Children's Self-Concept: A Multicultural Comparison

Author(s): Maureen C. Kenny and Adriana McEachern

Source: Professional School Counseling, Vol. 12, No. 3 (FEBRUARY 2009), pp. 207-212
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42732778
Accessed: 22-11-2019 22:15 UTC

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Sage Publications, Inc. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Professional School Counseling

This content downloaded from 202.45.133.250 on Fri, 22 Nov 2019 22:15:33 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Maureen C. Kenny,
Ph.D., and Adriana
McEachern, Ph.D., are
associate professors in the
Department of
Educational &

Psychological Studies,
Florida International

University ' Miami.

E-mail: Children's Self-Concept:
A Multicultural Comparison
kennym@fiu. edu

Self-concept is critical in the social and emotional environment and significant individuals in one's life
(Huitt, 2004). Self-concept often consists of various
development of children , although little research has
components or dimensions, most commonly includ-
examined its relationship to ethnicity. The self-concept
of 214 fourth- and fifth-grade students (White,
ing (a) physical, (b) academic, and (c) social (Huitt).
Black/Haitian American, and Hispanic) revealedPhysical self-concept refers to our physical attributes
(what we look like) and physical abilities; academic
differences among groups on the Behavior and Total
Self-Concept subscales of the Piers-Harris Children's
self- concept refers to how well we perform in school;
Self-Concept Scale. Findings revealed that Black stu-and social self-concept refers to how well we relate to
dents had the lowest scores on the Behavior domain and our peers and others. It is important to note that
Blacks scored significantly lower than Hispanics onindividuals can make both global assessments of
themselves and assessments about their specific skills
Total Self-Concept. Counseling implications are dis-
cussed. and abilities (Taylor et al., 2007). Self-concept is gen-
erally assessed via self-report measures (Trautwein,
Ludtke, Koller, & Baumert, 2006) and thus is a re-
research interest for decades. Understood as the flection of an individual's view of himself or herself.

The way research

way study children interest of self-conceptthink
children think for about decades.
about has themselves been Understood of clinical in relation
themselves in asrelation
and the A child's total self-concept is shaped by both cul-
to their attributes and abilities (Meggert, 2004), tural and biological factors and formed by the indi-
self- concept has most recendy been related to school vidual through interactions with the environment
success and academic achievement (Guay, Marsh, &(Piers & Herzberg, 2002). Therefore, cultural dif-
Boivin, 2003; Hamachek, 1995; Marsh, 1992, ferences should be a consideration in studies of self-
1993; Marsh & Koller, 2004). Students with high concept. In fact, some researchers have recognized
self-concept generally approach school-related tasks that ethnic identity can be another dimension of
with confidence, which is not true for children with self- concept (Blash & Unger, 1995). However, the
low self-concept (Hamachek). Persistent low self- literature is lacking in empirical research that com-
concept has been linked to depression, eating disor- pares children's self-concept across multicultural
ders, suicide, adjustment problems (Harter & groups or the use of ethnically diverse samples of
Marold, 1994; Harter & Monsour, 1992), and later children in self-concept studies (Keith & Bracken,
alcohol use (Swain & Wayman, 2004). Under- 1996; Marsh, 1990). Furthermore, those studies
standing self- concept can assist school counselors in that do contain diverse participants do not make
improving students' thoughts and feelings about comparisons across such groups (i.e., Bear & Minke,
themselves and thus perhaps prevent occurrences of 1996; Harter, Whitesell, & Junkin, 1998; Knox,
future behavioral and emotional difficulties. Funk, Elliot, & Bush, 1998). This is of concern as
Self-concept is derived from the perceptions peo- ethnic minority groups are growing rapidly in the
ple hold regarding their personal attributes and the United States and its schools (U.S. Census Bureau,
roles they fulfill in life (Meggert, 2004). According 2000).
to Taylor, Davis-Kean, and Malanchuk (2007), it is
"the cognitive representation an individual has of STUDIES RELATING SELF-CONCEPT
him- or herself' (p. 131). Children's perceptions of AND ETHNICITY
their abilities affect their values, self-regard, and
beliefs about their competence to achieve personal The most studied groups have been Blacks and
and academic goals (self-efficacy; Bandura, 1986). Whites, with only a small proportion of research
These beliefs and expectations of one's abilities are focused on investigations of self-concept among
derived from reflections of interactions with the other minority groups (Crain, 1996). The influences

