmosphere. The earth
maintains its optimum temperature.
When 100% solar radiation reaches
the earth’s atmosphere, 35% is reflected
back to space by clouds, water bodies and
Figure 6.5 Spread of Ozone hole ice covered areas. This heat does not heat
either the earth or atmosphere.
6.3 Temperature and Heat Budget Of the remaining 65% of heat, 14%
Air temperature of a particular place are absorbed by the atmosphere and
denotes the degree of hotness or coldness 51% are absorbed by the earth’s surface
of air at a given place. It is measured in (34% of direct solar radiation and 17%
Celsius. Let us understand how the earth from scattered radiation). 51% received
is heated. The surface of the earth is by the earth are radiated back to the
heated by the sun’s rays in the form of space directly as terrestrial radiation
short wave radiation. The heat received (Figure 6.6).
by the earth is called ‘Solar Radiation’ or In total, 17% are radiated to space
‘Insolation’. Heating of atmosphere is an directly and 48% are absorbed by the
indirect process. The processes are: atmosphere ( 14% from insolation and 34%
from terrestrial radiation) are radiated
a. Terrestrial radiation
back to space gradually. Therefore, 65%
The solar radiation reflected by the earth’s heat received from the sun is balanced
surface is called ‘Terrestrial radiation’.
146
65 units radiated back to space 35 units lost even before reaching
(34+14 radiated by atmosphere the earth’s surface Albedo
+17 by land of earth
bed 6 + 27 + 2
its absor Reflected by
n
34 u osphere
17 radiated to space
atmosphere
d
at m rbe
by so
ab ere
ts h
uni osp
14 atm
by
Total 100 units of heat received from sun
51 units absorbed
by Earth’s surface
Heat Budget
Figure 6.6 Heat Budget
147
b. Distribution of land and water: Land of land cover. The more reflection
is heated and cooled at a faster rate from the snow surface leads to low
due the conduction process whereas temperature accumulation. But the
water is heated and cooled at slower dense forest, which reflects less heat
rate due to convection process. Water energy and absorbs more heat energy,
takes 2.5 times of heat energy to heat leads to higher temperature.
a unit area compared to land. Thus, g. Mountain barriers: If a wind or air
the land will have higher temperature mass blows towards the mountain,
than the water in summer and vice it influences the distribution of
versa during the winter. So more temperature on either side of the
land mass in northern hemisphere mountain.
(15.28C) leads to higher average For example, polar easterlies and blizzards
temperature than the southern are obstructed by Himalayas in Asia and
hemisphere (13.38C). Alps in Europe respectively. This leads to
c. Ocean currents: Warm ocean lower temperature in the northern slopes
currents carry warm water from the and higher temperature in the southern
tropical region towards the poles slopes of the respective mountains.
and increase the temperature while
cold ocean currents carry cold water 6.3.2 Factors Affecting the Vertical
from Polar Regions and reduce the Distribution of Temperature
temperature along the coasts. We all know that the temperature
d. Prevailing winds: Warm winds like decreases with increasing altitude from
trade wind and westerly, that carry the surface of the earth. The vertical
higher heat energy, increase the decrease in temperature of troposphere is
temperature while cold polar easterlies called as ‘Normal Lapse Rate’ or ‘vertical
carry lower heat energy from polar temperature (Figure 6.7) gradient’ at
region reduces the temperature. which the temperature reduces at the rate
e. Cloudiness: The cloudy sky obstructs of 6.5 8C per 1000 meter of ascent. This is
the solar radiation from the sun to influenced by the following factors:
earth and reduces the temperature. a. Amount of terrestrial radiation
But the clear sky during the day reaching the altitude and
allows more solar radiation to reach b. Density of air to absorb the heat
the earth’s surface and increases energy at higher altitude.
the temperature. Meanwhile clear As both the above said factors decrease with
sky at night allows more terrestrial altitude, the temperature also decreases
radiation to escape. For example, (Figure 6.5).
the tropical hot deserts experience
higher temperature at day and lower
temperature at night.
f. Nature of the surface: The reflection
from surface varies based on the nature
148
c. Dry air near the surface: the dry air
Cold air absorbs less terrestrial radiation and
Warm air
allows them to escape into space.
d. Snow covered ground: During night,
Warm air Cold air Sm
og due to terrestrial radiation and higher
albedo, most of the heat is lost to the
Normal Condition Temperature Inversion
atmosphere and the surface is cooled.
Typical Temperature profile Inversion Temperature profile e. Formation of fronts: the movement of
00C 00C
warm air over the cold air during the
formation of the various fronts leads
Altitude
Altitude
to inversion condition.
f. Mountain wind: The subsidence
of cold mountain wind at the early
Air Temperature Air Temperature
morning leads to the displacement
Figure 6.7 Vertical distribution of of warm air from the valley to higher
Temperature altitude. This type of inversion is
called as ‘valley inversion’.
Student Activity
Albedo is the amount
If the temperature of Chennai (7 m)
of solar radiation
is 348C, calculate the temperature of
reflected from the
Kodaikanal (2133m) using normal
surface. The variation
lapse rate.
is based on the nature of the earth’s
surface. Snow has higher albedo
6.3.3 Inversion of Temperature
compared to forest.
The condition at which the temperature
increases with altitude is called as 6.3.4 Measurements of Temperature
‘inversion of temperature’. In this
Unit of
condition, warm air lies over cold air. Scientist Year
Temperature
The conditions for inversion of Fahrenheit Gabriel Fahrenheit 1714
temperature are: Celsius Andrew Celsius 1742
a. Long winter nights: The bottom layer Kelvin Lord Kelvin 1848
of the atmosphere in contact with the
ground is cooled and the upper layer
remains relatively warm.
b. Cloudless sky: The higher amount
of terrestrial radiation reaches the
higher altitude which leads to lower
temperature at low level due to clear
sky.
149
rZ one
Pola
Arctic
C ircle
e
te Zon
p era
Tem
Tropic o
SUN f cancer
Equato
r Z one
opical
Tropic o Tr
f Capric
orn
e
te Zon
p era
Antarc Tem
tic Cir
cle
rZ one
Pola
151
January July
1024
1020 High
6
101
10 04
10
08
10
2
99
101 India
00
Low
6
India
08
10
1004
1000
1012
Low High 1016
Figure 6.11 Location of High pressure and Low pressure in winter and summer
152
Altitude in m Atmospheric pressure in m b
Isobar is an imaginary
Sea level 1013.25
line connecting the
1,000 898.76
places of uniform
2,000 795.01
atmospheric pressure
3,000 701.01
reduced to mean sea level 4,000 616.60
5,000 540.48
above the point where it is measured
10,000 264.0
(Figure 6.12).
Relationship between Standard
Pressure and Altitude Brain Storming
People feel discomfort to breathe
look at how few
atmos are pressing lower
when they go to the places of higher
down on the guy at
the top of the
pressure altitude (mountain sickness). Why?
mountain
153
(B) July
L
H
H
H
H
H H
H
154
Classification of Winds
Jet streams
Ne Trade winds
Sun’s
0
Low Low Low Equatorial doldrums (ITCZ) Low 0 Low
Low Rays
SE Trade winds
156
more heat energy to space during winter
leading to the formation of high pressure If any wind system
above the continent. But the ocean will has all the above
have relatively higher temperature than mentioned characters
the continent leading to formation of of monsoon in one
low pressure system over ocean. So, wind season but absence of at least one
blows from land to sea during the winter in the other season then is called as
season. This mechanism has an important ‘Pseudo monsoon’. The other names
effect on rainfall received over the region. are ‘Monsoon tendency’ or ‘false
monsoon’.
Nature of Monsoon System
There are three distinct characteristics
related to monsoon wind system which Monsoon system is classified into two
differentiates it from other wind systems. groups based on the location. They are;
They are; a. Asian Monsoon
1. Minimum 1608 reversal of wind b. South Asian Monsoon
direction between seasons. a. Asian Monsoon
2. They affect a large part of the continents The Asian monsoon system is divided into
and oceans. two components based on season it flows.
3. The formation of low and high pressure The presence of high temperature with
systems over land and water and their low pressure in the lake Baikal region and
interchange between the seasons. low temperature with high pressure in the
Aleutian islands region leading to flow of
wind from Pacific Ocean to interior part
of Asia during summer is called ‘Summer
159
North eastern part of India. Mawsynram, The south west monsoon gradually
the wettest place (highest annual rainfall) in withdraws from south Asian continent due
the world, is located in the windward side of to apparent movement of the Sun towards
Meghalaya plateau. the southern hemisphere. This is called as
The wind further advances towards ‘Withdrawal of South West Monsoon’.
the Himalayas where it creates heavy North East Monsoon
rainfall in the southern slopes. This leads During winter the Indian Subcontinent
to flood in River Brahmaputra. The wind becomes colder than the Indian Ocean.
gradually moves towards the west and As a result the wind blows from Northeast
results in onset of monsoon in Bhutan, to South West direction. This is dry wind
Sikkim, West Bengal, Nepal and Bihar. It system and it does not produce rainfall in
joins with Arabian Sea branch in Bihar the coastal region of south Asia except the
and results in heavy rainfall and flood. Coromandel Coast of India and Sri Lanka.
However, the soil in the limestone plateau doesn’t absorb water. “There is barely
any forest cover, so a lot of erosion of top soil happens. All of it flows down into
Bangladesh. The irony is that “the wettest place on earth” grapples with an acute water
shortage after monsoon ends around October. Hence, people call world’s rainiest
place Mawsynram, which is also world’s wettest desert.
160
L H
H Warm L Cool
Cool Warm
161
Cold Cold
Cold
Cold Warm
Warm
Warm
Warm
W E
Buran
S
Karaburan
Chinook Helm
Nor’easter Bora
NORTH Blizzards
AMERICA Mistral EUROPE
Levant Etesians ASIA
Norther Fohn
Norte
Sirocco
Khamsin
Harmattan
Haboob
(non-Directional)
SOUTH
AFRICA
AMERICA
Berg AUSTRALIA
Pampero Brickfielder
Southerly
Not to scale
heated it becomes less dense and begins Fohn: Warm dry southerly off the
to blow gently up the valley sides. This is northern side of the Alps and Switzerland.
called as ‘valley wind’. This process reverses Harmattan: Dry northerly wind across
at night leading to blow of wind from central Africa
mountain top to valley bottom referred to Karaburan: ‘Black storm’ a spring and
as ‘mountain wind’ (Figure 6.18). summer katabatic wind of central Asia
Local Winds Khamsin: South easterly from North
Local wind systems influence the weather Africa to the eastern Mediterranean
pattern where ever they blow (Figure 6.19). Loo: Hot and dry wind which blows
Some important local winds are; over plains of India and Pakistan.
Bora: North easterly from eastern Mistral: Cold northerly from central
Europe to north eastern Italy France and the Alps to Mediterranean.
Chinook: Warm dry westerly off the
Rocky Mountains
162
they are called as ‘Circum polar wind system’ cyclones formed over Mediterranean
(Figure 6.20). Sea during winter towards India.
Although the jet streams flow at higher These clouds piles up on the
altitude they also influences the surface Himalayas and results in rainfall over
weather pattern of the Earth. the states of Punjab and Haryana. This
assists in the cultivation of wheat in
Jet streams were India.
discovered during the 6. Development of super cyclone: The
Second World War condition at which the speed of the
as the jet pilots felt jet stream is transferred to tropical
the strong obstruction in the higher cyclone may leads to development of
altitudes. super cyclone.
165
Common types of clouds in the troposphere
Cirrus
Cirrocumulus aabove
bove
b 5,486 metres
ove 5,486 me
(mackeral sky)
above 5,486 metres
Al
A ltostratu
Altostratususs
11,828-6,09
,828
828
828-666,09
0996 m
1,828-6,096 e
metres
Altocumulus
1,828-6,096 metres
Stratocumulus Cumulus
Below 1,828 metres Stratus Below 1,828 metres
Below 1,828 metres
precipitation
Su
rfa
ce
ru
Transpiration
no
ff
Evaporation
Percolation Lake
Water Streamflow
table
Ocean
Groundwater flow
167
6.5.3 Fog, Mist and Smog which is more hazardous to the health
• ‘Fog’ is defined as almost microscopic of the people.
droplets of water condensed from 6.5.4 Hydrological Cycle
super saturated air and suspended over
or near the surface of the earth. Fogs Continuous movement of water among the
reduce the visibility to less than 1 km. three spheres is known as Hydrological
Fog occurs during calm or light wind Cycle. Hydrological cycle involves
conditions. It is more common in the evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
areas near to the ocean due to the supply advection, interception, evapo-
of more moisture by sea breeze. In the transpiration, infiltration, percolation
interior of the continents fog is formed and runoff to the ocean (Figure 6.24).
due to reduction of temperature to Evaporation is the process by
extreme low during the winter nights. which water in liquid state changes into
vapour state using heat energy from
• If the fog has higher visibility due to
Sun. Evaporation is maximum when the
lesser water drops near the surface it is
temperature is high, on the large expanse
termed as ‘mist’.
of water and when dry winds blow over
• In large industrial areas the air is more water surface.
polluted. If the fog forms in that area Condensation is the process by which
it mixes with the pollutants and turns water vapour cools to form water droplet
into smog (smoke 1 fog 5 smog) by loosing temperature. The condensation
occurs when dew point is reached in the
atmosphere.
W E
Not to scale
168
Warm air
Cold air Warm air
Cold air
Precipitation is the process by which Sahara desert, Siberia, the Great Plain
all forms of water particles fall from the of North America, Northern Plain of
atmosphere and reach the ground. Europe, Western Australia, Antarctica,
Green Land, Arctic Ocean, Northern and
The rain drop Southern Pacific, Atlantic Oceans are
that falls may get favourable locations as source region for
evaporated before it air masses.
reaches the ground in
6.6.1 The air masses can be classified
an extremely arid region.
based on the following factors;
a. Latitude - Tropical(T) and Polar (P)
6.6 Air Masses and Fronts air masses
The study of air mass is very important b. Nature of the surface – Continent (c)
part of Meteorology. Air always takes and marine (m) air masses
some of the properties of the area over c. Temperature – warm (w) and Cold (k)
which it lies. This parcel of air may remain air masses
stationary for several days and develops d. Stability – stable (s) and unstable (u)
its own characteristics. Under this air masses
situation, the air becomes recognisable as
Air masses normally migrate from their
an air mass.
source region to other regions, which have
An air mass is defined as ‘an immense different surface properties, mostly along
body of air several kilometres in length with primary winds. As the air masses move
and breadth and thickness which is out from their source regions, they not only
characterised by homogeneous physical modify the weather of the areas they occupy,
properties (like temperature, moisture) in but also modify themselves according to
horizontal direction at any level’. the surface over which it moves.
Such an extensive portion of the
surface area over which air mass has 6.6.2 Fronts
acquired its qualities is called as ‘Air
mass source region’. The source region When two air masses with different
may be land or water body. For example, physical characters meet, there is usually
169
the earth. In order to fall as rain drop or Fact File
snow, the tiny drop lets in a cloud must
Cloud Seeding or Artificial
grow larger. The droplets accumulate
Rainfall
over the nuclei and combine to grow large
enough to fall and reach the surface of the People have always wanted to create
earth due to gravity. rain, so that they would not suffer from
drought. Modern science has been
If the drop is smaller it falls slowly so that
successful in causing rain in a limited
it evaporates before it reaches the ground.
way through cloud seeding. This
Ice crystals in cloud also cause precipitation.
method is based on the knowledge of
Each ice crystal grows by cooling so that they
growing ice crystals in clouds.
become large in size and fall to the ground.