1 2:3 FEBRUARY 2009 | ASCA 207

This content downloaded from 202.45.133.250 on Fri, 22 Nov 2019 22:15:33 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 of the dominant culture occurring through institu- scored higher than the other groups, including
tionalized racial practices may have a negative effect Hispanics, Asians, and Native Americans.
on the self-concepts of minorities (see Twenge & In sum, the limited existing research does not
Crocker, 2002). Children from certain ethnic or cul- allow for firm, meaningful conclusions about the
tural groups may experience ongoing stressors relat- relationship between self- concept and ethnicity.
ed to acculturation, racial discrimination, academic However, several researchers have found a strong
difficulties due to language barriers, and other gen- relationship between self- concept and academic
eral adaptation issues related to adjusting to the achievement (Guay et al., 2003; Hamachek, 1995;
mainstream culture (Piers & Herzberg, 2002). Over Marsh, 1992, 1993; Marsh & Koller, 2004).
time, these experiences may impact their self-con- Consequently, understanding differences based on
cept. Brems (2008) cited the hypothetical example ethnicity can assist school counselors in devising
of a child who enters a new school and does not early intervention strategies aimed at increasing self-
belong to the majority cultural group. The child concept to ultimately improve scholastic standing.
experiences ongoing derogation and social isolation,
By utilizing a diverse sample of students and a wide-
and over time, the negative feedback from the otherly used, standardized measure of self- concept, this
children begin to affect this child's self-concept.study
In will be an improvement over previous
addition, the stress associated with acculturation research.
and The main focus of this study was twofold.
negotiating one's minority status also may impact
First, we examined differences in total self-concept
feelings of self-concept (Waters, 1999). scores across several cultural groups; here we were
Children from cultures demonstrating behaviorsconcerned with mean differences in global self-con-
that are valued in their culture but not necessarily
cept. Second, we evaluated the data for any differ-
valued in the dominant culture could easily develop
ences across cultural groups on the subdomains of
Students with high lower self-concepts (Meggert, 2004). Further, chil-
self-concept measured by the Piers-Harris Chil-
dren who belong to cultures or national groups that
dren's Self- Concept Scale.
self-concept
are not well regarded by the dominant culture may
experience feelings of negative self-worth that METHOD
can
generally approach contribute to lower self-concepts. Twenge and
Participants
Crocker (2002) discussed how cultures that empha-
school-related tasks
Two hundred and fourteen children from four
size collectivism, for example Hispanics and Asian
Americans, frequently present themselves modestly,
fourth- and fifth-grade classes in a large school dis-
with confidence, which often shows in lowered scores on self-esteem.
trict in south Florida were selected as participants.
In a review of studies on self- concept conducted
The fifth-grade students represented 49% of the
which is not true for
in the 1970s and 1980s, Crain (1996) reported
sample. The children, males (46%) and females
finding differences between Blacks and Whites (54%),
on ranged in age from 9 to 12 years old. The
children with low
self-reported ethnicities of the students were
physical self-concept, in particular with Blacks scor-
ing higher on physical self-concept than any other
Hispanic (60%), Black (Haitian American; 23%), and
self-concept.
group (Crain). In an earlier study, Crain and
White (non-Hispanic; 17%). Within the Hispanic
Bracken (1994) found significant differences among group, the largest subgroup was Nicaraguan (32%),
Blacks, Whites, and Hispanics on global self-concept followed by Cuban (25%). Many other Latin,
and physical self- concept. Using the Multidimen- Central, and South American countries were repre-
sional Self- Concept Scale, they found that Blacks sented, but the subgroup samples were too small to
scored higher than Hispanics and Whites on physical allow for independent analyses of these groups.
self-concept. Finally, in a study of girls' self-concept,
Eighty-seven percent of the sample completed the
Erkut, Marx, Fields, and Sing (1999) found that
Piers-Harris scale in English, and 13% in Spanish.
African American girls scored the highest on self-
perceived physical appearance compared Measures
to
Caucasians, Chinese Americans, and Puerto Ricans,The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale
whereas Caucasian girls' ratings were the highest(PHCSCS;
in Piers, 1963) was used to measure chil-
the area of self-perceived behavioral conduct. More
dren's self-concept. Appropriate for children in 4th
recently, Gray-Litde and Hafdahl (2000) found that
grade to 12th grade with at least a 3rd- grade read-
Blacks had higher self-esteem than Whites, citinging level, there are 80 items to which children
respond "yes" or "no." The instrument can be
their possible possession of psychological resources
that enable them to deflect potentially negative
group-administered (Piers, 1994). In addition to a
views of themselves in the environment. Further,
total score, there are six subdomains: (a) Physical
Twenge and Crocker (2002) in a meta-analysisAppearance
of and Attributes, (b) Anxiety, (c)
studies on ethnicity and self-esteem found that over-
Intellectual and School Status, (d) Behavior, (e)
all Blacks scored higher than Whites, but Whites
Happiness and Satisfaction, and (f) Popularity. The