They melt on the way due to friction with One method to cause rainfall from
the atmosphere and fall as rain. clouds is to introduce particles of dry
ice (solid CO2) into the cloud from
6.7.1 Forms of Precipitation an air plane. The dry ice causes ice
The precipitation has various forms crystals to form in the cloud. These
based on the condition of occurrence ice crystals coalesce, grow, melt and
(Figure 6.27). The various forms are; fall as rain. Cloud seeding will not be
successful unless the cloud is already
Rainfall: When water droplets of
saturated with water vapour.
more than 0.5 mm diameter falls from
the atmosphere to the ground it is called
as ‘Rainfall’. If the diameter is less than Snow: Precipitation occurs at below
0.5mm, it is called as ‘Drizzle’. freezing point and falls as thin ice flakes
or powdery ice, called as ‘Snow’.
COLD AIR Dew: Condensation of water droplets
WARM AIR on the objects at the surface of the earth
(above freezing)
171
form clouds. This process influences
the upper tropospheric circulation. By The air drops down
over the high ground,
further cooling, precipitation takes losing temprature and
increasing the amount
of water it can hold.
place as rainfall. This rainfall occurs Warm air forced This means there is
to rise, cools, little or no rain.
throughout the year near the equator in condenses and rain
occurs.
the afternoon. It is called as 4 ‘O’ clock
rainfall region. In middle latitudes,
Moist, warm air
convectional rainfall occurs in early from the sea.
Convectional
precipitation Figure 6.30 Orographic Rainfall
When altitude
Cooled Air
Condenses increases, the rainfall
also increases in
orographic pattern.
But the rainfall decreases with
Moist Air Moist Air altitude, once the amount of moisture
reduces in the air after a point where
Figure 6.29 Convectional rainfall it reaches maximum rainfall which
is called as ‘Maximum Rainfall Line’.
Orographic or Relief Rainfall This condition where the rainfall
It occurs when large mass of air is forced decreases with altitude is called
to rise across land barriers, such as high ‘Inversion of Rainfall’.
mountain ranges, plateaus, escarpments,
or over high hills. On the windward Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall
side of the region the warm moist air This type of precipitation is associated
raises, temperature of the air falls below with a cyclonic activity (Tropical and
its dew point, forming clouds which Temperate) and also occurs along the
give subsequent rainfall. As the wind frontal zone. Cyclonic rainfall is associated
moves to the leeward side it has emptied with Cumulo Nimbus (CuNi) clouds. The
itself of moisture and thus descends rainfall is very heavy and accompanied
the slope as warm dry winds. The with lightning and thunder and high
leeward side of the mountain therefore speed winds which has the potential to
is called as the rain shadow region cause damage.
(Figure 6.30). ‘Frontal rainfall’ is associated with fronts
which form due to collision of different
air masses. Warm front is formed due to
advent of warm air masses which leads to
moderate rainfall. In the same way cold
172
6.8 Atmospheric Disturbances
An isohyets or
(Cyclone and Anti Cyclone)
isohyetal line is a
line joining points of The atmospheric disturbances which
equal rainfall on a involve a closed circulation of air around
map in a given period. A map with a low pressure at centre and high pressure
isohyets is called an isohyetal map. at periphery, rotating anticlockwise in
northern hemisphere and clockwise in
front is formed due to advent of cold air southern hemisphere is called ‘Cyclones’
mass which leads to heavy rainfall with (Figure 6.31). Cyclones may be classified
lightning and thunder. into two types based on latitude of
its origin.
6.7.3 Cloud Burst
A ‘cloud burst’ is a sudden aggressive
rainstorm falling in a short period of
time limited to a small geographical area.
Meteorologists say that the rain from
a cloud burst is usually of the heavier
rain with a fall rate equal to or greater
than 100 mm (3.94 inches) per hour.
Generally cloudbursts are associated with
thunderstorms. The air currents rushing
up words in a rain storm hold up a large
amount of water. For example cloud
bursts in the region of Uttarkhand (2013)
and Chennai (2015).
Figure 6.31 Cyclone
They are:
Lightning and A. Tropical cyclone B. Temperate
Thunder are caused cyclone.
by differences in the
electrical charge of A. Tropical Cyclone
different parts of the cloud. The top of Cyclone formed in the low latitudes is
the cloud becomes positively charged called as Tropical cyclone. They form
and the bottom is mostly negatively over warm ocean waters in the tropical
charged. When the difference is great regions. The warm air rises, and causes
lightning occurs. Differences in the an area of low air pressure.
charge between cloud and the earth
surface also cause lightning. 6.8.1 Stages of Development of Tropical
Thunder is caused by rapid Cyclone
expansion of the air that is heated as
As per the criteria adopted by the World
the lightning passes through it.
Meteorological Organisation (W.M.O.),
India Meteorological Department
173
Figure 6.33 Track of Tropical cyclone
classifies the low pressure systems in to A source of warm, moist air derived
vary classes based on wind speed. from tropical oceans with sea surface
1. Tropical Disturbances temperature normally near to or in excess
2. Tropical depressions Low winds with a of 27 °C (Figure 6.32)
speed between 31 and 61 km ph. Wind near the ocean surface is blowing
3. Tropical cyclone wind speed from from different directions converging and
62 to 88 km ph and it is assigned a causing air to rise and storm clouds to form.
name. Winds which do not vary greatly with
4. Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS) wind height are known as low wind shear. This
speed is between 89 to 118 km ph allows the storm clouds to rise vertically
to high level;
5. Very SCS wind speed between 119 to
221 km ph and
6. Super Cyclonic Storm when wind
exceeds 221 km ph.
W E
Hurricanes Typhoons
Hurricanes
Equator Cyclones
Willy
Not to scale Willy
175
Names Location of Landfall Date of Land fall
Hurricanes
Typhoons
Cyclones
Cumulonimbus
Clouds
Cold
Stratus Clouds
Air Cool
Air
Warm Air
A Heavy
Showers
Moderate to Light
Showers
B
Cold Warm
Front Front
1000
Cool
Air Warm Front
Cold 996
992 Cold Front
Air
Precipitation
B
1004
Warm Air
177
Cold air Cold air Cold air
Cool air
nt
ld fro Wa
rm
Co fron nt W
t f ro arm
l d
Co fro
nt
Warm air
Warm air Warm air
a) b) c)
W Cool air
ar
m
fro
nt W Front
nt nt ar
fro fro m
ld ld fro
Co Co nt Warm air
Warm air
Figure 6.40 Development of Temperate cyclone
178
Anti cyclones are classified as warm core Hygroscopic: Tending to observe moisture
and cold core, based on their temperature, from air.
which are resulted in aridity and cold waves Insolation: Amount of solar radiation reaching
respectively. a given area.
Meteorology: is a branch of the atmospheric
sciences which includes atmospheric physics
and chemistry, with a major focus on weather
forecasting.
Buoyant: Able to keep afloat on the top of air Molecules: A group of atoms bonded together.
or liquid. Permeable: Allowing liquids or gases to pass
Collision: Hit by accident when moving. through it.
Equilibrium: A balanced state of molecules Subsistence: The gradual movement of air
where the acting forces are equal. molecules from higher altitude to lower
Escarpment: A long, steep slope especially one altitude.
of the edge of a plateau or surface. Torrid: Region of Very hot and dry condition.
Expansion: The action of becoming larger or Vortex: A whirling or rotating mass of fluid or
more extensive. air.
Funnelling: Guided through the area that has
widening at front and narrow at the end.
180
ICT CORNER
Atmosphere Vital Blanket
Steps
• Use the URL to reach ‘Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere’ page. Click launch to
start the interactive atmosphere page.
• Click begin and select ‘Objects’ check box to observe the vertical content of the
atmosphere.
• Select ‘Temperature’ and ‘Pressure’ check boxes to study physical properties of the
atmosphere.
• Use https://www.windy.com to observe live wind flow of any place on the earth.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
181
Unit VII
The Biosphere
Learning Objectives:
Learning Objectives:
Chapter Outline
7.1 Introduction • Throw light on the importance,
vastness and variety that exists in
7.2 Biosphere
the life sphere.
7.3 Ecosystem
• Describe the distribution of life
7.4 Biomes
forms and their adaptations over
7.5 Biodiversity geographical space.
7.6 Endangered Species • Sensitise the student on their role in
7.7 Conservation of biodiversity conserving the biosphere.
182
led International agencies to focus their with the existence and interaction of the
attention on protecting and sustaining the three spheres of the earth (the lithosphere,
biosphere. hydrosphere and atmosphere) gives rise to
In 1971, UNESCO launched the Man the fourth sphere which is the life sphere
and the Biosphere Programme to study or biosphere (Figure 7.1). The term
our impact on nature and how it could be Biosphere was coined by Eduard Suess
minimized. Even after several decades the in 1875. Later contributions to the study
programme still continues to shape the of biosphere were from, Charles Darwin
future of sustainability of the earth. and many other scientists.
Thus, in the biosphere, life exists on
7.2 Biosphere land, water and air and life forms range
The word Biosphere originates from from microorganisms to plants, animals,
the Greek words bios = life and birds, amphibians, reptiles and mammals
sphaira = sphere. Earth is the only planet including human beings.
in the solar system that supports life. The biosphere is formed of biotic
There are many reasons that contribute components. It consists of organisms,
to this and the most important being the population, community and ecosystem.
earth’s distance from the sun, the presence
of oxygen in the atmosphere and the 7.3 Ecosystem
presence of water. The above factors, along
BIOSPHERE: HYDROSPHERE:
living matter on earth the water on the surface
including all plant of the earth in oceans,
and animal life rivers, lakes, rain and mist
forms
ATMOSPHERE: LITHOSPHERE:
the thin, fragile the earth’s crust
layer of gases that including landforms,
surrounds the earth rocks and soils
Feed Directly on Plants Feed on Primary Feed on Secondary Eat both plants and
i.e. Herbivores Consumers Consumers animals
A FOOD WEB
Eagle
Python
Wolf
Thrush
Rat Dragon Fly
Frog
Butter Fly
Fruit Fly
Grasshopper
Mangoes
A Flowering plant Lavenders
Corn
189
Carbon is an essential element in all All producers and consumers are not
organic compounds and since there is decomposed. The organic matter of some
only a limited amount available it must be of them is preserved in fossil fuels such as
recycled continuously. This takes place in coal and petroleum for millions of years.
the biosphere. Atmospheric carbon is fixed In a carbon cycle (Figure 7.6), carbon
in green plants through photosynthesis. moves between reservoirs. Carbon
This carbon is passed on to other living reservoirs include the atmosphere, the
organisms through the food chain. The oceans, vegetation, rocks, and soil.
carbon food compound is utilized and Today, the carbon cycle is changing.
later released to the atmosphere through Human activities have added more
the process of respiration. carbon into the atmosphere. More
By-products of respiration are carbon- carbon is moving to the atmosphere when
dioxide and water which are returned to fossil fuels, like coal and oil, are burned.
the air. More carbon is moving to the atmosphere
A carbon cycle is completed by as humans destroy the forest. This increase
decomposers like bacteria and fungi in carbon in the atmosphere causes the
which break down dead plants and animal earth to warm up more than the normal
tissues there by releasing some carbon to level, leading to climate change and many
the air, water and soil. problems connected with it.
Animal
respiration
W E
Tundra
Boreal Forest
Temperate Forest
Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands
Desert and dry shrublands
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands Not to scale
Tropical and subtropical forests
192
Fact File Marine biome includes fishes, whales,
crustaceans, molluscs, sea anemones,
Sea grasses are plants that live in
fungi and bacteria. Marine species are
saltwater. There are over 50 species
continuously impacted by change in climatic
of sea grasses. Sea grasses have
condition and the oceans are frequently
flowers, roots, and specialized cells
disturbed by ocean waves and currents.
to transport nutrients within a plant.
This makes them similar to land plants c. Wetlands:
and different from algae or seaweeds. A wetland is an area of land which is
permanently or periodically saturated
with water and exists as a distinct
Fringing reefs grow seaward from the ecosystem. Wetlands play many roles in the
shore along the coast forming a fringe. environment, such as water purification,
They are the common type of reefs. flood control, carbon sink and shoreline
stability. Wetlands are home to a wide range
of aquatic plants and animal life. Wetlands
can be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater.
Examples of aquatic vegetation that thrive
in wetlands are milkweed, bald cypress
trees, mangroves and cattails.
Fringing Reef
Mangrove
Barrier Reef Fact File
Atolls are coral reefs that are circular in Crustaceans are chiefly aquatic
shape enclosing a lagoon with absence of arthropods having a body covered
an island in the center. with a hard shell or crust and several
pairs of legs. Example: crab, lobsters,
crayfish, barnacles shrimps, krill etc.
Molluscs are organisms with
soft bodies. Often their bodies are
covered by hard shells. Example:
Atoll Reef snail, slug, squid, cuttlefish, mussel,
clams, oysters, octopuses etc.
193
Fact File
A Bog is a type of wetland ecosystem
characterized by wet, spongy, poor-
ly drained peaty soil formed from
dead plants specially moss. Bogs have
moss, sedges, grasses, such as cotton
grass; insectivorous plants like pitcher
plants; and many orchids. The gradu-
al accumulation of decayed plant ma-
Swamp terial in a bog functions as a carbon
sink.
A Fen is a low land that is covered
wholly or partly with water. They re-
ceive nutrients from ground water and
have peaty alkaline soil. Their charac-
teristic flora are sedges and reeds.
Mangrove swamps are coastal
wetlands found in tropical and
subtropical regions. These wetlands
are often found in estuaries, where
Marshland
fresh water meets salt water. Mangrove
trees dominate this wetland ecosystem
due to their ability to survive in both
salt and fresh water. The Sundarbans
is the largest Mangrove region in the
world and a UNESCO World Heritage
Site.
Mangrove forests of Tamil Nadu:
Mangrove forests are found along the
Fen coast of Tamil Nadu in Pichavaram,
Muthupet, Ramnad, Gulf of Mannar
and Punnakayal.
B. Terrestrial Biome
Terrestrial biomes are very large
ecosystems over land and they vary i. Tropical Evergreen Rain Forest
according to latitude and climate. They Biome
can be divided into numerous sub-types.
Tropical Evergreen Rain Forest Biome
In this lesson they are broadly divided
extends between 10° North and South
into eight types.
194
of the equator (Figure 7.8). This biome by thick undergrowth and creepers. The
is seen in the Amazon Basin of South main trees in this biome are mahogany,
America, Congo Basin of Africa and the rose wood, ebony, cinchona, rubber,
Indo Malaysian Region of Southeast Asia coconut palm, cane, bamboo etc.
(Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Malaysia and This forest biome has innumerable
Guinea) insects, birds, reptiles and furless animals.
This biome receives direct sunlight At the edge of the forest animals like
throughout the year and so temperatures gorilla, and monkey are found.
are high year round. The average annual Important tribes inhabit this biome,
temperature is 20°C to 30°C. The average for example the Pygmies in the jungles
annual rainfall of the tropical evergreen of Africa and the Yanomani and Tikuna
rain forest is 200cm. tribes of the Amazon region. Traditionally
The Tropical Evergreen Rain Forest they live by hunting and gathering food.
Biome has the largest number of plant In the recent years in South East Asia, the
and animal species. Broad leaved, tall tropical evergreen rainforest has been
evergreen hard wood trees are found slowly replaced by rubber and sugarcane
in this biome. Trees grow up to 20 to 35 plantations. The human settlements in
meters high. The forest is characterized this biome are small and scattered.
N
Arctic Ocean Arctic Ocean
W E
GREENLAND
S
NORTH ASIA
AMERICA EUROPE
North Pacific North Atlantic
Ocean Ocean
North Pacific
AFRICA
Ocean
Indian
SOUTH
AMERICA Ocean
AUSTRALIA
South Atlantic
South Pacific
Ocean
Ocean
195
The forests of the
Silent Valley National
Park in Kerala on the
Western Ghats are
the last remaining tropical evergreen
forests in India. It is part of the Nilgiris
Biosphere Reserve Tropical Rain Forest
W E
Not to scale
Student Activity
1. On the outline map of the world draw the equator and colour and label the
following.
2. Show the areas of tropical rain forest, tropical grass land, and Tropical desert in
Africa and South America in both the hemispheres.
3. Colour and label the Taiga forest and it is the longest belt of distribution. Reason
out why so.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Find out why Tropical deserts are on the western margins of the continents.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
196
ii Tropical deciduous Forest/Monsoon mahua (illupai), Mango, Wattle,
Forest Bamboo, semal (Illavamaram), sheesham
(Karuvellamaram) and banyan.
The animals of this biome are
elephant, lion, tiger, leopards, bison,
tapier, hippopotamus, wild boar, flying
squirrel along with a wide variety of bird
species. This biome faces rapid rate of
deforestation and is, therefore, one of the
most disturbed ecosystem in the world.
Large tracts of forests have been destroyed
for agriculture and urban development.
Tropical Monsoon forest Several species of precious animals have
now become endangered Example: lions,
Tropical deciduous forest is found in the
tigers, leopards, etc.
regions experiencing monsoon climate.
This biome is also called as the dry forest iii. Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome
or monsoon forest biome. The temperate deciduous forest is a biome
This is found in South and South that is always changing. This biome lies
East Asia in parts of India, Myanmar, in the mid- latitude areas of the earth,
Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia and between the tropics and Arctic Circle i.e.,
southern coastal China. It is also found between 30° and 50° north and south of the
in eastern Brazil and in smaller areas equator. The temperate deciduous forest
in South and Central America, the biome can be seen in the eastern United
West Indies, southeastern Africa, and States, most parts of Europe, China, Japan,
northern Australia. North and South Korea (Figure 7.9). The
In this biome, the temperature varies average annual temperature is 10°C.
from one season to another season. In These biomes have four seasons
summer the maximum temperature ranges such as winter, spring, summer and fall.
from 38°C to 48°C. Summer season is Winters are cold and summers are warm.
warm and humid. In the dry winter season As winter approaches, the duration of day
temperature ranges between 10°C to 27°C. light decreases. In this biome, deciduous
The total amount of precipitation is 75 to trees shed their leaves in the fall. The
150 cm/year and this affects the natural production of chlorophyll in the leaves
vegetation of the tropical deciduous forest slows and eventually stops revealing leaves
biome. having bright red, yellow and orange
The plants shed their leaves during colors. These forests are also known as
the dry season. Trees here have huge broad leaved forest, because the trees have
trunks with thick rough barks. The wide flat leaves. Some important trees
plants grow at three different levels. The found here are oak, maple, beech, hickory,
common trees are teak, sal, sandalwood, cedar and chestnut. On the forest floors
197
N
Greenland
W E
S
Asia
North
Europe
America
Africa
South
America
Australia
Not to scale
198
iv Tropical Grassland Biome or
Savanna Biome
The tropical grass land biome is generally
referred to as the Savanna biome. A
savanna is a rolling topography that
features vast open grasslands scattered
with small shrubs and isolated trees. It is
found between the tropical rainforest and
desert biome. Tropical grassland biomes
are mainly found in Africa, South America
and Australia. Tropical grasslands in
Baobab tree
Africa is known as the savannas. Tropical
grasslands are called as llanos in Columbia In many parts of the savannas of Africa
and Venezuela and as Campos in Brazil of people have started using the grassland
South America. for grazing their cattle and goats. Due
Savanna biomes experience warm to overgrazing in this region most of the
temperature year around. It has very long tropical grasslands here are lost to the
and dry winter season and a very wet Sahara desert year after year.
summer season. The grass here is very tall
v. Temperate Grassland Biome or
often one or two metres tall scattered with
Steppe
small shrubs and isolated umbrella shaped
trees like the acacia and the baobab trees The temperate grassland biomes are
which store water in their trunks. generally found in the interior of the
Most of the animals in the savanna have continents in the mid latitudes. These
long legs, like the giraffe and kangaroo. grassland biomes are found in the
The carnivorous animals like lions, transitional zone between the humid
leopards, cheetahs, jackal and hyenas live coastal areas and the mid latitude
in this biome. Zebras and elephants are deserts.
also found in this biome. The temperate grasslands are known
as Steppes in Europe and Asia, Prairies
in North America (Canada and USA),
Pampas in South America, Veldts in
South Africa, Downs in Australia and
Puszta in Hungary. The annual range of
temperature is quite large with summer
temperature reaching as high as 38°C and
winter temperatures falling down to -40°
C. The rainfall is moderate from 25 cm to
50 cm. Grasses form a major part of the
African Savanna vegetation in the temperate grasslands.
199
The height of the grasses depends upon
the amount and distribution of rainfall.
Thar Desert
Sahara Desert
200
thorns and small leaves so as to avoid
evapo-transpiration.
The main trees and bushes found in
this region are acacia, cacti, date palm,
kikar, babul etc.
Oasis in Sahara
The people in the deserts are generally
nomads living in tents and moving from
place to place. They are the Berbers of
North Africa, the Bedouins of the Arabian
deserts, the Damara in Namibia, the
Succulent Bushman of the Kalahari Desert and the
Aborigines of Australia. They practice food
gathering and hunting while some herd
cattle, goats and camel and some of them
practice very simple subsistence farming.
Cacti
Moose
7.5. Biodiversity
The term biological diversity was used as
early as 1968 by wildlife conservationist
Musk Ox Raymond F. Dasmann. Latter in 1988,
204
entomologist E.O. Wilson used the term forests have greater species richness than
Biodiversity and this term has been used reforested areas or plantations.
since then. Biodiversity refers to the There are three types of Species:
variety of life on Earth. This includes the
number of species of plants, animals and a. Endemic species - is one whose
microorganisms along with the diversity habitat is restricted only to a
of genes in these species. Moreover, it particular area because of which it
embodies the different ecosystems on the is often endangered. It differs from
planet, for example forests, deserts, coral “indigenous,” or “native,” which
reefs and wetlands. although it occurs naturally in an
area, is also found in other areas.
Biodiversity is the variability among
living organisms. This includes diversity b. Exotic Species - is any species
within species, between species, and intentionally or accidentally
between ecosystems. The variety of transported and released by man into
biodiversity or the number of species in a an environment outside its original
given area is referred to as species richness. range. These are often the most
Normally variety of life increases with size severe agents of habitat alteration and
of area. degradation, and a major cause of the
Biodiversity can be identified at three continuing loss of biological diversity
levels: throughout the world.
c. Cosmopolitan Species – It is a species
A. Genetic diversity that is found to be distributed over
most regions of the earth example:
B. Species diversity and
cats, dogs, human beings. The killer
C. Ecosystem diversity whale is considered as the most
cosmopolitan species in the world.
A. Genetic diversity refers to the total
number of genetic characteristics in the C. Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety
genetic makeup of a species. Example: of life forms in a prescribed ecosystem.
Each human being is very different Ecosystems may be both terrestrial and
from others. Genetic diversity helps aquatic. Distinctive terrestrial ecosystems
the population to adapt to changes in include forests, grasslands, deserts, etc.
the environment or adapt to different while aquatic ecosystems are rivers, lakes,
environments. Domestication of dogs can oceans etc.
be taken as a common example. In understanding biodiversity, the
B. Species diversity is the number of most common question that arises in
different species of plants and animals our mind is how many different plant
that are present in a region. A community and animal species are there on earth?
with more number of species enjoys There can be no definite answer to this
species richness. Naturally undisturbed question. At present the conservation
205
scientists have identified over 8.7 million they contain around
species worldwide. Of this only about 50% of the world’s
2 million are known to us ranging from endemic plant species
microorganisms to giant mammals and and 42% of all terrestrial
reptiles. New species are being discovered vertebrates.
while many species are also disappearing India has 4
from the face of the earth. biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats,
the Himalayas, the Indo-Burma region and
7.5.1. Biodiversity hotspots
the Sundaland [includes Nicobar group of
Areas that are rich in species diversity Islands].
are called as “Hotspots”. The hottest
spots for species diversity are the tropical
rainforests. Tropical rainforests comprise
of only 7% of all land on earth, yet are home
Norman Myers (born
to nearly 50% of all the species on Earth!
24 August 1934) is a
India is among the World’s 17 nations that
British environmentalist
are exceptionally rich in species diversity.
specialising in
The British biologist Norman Myers
Biodiversity hotspots.
coined the term ‘biodiversity hotspot’ in
Professor Norman Myers was the first
1988. According to him, a biodiversity
to alert global community to tropical
hotspot is a biogeographic region
deforestation, the mass extinction
characterised both by exceptional levels
underway and environmental security.
of plant endemism and by serious levels of
habitat loss. Conservation International
(CI) adopted Myers concept of ‘hotspots’
and it made an extensive global study
Fact File
of hotspots in 1999. According to CI, to
Endemism is an ecological word
qualify as a hotspot a region must meet
meaning that a plant or animal lives
two strict criteria: (i) It must contain at
only in a particular geographical
least 1,500 species of endemic plants,
location, such as a specific island,
and (ii) It must have lost at least 70% of
habitat type, country or any defined
its original habitat. In 1999, CI’s book
zone. For example, The Asiatic Lion
‘Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest and
of the Gir forest of Gujarat. The
Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions’,
Kashmir Stag known as Hangul,
identified 34 biodiversity hotspots in the
which is found in the riverine forests
different countries of the world.
of Kashmir Valley and Chamba in
Currently there are 34 biodiversity
Himachal Pradesh. The Lion Tailed
hotspots that have been identified and,
Macaque is India’s most threatened
most of them occur in tropical forests
monkey which is endemic to the
(Figure 7.10). They represent just 2.3%
Western Ghats of South India.
of Earth’s land surface, but between them
206
N
W E
Not to scale
207
most important inventory of the global
Conservation conservation status of biological species.
International (CI)
Species are classified by the IUCN Red
is an American non-
List into nine groups specified through
profit environmental
criteria such as rate of decline, population
organization founded in 1987 in
size, area of geographic distribution, and
Virginia. Its goal is to protect nature
degree of population and distribution
as a source for food, fresh water,
fragmentation (Figure 7.11).
livelihood and a stable climate.
CI has helped to support 1,200 • Extinct (EX) – The species has
protected areas across 77 countries, disappeared and no known individuals
safeguarding more than 601 million remaining
hectares of marine and coastal areas. • Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known
only to survive in captivity, or as a
naturalized population outside its
7.6 Endangered species historic range
Rare, endangered or threatened plants • Critically Endangered (CR) – Species
and animals are elements of our natural that have drastically dwindled and are
heritage that are declining rapidly. If we at extremely high risk of extinction in
cherish these species, like we do other the wild
rare and beautiful objects, these living
• Endangered (EN) – High risk of
organisms become treasures of the highest
extinction in the wild
magnitude.
The International Union for the • Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has endangerment in the wild
identified and classified species based on • Near threatened (nt) – Likely to become
the nature of their depleting numbers. endangered in the near future.
The IUCN’s Red List of Threatened • Least concern (lc) – Lowest risk
Species, identified in 1964, is the world’s widespread and abundant
EX EW CR EN VU cd nt lc
In the context of the IUCN Red List, A Hawaiian plant species called Alula
‘threatened’ embraces the three categories locally referred to as cabbage on a stick
of Critically Endangered, Endangered, has moved from Critically Endangered
and Vulnerable. to Extinct in the Wild. It is one of the 38
According to the IUCN those species Red Listed Hawaiian plant species with
that have dwindled drastically are less than five wild individuals remaining.
called as Critically Endangered and are It used to grow on the windy sea cliffs of
included as Red List. Species that have Kauai. Alula was destroyed by hurricanes
disappeared are called as extinct species. Iwa and Inki in 1982 and 1992 leaving
In the Red List of 2012 that was released only less than 10 plants alive.
on 19 July 2012 at Rio+20 Earth Summit
19,817 species were threatened with
extinction.
Fact File
The IUCN Red
List of Threatened
Species (also
known as the
IUCN Red List or
Red Data List),
The majority of the great ape species are
founded in 1964, is the world’s most
now Critically Endangered. The Eastern
comprehensive inventory of the global
Gorilla the largest living primate is endemic
conservation status of biological
to the Eastern Democratic Republic of
species. The International Union for
Congo, south western Uganda and Rwanda.
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is
This species which was listed as Endangered
the world’s main authority on the
has moved to Critically Endangered in
conservation status of species. A series
2016 due to an ongoing population decline.
of Regional Red Lists are produced
This decline is due to illegal hunting and
by countries or organizations, which
destruction of forests for agriculture. If this
assess the risk of extinction to species
trend continues, around 93% of Eastern
within a political management unit.
Gorillas will be eliminated by 2054.
209
The Pygmy Hog: It is the smallest • Himalayan quail
and rarest wild pig on earth and it is a • Pink-headed duck
Critically Endangered species previously
spread across Bangladesh, Bhutan, Fish
India and Nepal. but now only found in • Wayanad mahseer
Assam, India. In 1995, the Pygmy Hog
• Pondicherry shark
Conservation Programme was started by
Goutam Narayan of Ecosystems-India, • Ganges shark
with the help of the Assam government • Pookode Lake barb
and now their numbers have increased to
about 150. • Common sawfish
Insects
210
7.6.2. The Recent Red List (2017)
211
The status of the Rodrigues Flying Fox
moved from Critically Endangered to
Endangered in 2017. This was due to a
number of conservation measures taken,
such as, captive breeding programme
involving 46 zoos around the world,
restoration of natural habitat, watershed
protection, and awareness rising through
education programmes. Its population
has increased from 4,000 in 2003 to about
20,000 individuals in 2016. The future
survival of this species will depend on
continued conservation efforts.
212
60,000 8,000
7,000
50,000
6,000
Extinctions
Population (Millions)
40,000
Extinction Numbers
5,000
Human Population
30,000 (Millions) 4,000
3,000
20,000
2,000
10,000
1,000
0
1800
1830
1860
1890
1920
1950
1980
2010
Source : USGS Time
1.60
Mammals
1.40
Birds
1.20
1.00
Vertebrates
0.80
0.60
Other Vertebrates
0.40
0.20
Background
0
1500-1600 1600-1700 1700-1800 1800-1900 1900-2014
214
7.7. Conservation of Biodiversity In-situ conservation means the
conservation of species within their
Conservation of bio-diversity is the
natural habitats. This strategy involves
proper management of the biosphere
identification of species rich areas and
by human beings in such a way that
adopting methods to protect it in the form
it gives maximum benefits for the
of National Park or Wildlife Sanctuary
present generation and also develops its
or Biosphere Reserve etc. In this way
potential to meet the needs of the future
biodiversity can be conserved in their
generations.
natural habitat from human activities.
The three basic objectives of
Ex-situ conservation involves
biodiversity conservation are :
maintenance and breeding of endangered
(a) To maintain essential ecological plants and animals under partially or
processes and life supporting systems. wholly controlled conditions in specific
(b) To preserve the diversity of species. areas like zoo, gardens, nurseries etc.
Other examples of ex-situ conservation
(c) To make sustainable utilization of
include:
species and ecosystems.