208 ASCA I PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING

This content downloaded from 202.45.133.250 on Fri, 22 Nov 2019 22:15:33 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
internal consistency estimates for the cluster scales .049; and Total Self-Concept, F( 2, 211) = 3.07, p <
and total scale range from .74 to .90 (Piers, 1994). .05, T|2 = .028. Post-hoc analyses using Holm's
The PHCSCS has been compared to other measures sequential Bonferroni procedure revealed that there
of self- concept with correlations ranging from .32 to were significant differences where Blacks ( M =
.85, with lower correlations among tests using 48.80) scored significantly lower than both
younger age groups, thus establishing concurrent val- Hispanics (M = 52.59) and Whites (M = 54.32) on
idity. Overall, the PHCSCS has received heavy clin- the Behavior subscale. In addition, Blacks (M =
ical use and has been recommended over other 54.26) scored significantly lower than Hispanics (M
measures of self-concept (Piers, 1994). = 57.73) on the Total Self- Concept scale. There
were no other significant differences among groups
Procedure on the other scales of the Piers-Harris. A two-way
ANOVA was performed on all PHCSCS subscales
After obtaining approval from the university and the
local school districts' research review boards, thewith gender as an additional factor (to ethnicity).
researchers approached principals of four public There were no significant interactions of gender and
schools about participation in this study. Based onethnicity for any of the subscales. Gender was not
significant for any of the subscales except for
facts published in the statistical abstracts for this
Anxiety, F( 1, 208) = 4.27, p < .006, r|2 = .36, where
school district, schools that had a large Hispanic and
Black student population were selected to partici-males (M = 54.81, SE = 1.14) scored significantly
pate. Once agreement was obtained from the princi- higher than females (M = 50.70, SE = .95).
pals, the researchers attended staff meetings with theTable 1 provides the means and standard devia-
fourth- and fifth- grade teachers in order to enlist tions for all scales and each ethnic group. According
to the common convention regarding relative effect
their assistance in distributing and collecting consent
A child's total self-
forms. We were able to secure permission to collect size (Cohen, 1988), the effect sizes for these results
were between small and medium.
data in all of the schools that we approached. There
concept is shaped
were two points of data collection: 1997-2002 and
2008. Consent forms were sent home in English and DISCUSSION
by both cultural and
Spanish, and a date was set for data collection. On
Results from this study provide empirical support for
the day of data collection at each school, participants
biological factors
who had returned signed consent forms were differences among ethnic groups on self-concept.
brought to a large room for group administration The of first goal of determining whether differences
and con-
formed by the
the PHCSCS, which was available in English or existed among the ethnic groups on total self-
Spanish. cept scores revealed that there were significant dif-
individual
ferences. Blacks scored significantly lower than through
A research assistant, blind to the hypothesis of the
study, read each question aloud one at a time, first in Hispanics on Total Self- Concept, but they were not
interactions with
English and then in Spanish, while two other bilin- significantly different than Whites. Thus, compara-
gual research assistants were available in the room bly, Blacks demonstrated a lower degree of self-
the environment.
for assistance if a participant required it. All research esteem or self-regard than Hispanics. The second
assistants were graduate students trained in the goal of examining possible differences on subscales
administration of the instrument prior to data col- of self-concept revealed that White students scored
lection. Participants were informed that they could significantly higher on the Behavior subscale com-
proceed on their own if they did not want to listen pared to the other two groups. This means, simply,
to the questions being read aloud. Once the meas- that Whites students perceived themselves as behav-
ure was completed, each participant was given a col- ing better than Black and Hispanic students, for
orful pencil for their participation. The confidential- example, complying with rules and expectations at
ity of all participants was maintained by instructions home and at school.