(i) Seed gene bank
There are two types of conservation
methods (Figure 7.15) namely in-situ and (ii) Field gene bank
ex-situ conservations. (iii) Botanical gardens
Biodiversity
conservation
In-situ Ex situ
National
Biosphere Seed banks
Sacred groves parks Wildlife
reserves field gene banks
sanctuaries
cryopreservation
Botanical
gardens Arborata
Terrestrial Marine Zoological gardens
Aquaria
216
Figure 7.16 Biosphere reserves in india
217
National Park buffer zones between established
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries
1. National parks in India are IUCN
and reserved and protected forests of
category II protected areas.
India.
2. A National park is an area with
2. They are called as ‘Conservation
ecological, geomorphological and
Reserves’ if they are uninhabited and
natural significance with rich fauna
completely owned by the Government
and flora, designed to protect and to
of India but used for subsistence by
develop wildlife or its environment.
communities.
3. Activities like grazing, hunting,
forestry or cultivation etc. are They are called ‘Community Reserves’ if
strictly prohibited. a part of the land is privately owned.
218
8. Some Other Important Conservation Bhairodev Dakav Sonchuri declaring
Sites their own set of rules and regulation
which do not allow hunting, and are
1. Tiger Reserves – Project Tiger
protecting the wildlife against any
was launched by the Government
outside encroachments.
of India in the year 1973 to save
the endangered species of tiger in 3. Bishnoi villages: In and around
the country. Starting from nine (9) Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds
reserves in 1973 the number has now of blackbuck, nilgai and peacocks
grown to fifty (50) in 2016. Table 7.2. can be seen as an integral part of the
gives a list of conservation sites and community and nobody harms them.
their numbers in India.
7.7.2. The Role of GIS in Conservation of
9. Role of communities: Communities Nature
are playing a vital role in the Recently Geographic Information System
conservation and protection of wildlife (GIS) has been used as a tool to identify
in India, example: new areas that need to be conserved. In
1. Sariska Tiger Reserve: In Sariska the last 15 years Remote Sensing and GIS
tiger reserve Rajasthan villagers have has been used to developed gap analysis
fought against mining by citing the as a method to identify biodiversity
wildlife protection act. In many areas, (i.e., species, ecosystems and ecological
villagers themselves are protecting processes) that is not adequately
habitats and explicitly rejecting conserved within a protected area network
government involvement. or through other effective and long-term
conservation measures. Gap analysis
2. Bhairodev Dakav Sonchuri: The is a method of comparison of actual
inhabitants of five villages in the performance with potential or desired
Alwar district of Rajasthan have performance. It was thus developed in
declared 1200 hectares of forests as the response to recognition, that protected
Table7.3 Important Conservation Sites In India ( Dec 2016)
Reserves/Conservation Sites Numbers Total Area in Sqkm.
Tiger Reserves 50 71027
Elephant Reserves 32 69583
Biosphere Reserves 18 87492
RAMSAR Wetland Sites 26 12119
Natural World Heritage Sites 07 11756
Important Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Areas 107 10773
Marine Protected Areas 131 9801
Potential/ Important Bird Areas 563 –
Source: ENVIS Centre on Wildlife & Protected Areas (http://www.wiienvis.nic.in/Database/
ConservationAreas_844.aspx)
219
areas of all types and in all parts of the Biodiversity is necessary for our
world do not fully protect biodiversity. existence as well as valuable in its own
Gap analysis is usually applied to fairly right. This is because it provides the
large areas of study. fundamental building blocks for the goods
and services that provide us with a healthy
Activity environment.Biodiversity includes
fundamental things to our health like
Identify community conserved areas fresh water clean air and food products, as
in Tamil Nadu and prepare a poster. well as many other products like timber,
medicine and fibre.
Highlight: Biodiversity also includes various
other important things and services such
In 1798, in a small village called
as cultural, recreational and spiritual
Vedanthangal near Chennai, the
nourishment that play an important role
British soldiers shot some storks
in maintaining our personal life and social
in the local wetland. The villagers
life.
stormed the Collector’s office and
made him issue an order not to harm It is therefore the duty of every citizen
the nesting birds. This took place long to conserve this valuable life on earth, the
before the concept of conservation most precious gift we can pass on to the
of biosphere entered our thoughts. future generations.
India has experienced many such
incidents only some of which have
been recorded.
220
The Asiatic Cheetah of India Becomes Extinct
Cheetah is found in Africa and Asia. It is the fastest land animal on Earth. The
Asiatic cheetah, is slightly smaller than the African cheetah. It has a fawn-coloured
body with black spots and distinctive black “tear marks” running from the corner of
each eye down the side of its nose.
The Asiatic cheetah also known as the Iranian cheetah is a Critically Endangered
subspecies surviving today only in Iran. It was once found in the Arabian Peninsula,
Near East, Kyzyl-Kum desert, Caspian region, Pakistan and India.
Asiatic cheetahs were once widespread across the continent but were eradicated in
India, where they were hunted for sport. The spread of farming also greatly reduced
their numbers in the 19th and 20th centuries. Eventually the animal was wiped out in
Asia to which it was once native.
Cheetah has been known to exist in India for a very long time. They were kept
by Kings and princes, but hunting led to their extinction in the country. In 1948,
Maharajah Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo shot three of the last cheetahs in India, in
Surguja, State of Madhya Pradesh which is present day Northern Chhattisgarh.
The Indian government had plans to reintroduce cheetahs back in India in 2009
but this project has not yet been taken up.
221
involves conservation of genetic resources
using many techniques and facilities.
Habitat: The natural home or environment
Boreal: Relating to the region of the earth of an animal, plant, or other organism.
just south of the Arctic, especially its Lagoon: A stretch of salt water separated
plants and animals. from the sea by a low sandbank or coral
Coral polyps: Tiny, soft-bodied organisms reef.
related to sea anemones and jellyfish. At Oasis: A small area in a desert that has supply
their base is a hard, protective limestone of water and is able to support vegetation.
skeleton called a calicle, which forms An oasis forms when groundwater lies close
the structure of coral reefs. Reefs begin enough to the surface to form a spring or to
when a polyp attaches itself to a rock on be reached by wells.
the sea floor, then divides, or buds, into Permafrost: A thick subsurface layer of
thousands of clones. soil that remains below freezing point
Ecologist: A person who studies the throughout the year, occurring chiefly in
natural relationships between the air, Polar Regions.
land, water, animals, plants, etc. Poaching: Trespassing, especially on
Endemic: Native or restricted to a certain another’s game reserve, in order to steal
place.eg. Lion-tailed macaque endemic to animals or to hunt.
the Nilgiris. Sedges: Any grass like plant, typically
Entomologist: A person who studies growing on wet ground and having
or is an expert in the branch of zoology rhizomes, triangular stems, and minute
concerned with insects. flowers. Sedges are found to grow in cold
Ex-Situ Conservation: Ex-situ conservation regions,
is the preservation of components of biological Vulnerable: Exposed to the possibility of
diversity outside their natural habitats. This being attacked or harmed or destroyed;
222
Evaluation a. Savannah b. Desert
I. Choose the best answer c. Tropical rain forest d. taiga
8. The Temperate grasslands of North
1. Who first proposed the term America.
‘Ecosystem’ ? a. Prairies b. Steppes
a. E.O. Wilson c. Pampas d. Downs
b. I.G. Simmon 9. The Taiga biome extends over the
c. A.G. Tansley latitudes -------------------------------- .
d. Raymond F Dasmann a. 0° to20° North and South
2. What is the main source of energy for b. 30° to 50° N
the earth ? c. 50° to 65° N
a. Moon b. Stars d. beyond 65° N
c. Sun d. Tides 10. Which of the following is not covered
3. What is the position of a rabbit in a by the Nilgiri Biosphere?
food chain? a. Bandipur National Park
a. Primary consumer b. Nagarhole National Park
b. secondary consumer c. NamdaphaNational park
c. tertiary consumer d. Mukurthi National park
d. Quaternary consumer
II. Give short answers:
4. Which organism eats both plants and
animals?
11. What is a Biosphere?
a. Herbivores
12. What is meant by biogeochemical cycle?
b. Carnivores
13. Mention the types of biomes.
c. Omnivores
14. Name the different types of coral reefs.
d. Detritivores
15. How many Biodiversity Hotspots are
5. Which of the following is found in there in India? Name them.
the desert biome?
a. Eucalyptus b. Pine III. Give answers in a paragraph:
c. Teak d. Cacti
16. What are Consumers? Explain the
6. Which of the following are native types of consumers.
tribes inhabiting the tropical
17. Write a short note on energy pyramids.
evergreen forests of Africa?
18. What is meant by Species Diversity?
a. Yanomani b. Pygmies
Explain
c. Tikuna d. Aborigines
19. Describe how the Asiatic Cheetah
7. The largest number of plant became extinct in India.
species are found in ------------------------------
20. Write a note on National Parks with
biome.
examples.
223
IV. Give detailed answers:
21. Mark the areas of the Tropical Rain forest Biomes on the given world map and mention
any four characteristics of them.
22. Distinguish between the Tropical Desert and the Tundra biomes.
23. Explain how species are classified in the Red List of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Project
1. Observe life forms in your local area and draw a food web.
2. Complete the following table
Plants and their Animals and
Sl No Biome Location Climate Adaptation to their Adaptation to
Environment Environment
1. Tropical
Evergreen Rain
Forest
2. Tropical
Monsoon
Forests
3. Temperate
Deciduous
Forests
4. Tropical
Grasslands
Or Savannah
5. Temperate
Grasslands or
Steppe
6. Deserts
7. Taiga or Boreal
Forests
8. Tundra
224
Reference Websites
225
ICT CORNER
Biosphere Facing Surface
Steps
• Use the URL or scan the QR code to download and install “Geography Learning
Trivia Quiz” app in smartphone.
• Click on the ‘clock’ to watch the timeline.
• Enter your name,Select Difficulty level and continents to be evaluated in the quiz.
• Answer the quiz by pinning the balloon on the map, complete the quiz and review the
answers. Check your progress in biosphere using achievement tab and leaderboard tab.
Website URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.yamlearning.
geographylearning&hl=en
226
Unit VIII
Natural Disasters -
Public Awareness
For Disaster Risk
Reduction
229
building and become trapped under
ruins if the building is destroyed.
6. Do not go to the staircase, a balcony or
an elevator.
7. If you are in the street, keep away from
buildings; try to get into an open space
and avoid power transmission lines.
8. If you are at home, turn off electrical
equipment and gas quickly.
9. If you are in chemistry class or a Figure 8.2. Drop, Cover, Hold-Mock drill
laboratory where chemicals are stored,
try to leave the room because chemicals
may cause injuries; influence of gravity. Landslides can be
caused by rainfall, snowmelt, stream
After earthquake:
erosion, and flood, earthquakes, volcanic
1. First check if you have any injuries, activity, disturbance by human activities,
and then check the condition of the or any combination of these factors.
surrounding people. If you cannot do
Landslides cause property damage,
this, wait for the rescue team;
injury and death and adversely affect a
2. After the earthquake when you leave variety of resources. For example, water
the shelter, do not return for 2-3 hours supplies, fisheries, sewage disposal
because the quakes may repeat (an systems, forests, dams and roadways can
aftershock). be affected.
3. Check if there is fire; in case of a mild
During a Landslide
one try to extinguish it.
1. Listen for any unusual sounds that
4. Be cautious about the possibility of
might indicate moving debris, such as
gas leakage and damage caused to
trees cracking or boulders knocking
electrical wiring.
together.
5. Be careful while opening wardrobe
2. If you are near a river, be alert for
doors to take necessary items;
any sudden increase or decrease in
6. Use only lanterns; do not use an oil water flow and for a change from clear
lamp or a candle. to muddy water. Such changes may
7. Listen to the radio to receive indicate landslide activity upstream, so
information about the earthquake. be prepared to move quickly.
3. Be alert especially when driving.
8.3.2 Landslide Embankments along roadsides are
A landslide is defined as the movement particularly susceptible to landslides.
of a mass of rock debris down a slope. 4. Disconnect the power supply in the
Landslides are caused by the direct areas of landslide.
230
After the Landslide Nicobar and Lakshadweep are also prone
1. Stay away from the slide area. There to cyclones.
may be danger of additional slides Districts in Tamil Nadu which are
2. Check for injured and trapped persons frequently affected by cyclones: All the 13
near the slide, without entering the coastal Districts of Tamil Nadu are affected
direct slide area. by cyclonic storms which occur during May-
3. Direct rescuers to their locations. June and in October-November months.
These Districts are: Tiruvallur, Chennai,
4. Listen to local radio or television for
Kancheepuram, Villupuram, Cuddalore,
the latest emergency information
Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Thanjavur,
5. Watch for flooding, which may occur Pudukkottai, Ramanathapuram, Tuticorin,
after a landslide or debris flow. Tirunelveli and Kanniyakumari.
On an average, about five or six tropical
8.3.3 Cyclone
cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and
The major natural disaster that affects the Arabian sea and hit the coast every year.
coastal regions of India is cyclone and as Out of these, two or three are severe.
India has a coastline of about 7516 km; When a cyclone approaches to the
it is exposed to nearly 10 percent of the coast, a risk of serious loss or damage
world’s tropical cyclones. occurs from severe winds, heavy rainfall,
About 71 percent of flood prone areas storm surges and river floods. The effect of
are in ten states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, a storm surge is most pronounced in wide
Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and shallow bays exposed to cyclones such
Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and as in the northern part of Bay of Bengal.
West Bengal). The islands of Andaman, Most cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal
Fact File
Tropical Cyclone Vardha hit Chennai on 12 December, 2016. National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) reports that at least 10 people have died in Tamil Nadu.
Maximum sustained wind speeds of over 130 km/h were recorded, and the storm
has caused severe damage to parts of the city of Chennai. Over 4,000 trees have been
uprooted, power lines downed and buildings damaged.
233
in the country are subject to floods and Do’s before flood
40 million hectares of land, roughly one- 1. Keep furniture and electrical
eighth of the country’s geographical area, appliances on beds and tables
is prone to floods. The National Flood 2. Put sandbags in the toilet bowl and
Control Program was launched in the cover all drain holes to prevent sewage
country in 1954. back flow.
W E
-41%
48% Departure from 10-year average
-42%
water reservoir levels
10% 92%
45% 234%
75% 60%
16%
20%
38%
-13%
42%
-67%
-41%
-81%
-31%
Not to Scale
8.3.5 Drought
Figure 8.7. Drought condition
The above map shows most the acute
shortage of water in Tamil Nadu in 10
years. ( 2017) percent areas receive rainfalls less than
750 mm is considered to be chronically
drought prone.
Rules of action before, during and after
Drought
Before drought:
1. Rainwater harvesting should be
followed.
2. Sewage water should be recycled and
used for domestic purpose.
3. Building canals or redirecting rivers
Figure 8.6. Crops affected by Drought for irrigation.
4. Utilise water economically.
Drought is a period of time (months or
years) during which a part of the land has During drought:
shortage of rain, causing severe damage 1. Wear cotton clothing and a hat.
to the soil, crops, animals, and people. 2. In case of overheating, immediately
It sometimes causes even death. During move to a shady area.
drought high temperature is experienced.
3. Consume adequate amounts of
Such conditions may affect our health.
water stay.
The primary cause of drought is
deficiency of rainfall and in particular, the After drought:
timing, distribution and intensity. 1. If anyone faints after sunstroke,
In India around 68 percent of the emergency medical measures should be
country is prone to drought. Of the taken.
entire area 35 percent receives rain falls 2. Contact local government agencies to
between 750 mm and 1,125 mm which receive information about disaster and
is considered drought prone while 33 assistance for the population.
235
8.3.6 Lightning
• Lightning flashes
Lightning is an atmospheric electrostatic more than 3 million
discharge (spark) accompanied by times a day or 40 times
thunder, which typically occurs during a second worldwide.
thunderstorms, and sometimes during
• An average lightning bolt can
volcanic eruptions or dust storms.
release enough energy to operate a
Lightning generates 10-20 ampere current
100-watt light bulb for more than
three months straight (about 250
• You can hear kilowatt-hours of energy).
thunder from about
16 km of its starting
point. a tree branch. The heat travels through the
tree, vaporizing its sap and creating steam
• Lightning bolts travel at the speed that causes the trunk to explode.
of up to 80,000 km / second.
Before lightning
• The average length of a single
1. If you are planning to go to the
lightning bolt is 3-4km.
countryside, check the weather
forecast.
and it is therefore fatal. It is especially 2. If a thunderstorm is expected it is
dangerous for people in an open area. better to postpone the trip.
Lightning strikes often have fatal 3. It is good if you can estimate the distance
consequences. On an average, 2000 people to the front line of a thunderstorm. In
die from lightning in the world every year. order to do this you must check the
Lightning mostly strikes tall things, such time interval from the moment you see
as trees that break down and catch fire the lightning until you hear thunder.
or it may strike power transmission lines Lightning always precedes thunder.
and antennas fastened We know that the sound speed travels
on roofs and buildings on average about 1km every 3 seconds.
which causing fire. The Reduction of the time interval between
air temperature, when the sight of lightning and the resulting
lightning occurs, is as thunder means that the danger is
hot as 9982.2 °C. approaching and protective measures
Thunder is the sound caused by must be taken. If there is no interval
lightning. A charged, superheated between lightning and thunder means,
lightning bolt creates a “resonating tube” it means that the cloud is already over
as it travels. The air in the tube rapidly your head.
expands and contracts causing vibrations During Lightning:
that we hear as the rumble of thunder. 1. If you are in a building it is necessary
Lightning strikes can explode a tree. to close windows, doors, ventilation
Imagine 15 million volts of electricity hitting pipes and chimneys.
236
Figure 8.8. Lightning
237
Student activity
Read the following rules for lightning and practice the mock drill as given below.
1. Follow the 30/30 rule.
2. If there are less than 30 seconds between thunder and lightning, you are in danger.
3. Get inside and stay there until 30 minutes after the last lightning flash.
4. practice lightning crouch
5. If you see or feel lightning and there is nowhere to go for shelter, immediately
squat down.
6. Balance on the balls of your feet, touch your heels together.
7. Cover your ears.
8. This way the charge may go through your back in to the ground without harming
your vital organs.
239
scheduled to be conducted by the
various committees. Reference
2. Drop, cover, hold mock drill for 1. Kenji Okazaki, GRIPS, 2007 Disaster
earthquake Education, UNESCO.
3. Mock drill for lightning. 2. Towards a culture of safety and
VI. Group discussion resilience, UNICEF.
1. Discuss in group how you can 3. Teachers Guide on Disaster, TNSCERT.
manage drought condition before 4. Children’s action for disaster risk
it occurs. reduction, UNISDR
240
Unit IX
represented by an arrow pointing upward right. On the bottom left the name of the
placed at the top right corner of the map. author, publisher, place of publication and
Sometimes a Compass Rose is used instead year of publication should be given.
of an arrow to show the direction. 1. Based on the details given below, mark the
Source components of the map in their appropriate
place in the map of Tamil Nadu.
Every map must give the source of the data
Title: Tamil Nadu - Distribution of
used. The source should normally be given
rainfall during Northeast Monsoon 2017
outside the frame of the map on the bottom
242
d. physical features to understand because it generally uses
e. cultural features familiar units.
f. vegetation Example : 1 centimetre 5 10 kilometres
Simple statement has the following
9.2 Scale characteristics :
The scale is defined as the ratio between 1. If the numerator is in centimeters,
the distance of two points on the map then the denominator is in metres and
and their corresponding distance on the kilometres.
ground. The scale is an essential element 2. If the numerator is in inch, then the
in all types of maps. The scale of the map denominator is in miles.
permits the user to convert distance on
the map to distance on the ground. 2. Representative fraction (RF)
A map scale provides the relationship It shows the relationship between the map
between the map and the whole or a part distance and the corresponding ground
of the earth’s surface shown on it. We can distance in the same units of length. R. F.
also express this relationship as a ratio of is generally shown as a fraction. For
distances between two points on the map example, a fraction of 1 : 40,000 shows that
and their corresponding distance on the one unit of length on the map represents
ground. The scale can be represented as 40,000 of the same units on the ground
a fraction where the numerator refers to i.e; 1 cm or 1 inch on the map represents
map distance and the denominator refers 40,000 cm and 40,000 inches, respectively
to ground distance. on the ground.
There are at least three ways of which RF is represented as 1/40,000 or 1:40,000
representing scale. They are: 3. Graphic or bar scale
1. Statement Scale In this type of scale the map distances
2. Representative Fraction (R. F.) and the corresponding ground distances
3. Graphical or Bar Scale are marked using a line bar with primary
and secondary divisions on it. However,
1. Statement Scale unlike the statement of the scale method,
The scale of a map may be indicated in the the graphical scale stands valid even when
form of a written statement. For example, the map is reduced or enlarged. This is the
if on a map a written statement appears as unique advantage of the graphical method
stating 1 cm represents 10 km, it means of representing scale.
that on that map a distance of 1 cm is Example:
representing 10 km of the corresponding R. F. 1:50,000
244
Example Step 2: 10 km 5 1000000 cm Therefore
5 cm: 1000000 cm
Statement of Scale into R. F.
Step 3: simplify the ratio
1. Convert the given Statement of Scale
1: 1000000/5
of 1 inch represents 5 miles into R. F.
Answer : R.F. 5 1: 200000 or 1/200000
Solution
b. 2 inches represents 4 miles
The given Statement of Scale may be
converted into R. F. using the following Step 1: convert into same units of
steps. measurement
246
Example Step 1. Measure the distance between
a. Measure the straight line distance the two points with the help of a
between the towns Peel and Castle thread.
town. Step 2. Place the thread on a scale and
read the measurement in cm.
0 5 10 km
0 5 10 mi (example if it is 3.2cm)
Step 3. Note the scale of the map in this
Irish Sea
Ramsey
case 1 cm 5 1 km
Step 4. Multiply the measured distance
with the scale of the map.
Peel
(3.2 3 1 km 5 3.2 km)
DOUGLAS
Answer : The distance between the two
Castletown
points is 3.2 km
Calf of
Man Irish Sea
Chicken Exercise
Rock
247
Step 1: Count the number of full squares
first 5 10 (shaded green) 1 small
square 5 1 cm2
Step 2: Next, count the numbers of the
fractional squares
¾ square (yellow) 5 4,
½ square (pink) 5 2 and
¼ square (blue) 5 8)
Step 3: Calculate the total number of
squares 10
(10 3 1 510,
Number of 3/4 square
4 3 3/4 5 3
Number of 1/2 squares
2 3 1/25 1 and
number of 1/4 squares
8 3 1/4 5 2)
Step 4: Add all these values
(10 1 3 1 1 1 2 5 16 squares)
Step 5: Multiply 16 with the scale of
the map
16 3 1 km2 516 km2
Hence the area of the given place is 5 16
square Km.
Square method: The square method
is the most common method to measure Example:
area. In this method, the area to be
measured is covered by squares by placing
a sheet of graph paper beneath the map on
an illuminated tracing table or by tracing
the area onto the graph sheet. The squares
pertain to a scale.
Example:
Calculate the area of the given map whose
scale is 1 centimetre 5 1 kilometre cover
the given area with a set of squares of side.
Area of 1 small square 5 1 km2
248
Measure the given area using square 4 3 1/25 2 and
method: scale is 1 centimetre 5 1 kilometre number of 1/4 squares:
(area of one small square 5 1 square Km ) 2 3 1/4 5 0.5)
Solution: Step 4: Add all these values
(11 1 1.5 1 2 1 0.5 5 15 squares)
Step 5: Multiply 15 with the scale of
the map
15 3 1 515 km2
Hence the area of the given place is 5 15
square Km.
Activity
https://www.makeuseof.com › Internet
Step 1: Count the number of full squares Measure the area of any selected
first 5 11 village/plot /area of your choice using
Step 2: Next, count the numbers of the this link.
fractional squares
¾ square 5 2, 9.5 Enlargement and reduction of
½ square 5 4 and maps
¼52 In the process of compiling maps
Step 3: Calculate the total number of cartographers are often required to either
squares reduce or enlarge maps. Reduction or
enlargement involves change in the size.
(11 3 1 5 11
An enlargement provides the same map
Number of 3/4 square:
but proportionally larger than the original.
2 3 3/4 5 1.5 A reduction gives the same map that is
Number of 1/2 squares: proportionally smaller than the original.
The above image or map has been
4 Units
reduced by ½ .The amount that an original
image has been enlarged or reduced is
4 Units called a scale factor, or an enlargement or
reduction factor. It is the constant factor
2 Units by which all dimensions of an object are
enlarged or reduced in a map. If shapes have
been reduced by half, the scale factor is ½.
The ratio between the area of a map on
2 Units one scale and its area to another scale is
249
Therefore, If scale is to be 1/16,000,000 Exercise:
side of the small square 5 x Trace the outline of any two districts of
1/16,000,000 Tamil Nadu from your atlas and enlarge
X5 x ½cm and reduce the same.
1/32,000,000
32,000,000
X5 5 ½cm
16,000,000
When the scale is 1/16,000,000 the side of
the small square will be 1 cm. Now draw a
network of squares, each side measuring 1
cm. The number of squares will be the same
as on the original map. Now transfer the
outline of original map on the enlarged map.
R.F= 1:16,000,000
252
350
0
325
0
300
0
Unit X 275
0
250
0
225
Representation 200
0
of Relief Features 0
Learning Objectives:
Learning Objectives:
Chapter Outline
10.1 Introduction • Understand how to identify
10.2 Methods of Representing different landscapes.
Relief Features • List types of measuring landscapes
10.3 Profile Diagram
• Draw cross section of contours and
10.4 Climatic Diagrams
identify landforms.
10.5 Ombrothermic Diagram
10.6 Wind Rose Diagram
Contour Lines
Index Contour
Contour Line
Contour Interval
34
1563 1563
S
BM CI
32357 x 3227
Benchmark
E
100
150 100
20
2. Every fifth contour is a dark line to 10
Knoll: Spur:
a low circle-shaped contours form a V or U shape
hill on the end of a spur pointing away from higher land
60
.158
M 60
Spot heights are heights
50 between Conltour lines and
40 are shown thus .158
30 60
20 65
70
10
75
M.S.L M.S.L 80
4000
3000
3500
3400
3200
A B
500
400
300
200
100
metres
500 In Metres
4000
400 3600
300 3500
3400
200
3200
100
100
16
00
00
15
00
0
12 0
13
0
0 COASTLINE
14
11
0
1 00
0
80
W 10
A B 0
0
SEA
70
600
200
500
300
60
400
700
300
0
50
A 400 A B
W = WATERFALL B
0
30
1700
m
1600 CONTOUR
CONTOURINTERVAL
INTERVAL100
100mm 800 800
1500 500 m
1400 400 700 700
1300 300 600 600
1200 200
500 500
1100 100
1000 0 400 400
Figure 10.15 Waterfall Figure 10.16 Sea cliff Figure 10.17 V-Shaped
valley
258
Exercise 1 the sky line or summit line for that region.
This is termed as composite profile.
Match the following
Steps to Draw Profiles
1 A Trace the contours in the toposheet for a
size of 10 cm by 10 cm with the contour
height.
2 B
Select four base lines at a distance of 2.5
cm each. Name them as AB, CD and EF.
3 C Draw the horizontal lines to represent
contour with suitable vertical exaggeration.
On this vertically exaggerated figure
4 D
carefully draw cross sections separately for
all the selected lines (AB, CD and EF) as
5 E described in the previous section. They are
named as serial profile. Draw each section
in different colour for better visualisation.
6 F
For super imposed profile draw the
sections of each line on one vertically
10.3 Profile Diagram exaggerated line with the same colours
used as before.
Contour diagram and cross section are
Draw a common vertically exaggerated
drawn for selected features of the earth.
base line. First draw the cross section of
In a continuous landscape one may be
AB line. Next while drawing the cross
interested to visualize the general sky line
section of CD line draw only those parts
for an area along a selected path. Profile
which are the higher than AB line. Next
or a section is a method which helps to
draw the cross section of line EF which
visualize the relief feature for a larger area
drawn along a selected base line.
900 m
800 m
Types of Profiles 700 m
600 m
Profiles drawn for three or four selected 500 m
E F
individual base line are called Serial
profiles. When profile sections of all 900 m
serial profiles are drawn on a same vertical 800 m
700 m
baseline it is named as superimposed 600 m
500 m
profile. When one of the serial profile is C D
kept as a base and the elevated portions of
900 m
successive profiles are drawn it is known 800 m
as projected profile. The line joining the 700 m
600 m
topmost elevated portions of all the serial 500 m
profiles drawn on a same base line gives A B
259
SUPER IMPOSED PROFILE
900 m
This gives the effect of the landscape seen
A-B
C-D
800 m from a distance.
E-F 700 m
600 m
500 m
Exercise 2
PROJECTED PROFILE
900 m
Draw serial profile, superimposed profile,
800 m
700 m
projected and composite profile for the
A-B 600 m
500 m
given contour diagram.
Temperature /
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Maximum
29.3 30.9 32.9 34.5 37.1 37.0 35.3 34.7 34.2 32.1 29.9 28.9
Temperature in °C
Minimum
21.2 22.2 24.2 26.6 28.0 27.5 26.4 25.9 25.6 24.6 23.1 21.9
Temperature in °C
260
Chennai - Average maximum and minimum temperature
o o
Maximum temperature in C Minimum temperature in C
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
Jan Feb Mar April May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
261
Rainfall scale should be twice the value should be illustrated by filling it with
of temperature scale selected. vertical lines
5. Draw a graph with red colour 9. There is a practice of colouring the
corresponding to the temperature data. portions which exceed 100 mm,
6. Draw a graph with blue colour precipitation as a period with excess
corresponding to the rainfall data. water with black colour.
7. When the temperature line runs 10. The station name and its elevation should
above the precipitation line there is a be mentioned in the top left, average
dry season and the area between the temperature and average rainfall in the
lines should be illustrated by filling it top right, extremes of temperature in the
with dots second line should be shown.
8. When the temperature line runs below Inference: The station has the dry season
the precipitation line there is a wet between April and October; wet season
season and the area between the lines from October to April and excess water
between November and February.
Example
50 100
40 80
O
C Pmm
30 60
20 40
10 20
262
Parameter/
Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Cuddalore
Rainfall mm 15.54 10.44 12.48 20.96 57.1 41.24 64.4 99.28 147.17 204.22 165.07 133.76
o
Temp. C 25.3 26.58 28.46 30.61 31.32 30.75 30 29.34 29.03 27.89 26.45 25.36
Coimbatore
Rainfall mm 7.56 13.34 23.04 85.78 178.47 481 492.64 315.2 202.82 263.57 153.53 44.03
o
Temp. C 25.4 26.43 27.89 28.77 28.06 26.37 25.55 25.68 26.17 26.21 25.99 25.29
Karur
Rainfall mm 8.14 16.72 23.73 62.44 96.94 90.68 122.52 106.8 144.68 213.49 135.09 67.64
o
Temp. C 23.2 24.4 26.06 27.41 27.17 25.75 25.06 24.96 25.22 24.74 23.91 23.01
Tirunelveli
Rainfall mm 14.9 31.45 24.32 85.27 128.5 195.7 147.82 118.9 116.18 203.96 163.37 68.79
o
Temp. C 21.1 21.63 22.44 22.95 22.7 21.64 21.19 21.15 21.46 21.3 21.24 21.13
Vellore
Rainfall mm 4.64 9.91 10.58 28.44 94.3 71.28 96.26 122.3 172.47 195.62 122.08 58.25
o
Temp. C 23.2 25.08 27.46 29.69 30.04 28.51 27.56 27.11 26.92 25.9 24.33 23.07
Source: India Water Portal | Safe, sustainable water for all. www.indiawaterportal.org/ Exercise 3
Activity
2. Singh L.R. (2013) Fundamentals of
Practical Geography, ShardaPustak-
Know about the wind rose diagram
Bhavan, Allahabad.
and its interpretation in this web site:
https://www.envitrans.com/how-to
Web References
-interpret-a-wind-rose.php
1. https://www.slideshare.net/TimCor
ner/earth-science-mappingtopogra
phic-maps-ppt
References
2. https://www.slideshare.net/bala1957
1. Singh R.L. and R. Singh (2001) Map
/use-of-toposheets-in-civil-engineer
Work and Practical Geography, Central
ing-projects
Book Depot, Allahabad.