to not put their names on the form, but rather to Our finding related to the self- concept of Blacks
indicate their ethnicity, gender, age, and grade. All conflicts with Gray-Litde and Hafdahl's (2000)
forms were checked by the research assistants when findings and Twenge and Crocker's (2002) meta-
collected. analysis. However, this may best be explained by the
composition of the current Black participants and
RESULTS the geographical location in which this study took
place compared to the other studies. This study's
Black population was entirely Haitian American
Quantitative results were analyzed using SPSS
Version 15.0. A one-way analysis of variance
compared to the Blacks (undefined but assumed to
(ANOVA) on the T-scores revealed significant dif- be African Americans) used in the other studies.
ferences among the ethnic groups on the following Furthermore, although both the Black and Hispanic
subscales: Behavior, F( 2, 211) = 5.39, p < .04, tj2groups
= may generally be considered to be minority

12:3 FEBRUARY 2009 | ASCA 209

This content downloaded from 202.45.133.250 on Fri, 22 Nov 2019 22:15:33 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Table 1. Piers-Harris Subscale T-Score Means and Standard Deviations by Ethnicity
Black White Hispanic
(n = 50) (n = 38) ( n = 126)

Total Self-Concept* 54.26 8.61 57.08 7.97 57.73 8.47

Behavior* 48.80 9.95 54.32 8.08 52.59 7.80

Intellectual and School Status 52.26 8.54 55.55 8.12 55.73 8.41

Physical Appearance
and Attributes 58.38 8.75 53.89 9.52 55.92 9.01

Anxiety 51.10 9.13 52.52 10.89 54.44 9.17

Popularity 48.04 8.81 50.45 8.36 50.64 9.08
Happiness and Satisfaction 54.96 8.95 54.76 10.73 55.13 8.86

The current results *p < .05.

seem to support the

groups, in the location in which these data were col- Behavior than Blacks. One possible explanation of
internalization of
lected, compared to Hispanics, the Blacks can be this finding is the higher rate of behavioral referrals
considered a relative minority group and may suffer of minorities compared to Whites in the school sys-
the stigma from racial prejudice and discrimination. Although tem (De Valenzuela, Copeland, Huaqing Qi, &
their presence in South Florida represents the largest Park, 2006; Harry & Klinger, 2006). Atkinson,
hypothesis, which concentration of Haitians in the United States Morten, and Sue (1998) summarized literature that
demonstrates
(Goodnough, 2004), they are still considered a that African American males receive
states that one's
minority compared to the overwhelming population
severe forms of discipline and a large number of sus-
of Hispanics (e.g., Hispanics account for 60%pensions
of the and expulsions. Thus, these students may
self-concept is school district population, while Blacks account be made
formore aware of when their behavior is not
only 25%, with Haitians representing a portion of
acceptable, thus resulting in a lower self- concept in
closely linked to the the 25%). that subdomain.
The current results seem to support the internal-
prejudice and ization of the stigma hypothesis (Twenge & LIMITATIONS
Crocker, 2002), which states that one's self-concept
devaluation ofthat
is closely linked to the prejudice and devaluation of The generalizability of these results is limited as this
that racial minority group. Typically, Haitian chil- sample represents only a few schools in one of the
racial minority dren in the location of this study have met with prej- largest school districts in the United States. This
udice in schools, part coming from African study contained Hispanic students of various origins
group. American students (Stepick & Stepick, 2001). Being (i.e., Nicaraguan, Cuban, Puerto Rican), but analy-
unable to identify with other Blacks (i.e., African sis of these subgroups was not possible due to the
Americans) creates a sense of isolation that may con- high number of subgroups (e.g., approximately 10
tribute to devaluation of their self-worth in relation subtypes of Hispanic) containing low sample sizes.
to other Blacks. Haitians also have experienced otherPhinney (1996) cautioned when interpreting results
forms of discrimination particularly in terms of theirbased on ethnic groups, "even within an ethnic
immigration status as compared to Cuban group whose members share a relatively precise eth-
Americans in this south Florida community (Stepick nic label there is tremendous heterogeneity" (p.
& Stepick). Thus Haitian children may not feel val- 919), referring to social class, family income, immi-
ued in their new culture and may suffer from envi- gration status, and family structure. In addition, sev-
ronmental difficulties that could contribute to their eral factors that may affect the results were not con-
low feelings of self- worth. trolled. These included family relationships, parent
Our results, with respect to the Behavior subscale, education, socioeconomic status, the influence of
are consistent with some of the norms presented by schooling, and parental involvement in the develop-
Piers and Herzberg (2002). Specifically, in their nor- ment of self-concept (Jacobs, Bleeker, & Constan-
mative sample of Asians, Whites, Hispanics, Native tino, 2003).
Americans, and Blacks, Whites scored higher on