264
Unit XI
Interpretation of
Topographical Map
266
Figure 11.1 Conventional Signs and Symbols
267
Figure 11.2 Open Series Map
minutes, scale, the districts covered, etc. 11.4.1 Extra Marginal Information
Marginal information is classified in to: A. Sheet Name: The sheet name or title
• Extra Marginal Information- Serial of the map is found in bold print at the
Number, name of the State, District top centre of the map and in the lower left
and other general information. area of the map margin. A map is generally
• Intra Marginal Information – Grid named after the largest settlement
information, contour values, names of contained within the area covered by the
the next nearest places connected by sheet or the name of the state, a part of
transport lines and distance in Km. which is covered by the map.
b. Sheet Number : The sheet number is
• Inter Marginal Information or Body
found in bold print in both the upper
of the Map– depicts the topography by
right and lower left areas of the margin .
using various Signs and symbols
268
N
72 E
78 E
o o
W E
36o N S
84 E
o
J-43
102 E
o
36 N
66o E
90 E
96 E
o
o o
I-43 I-44
o
o
32 N 32 N
H-42 H-43 H-44 H-45 H-46 H-47
o
o
28 N 22 N
G-42 G-43 G-44 G-45 G-46 G-47
o
o
24 N 24 N
102 E
F-42 F-43 F-44 F-45 F-46 o
o
o
20 N 20 N
E-43 E-44 E-45
o
16o N 16 N
D-42 D-43 D-44 D-46
o
12o N 12 N
C-42 C-43 C-44 C-46
o o
8 N 8 N
72 E
78 E
84 E
66o E
o o o B-46
o o
4 N 4 N
90 E
96 E
o o
38D16SW 24'
(1:25,000)
F
41 46 55 64 73 79 84 93
20'
68' 70' 90'
E 47 56 65 74 85 94
16'
86' 88'
D 48 57 66 86 95
C 49 58 67 87 96
8'
B 50 59 68 88 97
4'
66' 72' 74' 76' 78' 80' 82' 84' 92' 94' 96' 98' 100'
102'
Figure 11.4 Index for conversion of Topo sheet No. to OSM sheet No.
f. Scale: The scale is found in the centre of measure on the ground. Graphical Scales
the lower margin. The scale is represented are located in the centre of the lower
as a representative fraction and also as margin. They are rulers used to convert
a graphical scale. The representative map distance to ground distance. Maps
fraction gives the ratio of map distance to have three or more bar scales, each in a
the corresponding distance on the earth’s different unit of measure. Care should be
surface. For example, the scale 1:50,000 exercised when using the scales, especially
indicates that one unit of measure on in the selection of the unit of measure that
the map equals 50,000 units of the same is needed.
270
g. Index to Boundaries : The index to its respective symbol. This information is
boundaries diagram appears in the lower important to the map user in evaluating
right margin of all sheets. This diagram, the reliability of the map.
which is a miniature of the map, shows
the boundaries that occur within the map 11.5 Interpretation of Topo sheet
area, such as National, state, district or Study of Topographical Maps
thasil boundaries.
Topographic maps are general reference
h. Index to Adjoining Sheets : Maps at
maps. They are also called ordnance maps.
all standard scales contain a diagram that
These maps are ideal for researchers,
illustrates the adjoining sheets. On maps at
planners, administrators, defence personal,
1:1000,000 and larger scales , the diagram
hikers, tourists and for class room purpose.
is called the index to adjoining sheets. The
They give clear details of actually surveyed
diagram usually contains nine rectangles
natural and manmade features. These maps
with the central rectangle representing
are drawn to scale.
the sheet under consideration.. All
Geographical knowledge and clear
represented sheets are identified by their
understanding of conventional signs and
sheet numbers.
symbols is essential to understand and
i. Contour Interval Note: This note is
interpret a Survey of India Topographical
found in the centre of the lower margin
sheet.
normally below the bar scales. It states the
A topographic sheet is usually
vertical distance between adjacent contour
interpreted under the following sub
lines of the map. When supplementary
headings:
contours are used, the interval is indicated.
In recent edition maps, the contour
• Marginal information
interval is given in meters instead of feet.
j. Legend : The legend is located in the • Relief
lower left margin and lower right margin. • Drainage
It illustrates and identifies the topographic • Natural and
symbols used to depict some of the more
prominent features on the map. The • Man made
symbols are not always the same on every • Vegetation
map. Always refer to the legend to avoid
• Land use
errors when reading a map.
• Settlement
k. Grid Reference Box: This box is
normally located in the centre of the • Transport and communication
lower margin. It contains instructions for
composing a grid reference. Marginal Information
l. Unit imprint and Symbol: The unit The marginal information includes the
imprint and symbol is on the left side of topographical sheet number, direction, its
the lower margin. It identifies the agency location, grid references, latitudinal and
that prepared and printed the map with longitudinal extent in degrees, minutes
271
and seconds, scale, the districts, covered, be considered while interpreting a
contour interval etc., topographical sheet because all these
Relief aspects are interdependent.
Relief refers to the general topography of Settlements could be dispersed or
the area under study. First, the landforms scattered, compact or nucleated type. They
like mountains, hills, plateaus along with may be radial or linear in pattern. They are
the peaks, ridges should be identified also studied under the following heads,
and the general direction of slope can based on their size and the activities the
be determined. The contour values and population is engaged in.
patterns have to be studied. Spot heights, Permanent settlements are shown
bench marks etc help in understanding by solid squares and temporary ones in
the height of certain areas. outlines of squares.
Drainage • Rural settlements: They can be
Drainage of an area can be understood by compact, semi compact, dispersed or
observing the characteristics of the rivers, linear, etc.
their tributaries, drainage pattern. • Urban settlements: It is the capital
Vegetation city, administrative town, trade centre,
port town, religious or tourist station
Important trees are shown by special
or a hill station.
symbols. Trees, grasses and shrubs are all
shown in green colour. Agricultural land The basic occupations that the people
is shown in yellow colour. are probably engaged in, can be understood
Land use after the land use pattern and the type of
settlement have been understood.
Land use includes the use of land under
different categories like agriculture,
Transport and communication
pasture, barren land and forest area. Other
land use categories could be mining, The means of transport and communication
industry, trade, tourism, fishing or cattle being used can be identified from the
rearing. It also informs us about the presence of national and state highways,
presence (location) of airports, railway district and village roads, cart tracks,
stations, schools offices, trade centres, camel tracks, footpaths, railways,
electric substations, etc. Sometimes, land waterways, telephone and telegraph lines,
use is directly mentioned, for example, post offices, etc.
brick kiln, limestone quarry, etc. At other Roads are not drawn true to scale.
times it has to be inferred. Metalled roads are shown by double lines,
and unmetalled by broken double lines.
Settlements
Foot path shown by red dots and cart track
The size, shape, pattern site, position by single broken lines. Different kinds of
and function of settlements should railways are shown by different signs.
272
11.6 Interpretation of selected topo topped bulls like Deophulva followed by
sheet Murli (203 m), Rajghat (174m), Shakhar
Mirzapur and Varanasi District, U.P Pao (167 m). There are two ridges running
OSM Sheet No G44Q12 63K/12 parallel to each other and are separated by
low saddles.
Introduction
Drainage
The OSM Sheet No G44Q12 63K/12
(Figure 11.2) covers major part of The master stream of the area is the Ganga
Mirzapur District and partly Varanasi which has a meandering course and is fed
District of Uttar Pradesh. It is based on by other tributaries and nalas, the main
the survey of 1970-71 and was published ones being the Chatar Nadi, the Khajuri
in 1978. It carries the scale of 1: 50,000 Nala and Ojhala Nala. They are mostly
and covers area about 440 km² extending seasonal in character and rain fed. The
from 25º 0’ latitude to 25º 15’ latitude and streams of the Vindhyan Plateau are also
82º30’ longitude to 82º 45’ longitude. seasonal but have formed notches on its
surface. They have formed some water-
Relief falls like the Vindhyan Fall and the Tanda
It has two distinct physiographic units: 1. Fall. The direction of the platue streams
The Ganga Plain and 2. Vindhyan Plateau. is by and large towards north where they
The Ganga Plain extends on both sides of ultimately join the Ganga.
the meandering course of the Ganga. In the Vegetation
south it conterminates with the Vindhyan
The northern plain is mostly devoid of
Plateau and is crisscrossed by the Chatar
vegetation as the land has been cleared for
Nadi, Khajuri Nala and Ujhala Nala and
purposes of agriculture. Only small patches
their tributaries. It is a level plain with an
of vegetation are found along the Chatar
average elevation of about 100 m above the
and the Harrai Nadia. Of course there are
mean sea level. The BM 84 m lies in eastern
orchards and other planatations near the
part of Mirzapur Town. The northern bank
settlements. In the Vindhyan Plateau there
of the Ganga is comparatively lower than its
are two main Reserved Forests, the Danti
southern counterpart by about 10 m. The
Reserve Forests and the Barkachha Reserved
eastern loop of the Ganga is wider, nearly
Forests. They are basically mixed scrub
1.5km. or more in width and is marked by
forests covering the hill slopes and tops.
wide sandy shoals.
Means of Irrigation: Wells and tanks are
The Vindhyan Plateau covers the
the main means of irrigation is this area.
southern part of Mirzapur District. It covers
Recently tube wells and canals have also
nearly 50% of the total area of the sheet. It
received attention in the northern Ganga
is essentially a dissected plateau with an
Plain.
average elevation of 160m above the mean
sea level. The meeting point of the Ganga Settlements
Plain and the Vindhyan Plateau is marked
The Ganga Plain is well settled, excepting
by 120m contour line. It has an undulating
the sandy and mashy tracts along the
slope and is depicted with residual and flat-
273
Gana, particularly in the north-east sector southern parts of the district via Churk,
and on both sides of the N.R. line between Robertsganj and Pipri.Besides there are
Khajuri and Chatar Nalas and opposite other roads like Jaunpur-Mirzapur Road,
Vindhyachal. These tracts are annually Chilh (Mirzapurghat)-Gopiganj Road and
visited by the floods of the driver. The Mirzapur-Bhatauli Road. There are some
density of village settlements is well unmetalled roads linking Mirzapur – Chunar
marked along the metalled roads. and Mirzapur-Mharajganj. The Ganga Plain
The Vindhyan upland is sparsely is, on the whole better served by roads as
populated with a few large nucleated compared to its upland counterpart.
settlements where there is cultivated land Exercises
and water supply sources like tanks exist.
Answer the following questions based
The most important town of the area is on the given toposheet/ downloaded
certainly Mirzapur located on the southern toposheet from Survey of India website -
loop of the Ganga and has crescent shaped http://www.surveyofindia.gov.in/pages/
urban structure. Next to Mirzapur stands show/86-maps-data.
the holy town of Vindhyachal characterised
1. What is the general settlement pattern
by temples, the most important being the
of the map? Name it and draw the
vindhyavasini Temple. It extends between
symbols in the settlement.
the N.R. main line and the Ganga. North of
2. What is the contour interval of the
the Gnaga lay the market towns of Kachhwa,
map given?
Chilh and Khamaria where bi-Weekly
markets are held 3. Name any two modes of transport and
communication.
Transport and cmmunication 4. Draw any 10 conventional symbols in
the map.
It is served by two railways, viz. (1)
N.R. Main line (broad gauge electrified) 5. Identify the landforms features and
running from Mughalsarai and passing interpret them.
through the main stations of Pahara, 6. Identify the latitude and longitude of
Jhingura, Mirzapur and Vindhyachal and the toposheet.
(2) N.E. Line (broad gauge) from Mirzapur 7. Name any two types of vegetation
Ghat (R.S) to Madhosingh (Varanasi – found in the map.
Allahabad). A loop-line also exists from 8. Describe the drainage features.
Pahara to a quary about 2kms away.
9. What do the white patches of land
The area is well connected by roads. The signify?
Allahabad-Mughal sarai metalled road runs
10. What kind of economic activity is
across the region south of the N.R. Main line
carried out in this area?
and passes through Mirzapur. The National
Highway No. 7 (Great Deccan Road) runs
from Mirzapur to Lohaghat (16km.) on its References
onward journey to Kanyakumari (2300 k.m) Practical Geography. R.L Singh
Another metalled road joins Mirzapur and Practical Geography
274
Unit XII
Weather Maps
275
Temperature Wind
Temperature is the hotness or coldness The wind is moving air over the earth’s
of a substance. The temperature of a surface. The air moves from high
particular place changes based on the pressure to low pressure either vertically
factors like latitude, altitude, season, time or horizontally. Wind vane records the
of day, cloud cover, wind, location of the direction of the wind and points out
sea etc. Temperature is measured utilizing from which direction it blows. Cup
thermometers. There are Centigrade, Anemometer measures wind velocity,
Fahrenheit, Wet Bulb, Dry Bulb and Tele which is expressed in knots. Wind Sock is
thermometers. a device that indicates the origin of wind
In Centigrade thermometer, the direction and speed.
temperature of melting ice is taken as 00 Humidity
C and the temperature of boiling water as
The amount of water vapour present in
1000C. In Fahrenheit thermometer, 320F
the atmosphere is termed as Humidity.
represents the freezing point and 212 0F
It concentrates in the lower layer of the
represents the boiling point of water. Wet
atmosphere. It varies from place to place and
Bulb and Dry Bulb thermometers are
time to time. It may be classified as absolute,
used to measure humidity in temperature.
specific and relative humidity. Hygrometer
Tele thermometer is used to record
is the instrument that measures the relative
temperature continuously within and
humidity. Hygrograph is an automatic
outside the building. Thermograph
instrument showing the change in relative
produces a continuous trace of the
humidity. Hygrothermograph records both
changing temperature of a place.
humidity and temperature.
Pressure Cloudiness
Pressure is defined as the weight of a Cloudiness indicates the amount of sky
unit column of air at any place. The covered by clouds. Clouds are present in
barometer is an instrument to measure the lower atmosphere at varying altitude.
atmospheric pressure. While both Thay are varying in size and shape. The
Barometer and Aneroid Barometer clouds are classified as high, middle and
measures atmospheric pressure above low clouds. Ceilometer is an instrument
and below sea level, Altimeter measures that uses a laser to determine the height
air pressure at a height above sea level. of the cloud base. Ceiling projectors
Barograph provides a continuous record measure the height of the base of clouds
of air pressure. The unit of pressure is above the ground. Cloud mirror measures
measured in millibars (mb). Globally, the the percentage of cloud cover. An Okta
pressure determines the wind and weather is a unit of measurement to describe the
pattern. High pressure and low pressure amount of cloud cover. The measurement
are highly related with the increase or of 0 Okta indicates clear sky and 8 Okta
decrease in temperature. denotes completely overcast sky.
276
Precipitation 12.3 Advancement in Measuring
The water or ice particles reaching the Weather Elements
ground surface from the atmosphere is In recent days, weather stations use
known as precipitation. The various forms weather balloons, aircraft and ships to
of precipitation are dew, mist, fog, sleet, carry the instruments for measuring the
drizzle, rain and hail. Conventionally, temperature, pressure, humidity in the
the amount of rain has been recorded lower atmosphere. Weather radars are
by the instrument called Rain gauge. used to locate precipitation, type, intensity.
The amount of rain will be recorded Radiosonde (an instrument carried
in mm or cm or inches at a given time. by balloon or other means to various
The automated weather station (AWS) levels of the atmosphere and transmitting
instrument records the rainfall with the measurements by radio) is an instrument
help of sensors. used to measure the vertical profiles of
temperature, dew point and winds. It
Sunshine estimates the wind direction, velocity
Sunshine means that the sun’s rays lie based on radar tracking.
within the visible spectrum that reaches Weather satellites help in providing
the earth’s surface. The amount or all weather information accurately. Some
duration of sunshine in hours per day at a of the important weather satellites are:
given region is measured using a sunshine METSAT-1/ KALPANA -1, OCEANSAT-2,
recorder. The sunshine of a place depends INSAT -3D, SCATSAT-1
on various seasons.
12.4 Weather Symbols
Visibility
Symbols are the pictorial representation
Visibility means the transparency of the of the various elements. On a weather
air in the particular place. It depends on map, weather elements are represented
the presence of water, ice, dust and smoke using symbols. Weather codes are used
particles in the atmosphere. Visibility in weather charts as meteorological
is measured by the distance at which symbols. Weather symbols are created and
prominent objects can be seen and the standardized by the World Meteorological
details discerned. The scale of visibility organization and also by Natural Weather
varies from zero, when objects cannot be Bureaus. Knowledge of weather symbols
easily seen beyond 25 metres, to visibility is prime for weather map interpretation
9, when objects can be easily seen at a and weather forecasting. Weather symbols
distance of 50 kilometres. Scale 0 to 3 are listed below for precipitation, wind
indicate Fog, scale 4 represents Haze direction, cloud cover and sea conditions.
or Mist, scale 5 to 9 represents poor to Weather symbols depicted in weather
Excellent visibility. charts help in weather forecasting.
277
WEATHER MAP SYMBOLS Sea Condition
CLOUD COVER WIND CONDITIONS
Weather
Sky Completely
Clear
1/8th Cloud Cover 1/4th Cloud Cover Calm Light
Air
Light
Breeze
Elements Sea Representation
Sl.No. Condition of Symbol
3/8th Cloud Cover Sky Half Cloudy 5/8th Cloud Gentle Moderate Fresh
Cover Breeze Breeze Breeze 1. Calm Cm
/4th Cloud Cover 7/8th Cloud Cover Sky Completely Strong Moderate Fresh
2. Smooth Sm
Cloudy Breeze Gale Gale
3. Slight Sl
Sky Obstructed
from view Strong
Gale
Whole
Gale
Storm 4. Moderate Mod
WEATHER CONDITIONS 5. Rough Ro
Pure Air Haze Light Fog Shalow Fog Heavy Fog
6. Very Rough V.Ro
, 7. High Hi
Drizzle Rain Rain
Showers
Snow
Shower Rain and
snow Showers 8. Very High V.Hi
Rain and Sleet Ice Crystals Drifting Drifting
9. Phenomenal Ph
Snow Grains Snow High
Snow Snow Low
Figure 12.1 Weather Map Symbols Barometric pressure reduced to sea level.
The above image indicates the sea level
12.5 Station Model pressure as 105 millibars. The symbol
The weather station is the place where extending from cloud cover is the wind
all the data about the weather are being barb, that shows wind direction and wind
recorded, evaluated and documented. speed (velocity). According to the image,
Station model is the symbolic drawing of the wind blows from the North East
the current weather condition, based on direction to the South West direction at a
the collected data of weather elements speed of 15 knots.
in the particular station. The weather
elements observed are shown in symbols
12.6 Reading Weather Map
in station models. Based on the above flow chart basic
The value highlighted in the upper weather elements are represented. The
left corner is the temperature in degrees following points are to be described while
Celsius. The above image portrays the reading the weather map.
temperature as 12 degrees Celsius. The Pressure
value highlighted in the lower left corner
is the dew point temperature in degrees 1. Location of high pressure shown as ‘H’
Celsius. According to the above example, in the weather map. The number and
the dew point of temperature which is 5 location must be specified
degrees Celsius. The image at the centre 2. Location of low pressure, represents as
refers to cloud cover which is 7/8 cloudy. ‘L’ the number of occurrence, location
The value highlighted in the upper right and nearby isobar value to be noted.
corner represents the last three digits of 3. Trend of Isobars-The general path of
the sea level pressure or in other words, isobars are to be observed.
278
Pressure
Temperature (millibars) Wind Speed
(celsius)
Cloud Cover
particular map area. The weather charts (0300 HRS GMT). Generally in India this
are prepared daily based on weather observation is predicted as the southwest
observations collected by the Indian monsoon season that gives rain.
Meteorological Department (IMD). The The key elements for weather map
basic knowledge of weather elements is interpretation are:
needed to interpret the weather maps. The
essential weather elements to interpret the 1. Range of Isobars: From the given
given weather maps are: weather map it is observed that
Schematic representation of weather the isobars range from 1002 mb to
map elements 1010mb. The lowest value of 1002 mb
is found over Bihar and West Bengal
Weather Map Interpretation as an enclosed isobar. The 1010 mb is
The Indian daily weather map is a political the highest value and is observed in
map of India, which also includes Pakistan, the extreme south western part of the
Afghanistan, part of China, Nepal, Bhutan, Arabian Sea.
Myanmar and Sri Lanka with weather 2. Location of Low Pressure: In this
symbols indicating recorded weather data, weather map, four low pressure zones
isobars and keys for symbols. are identified. Low pressure prevails in
Weather Map Interpretation – Monsoon Bihar and West Bengal, North Western
Season (Example 1) Pakistan, Assam, Eastern part of India
and Lakshadweep Island.
Weather map interpretation includes
3. Location of High Pressure: The high
study and interpretation of all the weather
pressure prevails over Afghanistan with
parameters. The given weather map
1008mb and the other high pressure
depicts the observed weather conditions
prevails over the south western part of
on Monday 1st June 1992 at 08.30 Hrs I.S.T
the Arabian Sea with 1010 mb.
280
INDIAN DAILY WEATHER REPORT
WEATHER MAP AT 08.30 HRS .I.S.T. (0300 HRS. G.M.T)
Monday 1 June 1992 (11 Jyaistha 1914 Saka)
o o o o o o o o o
50 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
1008
H 1008 N
1006 W E
o o
35 35
1006
S
N
1004
A CHINA
30
o
IST 30
o
K 1008
PA
1004 H
1002
o 1005 1008 o
25 25
L Bangladesh 1006
1006
1004
o o
20 20
1008 BAY
OF
o
15 BENGAL 1004 15o
ARABIAN SEA NLM
1006
o 1010 o
10 10
ANDAMAN 1008
L
SEA
5
o
H SRI LANKA
5
o
NLM
1010 hpa
INDIAN OCEAN
Not to scale
o o o o o o o o o
50 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
4. Gradient of Pressure: On this map, The wind is not strong in North but
the pressure gradient is steep along the comparatively strong in south.
western coast of India. 6. Cloud Cover: Clear sky is noticed in
5. Wind Direction: The wind moves the North and north western part of
from west to east in the extreme India. Eastern coastal states are partly
southern part of India, The wind flows clouded and the southern states show
from North West to the south east extreme cloudiness and or overcast.
in the rest of the Plateau region. The 7. Sea Condition: Northern Limit of
wind velocity ranges from 5 – 15 knots Monsoon prevails over the Andaman Sea.
in most of the places on the given day.
281
8. Precipitation: The rainfall occurred Below normal in the places like northwest
in Assam and Meghalaya because India and extend over the adjoining areas.
low pressure prevails in near Assam,
southern parts of Karnataka, Kerala Conclusion: The general prevalence of
and Lakshadweep. the South Westerly winds the location
of low pressure over the land and high
9. Departure of Maximum and
pressure over the ocean, the occurrence
Minimum temprature from Normal
of rainfall over South and eastern part
Day temperature is above normal in the of India. This season is observed as the
west, Karnataka and eastern parts of India. monsoon season.
o W E o
35 35
1014 S
1004
H A
N
CHINA
30
o
I ST 30
o
K
1014 PA
1014 1016
o o
25 25
INDIA Bangladesh
1014 H
20
o
H 20
o
BAY
OF
o o
15 BENGAL 15
o
10
o
10 1012 1014
L ANDAMAN
SEA
5
o
H L SRI LANKA
5
o
L
1012
1012
1012
Not to scale INDIAN OCEAN
o o o o o o o o o
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
282
Weather Map Interpretation – Monsoon 6. Departure of Maximum and
Season (Example 2) Minimum temperature from Normal:
The given weather map shows the weather South west states record above normal
condition on Tuesday 5th November 1991 temperature, eastern states have below
at 08.30 Hrs IST 0300 Hrs GMT. normal temperature, except of the
northwestern part of Rajasthan.
Distribution of Pressure Condition
Conclusion: Low pressure prevails in sea
1. Low Pressure: Low pressure areas
and High pressure inland, so it indicates
exist over Northern and Southern Bay
north east monsoon.
of Bengal and Lakshadweep (1012mb).
2. High Pressure: Central part of India, 12.8 Weather Forecasting
the plateau region is marked with High Weather forecasting plays a major role in
pressure. High pressure also prevails predicting the weather in the near future.
over Gujarat and Rajasthan. The other It is difficult to predict the weather that
two high pressure areas are located in could prevail in the future. A thorough
Afghanistan (1014mb), to the East of understanding of meteorology is necessary
India. The pressure gradient is gentle for the forecast familiarity with the local
throughout India. weather helps to correlate the existing
3. Wind Condition: Calm weather weather conditions and in forecast the
prevails in north western coast future weather. The prediction of weather
of Orissa. Winds are northern in for a given place, is normaly for a period
Tamilnadu, Southerly in Gujarat. In of time, for instance is for 24 to 48 hours.
Central India, it is from the northeast. The methods used for weather
4. Sky Cover: Sky cover is almost clear forecasting are conventional, synoptic,
in North. In the South, it is partially numerical weather prediction.
cloudy. Sea condition is moderate. Conventional interprets the trend of
Haze is found near north eastern part weather system. Numerical solutions,
of India. global circulation models, variation
5. Precipitation: Rain or thundershowers analysis for synoptic hours.
have occurred at a few places in coastal The weather forecast categories are
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and South now casting, short range, medium range
Interior Karnataka at one or two places long range and forecasting. Now casting
in Telangana, Rayalasaema and Kerala. gives the details of the current weather
Weather
Forecasting
283
and forecasts up to a few hours ahead imprints the accurate weather elements
using radar products. such as winds, rainfall, and sea surface
Short range forecasts is for one to temperature.
three days. Weather mainly rainfall for Weather forecasting is based on the
each successive 24 hour intervals may be weather observation of surface data
predicted up to three days. It concerned based on radars. Numerical weather
about the observed latest weather charts prediction (NWP) using current and
and new systems. past observations to predict weather in
Medium range forecasts are for 4 to 10 near future AWIPS- Advanced weather
days – average weather conditions and the interactive processing systems used by
weather on each day may be prescribed forecasters and process satellite, radar,
with progressively lesser details and surface observations, and weather
accuracy than that for short range forecasts forecasting models.
dependent on NWP (Numerical Weather Occultation method is one of the
Prediction) products. most recent and capable atmospheric
Long range forecast is an extended remote sensing technique applied to GPS
range forecast for more than 10 days in measurements.
a season. It may range from a monthly The meteogram is a chart that shows
to a seasonal forecast. Local forecast is a how one or more weather variables has
location specific forecast valid for a radius changed at a station over a given period of
of 50 km around the weather stations. time. Auxiliary charts- satellite imageries,
A persistence forecast predicts that satellite bulletins, satellite observations
future weather will be the same as present and current weather observations. These
weather. Analogue forecast will be like the predictions are significant for warning of
weather that historically occurred when natural hazards.
similar conditions were present. Statistical
forecast is made routinely of weather 12.9 Tracking of Cyclones
elements based on the past performance of Tropical cyclone forecasting involves the
computer models. Trend forecast: surface prediction of several interrelated features,
weather systems tend to move in the same including the track of the cyclone, its
direction and at approximately the same intensity, resulting rainfall and storm
speed as they have moved. surge and the areas threatened. Cyclone
tracking is a constantly evolving science.
Current Scenario of Weather Different methods are used, including
Forecasting using satellites, radars, etc. A skilled
The weather satellites monitor the meteorologist has often developed an
weather conditions and provide accurate ability to detect overall patterns in
information of weather. Satellite imageries climatological conditions and can assess
are pictorial representations of radiation how these may affect cyclone development.
reaching the sensors from the earth Manual forecasts made by skilled
from the different spectral bands that
284
Cyclone Tracking based on Satellite
Images – Vardah (Example)
Vardah at peak strength on 11 December
Formed December 6, 2016
Dissipated December 18, 2016
3- minute sustained :
Highest 130 km/h 1-minute
Winds sustained : 155km/h
Lowest
pressure 975 mb
Fatalities 38
Damage $5.1 billion
Thailand, Sumatra,
Malaysia, Andaman and
Areas Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka,
affected South India, Somalia
Figure 12.6 Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Very Severe Cyclonic Storm, Vardah, was
the fourth cyclonic storm, as well as the
most intense tropical cyclone of the 2016
meteorologist may be a good complement North Indian Ocean. The system struck
to other forecasting techniques. the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, as
At present, the cyclones are tracked well as South India. Originating as a low
with the help of satellite images. The pressure area near the Malay Peninsula on
satellite images are collected and put into December 3, the storm was designated as
motion for several hours, and with the a depression on December 6. It gradually
gathered information, the development intensified into a Deep Depression on the
of a tropical cyclone is tracked. Doppler following day, skirting off the Andaman
radars detect rain associated with cyclones, and Nicobar Islands, and intensified
which locate and estimate the amount of into a Cyclonic Storm on December 8.
rainfall and depicts a hurricane’s rainfall. Maintaining a generally westward track
In the satellite based techniques, track thereafter, Vardah consolidated into a
and intensity of cyclone are forecast based Severe Cyclonic Storm on December 9,
on the cloud pattern associated with the before peaking as a Very Severe Cyclonic
cyclone. Generally the outer cloud bands Storm, with winds of 130 km/h, and a
of cumulonimbus clouds indicate the minimum central pressure of 982 mb on
future direction, and the cloud pattern December 11. Weakening into a Severe
surrounding eye of the cyclone indicates Cyclonic Storm, Vardah, made landfall
the future intensity of the cyclone. Below close to Chennai on the following day,
is an example of tracking Vardah Cyclone and degenerated into a remnant low on
by using satellite images.
285
Satellite Images
hours after landfall, with some damage forecasting is now undertaken with the
to power and communications lines due help of satellite data. The satellites provide
to uprooted trees and broken branches, information about the present weather
and roof damage to thatched huts. condition and continuously update
Heavy rainfall was expected throughout weather parameters from time to time.
the region, with heavy to very heavy
precipitation in southern coastal Andhra Exercises
Pradesh, Rayalaseema, northern Tamil I. Answer the following
Nadu, and Puducherry, according to the
1. Which are the instruments used to
IMD. Fishermen were advised not to go to
measure weather elements?
sea while the sea remained high, although
2. In what way are weather satellites
conditions should moderate by Tuesday
significant in weather forecasting?
morning.