210 ASCA I PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING

This content downloaded from 202.45.133.250 on Fri, 22 Nov 2019 22:15:33 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
IMPLICATIONS FOR ELEMENTARY tus, values, educational experiences and opportuni-
SCHOOL COUNSELORS ties, and socialization, future research could examine
socioeconomic position and parent education.
Further,
The results of this study have several implications forutilizing parent, teacher, or peer reports of
school counselors. Although more research is neces-
self-concept may assist researchers in gaining a more
sary, these results suggest that Black students have
comprehensive view of the individual.
lower self-concept compared to their peers. Thus,
This study concludes that there is importance in
the need for school counselors to evaluate the self- evaluating the self-concept of children from diverse
ethnic backgrounds as differences exist in measure-
concept of children from diverse ethnic backgrounds
is critical. Feeling good about one's self (havingments
a of self-concept among groups. Understand-
ing what contributes to an individual's or group's
high self-concept) is important for constructive life
choices, helps prevent destructive behaviors, and self-concept in a particular area needs to be exam-
may lead to higher academic achievement (Ellis, ined further. More empirical research, utilizing mea-
2001). Elementary school counselors are in uniquesures that tap into the domains where differences
positions to implement interventions and multicul- have been elucidated, should be conducted to exam-
tural curricula (based on the notion that all cultures
ine differences in self-concept among ethnic and
are worthwhile) that target promotion of students' racial groups at different points in development.
This will help school counselors to develop specific Elementary school
self-concept. Assisting children to engage in cooper-
ative learning activities with other children can lead
interventions targeted at improving self-concept in
to improved self-concept and achievementthese populations of children. I counselors are in
(Johnson, Johnson, & Taylor, 1993). Counselors
can implement these activities as well as peer helper References I
unique positions to
programs that include tutoring and mediation to Atkinson, D., Morten, G., & Sue
minorities (5th ed.). B
increase feelings of self-concept in minority children.
Bandura, A. (1 986).implement
Social found
Programs that include both tutoring and counseling social cognitive theory. Enqlew
may improve students' feelings about themselves Bear, G., & Minke, K. (1 996).
.interventions and Pos
(Edmondson & White, 1998). worth among children wit
In addition, understanding the self-concepts of all Quarterly, 19, 22-32. I multicultural
Blash, R. R., & Unger, D. G. (1 995). Self-concept of African
students, including minorities, may assist in improv-
American male youth: Self-esteem and ethnic identity.
ing their developmental path. It is critically impor- curricula
Journal of Child and Family Studies, 4, 359-373. (based on
tant to incorporate early and developmentally specif-
Brems, C. (2008) A comprehensive guide to child psychotherapy I
ic interventions to improve children's development and counseling (3rd ed.). Long Grove,the IL: Waveland
notion that all Press. I
Cohen, J. (1 988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral I
and prevent development of inappropriate behaviors
sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum I
(Spencer, 1991). Knowledge of the differences in Associates. I cultures are
self-concept among minority children can aid teach-Crain, R. M. (1 996).The influ
ers and other school personnel in implementing pro- child and worthwhile) that self-c
adolescent
grams and evaluating interventions that are cultural- Handbook of self-concept:
clinical considerations (pp.
ly appropriate and aimed at improving self-concept target promotion
in these children. Wiley and Sons.
Crain, R. M., & Bracken, B. A
Given these results there is clearly a need to fur- differences in of students'
child and a
ther investigate how factors of culture inform our Evidence from a behavior
understanding of children's self-concept. There is dependent model. School
self-concept. P
limited current examination of how cultural factors 496-511.

De Valenzuela, J., Copeland, S., Huaqing Qi, C., & Park, M. (2006).
may impact a child's self-concept; particularly absent
Examining educational equity: Revisiting the
from the literature is the cultural impact on the self- disproportionate representation of minority students in
concept of Caribbean Blacks. In the future, studies special education. Exceptional Children, 72, 425-441 .
could examine length of residence in the United
Edmondson, J. H., & White, J. (1 998). A tutorial and counseling
program: Helping students at risk of dropping out of
States, language proficiency, and acculturation of the
school. Professional School Counseling, 1, 43-47.
child participants. Further, studies are needed that
Ellis, A. (2001 ). Research on educational innovations (3rd ed.).
utilize a longitudinal design, utilize self-concept Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education.
measures at different points in development
Erkut, S., Marx, F., Fields, J. P., & Sing, R. (1 999). Raising confident
(Hymel, LeMare, Ditner, & Woody, 1999), and and competent girls: One size does not fit all. In L. A.
Peplau, S. C. DeBro, R. C. Veniegas, & P. L. Taylor (Eds.),
examine the effects of family acculturation levels and
Gender, culture, and ethnicity: Current research about
ethnic identity on specific dimensions of self- concept
women and men (pp. 83-1 01 ). Mountain View, CA:
(Kaminski, Shafer, Neumann, & Ramos, 2005). Mayfield Publishing Co.
Given that ethnicity as a variable is highly confound-
ed with other variables including socioeconomic sta-