3. Give the weather symbols for the
Forecast Track and Intensity following.
The IMD forecast Cyclone Vardah to a. Hail
move nearly westward across Tamil Nadu, b. Gentle breeze
weakening by Tuesday, December 13, to c. Rain
a depression, with maximum sustained d. Calm
surface wind speeds of 35-45 km/h (22-28
e. Obscured
mph) and gusts to 55 km/h (34).
4. What is weather nowcasting?
At present, the automated weather
stations are connected through the VSAT
and connected to NRSC server. Weather
288
5. Find the wind direction and velocity 8. Prepare a station model with the
from the following wind barbs. following weather parameters.
a. a. Dry Bulb temperature - 220 C
b. Dew point -180C
c. Barometric Pressure reduced to
mean sea level standard gravity is
998mb
b.
d. Total cloud amount -5 oktas
9. Prepare a small project of the Okchi
c.
cyclone with the help of the Satellite
Images.
II. Practice
d. A. Make an Anemometer
Materials
6. Name the weather elements in the • 4 small paper cups
given Station Model. • 4 plastic drinking straws
• Tape
48 • Scissors
• Straight pin
289
4. Push a straight pin through the centre 2. Mount or hold the anemometer in a
of the straws into an eraser on the end place that has full access to the wind
of a pencil. This provides the axle. from all directions.
5. Mark one of the cups; this will be the 3. When the timekeeper says “Go”, the
one they use for counting when the counter in each group will count
anemometer spins. how many times the marked cup
6. Blow on the anemometer or turn passes them in one minute and write
an electric fan on low to make sure it down.
that it spins easily. How many times 4. If possible, repeat the above step
the anemometer will spin in one four (4) times and record the average
minute? Can you make a statement number of spins
connecting the number of spins of Optional: you can multiply the average
your anemometer and the speed of the number of spins by 60 to find out how
wind? (You can use the table below to many times the anemometer would
record your practice trials). spin in an hour and come up with a
B. Use an Anemometer to measure Wind statement such as: the speed of the wind
Speed today is about 1,000 spins per hour.
Materials
• Anemometer Time Number of
S. No Interval Spins
1. Divide the students into small groups
with the following roles (optional)
• One time keeper who will be
responsible for timing one minute
1.
for each trial.
• One official “counter” for the day.
The others may count on their own,
but the counter’s readings will be the 2.
ones recorded.
• One person who will hold the
anemometer while the spins are
counted; the person holding 3.
should make sure that he holds the
anemometer so that the wind is
unobstructed.
4.
290
Interpret the given weather map.
291
Unit XIII
Learning Objectives:
Learning Objectives:
Chapter Outline
13.1 Introduction • Recognise the importance of field
work in geography
13.2 Need for field work
• Acquire the skill of data collection.
13.3 Field work process
• Enhance the ability for map reading
13.4 Field Report and field sketching.
• Learn to work as a team.
13.1 Introduction • Develop the skill of report writing
The study area for geographers is so vast that
for a student of geography, the knowledge 13.2 Need for field work
of the earth is acquired through class room There are many reasons why field work
teaching, books, journals, maps, internet is very essential for the students of
etc. Theoretical knowledge about the study geography. They are:
area can be learned in the class room while 1. Field work facilitates direct observation
the practical aspects could be acquired only of the study area (local area) and to
in the field through surveys. collect original information.
Field work can be defined as, the 2. Field observation along with class
process of observing and collecting room teaching helps the students to
data about the natural and manmade understand the geographical concepts
environment. Geography is divided into better.
two main branches: physical and human 3. Repeated field observation of the
or cultural geography. Field work helps same place at regular intervals help
in bringing about a better understanding to understand the changing patterns
of the subject for a student of geography. or trends of a phenomena. Example
In the case of understanding physical 1. Quality and growth of vegetation
geography, field work becomes inevitable. during different seasons. 2. Changes
292
in water level in a tank or reservoir or stations well in advance, along with
well before and after monsoon. the name and house address, contact
4. Field work will improve the power of details of the students and staff who
observation among the students. undertake the field work.
5. Field trips can kindle the spirit of Prior permission is to be obtained
enquiry among the students well in advance to enter restricted
6. The student’s skill of map reading, areas or reserved forests.
map drawing, field sketching and use Arrangement should be made for
of some geographical instruments will sufficient food and safe drinking water.
be improved. Students should be informed of the
7. Field work is an opportunity for the clothing requirements (Woolen caps,
student to experience and adapt to sweaters, shoes, mosquito repellents etc.).
various environments. Field work site mapping should be
8. It helps to enhance the students’ view carried out by a small group of students
about the subject and to care for the with the assistance of their supervisor
environment. (teacher). The problem or the aim of
Above all, it can be an enjoyable outing. the study and its objectives are to be
explained in detail. The method of
13. 3 Field work process investigation and the equipments for
Field work for studying physical geography survey in the field are to be discussed
and human geography are quite different. with the students.
Field work in physical geography involves Prepare a field map and discuss
direct observations, photography, field the method of conducting field work
sketches, use of maps, satellite images etc. by different groups of the class. Each
Human geographic studies require sample student may be supplied with a copy
surveys, preparation of questionnaire, of maps for reference. They should
interviews and use of statistical techniques be informed of the ‘dos’ and ‘don’ts’
for data analysis and representation. during the field work. The following
Any field work involves three stages. are some of the items to be carried for
They are: field work in physical geography:
1. Pre-field work 1. Stationery, including scripling pads, colour
2. Actual field work and pencils, wax pencils, papers, pens etc.,
2. Camera with zoom and video facility.
3. Post field work
3. Audio/video recorders to record voices
1. Pre-Field Work of birds, local people etc.,
This involves proper planning, 4. Sufficient number of binoculars to
preparation and arrangements. It is view distant objects.
undertaken by the teacher/school 5. Minor field survey equipments like
management/and local authorities. measuring tape, magnetic compass,
The tour details are to be informed to clinometers, GNSS hand set etc.,
the CEO/DEO and field area police
293
6. Weather instruments (for field work Though field work has many advantages,
related to weather) like thermometer, it also has a few limitations such as:
rain gauge, barometer, wind vane etc. 1. It is time consuming and expensive.
7. Maps, topographic sheets (non-restricted), 2. It needs necessary equipments,
satellite images of the study area. maps, satellite images etc., for
proper interpretation.
2. Actual Field Work (Method of
3. Delay in receiving permission
Information Collection):
from Government Agencies to
When the students reach the local
visit restricted areas make the trip
study area, the actual field work begins
uncertain.
and information is collected through
4. There are certain risks in travelling,
1. Observe the features and take
changing weather, field illness etc.,
notes. Students can record the
during field work.
information through photography
and video-audiography. 3. Post-Field Work:
2. Prepare field sketches by using The data collected from the field has to
colour pencils. be arranged, photographs and sketches
3. Instruments can be used for added wherever necessary, calculations
measurement of distances, weather carried out, results inferred, maps drawn
elements, heights, depths etc. and report of the same prepared.
4. Find the direction using magnetic
compass and orient the maps and 13.4 Field Report
images. Writing a report of the work carried on in
5. By recollecting the map reading the field is a documentation of the field
practices of topographic maps, work. This helps in systematic reviewing
satellite images and aerial of the work by students who accomplished
photographs for recognition and the task and a reference for future field
mapping the features. trips. Field reports must be short, clear and
6. Find the important locations and informative with supportive data, maps,
routes by using GNSS and web sketches, photographs etc.
based mapping facilities. There are a number of steps involved in
7. Collect unique and representative report writing. They are:
samples of rock, soil, surface
1. Title:
water and groundwater for further
Identify the topic of investigation which
analysis, class room discussion and
is the purpose of field work. This is the
exhibition. Do not collect plant,
title of the work and it has to be written
animal or microorganisms from
in bold letters at the top of the report.
the field, because this activity is
banned by the government. 2. Introduction:
8. Collecting secondary data from Every report should start with a brief
local authorities, officers in -charge introduction to the subject under study.
of the area etc., It should explain what part of geography
294
it relates to. For example if the study is method is used in data collection
about a stream, it falls under the branch then the data can be represented as
of physical geography, more specifically photographs or field sketches. 2. If data
geomorphology - an exogenetic agent is collected through surveys, it can be
of denudation. The time frame that represented as a plan or map. 3. Data
was planned for the fieldwork can be collected from secondary sources can be
elaborated. If the field work is extending presented as tables, graphs, diagrams or
for more than one day, then a clear charts. 4. Data collected through GNSS
timetable should be given. surveys can be mapped.
3. Need for the Study: The data represented in various forms
The reason why the field work is have to be neatly labeled and indexed for
undertaken can be mentioned. This easy identification and understanding.
explains the need for the field work. The photographs, diagrams, tables, maps
4. The Study Area: etc. prepared during post field work have
Details of the study area are explained to be arranged in a sequential order so
here – starting with the absolute or that they can provide an answer to the
geographical location of the study area, purpose of study and add more meaning
the choice of the study area and the and value to the report of work done in
physiography of the area. Other known the field.
physical and cultural details of the study 7. Conclusion:
area can be mentioned here. A copy The conclusion gives the gist of the field
of the map, satellite image etc. can be work – the aim, the results or findings
incorporated here. and how it relates to existing knowledge
5. Methodology Used: and the addition of new knowledge
The methods used to carry out the field through this field work. The conclusion
work have to be mentioned here. The has to present how the fieldwork has
method of information collection varies enhanced the theoretical knowledge
according to the type of study. It could gained in the class.
be through observation, investigation, The table below gives a few steps in the
measurements; data collection from preparation of field report for a few case
primary and secondary sources; field studies under physical geography.
sketches, audio-video recording and
photographs and GNSS surveys.
6. Data Analysis:
The data collected through field
work should be presented in a simple
way for easy analysis. The method
of representation of data should be
according to the method of data
collected. Example: 1. If observation
295
Steps involved in preparation of field report for field studies in physical geography
Sub topics River Hillock Forest Coast
Aim To understand river as a natural To understand hillock as natural To understand forest as natural To understand coast as a natural
resource. resource. resource. resource.
Learning Objectives Identify the stage of river. Identify the geological Identify the type of forest. Identify the type of coast and
Trace the source of the river. history of the hillock. List the role of forest in the coastal features.
Assess the command area of Determine the height life of the people. List the role of coast in the
the river. of the hillock by simple Indentify fauna and flora and life of the people.
Analyse river as an measurement their trophic level. Indentify fauna and flora and
ecosystem. Draw the cross sections of it. their trophic level.
Co-relate the vegetation with
slope, supply of water and
climate of the place.
Study Area Write about the river chosen, Write about the hillock chosen, Write about the forest chosen,Write about the coastal tract chosen
location of the village or town the village or town where the hill location of the village or town
and location of the village or town
which is selected as study area. is located in the study area. which is located in the study area.
which is located in the tract.
Methodology With the theoretical Observe the agents of erosion Gather information about the Gather information about
knowledge gained to indentify responsible for the formation type of trees present in the the area served by the coast
the stages of a river. of the hillock. forest. in terms of supplying sea
296
Trace the source of the river Using clinometer measure the Interact with local people and food, salt, power production,
from published sources. height. collect information about the industrial purpose and
Gather information about Draw a sketch of the hillock. resources available in terms recreation. Gather
the area served by the river in Collection information on of timber / fuel / herb / fruits
information About the type
terms of supplying water for cultural importance of the and nuts / any other. of fauna and flora along the
irrigation, drinking purpose, hillock religious / cave / Construct a trophic level coast and coastal water.
industrial purpose and paintings / resort. diagram for the forest with the
Indentify the interaction of
recreation. Study the varieties of information your collected. people with the resources
Observe and record the fauna biodiversity and correlate with available in terms of fuel/
and flora along the river side. the climate. food/fish weed /any other.
Take photo/make field Construct topic level diagram
sketches for all your for the coastal ecosystem
observations. With your observation and
gathered information, collect
the historical facts about the
coastal belt.
Limitation Specify your limitations in Specify your limitations in Specify your limitations in Specify your limitation in terms
terms of fund / time / study area terms of fund / time / study area terms of fund / time / study area of fund / time / study area
selected. selected. selected. selected.
(Continued)
Steps involved in preparation of field report for field studies in physical geography
Sub topics River Hillock Forest Coast
Data Collection Specify the method of data collection Specify the method of data Specify the method of data Specify the method of data
as primary / secondary source. collection as primary / secondary. collection as primary / secondary. collection as primary / secondary
source.
Data Representation Represent the data in any Represent the data in any Represent the data in any Represent the data in any
cartographic form such as sketch / cartographic form such as chart / cartographic form such as chart / cartographic form such as sketch /
chart / graph / map. graph / map / sketch. graph / map / sketch. chart / graph / map.
Findings From the representation list your From the representation list your From the representation list your From the representation list your
findings. findings. findings. findings.
Report - Writing Narrate Narrate the full work in simple Narrate the full work in simple Narrate the full work in simple
the full work in simple language and submit. language and submit. language and submit.
language and submit.
References The report should have the details of The report should have the details of The report should have the details of The report should have the details of
references related to the study and references related to the study and references related to the study and references related to the study and
source of data used for the study. source of data used for the study. source of data used for the study. source of data used for the study.
297
Exercises
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Cartography MP[KÜHCJà
Cataracts ZP>ITGß âÖz
Equinox @IFTã
Habitat PTCÝ
Hail 3MÕ>Ø}I[O
298
Hot spot PN[IJÝ
Hygrometer 5KÜHE2N
Isohaline @I6Ü®
Isthmus MÖ@Û
Lagoon 6ÜHÕ>>TJà
Landfall >[K[J2[CEà
Mitigation E~ÚEà
Oasis HT[MPGÖZ@T[M
permafrost KÛEKÜHÔ>Ø}>ã
Poaching @ØCÚ䤮LÝHT>ZPØ[CJT©Eà
Preparedness EJTß[M
Sedges Z>T[K>ã
Sleet >àI[O3MÕ>Ø}I[O
spit ÙCIDàØ©
Swell Ô>Ý
Toponym 4CÜYHJß
Trench 2>
299
INDIA - PHYSICAL MAP
Not to scale
300
INDIA - POLITICAL MAP
Not to scale
301
WORLD - PHYSICAL MAP
302
WORLD - POLITICAL MAP
303
Not to scale
Geography – Class XI
List of Authors and Reviewers
Domain Experts Reviwers
Dr. Kumaraswamy.K. UGC BSR Emeritus Professor, Dr.Krishnamurhty, Former chairman,
Department of Geography, Department of Geography, University of Mysore.
Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli-620 024
Dr.B. Eswarappa, Former chairman & Professor,
Dr.Maria Anita Anandhi. J., Associate Professor (Rtd), Department of Geography, University of Bangalore.
Department of Geography, Nirmala College for Women
(Autonomous), Coimbatore-641 018. Dr.V. Madha Suresh, Professor,
Department of Geography, University of Madras.
Dr. Sulochana Sekhar, Professor & Head.,
Department of Geography, Mr. K. Annamalai, P.G.T. Geography,
Central university of Tamilnadu, Thiruvarur – 610 005 Kendirya Vidyalaya, No.1, Palakkad.
Layout
Winmac Solutions, Chennai This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
In-House Elegant Maplitho paper.
QC - Gopu Rasuvel
- Manohar Radhakrishnam Printed by offset at:
- Tamilkumaran
- Kathir Arumugham
Co-ordination
Ramesh Munisamy
Typist
N.Gomathi,
District Institute of Education and Training,
Kalayarkovil, Sivagangai District