12:3 FEBRUARY 2009 I ASCA 211

This content downloaded from 202.45.133.250 on Fri, 22 Nov 2019 22:15:33 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Goodnough, A. (2004, February 24). Island chaos casts a pall Marsh, H.W. (1 993). Academic self-concept: Theory
over Miami's little Haiti. The New York Times. Retrieved measurement and research. In J. Suis (Ed.), Psychological
June 7, 2008, from http://query.nytimes.com/gst/ perspectives on the self (Vol. 4, pp. 59-98). Hillsdale, NJ:
fullpage. html?res=9C00E5DF 1 43CF937A1 575 1 COA Erlbaum.
9629C8B63 Marsh, H.W.,& Koller, O. (2004). Unification of theoretical
Gray-Little, B., & Hafdahl, A. (2000). Factors influencing racial models of academic self-concept/achievement relations:
comparisons of self-esteem: A quantitative review. Reunification of East and West German school systems
Psychological Bulletin , 126, 26-54. after the fall of the Berlin Wall. Contemporary Educational
Guay, F., Marsh, H. W., & Boivin, M. (2003). Academic self- Psychology, 29, 264-282.
concept and academic achievement: Developmental
Meggert, S. S. (2004)."Who cares what I think": Problems of low
perspectives on their causal ordering. Journal of self-esteem. In D. Capuzzi & D. R. Gross (Eds.), Youth at risk:
Educational Psychology, 95, 1 24-1 36. A prevention resource for counselors, teachers, and parents
Hamachek,D. (1995). Self-concept and school achievement: (4th ed., pp. 93-1 1 5 ). Alexandria, VA: American
Interaction dynamics and a tool for assessing the self- Counseling Association.
concept component Journal of Counseling and Phinney, J. S. (1 996).When we talk about American ethnic
Development, 73, 41 9-425. groups, what do we mean? American Psychologist, 51,
918-927.
Harry, B., & Klinger, J. (2006). Why are so many minority students
in special education? Understanding race and disability in
Piers, E. (1 963). Factor analysis for the Piers-Harris Children's
schools. New York: Columbia University, Teachers College. Self-Concept Scale. Unpublished raw data.
Harter, S., & Marold, D. B. (1 994). Psychological risk factorsPiers, E.V. (1 994). Revised manual for the Piers-Harris Children's
contributing to adolescent suicide ideation. In G. Noam &
Self-Concept Scale. Los Angeles: Western Psychological
S. Borst (Eds.), Child and adolescent suicide (pp. 71 -91 ). Services.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Piers, E., & Herzberg, D. (2002). Piers-Harris 2: Piers-Harris
Harter, S., & Monsour, A. (1 992). Developmental analysis of Children's Self-Concept Scale, 2nd Edition. Manual. Los
conflict caused by opposing self- attributes in the Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
adolescent self-portrait. Developmental Psychology, 28,
Spencer, M. B. (1 991 ). Adolescent African American male self-
251-260. esteem: Suggestions for mentoring program content.
Harter, S., Whitesell, N. R., & Junkin, L. J. (1 998). Similarities and (Mentoring program structures for young minority males
differences in domain-specific and global self- conference paper series). Washington, DC: Urban
evaluations of learning-disabled, behaviorally Institute.
disordered, and normally achieving adolescents. Stepick, A., & Stepick, C. D. (2001 ). Civic engagement of Haitian
American Education Research Journal, 35, 653-680. immigrants and Haitian Americans in Miami-Dade County.
Huitt, W. (2004, October 29). Becoming a brilliant star: An Miami, FL: Florida International University, Center for
introduction. Presentation at the Forum for Integrated Labor Research and Studies, Immigration and Ethnicity
Education and Educational Reform sponsored by the Institute. Retrieved June 8, 2008, from http://www.fiu.
Council for Global Integrative Education, Santa Cruz, CA. edu/~iei/index/report1 .html
Retrieved November 1,2006, from http://chiron.valdosta. Swain, R. C., & Wayman, J. C. (2004). Multidimensional self-
edu/whuitt/brilstar/chapters/BrilStarintro.pdf esteem and alcohol use among Mexican American and
Hymel, S., LeMare, L., Ditner, E., & Woody, E. Z. (1 999). Assessing White non-Latino adolescents: Concurrent and
self-concept in children: Variations across self-concept prospective effects. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,
domains. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 45, 602-623. 74, 559-570.
Jacobs, J. E., Bleeker, M. M.,& Constantino, M.J. (2003). The Taylor,
self- L. D., Davis-Kean, P., & Malanchuk, O. (2007). Self-esteem,
system during childhood and adolescence: academic self-concept, and aggression at school.
Development, influences, and implications. Journal of Aggressive Behavior, 33, 1 30-1 36.
Psychotherapy Integration, 13, 33-65. Trautwein, U., Ludtke, O., Koller, O., & Baumert, J. (2006). Self-
Johnson, D.W.Johnson, R.T., & Taylor, B. (1993). Impact of esteem, academic self-concept, and achievement: How
cooperative and individualistic learning on high-ability the learning environment moderates the dynamics of
students' achievement, self-esteem, and social self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
acceptance .Journal of Social Psychology, 133, 839-844. 90, 334-349.
Kaminski, P. L., Shafer, M. E., Neumann, C. S., & Ramos, V. (2005).
Twenge, J., & Crocker, J. (2002). Race and self-esteem: Meta-
Self-concept in Mexican American girls and boys: analyses comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and
Validating the self-description questionnaire-1. Cultural American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and
Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 11, 321-338. Hafdahl (2000). Psychological Bulletin, 128, 371-408.
Keith, L. K., & Bracken, B. A. (1 996). Self-concept U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). Profiles of general demographic
instrumentation: A historical and evaluative review. In B. characteristics. Retrieved November 1,2006, from
A. Bracken (Ed.), Handbook of self-concept: Developmental, http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/dp1/2kh00.pdf
social, and clinical considerations (pp. 91-1 70). New York:
Waters, M. C. (1 999). Black identities: West Indian immigrant
Wiley. dreams and American realities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Knox, M., Funk, J., Elliot, R., & Bush, G. E. (1 998). Adolescents' University.
possible selves and their relationship to global self-
esteem. Sex Roles, 39, 61 -80.
Marsh, H.W. (1990). A multidimensional, hierarchical model of
Earn CEUs for reading this article.
self-concept: Theoretical and empirical justification.
Educational Psychology Review, 2, 77-1 22. Visit www.schoolcounmlor.org, and
Marsh, H.W. (1 992). Content specificity of relations between click on Professional School Counseling
academic achievement and academic self-concept. to learn how.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 35-42.

212 ASCA I PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING

This content downloaded from 202.45.133.250 on Fri, 22 Nov 2019 22:15:33 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms