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  • History of The United States by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Bear

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    This is the book for the history of USA written by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Bear.

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    318 views693 pages

    History of The United States by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Bear

    Uploaded by

    Hassan Balouch
    This is the book for the history of USA written by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Bear.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 693

    TheProj

    ectGutenber
    gEBookofHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    atesbyChar
    lesA.
    Bear
    dandMar yR.Beard

    Thi
    seBooki sfort
    heuseofanyoneany wher
    eatnocostandwi thalmostnorest
    ri
    cti
    ons
    whatsoev
    er.Youmaycopyi t
    ,gi
    veitawayorre-
    useitundert
    het ermsoftheProj
    ect
    Gut
    enbergLicenseincl
    udedwit
    hthiseBookoronl
    ineatwww. gutenber
    g.net

    Ti
    tl
    e:Hi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates

    Aut
    hor
    :Char
    lesA.Bear
    dandMar
    yR.Bear
    d

    Rel
    easeDat
    e:Oct
    ober28,
    2005[
    EBook#16960]

    Language:
    Engl
    i
    sh

    Char
    act
    ersetencodi
    ng:
    ISO-
    8859-
    1

    *
    ** STARTOFTHI
    SPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKHI
    STORYOFTHEUNI
    TEDSTATES
    *
    **

    ProducedbyCurt
    isWeyant
    ,M andt
    heOnl
    i
    neDi
    str
    ibut
    edPr
    oof
    readi
    ng
    Team athtt
    p:/
    /www.pgdp.
    net

    HI
    STORY
    OFTHE

    UNI
    TEDSTATES
    BY

    CHARLESA.BEARD
    AND

    MARYR.BEARD
    NewYor
    k
    THEMACMI LLANCOMPANY
    1921
    Allr
    ightsreser
    ved

    Copyri
    ght,1921,
    ByTHEMACMI LLANCOMPANY.
    Setupandelectrot
    yped.PublishedMarch,
    1921.
    NorwoodPr ess
    J.
    S.CushingCo.—Ber wick&SmithCo.
    Nor wood,Mass. ,U.S.
    A.

    PREFACE
    Ast hi
    ngsnowst and,thecour seofinstr
    ucti
    oni nAmer icanhi storyinourpublicschool s
    embr acesthr eedi
    sti
    ncttreatment softhesubject.Thr eesepar at
    ebooksar eused.Fi r
    st,there
    i
    st heprimar ybook,whichi susuall
    yav erycondensednar r
    at i
    v ewithemphasi sonbi ographies
    andanecdot es.Second, t
    her eistheadvancedt extfort hesev ent
    horei ghthgrade, generall
    y
    speaking,anexpansi onoft heelementarybookbyt headdi tionoff ortyorfi
    ftythousandwor ds.
    Finall
    y,t
    herei sthehighschool manual
    .This,too,ordinar i
    l
    yf ollowst hebeatenpat h,giv
    ing
    full
    eraccount softhesameev ent
    sandchar acters.Toputi tbluntly
    , wedonotassumet hatour
    chil
    drenobt ainpermanentpossessi onsfrom theirstudyofhi storyinthelowergr ades.If
    mat hematiciansfol
    lowedt hesamemet hod, hi
    ghschool t
    ext sonal gebraandgeomet rywoul d
    i
    ncludet hemul ti
    pli
    cati
    ont ableandfracti
    ons.

    Ther eis, ofcour se,areadyanswert othecr i


    ti
    cism adv ancedabov e.Itist
    hatt eachershave
    l
    ear nedf rom bitterexper iencehowl i
    ttl
    ehi st
    orytheirpupilsretainastheypassal ongt he
    regularr oute.Not eacherofhi storywilldenythis.Stil
    litisast andi
    ngchallenget oexisti
    ng
    met hodsofhi storicalinstructi
    on.Ifthest udyofhistorycannotbemadet rulyprogressiveli
    ke
    thest udyofmat hemat ics,science,andl anguages,thent hehistori
    ansassumeagr ave
    responsi bili
    tyi
    naddi ngt heirsubjecttotheal r
    eadyov er l
    oadedcur ri
    culum.Ifthesuccessi v
    e
    historical t
    extsar eonlyenl argededi t
    ionsoft hefir
    sttext —mor efacts,moredat es,mor e
    wor ds—t henhi storydeser vesmostoft heshar pcriti
    cism whi chitisrecei
    vingf r
    om teachersof
    science, civi
    cs, andeconomi cs.

    Inthisconditionofaffai r
    swef indourjustif
    icati
    onforofferi
    nganewhi ghschool t
    extin
    Amer icanhistory.Ourf i
    rstcont ri
    but
    ioni soneofomi ssion.Thetime-honor edst or
    iesof
    explorati
    onandt hebiogr aphiesofheroesar el
    eftout.Wef r
    anklyholdthat ,ifpupi
    lsknow
    l
    itt
    leornot hingaboutCol umbus, Cortes,Magel l
    an,orCaptainJohnSmi thbyt hetimethey
    reacht hehighschool, iti
    susel esstot ellt
    hesamest or
    iesforperhapst hef ourtht
    ime.Iti
    s
    worset hanusel ess.I
    ti sanof f
    enseagai nsttheteachersofthosesubject sthatare
    demonst ratedtobepr ogr essi
    veinchar acter.

    I
    nthenextpl
    acewehav
    eomi
    tt
    edal
    ldescr
    ipt
    ionsofbat
    tl
    es.Ourr
    easonsf
    ort
    hisar
    esi
    mpl
    e.The
    st
    rat
    egyofacampai
    gnorofasi
    ngl
    ebat
    tl
    eisahi
    ghl
    ytechni
    cal
    ,andusual
    l
    yahi
    ghl
    ycont
    rov
    ersi
    al,
    matt
    erabout
    whichexper t
    sdi ff
    erwi del
    y.Inthef i
    eldofmili
    tar
    yandnav aloperat
    ionsmostwr i
    tersand
    teachersofhi storyaremer enov i
    ces.TodisposeofGettysburgortheWildernessi ntenli
    nesor
    tenpagesi sequal l
    yabsur dtotheser i
    ousstudentofmili
    taryaff
    air
    s.Anyonewhocompar es
    theor di
    nar ytextbookaccountofasi ngleCivi
    lWarcampai gnwiththeaccountgiv enbyRopes,
    forinstance,wi l
    laskf ornof urt
    hercomment .Noy outhcall
    edupont oserveourcount r
    yinarms
    woul dthinkoft urni
    ngt oahi ghschool manual f
    orinf
    ormat i
    onaboutthear tofwar f
    are.The
    dramat icsceneorepi sode,sousef uli
    narousingtheint
    erestoftheimmat urepupi l
    ,seemsout
    ofplacei nabookt hatdeliberatel
    yappealstoboy sandgirl
    sont heveryt
    hr eshol
    dofl ife'
    s
    seri
    ousr esponsibil
    it
    ies.

    I
    tisnotuponnegat
    ivef
    eat
    ures,
    howev
    er,
    thatwer
    estourcase.I
    tisr
    atheruponconst
    ruct
    ive
    f
    eatur
    es.

    Fi
    rst.Wehav ewri
    ttenat
    opi
    cal,notanar
    rat
    ive,hi
    stor
    y.Wehav
    etri
    edt
    osetfor
    ththeimpor
    tant
    aspects,pr
    oblems,andmovementsofeachper i
    od,bri
    ngi
    ngi
    nthenar
    rat
    iver
    atherbywayof
    i
    ll
    ustrati
    on.

    Second.Wehaveemphasizedt
    hosehi
    stor
    ical
    topi
    cswhi
    chhel
    ptoexpl
    ainhowournat
    ionhas
    comet obewhati
    tist
    o-day.

    Thir
    d.Wehavedweltf
    ull
    yuponthesoci
    alandeconomi
    caspect
    sofourhi
    stor
    y,especi
    all
    yin
    rel
    ati
    ont
    othepoli
    ti
    csofeachperi
    od.

    Fourth.Wehav et r
    eatedthecausesandr esul
    tsofwar s,t
    heproblemsoffinanci
    ngand
    sustaini
    ngarmedforces,r
    athert
    hanmil
    it
    arystr
    ategy.Thesearet
    hesubject
    swhichbelongto
    ahistoryforci
    vi
    li
    ans.Thesearematt
    erswhichcivil
    i
    anscanunderstand—matt
    erswhichthey
    mustunder st
    and,i
    ftheyaretopl
    aywel
    lthei
    rpartinwarandpeace.

    Fi
    ft
    h.Byomit
    ti
    ngtheper i
    odofexplorat
    ion,
    wehav ebeenabletoenl
    argethetr
    eatmentofour
    ownti
    me.Wehavegi venspecial
    attent
    iontothehi
    stor
    yofthosecurr
    entquesti
    onswhich
    mustfor
    mthesubjectmatterofsoundinst
    ructi
    oninci
    ti
    zenshi
    p.

    Sixt
    h.Wehav eborneinmindthatAmeri
    ca,wit
    hall heruni
    quecharacteri
    sti
    cs,
    isapartofa
    general
    civi
    l
    izat
    ion.Accor
    dingl
    ywehavegivendiplomacy ,f
    orei
    gnaffair
    s,worl
    drel
    ati
    ons,
    andthereci
    procali
    nfl
    uencesofnati
    onsthei
    rappropr i
    atepl
    ace.

    Sevent h.Wehav edel i


    beratel
    yaimedatst andar dsofmat uri
    ty.Thestudyofamer enarrat
    ivecal
    ls
    mai nl
    yf ortheuseoft hememor y.Wehav eai medt ostimulat
    ehabi t
    sofanal ysi
    s,comparison,
    association, r
    ef l
    ect
    ion,andgener al
    izat
    ion—habi tscalcul
    atedtoenlargeaswel lasinfor
    mt hemi nd.
    Wehav ebeenatgr eatpainstomakeourt extclear,si
    mple,anddirect;butwehav eearnestl
    y
    soughtt ost retchtheintell
    ectsofourreader s—toputt hem upontheirmet t
    le.Mostofthem will
    receiv
    et hel astoft hei
    rformal i
    nstr
    uctionint hehighschool.Thewor ldwillsoonexpectmat ur
    it
    y
    from them.Thei rachievementswi l
    ldependupont hepossessi onofotherpower sthanmemor y
    alone.Theef fecti
    venessoft hei
    rcit
    izenshipi nourrepubli
    cwi l
    lbemeasur edbyt heexcell
    enceof
    theirj
    udgmentaswel lasthefull
    nessoft heirinfor
    mat i
    on.

    C.
    A.B.
    M.
    R.B.
    NewYor
    kCi
    ty,
    Febr
    uar
    y8,
    1921.
    ASMALLLI
    BRARYI
    NAMERI
    CANHI
    STORY
    SI
    NGLEVOLUMES:

    BASSETT,
    J.S.AShor
    tHist
    oryoftheUnit
    edSt
    ates
    ELSON, W.Hi
    H. st
    oryoft
    heUnitedStat
    esof
    Ameri
    ca

    SERI
    ES:

    "
    EpochsofAmer
    icanHi
    stor
    y,"edi
    tedbyA.
    B.Har
    t

    HART, B.For
    A. mat i
    onoftheUnion
    THWAITES,
    R.G.TheColoni
    es
    WILSON,WOODROW.Div i
    sionandReuni
    on

    "
    Riv
    ersi
    deSer
    ies,
    "edi
    tedbyW.
    E.Dodd

    BECKER,
    C.L.Beginni
    ngsoftheAmerican
    Peopl
    eDODD, W.E.Expansi
    onandConf l
    i
    ct
    JOHNSON,A.UnionandDemocr acyPAXSON,
    L.TheNewNat
    F. i
    on

    CONTENTS
    PARTI
    .THECOLONI
    ALPERI
    OD
    chapter page
    I
    .TheGr eatMi gr
    ationt oAmer ica 1
    TheAgenci esofAmer icanCol onizat
    ion 2
    TheCol onialPeoples 6
    ThePr ocessofCol onization 12
    II
    .ColonialAgri
    culture,Indust ry
    ,andCommer ce 20
    TheLandandt heWest war dMov ement 20
    Industri
    alandCommer cialDevelopment 28
    II
    I.SocialandPol i
    ti
    cal Progr ess 38
    TheLeader shipoft heChur ches 39
    SchoolsandCol l
    eges 43
    TheCol onialPress 46
    TheEv oluti
    oninPol i
    ti
    cal Insti
    tuti
    ons 48
    IV.TheDev el
    opmentofCol onialNationali
    sm 56
    Relati
    onswi ththeI ndiansandt heFrench 57
    TheEf fect
    sofWar fareont heCol oni
    es 61
    Col
    oni
    alRel
    ati
    onswiththeBri
    ti
    shGov
    ernment 64
    SummaryofColoni
    alPeri
    od 73

    PARTI I.CONFLI CTANDI NDEPENDENCE


    V.TheNewCour sei nBr it
    ishImper i
    alPoli
    cy 77
    GeorgeI IIandHi sSy stem 77
    GeorgeI II'
    sMinistersandThei rColoni
    alPol
    ici
    es 79
    ColonialResistanceFor cesRepeal 83
    Resumpt i
    onofBr iti
    shRev enueandCommer ci
    alPol
    i
    cies 87
    RenewedResi stancei nAmer i
    ca 90
    Retali
    ationbyt heBr i
    tishGov ernment 93
    From Ref ormtoRev olutioninAmer ica 95
    VI.TheAmer i
    canRev olution 99
    ResistanceandRet aliati
    on 99
    10
    Amer
    icanI
    ndependence 1
    10
    TheEst
    abl
    i
    shmentofGov
    ernmentandt
    heNewAl
    l
    egi
    ance 8
    11
    Mi
    l
    itar
    yAf
    fai
    rs 6
    12
    TheFi
    nancesoft
    heRev
    olut
    ion 5
    12
    TheDi
    plomacyoft
    heRev
    olut
    ion 7
    13
    PeaceatLast 2
    13
    Summar
    yoft
    heRev
    olut
    ionar
    yPer
    iod 5

    PARTI
    II
    .FOUNDATI
    ONSOFTHEUNI
    ONANDNATI
    ONALPOLI
    TICS
    13
    VI
    I.TheFor
    mat
    ionoft
    heConst
    it
    uti
    on 9
    13
    ThePr
    omi
    seandt
    heDi
    ff
    icul
    ti
    esofAmer
    ica 9
    14
    TheCal
    l
    ingofaConst
    it
    uti
    onal
    Conv
    ent
    ion 3
    14
    TheFr
    ami
    ngoft
    heConst
    it
    uti
    on 6
    15
    TheSt
    ruggl
    eov
    erRat
    if
    icat
    ion 7
    16
    VI
    II
    .TheCl
    ashofPol
    i
    tical
    Par
    ti
    es 2
    16
    TheMenandMeasur
    esoft
    heNewGov
    ernment 2
    16
    TheRi
    seofPol
    i
    tical
    Par
    ti
    es 8
    17
    For
    eignInf
    luencesandDomest
    icPol
    i
    tics 1
    I
    X.TheJeff
    ersonianRepubl
    i
    cansi
    nPower 18
    6
    18
    Republ
    i
    canPr
    inci
    plesandPol
    i
    cies 6
    18
    TheRepubl
    i
    cansandt
    heGr
    eatWest 8
    19
    TheRepubl
    i
    canWarf
    orCommer
    cial
    Independence 3
    20
    TheRepubl
    i
    cansNat
    ional
    i
    zed 1
    20
    TheNat
    ional
    Deci
    si
    onsofChi
    efJust
    iceMar
    shal
    l 8
    21
    Summar
    yofUni
    onandNat
    ional
    Pol
    i
    tics 2

    PARTI
    V.THEWESTANDJACKSONI
    ANDEMOCRACY
    21
    X.TheFar
    mer
    sbey
    ondt
    heAppal
    achi
    ans 7
    21
    Pr
    epar
    ati
    onf
    orWest
    ernSet
    tl
    ement 7
    22
    TheWest
    ernMi
    grat
    ionandNewSt
    ates 1
    22
    TheSpi
    ri
    toft
    heFr
    ont
    ier 8
    23
    TheWestandt
    heEastMeet 0
    23
    XI
    .Jacksoni
    anDemocr
    acy 8
    23
    TheDemocr
    ati
    cMov
    ementi
    ntheEast 8
    24
    TheNewDemocr
    acyEnt
    erst
    heAr
    ena 4
    25
    TheNewDemocr
    acyatWashi
    ngt
    on 0
    26
    TheRi
    seoft
    heWhi
    gs 0
    26
    TheI
    nter
    act
    ionofAmer
    icanandEur
    opeanOpi
    nion 5
    27
    XI
    I.TheMi
    ddl
    eBor
    derandt
    heGr
    eatWest 1
    27
    TheAdv
    anceoft
    heMi
    ddl
    eBor
    der 1
    27
    Ont
    othePaci
    fi
    c—Texasandt
    heMexi
    canWar 6
    28
    ThePaci
    fi
    cCoastandUt
    ah 4
    29
    Summar
    yofWest
    ernDev
    elopmentandNat
    ional
    Pol
    i
    tics 2

    PARTV.SECTI
    ONALCONFLI
    CTANDRECONSTRUCTI
    ON
    29
    XI
    II
    .TheRi
    seoft
    heI
    ndust
    ri
    alSy
    stem 5
    29
    TheI
    ndust
    ri
    alRev
    olut
    ion 6
    30
    TheI
    ndust
    ri
    alRev
    olut
    ionandNat
    ional
    Pol
    i
    tics 7
    31
    XI
    V.ThePl
    ant
    ingSy
    stem andNat
    ional
    Pol
    i
    tics 6
    31
    Sl
    aver
    y—Nor
    thandSout
    h 6
    32
    Sl
    aver
    yinNat
    ional
    Pol
    i
    tics 4
    33
    TheDr
    if
    tofEv
    ent
    stowar
    dtheI
    rr
    epr
    essi
    bleConf
    li
    ct 2
    34
    XV.TheCi
    vi
    lWarandReconst
    ruct
    ion 4
    34
    TheSout
    her
    nConf
    eder
    acy 4
    35
    TheWarMeasur
    esoft
    heFeder
    alGov
    ernment 0
    36
    TheResul
    tsoft
    heCi
    vi
    lWar 5
    37
    Reconst
    ruct
    ioni
    ntheSout
    h 0
    37
    Summar
    yoft
    heSect
    ional
    Conf
    li
    ct 5

    PARTVI
    .NATI
    ONALGROWTHANDWORLDPOLI
    TICS
    37
    XVI
    .ThePol
    i
    tical
    andEconomi
    cEv
    olut
    ionoft
    heSout
    h 9
    37
    TheSout
    hatt
    heCl
    oseoft
    heWar 9
    38
    TheRest
    orat
    ionofWhi
    teSupr
    emacy 2
    38
    TheEconomi
    cAdv
    anceoft
    heSout
    h 9
    40
    XVI
    I.Busi
    nessEnt
    erpr
    iseandt
    heRepubl
    i
    canPar
    ty 1
    40
    Rai
    l
    way
    sandI
    ndust
    ry 1
    41
    TheSupr
    emacyoft
    heRepubl
    i
    canPar
    ty(
    1861-
    1885) 2
    41
    TheGr
    owt
    hofOpposi
    ti
    ont
    oRepubl
    i
    canRul
    e 7
    42
    XVI
    II
    .TheDev
    elopmentoft
    heGr
    eatWest 5
    42
    TheRai
    l
    way
    sasTr
    ail
    Blazer
    s 5
    43
    TheEv
    olut
    ionofGr
    azi
    ngandAgr
    icul
    tur
    e 1
    43
    Mi
    ningandManuf
    act
    uri
    ngi
    ntheWest 6
    44
    TheAdmi
    ssi
    onofNewSt
    ates 0
    44
    TheI
    nfl
    uenceoft
    heFarWestonNat
    ional
    Lif
    e 3
    45
    XI
    X.Domest
    icI
    ssuesbef
    oret
    heCount
    ry(
    1865-
    1897) 1
    45
    TheCur
    rencyQuest
    ion 2
    45
    ThePr
    otect
    iveTar
    if
    fandTaxat
    ion 9
    46
    TheRai
    l
    way
    sandTr
    ust
    s 0
    46
    TheMi
    norPar
    ti
    esandUnr
    est 2
    46
    TheSoundMoneyBat
    tl
    eof1896 6
    47
    Republ
    i
    canMeasur
    esandResul
    ts 2
    47
    XX.Amer
    icaaWor
    ldPower
    (1865-
    1900) 7
    47
    Amer
    icanFor
    eignRel
    ati
    ons(
    1865-
    1898) 8
    48
    Cubaandt
    heSpani
    shWar 5
    49
    Amer
    icanPol
    i
    ciesi
    nthePhi
    l
    ippi
    nesandt
    heOr
    ient 7
    50
    Summar
    yofNat
    ional
    Growt
    handWor
    ldPol
    i
    tics 4

    PARTVI
    I.PROGRESSI
    VEDEMOCRACYANDTHEWORLDWAR
    50
    XXI
    .TheEv
    olut
    ionofRepubl
    i
    canPol
    i
    cies(
    1901-
    1913) 7
    50
    For
    eignAf
    fai
    rs 8
    51
    Col
    oni
    alAdmi
    nist
    rat
    ion 5
    51
    TheRoosev
    eltDomest
    icPol
    i
    cies 9
    52
    Legi
    slat
    iveandEx
    ecut
    iveAct
    ivi
    ti
    es 3
    52
    TheAdminist
    rat
    ionofPresidentTaft 7
    Progr
    essi
    veInsurgencyandtheElecti
    onof1912 53
    0
    53
    XXI
    I.TheSpi
    ri
    tofRef
    ormi
    nAmer
    ica 6
    53
    AnAgeofCr
    it
    ici
    sm 6
    53
    Pol
    i
    tical
    Ref
    orms 8
    54
    Measur
    esofEconomi
    cRef
    orm 6
    55
    XXI
    II
    .TheNewPol
    i
    tical
    Democr
    acy 4
    55
    TheRi
    seoft
    heWomanMov
    ement 5
    56
    TheNat
    ional
    Str
    uggl
    eforWomanSuf
    frage 2
    57
    XXI
    V.I
    ndust
    ri
    alDemocr
    acy 0
    57
    Coöper
    ati
    onbet
    weenEmpl
    oyer
    sandEmpl
    oyees 1
    57
    TheRi
    seandGr
    owt
    hofOr
    gani
    zedLabor 5
    57
    TheWi
    derRel
    ati
    onsofOr
    gani
    zedLabor 7
    58
    I
    mmi
    grat
    ionandAmer
    icani
    zat
    ion 2
    58
    XXV.Pr
    esi
    dentWi
    l
    sonandt
    heWor
    ldWar 8
    58
    Domest
    icLegi
    slat
    ion 8
    59
    Col
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    alandFor
    eignPol
    i
    cies 2
    59
    TheUni
    tedSt
    atesandt
    heEur
    opeanWar 6
    60
    TheUni
    tedSt
    atesatWar 4
    61
    TheSet
    tl
    ementatPar
    is 2
    62
    Summar
    yofDemocr
    acyandt
    heWor
    ldWar 0
    62
    Appendi
    x 7
    64
    ATopi
    cal
    Syl
    l
    abus 5
    65
    I
    ndex 5

    MAPS
    page
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    onsoft heWest "(popularl
    ycal led"ThePi oneer s"
    ),designedbyA.St i
    rli
    ng
    Calderandmodel edbyMr .Calder,F.G.R.Rot h, andLeoLent ell
    i,toppedtheAr chof
    theSet ti
    ngSunatt hePanama- Paci
    ficExposi tionhel datSanFr anciscoin1915.
    Facingt heCour toft heUni ver
    semov esagr oupofmenandwoment ypical ofthose
    whohav emadeourci vil
    iz ati
    on.From l efttorightappeart heFrench- Canadi an,the
    Alaskan, theLat in-Amer ican, t
    heGer man, theI t
    alian,theAngl o-
    Amer i
    can, andt he
    Amer icanI ndian, squawandwar ri
    or.Inthepl aceofhonori nthecent eroft hegr oup,
    standingbet weent heox enont hetongueoft hepr air
    ieschooner ,i
    saf i
    gur e,
    beaut i
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    sh, butstrong, digni
    fied, andwomanl y,theMot herofTo-
    mor row.Abov et hegr oupr i
    dest heSpi ri
    tofEnt erprise, f
    lankedrightandl eftbyt he
    Hopesoft heFut ureint heper sonoft woboy s.Thegr oupasawhol eisbeaut i
    full
    y
    symbol icoft hewest war dmar chofAmer i
    canci v
    ili
    zation.
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    ogr
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    dinel
    l
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    anci
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    TheNat
    " ionsoft
    heWest
    "

    HI
    STORYOF
    THEUNI
    TEDSTATES

    PARTI
    .THECOLONI
    ALPERI
    OD
    CHAPTERI
    THEGREATMI
    GRATI
    ONTOAMERI
    CA

    Thet i
    deofmi grationthatseti ntowardtheshor esofNor thAmer i
    cadur ingtheear l
    yyear soft he
    seventeenthcentur ywasbutonephasei ntherestlessandet ernalmov ementofmanki ndupont he
    surf
    aceoft heear th.Theanci entGreeksflungoutt hei
    rcoloniesi nev er
    ydirecti
    on, westwar dasf ar
    asGaul ,acr
    osst heMedi ter
    r anean,andeast war
    di ntoAsiaMi nor ,
    perhapst othev eryconf i
    nesof
    Indi
    a.TheRomans, supportedbyt heirar
    mi esandt hei
    rgov er
    nment ,spreadtheirdomi nionbey ond
    thenarrowlandsofI t
    alyuntilitst
    retchedfrom t
    heheat herofScot l
    andt othesandsofAr abia.The
    Teutonictri
    bes,from thei
    rhomebey ondtheDanubeandt heRhi ne,pouredintotheempi reoft he
    Cæsar sandmadet hebeginningsofmoder nEurope.Oft hisgreatsweepofr acesandempi resthe
    sett
    lementofAmer i
    cawasmer el
    yapar t.
    Anditwas,mor
    eover
    ,onlyoneaspectoftheexpansi
    onwhi
    chfi
    nal
    lycar
    ri
    edt
    hepeopl
    es,
    the
    i
    nsti
    tut
    ions,
    andthet
    radeofEuropetotheveryendsoft
    heear
    th.

    I
    nonev i
    talpoi
    nt,itmustbenot ed,Americancoloni
    zat
    iondiff
    eredfr
    om thatoftheanci
    ents.
    TheGreeksusuall
    ycar r
    iedwiththem aff
    ecti
    onf ort
    hegov er
    nmenttheyleftbehi
    ndandsacred
    fi
    refr
    om thealt
    aroft heparentci
    ty;butt
    housandsoft heimmigrant
    swhocamet oAmerica
    di
    sli
    kedthestateanddi sownedthechurchoft hemothercountry
    .Theyestabli
    shedcompacts
    ofgover
    nmentf orthemselvesandsetupal tarsoft
    heirown.Theysoughtnotonlynewsoilto
    ti
    l
    lbutalsopoli
    ti
    calandr el
    igi
    ousliber
    tyforthemsel
    vesandt hei
    rchi
    ldr
    en.

    TheAgenci
    esofAmer
    icanCol
    oni
    zat
    ion

    Itwasnol ightmat t
    erfortheEngl i
    sht ocr ossthreethousandmi lesofwat erandf oundhomes
    i
    nt heAmer icanwi l
    dernessatt heopeni ngoft heseventeenthcent ur y.Ships,t
    ools,and
    suppl i
    escal l
    edf orhugeout laysofmoney .Storeshadtobef urnishedi nquantiti
    essuf f
    ici
    ent
    tosust ai
    nt helifeoft heset tl
    ersunt i
    l t
    heycoul dgatherhar vestsoft hei rown.Arti
    sansand
    l
    abor ersofski l
    l andi ndustryhadt obei nducedt ori
    skthehazar dsoft henewwor l
    d.Soldi
    ers
    wer erequiredf ordef enseandmar i
    ner sfortheexplorati
    onofi nlandwat er
    s.Leadersofgood
    j
    udgment ,adepti nmanagi ngmen, hadt obedi scov
    ered.Al t
    oget hersuchanent erpri
    se
    demandedcapi tal l
    argerthant heor dinarymer chantorgent l
    emancoul damassandi nvol
    ved
    risksmor eimmi nentt hanhedar edt oassume.Thoughi nl aterday s,af t
    erini
    ti
    altestshad
    beenmade, weal thyproprietor
    swer eabl etoest abl
    i
    shcol oniesont heirownaccount ,i
    twas
    thecor por
    at iont hatfurni
    shedt hecapi t
    al andleadershi
    pint hebegi nning.

    TheTr adi ngCompany .—Engl i


    shpi oneersinexpl orati
    onf oundani nstr
    umentf orcol onizationin
    compani esofmer chantadv enturer s,whichhadl ongbeenempl oyedincar r
    yingoncommer ce
    withfor eigncount ri
    es.Suchacor por at
    ionwascomposedofmanyper sonsofdi ffer entranks
    ofsoci ety—nobl emen, merchant s, andgent lemen—whobandedt ogetherf orapar ticul ar
    undertaki ng,eachcont r
    ibuti
    ngasum ofmoneyandshar i
    nginthepr ofi
    t softhev ent ure.Itwas
    organizedunderr oyalauthor i
    ty;i
    tr eceivedi tscharter,i
    tsgrantofland, andi t
    st rading
    pri
    vil
    egesf rom thekingandcar riedoni tsoperationsunderhi ssuperv i
    sionandcont rol.The
    charternamedal l
    theper sonsor igi nall
    yincludedint hecorporationandgav et hem cer tain
    power si nthemanagementofi tsaf f
    air
    s, i
    ncludi
    ngt her i
    ghttoadmi tnewmember s.The
    companywasi nfactal i
    ttl
    egov er nmentsetupbyt heking.Whent hemember soft he
    corporat i
    onr emainedi nEngl and, asi nthecaseoft heVi r
    gini
    aCompany ,theyoper at edthrough
    agentssentt othecol ony.Whent heycameov ertheseast hemsel vesandset tledinAmer ica,
    asint hecaseofMassachuset ts, theybecamet hedi rectgovernmentoft hecount ryt hey
    possessed.Thest ockholdersint hati nstancebecamet hevotersandt hegov ernor, thechi ef
    magist rate.

    JohnWi nt
    hrop,Gov
    ernoroft
    he
    Massachusett
    sBayCompany

    Fouroft
    het
    hir
    teencol
    oni
    esi
    nAmer
    icaowedt
    hei
    ror
    igi
    nst
    othet
    radi
    ngcor
    por
    ati
    on.I
    twast
    he
    LondonCompany,
    creat
    edbyKi
    ngJamesI
    ,i
    n1606,
    thatl
    aiddur
    ingt
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ngy
    eart
    he
    foundat
    ionsof
    Vir
    gini
    aatJamest own.Itwasundert heauspi cesoft heirWestIndiaCompany ,charteredin
    1621,thattheDut chplant
    edt hesettl
    ement soft heNewNet herl
    andi nthevall
    eyoft heHudson.
    Thefounder sofMassachuset tswerePur i
    tanl eadersandmenofaf f ai
    rswhom KingChar l
    esI
    i
    ncorporatedin1629undert heti
    tle:
    "Thegov er norandcompanyoft heMassachuset t
    sBayi n
    NewEngl and."Inthiscasethelawdi dbutincor porateagroupdr awnt oget
    herbyr eli
    giousties.
    "Wemustbekni ttogetherasoneman, "wr
    ot eJohnWi nthr
    op,thefirstPuri
    tangovernori n
    Amer i
    ca.Fartot hesouth,onthebanksoft heDel awareRiver,aSwedi shcommer cialcompany
    i
    n1638madet hebeginningsofaset tl
    ement ,chr i
    stenedNewSweden; i
    twasdestinedt opass
    undertheruleoft heDutch,andfinall
    yundert her ul
    eofWi ll
    i
    am Pennast hepropri
    etarycolony
    ofDelaware.

    Inacer tainsense, Georgiamaybei ncl udedamongt he" companycol oni


    es."I
    twas, however ,
    originall
    yconcei v
    edbyt hemov ingspi rit,JamesOgl ethorpe,asanasy l
    um forpoormen,
    especi allythoseimpr isonedf ordebt .Tor ealizethishumanepur pose,hesecuredfrom King
    Geor geI I,i
    n1732, aroyal charterunitingsev eralgentl
    emen, i
    ncludinghimself,i
    nto"onebody
    polit
    icandcor porate,
    "knownast he" Tr usteesf orestabli
    shingt hecolonyofGeor giain
    Amer i
    ca. "Inthest r
    uctureoft heirorgani zati
    onandt heirmethodsofgov ernment,thetrustees
    didnotdi ffermat er
    iall
    yf r
    om t heregul arcompani escreatedf ortradeandcolonizati
    on.Though
    theirpur poseswer ebenev ol
    ent,theirtransact i
    onshadt obeundert hefor
    msofl awand
    accor dingt other ulesofbusi ness.

    TheRel igi
    ousCongr egation. —Asecondagencywhi chf i
    guredlargelyintheset tlementof
    Amer i
    cawast hereli
    giousbr otherhood, orcongr egation,ofmenandwomenbr oughtt ogether
    i
    nthebondsofacommonr eli
    giousf aith.Byoneoft hest r
    angef ort
    unesofhi story ,thi
    s
    i
    nstit
    ut i
    on,foundedint heear l
    yday sofChr isti
    anit
    y,provedt obeapot entforcei nt heor i
    gin
    andgr owthofself-governmenti nal andf arawayf rom Gal i
    l
    ee."Andt hemul t
    itudeoft hem that
    bel
    ievedwer eofonehear tandofonesoul ,
    "wear et oldintheAct sdescr i
    bingt heChur chat
    Jerusalem."Wear ekni ttoget herasabodyi namostsacr edcov enantoft heLor d...byvir
    tue
    ofwhichwehol dour selv
    esst ri
    ctl
    yt i
    edt oallcareofeachot her'
    sgoodandoft hewhol e,
    "wrote
    JohnRobi nson,aleaderamongt hePi lgri
    mswhof oundedt heirti
    nycol onyofPl ymout hin1620.
    TheMay fl
    owerCompact , sof amousi nAmer icanhistory,wasbutawr itt
    enandsi gned
    agreement ,i
    ncorporatingt hespi r
    itofobedi encetot hecommongood, whichser vedasagui de
    toself-
    gov ernmentunt i
    lPl ymout hwasannexedt oMassachuset tsin1691.
    Threeot hercolonies, allofwhichr etai
    nedt heirident i
    tyunt il
    theev eoft heAmer i
    canRev oluti
    on,
    l
    ikewi sespr angdi r
    ect lyfrom thecongr egat i
    onsoft hef ai
    thful:RhodeI sland,Connecticut,and
    NewHampshi re,mai nlyof f
    shoot sfr
    om Massachuset ts.Theywer ef oundedbysmal lbodiesof
    menandwomen, "uni t
    edi nsolemncov enant swi ththeLor d,
    "whopl ant edtheirsettl
    ement sin
    thewi lderness.Notunt ilmanyay earaf terRogerWi ll
    iamsandAnneHut chi
    nsonconduct ed
    theirfollowerst otheNar ragansettcount rywasRhodeI sl
    andgr antedachar terofincorporati
    on
    (1663)byt hecr own.Notunt i
    llongaf t
    ert hecongr egat ionofThomasHookerf rom Newt own
    blazedt hewayi ntotheConnect i
    cutRiverVal leydidt heki ngofEngl andgi veConnect icuta
    char t
    erofi tsown( 1662)andapl aceamongt hecol onies.Hal facent uryelapsedbef orethe
    townsl aidoutbey ondt heMer rimacRi verbyemi grantsf rom Massachuset tsweref ormedi nt
    o
    ther oyal pr
    ovinceofNewHampshi r
    ein1679.

    EvenwhenConnect i
    cutwaschar t
    ered,theparchmentandseal i
    ngwaxoft her oyallawyersdi
    d
    butconfir
    mr i
    ghtsandhabit
    sofsel f-governmentandobedi encet olawpr eviousl
    yest abli
    shed
    bythecongr egati
    ons.ThetownsofHar t
    ford,Wi ndsor,andWet hersfi
    eldhadl onglivedhappil
    y
    undertheir"FundamentalOrders"drawnupbyt hemsel vesi n1639; sohadt heset t
    lersdwelt
    peacefull
    yatNewHav enundert heir"Fundament alArt
    icles"draftedinthesamey ear .The
    pioneersont heConnecti
    cutshor ehadnodi f
    ficultyinagr eeingthat"theScriptur
    esdohol d
    fort
    haper fectrul
    eforthedirecti
    onandgov ernmentofal lmen."

    ThePr opri
    etor.—At hirdandveryimpor tantcolonialagencywast hepropri
    etor
    ,orpropri
    etary
    .As
    thename, associ atedwi ththewor d"property,
    "implies,theproprietorwasapersont owhom t he
    kinggrantedpr oper tyinlandsinNor t
    hAmer i
    cat ohav e,hol
    d, use,andenjoyforhisownbenef it
    andprofit,wit
    ht her ighttohandt heestatedownt ohi sheir
    si nperpetual
    succession.The
    propri
    etorwasar i
    chandpower fulperson, pr
    eparedt ofurnishorsecur ethecapit
    al,
    collectt
    he
    ships,
    suppl ythest or es,andassembl ethesettlersnecessar ytofoundandsust ai
    napl antat
    ion
    beyondt heseas.Somet imesthepr opri
    etorwor kedalone.Somet imestwoormor ewer e
    associatedli
    kepar tnersinthecommonunder taking.
    Will
    i
    am Penn,
    Pr
    opr
    iet
    orofPennsy
    lvani
    a

    Fivecolonies,Mar y
    land,Pennsylvania,NewJer sey, andtheCar oli
    nas,owet hei
    rf or
    mal origins,
    thoughnotal way stheirf
    ir
    stsettl
    ement s,norinmostcasest heirprosperi
    ty,t
    ot heproprietary
    system.Mar y
    land,establ
    ishedin1634underaCat holi
    cnobl eman, LordBal t
    imor e,
    andbl essedwi th
    rel
    igioustolerat
    ionbyt heactof1649, fl
    ourishedundert hemi l
    dr ul
    eofpr opri
    etorsuntili
    tbecamea
    stateintheAmer i
    canunion.NewJer sey ,beginni ngi t
    scar eerundert wopr opri
    etors,Berkeleyand
    Carteret,
    in1664, passedundert hedi rectgov ernmentoft hecr owni n1702.Pennsy lv
    aniawas, i
    na
    verylargemeasur e,theproductoft hegener ousspi ri
    tandt i
    relesslabor sofit
    sf i
    rstproprietor,
    the
    l
    eaderoft heFri
    ends, Wil
    li
    am Penn, towhom i twasgr antedin1681andi nwhosef ami l
    yitremai ned
    until1776.Thet woCar oli
    naswer efirstorgani zedasonecol onyi n1663undert hegov ernmentand
    patronageofei ghtpropri
    etors,i
    ncludingLor dCl arendon; butaf termor ethanhalfacent urybot h
    becamer oyalprovi
    ncesgov ernedbyt heki ng.

    TheCol
    oni
    alPeopl
    es

    TheEngl ish. —Inleader shipandor iginthet hirt


    eencol onies,exceptNewYor kandDel aware,
    wer eEngl i
    sh.Dur ingt heear lydaysofal l,savet hesetwo, themai n,i
    fnotthesol e,
    cur r
    entof
    i
    mmi grat i
    onwasf rom Engl and.Thecol onistscamef rom ev er
    ywal kofli
    fe.Theywer emen,
    women, andchi l
    drenof" allsort
    sandcondi t
    ions."Themaj orporti
    onwer eyeomen, orsmal l
    l
    andowner s, f
    arml abor ers,andartisans.Wi ththem wer emer chantsandgent l
    emenwho
    broughtt heirstocksofgoodsort heirfortunest ot heNewWor l
    d.Scholarscamef rom Oxford
    andCambr idgetopr eacht hegospel ort oteach.Nowandt henthesonofanEngl i
    shnobl eman
    l
    efthi sbar onialhallbehi ndandcasthi slotwi thAmer ica.Thepeopl erepresentedev er
    y
    rel
    igiousf aith—member soft heEst abli
    shedChur chofEngl and;Puri
    tanswhohadl aboredto
    reformt hatchur ch; Separ ati
    sts,Baptist
    s, andFr iends,whohadl efti
    talt
    ogether;andCat hol
    ics,
    whocl ungt other eli
    gionoft hei
    rfathers.

    NewEngl andwasal mostpurelyEngl i


    sh.Dur i
    ngthey earsbetween1629and1640, theperiod
    ofarbitr
    aryStuar
    tgovernment ,aboutt wentyt
    housandPur it
    ansemi gratedtoAmer i
    ca,sett
    ling
    i
    nt hecoloni
    esoft hefarNorth.Althoughmi noradditi
    onswer emadef rom ti
    met ot i
    me, the
    great
    erpor t
    ionoftheNewEngl andpeopl esprangf r
    om thi
    sor i
    ginalst
    ock.Virgi
    nia,too,fora
    l
    ongt imedrewnear l
    yallherimmi grantsfrom Englandalone.Notunt i
    ltheeveoft he
    Revoluti
    ondidothernational
    i
    t i
    es,mai nlyt
    heScot ch-I
    ri
    shandGer mans,ri
    valt
    heEngl i
    shin
    number s.

    Thepopul at
    ionsoflat
    erEnglishcol
    onies—theCarol
    inas,NewYor k,Pennsylvani
    a,and
    Georgia—whi l
    erecei
    vi
    ngast eadystream ofimmigr
    ationfrom Engl
    and,wer econstantl
    y
    augment edbywander er
    sfrom theoldersettl
    ement
    s.NewYor kwasinvadedbyPur i
    tansf rom
    NewEngl andi nsuchnumber sastocauset heAngl
    icanclergymentheretolamentt hat"free
    thi
    nkingspreadsalmostasf astastheChur ch.
    "Nor
    thCar oli
    nawasf i
    rstsettl
    edtowar dthe
    nort
    her nborderbyimmigrantsfr
    om Vi r
    gini
    a.Someoft heNor t
    hCaroli
    nians,par
    ticul
    arlythe
    Quakers,cameall
    thewayfr
    om NewEngland,
    tarr
    yingi
    nVi
    rgi
    niaonl
    ylongenought
    olear
    n
    howlit
    tletheywer
    ewantedi
    nthatAngl
    i
    cancolony.
    TheScot ch-I
    ri
    sh. —Nextt ot heEngl i
    shi nnumber sandi nfl
    uencewer etheScotch-Irish,
    Presby ter i
    ansi nbelief,Englishintongue.Bot hreli
    giousandeconomi creasonssentt hem
    acrosst hesea.Thei rScotchancest ors,intheday sofCromwel l
    ,hadset t
    ledinthenor t
    hof
    Ir
    elandwhencet henat iveIrishhadbeendr i
    venbyt heconquer or'
    sswor d.Theret heScot ch
    nour i
    shedf ormanyy earsenj oyi
    nginpeacet heirownf orm ofreli
    gionandgr owingpr osperous
    i
    nt hemanuf actureoff i
    nelinenandwool encloth.Thenthebl owf el
    l.Towar dtheendoft he
    sevent eent hcent urytheirreligi
    ouswor shipwasputundert hebanandt heexpor toft heircloth
    wasf or biddenbyt heEngl i
    shPar l
    iament .Wi t
    hintwodecadest wentythousandScot ch-
    Iri
    shl eft
    Ulsteral one, f
    orAmer i
    ca;andal lduringt heeighteenthcentur
    yt hemi grat
    ioncont inuedt obe
    heav y.Al thoughnoexactr ecordwaskept ,i
    tisreckonedthatt heScotch-Iri
    shandt heScot ch
    whocamedi rect l
    yfrom Scot l
    and,composedone- si
    xthoftheent i
    reAmer icanpopul ati
    onont he
    eveoft heRev oluti
    on.

    Set
    tl
    ementsofGer
    manand
    Scotch-
    Ir
    ishI
    mmigr
    ant
    s

    Thesenewcomer sinAmer i
    camadet hei
    rhomeschi efl
    yinNewJer sey ,
    Pennsylvania,Maryl
    and,
    Virginia,andt heCar ol
    inas.Comingl ateupont hescene,theyfoundmuchoft heland
    i
    mmedi atel
    yupont heseaboar dalreadyt akenup.Fort hi
    sreasonmostoft hem became
    frontierpeopl esettl
    ingtheinteri
    orandupl andr egi
    ons.Theretheyclearedtheland, l
    aidout
    theirsmal lfarms, andwor kedas" sturdyy eomenont hesoil
    ,
    "hardy ,i
    ndustr
    ious,and
    i
    ndependenti nspiri
    t,shari
    ngneithert heluxuriesoftherichplant
    ersnort heeasyl i
    feofthe
    l
    ei surelymer chants.Tot heiragr
    iculturetheyaddedwool enandlinenmanuf actures,which,
    fl
    our i
    shi ngi
    nt hesupplef i
    ngersoft heirti
    rel
    esswomen, madeheav yinr
    oadsupont hetr
    adeof
    theEngl i
    shmer chantsinthecolonies.Oft heirlabor
    sapoethassung:

    "O,wil
    li
    nghandst ot oi
    l;
    Str
    ongnat urestunedt otheharvest
    -song
    andboundt ot hekindlysoi
    l;
    Boldpioneersforthewi l
    derness,
    defendersinthefield.
    "

    TheGer mans. —Thirdamongt hecolonistsi nor derofnumer icali


    mpor t
    ancewer et heGermans.
    From thev erybeginning,t
    heyappear edi ncol onialr
    ecor ds.Anumberoft heartisansand
    carpentersinthef i
    rstJamest owncol onywer eofGer mandescent .PeterMinuit,thefamous
    governorofNewMot herl
    and, wasaGer manf rom Wesel ontheRhine,andJacobLei sler,l
    eader
    ofapopul arupr i
    si
    ngagai nsttheprovincial admi ni
    strati
    onofNewYor k,wasaGer manf rom
    Frankfort
    -on-Main.Thewhol esal
    emi grationofGer mansbeganwi ththefoundi
    ngof
    Pennsy l
    vania.Pennwasdi l
    igentinsear chingf orthri
    ftyfarmerstoculti
    vatehi
    sl andsandhe
    madeaspeci alefforttoatt
    ractpeasant sf rom theRhi necount r
    y.Agreatassociation,known
    astheFr ankfortCompany ,boughtmor et hant wentyt housandacresf r
    om him andi n1684
    est
    abl
    i
    shedacent
    eratGer
    mant
    ownf
    ort
    hedi
    str
    ibut
    ionofGer
    mani
    mmi
    grant
    s.I
    nol
    dNew
    Yor
    k,
    Rhinebeck- on-t
    he-Hudsonbecameasi milarcenterf ordistr
    ibut
    ion.All
    thewayf r
    om Maineto
    Geor giainducement swereofferedtotheGer manf armersandi nnearlyev
    er ycolonywereto
    bef ound, i
    nt i
    me, Germansettl
    ement s.I
    nf actt
    hemi gr
    ationbecamesol arget hatGerman
    pri
    nceswer ef r
    ightenedatthelossofsomanysubj ectsandEngl andwasal armedbyt heinf
    lux
    offor ei
    gner si
    ntoherov er
    seasdomi nions.Yetnot hingcouldstopt hemov ement .Bytheendof
    thecol onialperi
    od, t
    henumberofGer manshadr isent omor et
    hant wohundr edthousand.

    Themaj or
    ityoft
    hem wer eProt
    estantsfrom theRhineregi
    on,andSout hGermany.Wars,
    rel
    igi
    ouscontroversi
    es,oppr
    essi
    on, andpovertydrovethem f
    ortht
    oAmer i
    ca.Thoughmostof
    them werefarmers,t
    herewerealsoamongt hem skil
    l
    edarti
    sanswhocont ri
    butedtother
    apid
    growthofindust
    riesinPennsyl
    vania.Theiri
    ron,gl
    ass,paper,
    andwool enmill
    s,dott
    edhere
    andthereamongt hethickl
    ysett
    ledregions,addedtothewealthandindependenceofthe
    provi
    nce.

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    AGl
    i
    mpseofOl
    dGer
    mant
    own
    UnliketheScotch-Ir
    ish,theGer mansdidnotspeakthel anguageoftheor i
    ginalcolonistsor
    mingl efr
    eelywiththem.Theykeptt ot hemsel
    ves,buil
    ttheirownschool s,
    foundedt hei
    rown
    newspaper s,andpubl i
    shedt hei
    rownbooks.Theirclannishhabitsoft
    eni r
    ri
    tatedt heir
    neighborsandl edtooccasi onalagi
    tati
    onsagai
    nst"foreigners.
    "However ,
    noser iouscol l
    i
    sions
    seem t ohaveoccur r
    ed;andi ntheday soft
    heRevoluti
    on, Germansoldiersfrom Pennsy lvani
    a
    foughtinthepat r
    iotarmi essidebysidewit
    hsoldi
    ersf r
    om t heEngli
    shandScot ch-I
    rish
    sections.

    OtherNati
    onal
    it
    ies.
    —Thought heEngli
    sh,
    theScotch-Ir
    ish,andtheGer
    mansmadeupthe
    bulkofthecol
    onial
    popul
    ation,t
    herewereotherr
    acialstrainsaswel
    l,
    var
    yingi
    nnumer
    ical
    i
    mpor t
    ancebutcontri
    but
    ingtheirshar
    etocoloni
    all
    ife.

    From FrancecametheHuguenot
    sfleei
    ngf
    rom t
    hedecr
    eeoft
    heki
    ngwhi
    chi
    nfl
    i
    cted
    terr
    ibl
    epenalt
    iesuponPr
    otest
    ants.

    From "OldIreland"camet housandsofnat iveIrish,


    Celti
    cinraceandCat hol
    icinreli
    gion.Li
    ke
    thei
    rScot ch-Iri
    shneighborstothenorth,theyr ever
    edneitherthegover
    nmentnort hechurchof
    Englandimposedupont hem bytheswor d.Howmanycamewedonotknow, butshippi
    ng
    recordsoft hecolonialperi
    odshowt hatboat loadaf t
    erboatl
    oadleftt
    hesout hernandeast er
    n
    shoresofI relandfortheNewWor l
    d.Undoubt edl yt
    housandsoft hei
    rpassengerswer eIri
    shof
    thenativ
    est ock.Thi
    ssur miseiswellsustainedbyt heconstantappearanceofCel ti
    cnamesi n
    t
    her
    ecor
    dsofv
    ari
    ouscol
    oni
    es.
    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Ol
    dDut
    chFor
    tandEngl
    i
    shChur
    chNearAl
    bany
    TheJews, thenasev erengagedi nthei rage-
    longbat t
    leforreli
    giousandeconomi ctolerati
    on,
    foundi ntheAmer icancol oni
    es,notcompl et
    elibert
    y,butcertai
    nlymor ef r
    eedom thant heyenj oyed
    i
    nEngl and, France, Spain,orPortugal .TheEngl i
    shlawdi dnotact uall
    yrecognizetheirrighttol i
    ve
    i
    nanyoft hedomi nions, butowingt ot heeasy -
    goinghabi t
    soft heAmer i
    canstheywer eal l
    owedt o
    fi
    lt
    eri ntotheseaboar dtowns.Thet reat menttheyreceiv
    edt herev ari
    ed.Ononeoccasi ont he
    may orandcounci lofNewYor kforbadet hem tosell
    byr etai
    landonanot herprohi
    bitedt he
    exerciseoft heirreli
    giouswor ship.Newpor t,Phil
    adel
    phia,andChar l
    estonwer emorehospi table,
    andt herel argeJewi shcolonies,consi sti
    ngpr i
    ncipal
    lyofmer chant sandtheirfamil
    ies,flourished
    i
    nspi teofnomi nal prohibi
    ti
    onsoft hel aw.

    Thought hesmal l
    Swedi shcolonyi nDelawarewasquickl
    ysubmer gedbeneat ht hetideof
    Engli
    shmi grat
    ion,theDut chinNewYor kconti
    nuedtoholdtheirownf ormoret hanahundr ed
    yearsaft
    ertheEngl ishconquestin1664.Att heendofthecol onial periodoverone- halfofthe
    170,000inhabit
    antsoft heprovincewer edescendant
    softheor iginal Dutch—stilldi
    st i
    nct
    enoughtogi veadeci dedcasttot heli
    feandmanner sofNewYor k.Manyoft hem clungas
    tenaci
    ouslytotheirmot hertongueast heydidtothei
    rcapaciousf ar mhousesort heirDutch
    ovens;buttheywer eslowl yl
    osingthei
    ridenti
    tyastheEngli
    shpr essedi nbesidet hem tof ar
    m
    andt r
    ade.

    Themel
    ti
    ngpothadbeguni
    tshi
    stor
    icmi
    ssi
    on.

    ThePr
    ocessofCol
    oni
    zat
    ion

    Consideredfr
    om onesi de,col
    oni
    zati
    on,whatev
    ert hemotivesoftheemigrant
    s,wasan
    economicmat ter
    .Itinvol
    vedtheuseofcapit
    altopayf ort
    heirpassage,t
    osustai
    nthem onthe
    voyage,andtostartthem onthewayofproduction.Underthi
    ssterneconomicnecessi
    ty,
    Puri
    tans,Scotch-
    Ir
    ish,Germans,andall
    werealikelai
    d.

    Immi grantsWhoPai dThei rOwnWay .


    —Manyoft heimmi grantstoAmer i
    caincoloni
    al dayswer e
    capit
    aliststhemsel ves,i
    nasmal l
    oral argeway ,andpaidtheirownpassage.Whatpr opor t
    ionof
    thecoloni st
    swer eabl et
    of inancet hei
    rv oyageacrosstheseai samat t
    erofpureconj ectur
    e.
    Undoubt edlyav er
    yconsi der ablenumbercoul ddoso, forwecant racet hefamil
    yf or
    tunesofmany
    earl
    yset tl
    ers.Henr yCabotLodgei saut hor
    ityforthestat
    ementt hat" thesettl
    ersofNewEngl and
    weredr awnf rom thecount rygent l
    emen, small f
    armers,andy eomanr yoft hemot hercountry.
    ...
    Manyoft heemi grantswer emenof
    wealth,ast heoldlistsshow, andallofthem, wit
    hf ewexcept i
    ons,wer emenofpr opertyandgood
    standing.Theydi dnotbel ongt otheclassesf rom whichemi grat
    ioni susuallysuppli
    ed, f
    ortheyall
    hadast akeinthecount rytheyl ef
    tbehi nd.
    "Thoughi twouldbei nterestingtoknowhowaccur ate
    t
    hisstatementisorhowappl
    i
    cabl
    etot
    heot
    hercol
    oni
    es,
    nost
    udyhasasy
    etbeenmadet
    ogr
    ati
    fy
    t
    hatinterest
    .Fort
    he
    presentiti
    sanunsolv
    edprobl
    em j
    usthowmanyoft
    hecol
    oni
    stswer
    eabl
    etobeart
    hecost
    oftheirowntr
    ansfert
    otheNewWor l
    d.

    IndenturedServants.—Thatatleasttensofthousandsofi mmi grant


    swer eunabl etopayf or
    theirpassageisest abl
    ishedbeyondt heshadowofadoubtbyt heshippingrecordst hathave
    comedownt ous.Thegr eatbarri
    erinthewayoft hepoorwhowant edt ogot oAmer icawas
    thecostoft heseav oy
    age.Toov ercomet hi
    sdi f
    ficult
    yaplanwaswor kedoutwher eby
    shipowner sandot herpersonsofmeansf urnishedt hepassagemoneyt oimmi grantsinret
    urn
    fortheirpromise,orbond, t
    owor kforaterm ofy earstorepaythesum adv anced.Thi ssyst
    em
    wascal ledindent
    ur edservi
    tude.

    Itisprobablet hatthenumberofbondser v ant


    sexceededt heor iginal t
    went yt housandPur it
    ans,
    they eomen, theVi rginiagent l
    emen, andtheHuguenot scombi ned.Al lthewaydownt hecoast
    from Massachuset tst oGeor giawer etobef oundinthef i
    elds, kitchens, andwor kshops, men,
    women, andchi ldrenser v
    ingoutt er msofbondagegener allyrangi ngf rom f i
    vet osev eny ears.
    Inthepr opri
    etar ycol oniest hepr opor t
    ionofbondser v ant
    swasv er yhigh.TheBal ti
    mor es,
    Penns, Carterets,andot herpr omot ersanxiousl
    ysoughtf orwor ker sofev erynat i
    onalitytoti
    ll
    theirfi
    elds,forlandwi t
    houtl aborwaswor thnomor et hanlandi nt hemoon.Hencet hegat esof
    thepr opri
    etarycoloni eswer ef l
    ungwi deopen.Ev eryinducementwasof feredt oi mmi grant
    si n
    thef orm ofcheapl and, andspeci al ef
    fort
    swer emadet oincreaset hepopul ationbyi mpor ti
    ng
    servants.InPennsy lvania,itwasnotuncommont of i
    ndamast erwi thfif
    tybondser vantsonhi s
    estate.Ithasbeenest i
    matedt hatt wo-thi
    rdsofallthei mmi grantsi ntoPennsy lvaniabet ween
    theopeni ngoft heei ght eent hcent uryandt heoutbreakoft heRev oluti
    onwer ei nbondage.I n
    theot herMiddl ecol oniest henumberwasdoubt lessnotsol arge; butitfor medaconsi derable
    partoft hepopul ation.

    Thest oryofthistr
    affi
    cinwhi teservantsisoneofthemostst riki
    ngt hingsinthehi st
    oryof
    l
    abor.Bondmendi ffer
    edf rom theserfsofthefeudalageinthattheywer enotboundt ot hesoi
    l
    buttot hemast er
    .Theyl i
    kewisediffer
    edf rom t
    henegr osl
    avesi nthatt hei
    rservit
    udehada
    ti
    mel i
    mi t.St
    il
    ltheywer esubjecttomanyspeci aldisabi
    li
    ti
    es.Itwas, forinst
    ance, acommon
    pract
    icet oimposeont hem penal t
    iesfarheaviert
    hanwer eimposeduponf reemenf orthe
    sameof f
    ense.Af reeci
    tizenofPennsy lvaniawhoindulgedinhorser acingandgambl i
    ngwas
    l
    etoffwi thafine;awhiteser v
    antgui l
    tyofthesameunl awfulconductwaswhi ppedatthepost
    andfinedaswel l
    .

    Theor dinaryli
    feoft hewhi t
    eservantwasal sosev er el
    yr estr
    icted.Abondmancoul dnotmarry
    withouthismast er
    'sconsent ;
    norengagei ntrade; norr efusewor kassignedtohim.Foran
    attemptt oescapeori ndeedforanyinfractionoft hel aw, theterm ofservicewasextended.
    Thecondi tionofwhi tebondmeni nVir
    ginia,accor dingt oLodge, "waslitt
    lebett
    erthanthatof
    slaves.Loosei ndenturesandhar shlawsputt hem att hemer cyoft hei
    rmast er
    s."I
    twouldnot
    beunf ai
    rt oaddt hatsuchwast heirl
    otinal lothercol onies.Theirfatedependedupont he
    temperoft hei
    rmast ers.

    Cruelaswast hesystem i
    nmanyway s,i
    tgavet housandsofpeopl eintheOldWor ldachance
    toreachtheNew—anoppor tunit
    yt owrestl
    ewithf ateforfreedom andahomeoft heirown.
    Whent heirwearyy earsofservi
    tudewer eover,iftheysurvived,t
    heymi ghtobtai
    nl andoft hei
    r
    ownorset tleasfreemechani csint het
    owns.Formanyabondmant hegambl eprov edtobea
    l
    osingv enturebecausehef oundhi mselfunabl
    et or i
    seoutoft hestateofpovertyand
    dependencei ntowhichhisser vi
    tudecarri
    edhim.Fort housands,onthecontrary,bondage
    provedtobear ealavenuetof r
    eedom andpr osper i
    ty.Someoft hebestciti
    zensofAmer ica
    havethebl oodofindenturedserv antsi
    ntheirveins.

    TheTranspor
    ted—I
    nvol
    unt
    arySer
    vit
    ude.—Intheiranxiet
    ytosecur
    esett
    lers,
    thecompaniesand
    propr
    iet
    orshavi
    ngcol
    oni
    esinAmericaei
    therresortedtoorconni
    vedatthepract
    iceof
    ki
    dnappingmen, women,andchil
    drenfrom t
    hestreet
    sofEngli
    shcit
    ies.I
    n1680itwasoff
    ici
    all
    y
    esti
    matedthat"t
    enthousandpersonswerespiri
    tedaway"toAmeri
    ca.Manyofthevict
    imsofthe
    pract
    icewereyoungchil
    dren,
    forthetr
    affi
    cinthem washighl
    yprof
    it
    able.Or
    phansand
    dependent
    swer esometi
    mesdi sposed
    ofinAmericabyrel
    ati
    vesunwil
    l
    ingt
    osupportt
    hem.I
    nasi
    ngl
    eyear
    ,1627,
    aboutf
    if
    teen
    hundredchil
    drenwer
    eshippedtoVi
    rgi
    nia.

    Inthi
    sgr uesomebusi nesst herelurkedmanytragedies,andv er
    yf ewromances.Parent
    swer e
    separatedfrom thei
    rchildrenandhusbandsf rom theirwives.Hundredsofskil
    l
    ed
    art
    isans—car penter
    s,smi t
    hs, andweav er
    s—utter
    lydisappearedasi fswal
    lowedupbydeat h.A
    fewthusdr aggedof ftotheNewWor ldtobesoldintoservit
    udef orater
    m offi
    veorsev en
    yearslaterbecamepr osper ousandr etur
    nedhomewi thfort
    unes.Inonecaseay oungmanwho
    wasf orcibl
    ycarri
    edov ertheseal iv
    edt omakehiswaybackt oEnglandandestabl
    ishhiscl
    aim
    toapeer age.

    Akint otheki dnapped, atl easti neconomi cposition,wereconv i


    ctsdepor tedtot hecoloniesfor
    l
    ifei nl i
    euoff i
    nesandi mpr isonment .TheAmer icansprotestedv igorouslybuti neffect
    ually
    agai nstt hispractice.Indeed, t
    heyexagger ateditsevils,f
    ormanyoft he" cri
    minal s"wereonly
    mildof fender sagainstundul yhar shandcr uell
    aws.Apeasantcaughtshoot i
    ngar abbitona
    l
    or d'sest at eoral ucklessser vantgi r
    lwhopur l
    oinedapockethandker chiefwasbr andedasa
    cri
    mi nal alongwi t
    hst ur dyt hiev esandincorrigi
    blerascals.Ot hertranspor t
    edof fenderswer e
    "politicalcr i
    minals";thati s, personswhocr i
    ti
    cizedoropposedt hegov ernment .Thi scl
    ass
    i
    ncl udednowI r
    ishwhor ev olt
    edagai nstBriti
    shruleinI r
    eland; nowCav al
    ierswhochampi oned
    theki ngagai nstthePur itanr ev ol
    uti
    onist
    s;Pur i
    tans,inturn,dispatchedaf t
    erthemonar chywas
    restor ed; andScot chandEngl ishsubjectsingener alwhoj oinedinpol iti
    caluprisingsagainst
    theki ng.

    TheAf ri
    canSl aves. —Rivali
    nginnumber s,inthecour seoft i
    me, t
    hei ndenturedservant
    sand
    whitescar riedtoAmer i
    caagainsttheirwill
    wer etheAf r
    icannegr oesbr oughttoAmer i
    caand
    soldint oslavery.Whent hisfor
    m ofbondagewasf ir
    sti ntroducedint oVirgi
    niain1619,itwas
    l
    ookeduponasat empor ar
    ynecessitytobedi scardedwi ththeincreaseoft hewhite
    popul ati
    on.Mor eov eri
    tdoesnotappeart hatthosepl anterswhof i
    rstboughtnegr oesatthe
    auctionbl ockint endedt oestabl
    ishasy stem ofper manentbondage.Onl ybyasl owprocess
    didchat telslaveryt akefirmrootandbecomer ecognizedast heleadingsour ceofthelabor
    supply .In1650, thirtyyearsaft
    ertheintroducti
    onofsl avery,ther
    ewer eonlythreehundred
    Afri
    cansi nVirginia.

    Thegr eatincreaseinlateryear
    swasduei nnosmal lmeasuretotheinor
    dinatezealforprofi
    ts
    thatsei zedslav etr
    adersbot hi
    nOldandi nNewEngland.Findi
    ngitrel
    ati
    velyeasytosecure
    negr oesi nAfrica,t
    heycr owdedtheSouther
    nport
    swi ththei
    rvessel
    s.TheEngl i
    shRoy al
    AfricanCompanysentt oAmericaannual
    lybet
    ween1713and1743f r
    om fi
    vet otenthousand
    slaves.Theshi powner sofNewEngl andwerenotfarbehindthei
    rEngli
    shbr et
    hreninpushing
    thisext raordi
    nar yt
    raf
    fic.

    Ast hepr opor t


    ionoft henegr oest othef r
    eewhi t
    epopul ati
    onst eadil
    yr ose,andaswhol esect i
    ons
    wereov er r
    unwi t
    hsl avesandsl avetrader s,theSout herncoloniesgrewal armed.I n1710, Vir
    gini
    a
    soughtt ocur tailtheimpor tationbypl acingadut yof£5oneachsl ave.Thisef fortwasf util
    e,f
    orthe
    royal gov ernorpr ompt l
    yv etoedi t
    .From t imet ot i
    mesi milarbill
    swer epassed, onlyt omeetwi t
    h
    royal di
    sappr oval.SouthCar olina,in1760, absolutelyprohibit
    edimpor tati
    on; butt hemeasur ewas
    kil
    l
    edbyt heBr iti
    shcr own.Asl ateas1772, Vir
    ginia,notdaunt edbyacent ur
    yofr ebuf f
    s, sentto
    Geor geI IIapet it
    ionint hisv ein:"Thei mpor tati
    onofsl avesi ntothecoloniesf rom t hecoastof
    Afri
    cahat hlongbeenconsi der edasat radeofgr eatinhumani tyandunderi tspr esent
    encour agement ,wehav et oomuchr easont of ear,wil
    lendangert hev eryexistenceofYour
    Maj esty'
    sAmer icandomi nions. ..
    .Deepl yimpr essedwi ththesesent i
    ment s,we
    mosthumbl ybeseechYourMaj estytor emov eallthoserest r
    aintsonYourMaj esty'sgov ernors
    ofthiscol onywhi chi nhibittheirassent ingt osuchl awsasmi ghtchecksov eryper nici
    ousa
    commer ce."
    Allsuchprotestswerewithoutavai
    l.Thenegropopulati
    ongrewbyl eapsandbounds,unti
    lonthe
    eveoftheRev olut
    ionitamountedtomor et
    hanhalfami l
    li
    on.I
    nfivest at
    es—Mary
    land,Vir
    gini
    a,
    thetwoCar oli
    nas,andGeorgia—theslavesnear
    lyequall
    edoractuall
    yexceededthewhitesin
    number .I
    nSout hCaroli
    natheyformedal mostt
    wo-thir
    dsofthepopul ati
    on.Ev
    enintheMiddle
    coloni
    esofDel awareand
    Pennsylv
    aniaaboutone-
    fif
    thoftheinhabi
    tantswerefrom Af
    ri
    ca.Tot
    heNorth,t
    hepr opor
    tion
    ofslav
    essteadil
    ydimini
    shedalt
    houghchat tel
    servi
    tudewasonthesamelegalfoot
    ingasi n
    theSouth.I
    nNewYor kapproxi
    mat el
    yonei nsixandinNewEnglandonei
    nfift
    ywerenegr oes,
    i
    ncludi
    ngaf ewfreedmen.

    Thecl i
    mat e,thesoi l
    , t
    hecommer ce, andt heindustr
    yoft heNor thwer eallunfavor
    abletot he
    growt hofaser vi
    l
    epopul ati
    on.Stil
    l,slavery,t
    houghsect ional,wasapar tofthenat i
    onalsystem
    ofeconomy .Nor thernshi pscarr
    iedsl avest otheSout herncol oniesandt heproduceoft he
    plantati
    onst oEur ope."IftheNort hernst ateswil
    lconsul ttheirinterest
    ,theywill
    notopposet he
    i
    ncr easeinslav eswhi chwi ll
    incr
    easet hecommodi t
    iesofwhi cht heywi l
    lbecomet hecar r
    ier
    s,"
    saidJohnRut ledge, ofSouthCar oli
    na, i
    nt heconventionwhi chf r
    amedt heConst it
    uti
    onoft he
    UnitedStates." Whatenr ichesapar tenr ichesthewhol eandt hest atesarethebestjudgesof
    theirpart
    icularinterest,
    "respondedOl iverEll
    sworth,thedi sti
    nguishedspokesmanof
    Connect i
    cut.

    Ref
    erences

    E.Char ming, Hi
    stor
    yoftheUni t
    edSt ates,Vols.IandI I
    .
    J.A.Doy l
    e, TheEngli
    shCol oni
    esinAmer i
    ca( 5vols.)
    .
    J.Fiske,OldVi r
    gini
    aandHerNei ghbor s(2v ols.
    ).
    A.B.Faust ,TheGermanEl ementint heUnitedSt ates(2vol
    s.)
    .
    H.J.Ford, TheScotch-I
    ri
    shi nAmerica.
    L.Ty l
    er,EnglandinAmer i
    ca( Ameri
    canNat i
    onSer ies)
    .
    R.Usher ,ThePilgri
    msandThei rHist or
    y.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Amer
    icahasbeencal
    l
    edanat
    ionofi
    mmi
    grant
    s.Expl
    ainwhy
    .

    2.Whywerei
    ndi
    vidual
    sunabletogoalonetoAmer i
    cainthebegi
    nni
    ng?What
    agenci
    esmadecoloni
    zat
    ionpossi
    ble?Discusseachofthem.

    3.
    Makeat
    abl
    eoft
    hecol
    oni
    es,
    showi
    ngt
    hemet
    hodsempl
    oyedi
    nthei
    rset
    tl
    ement
    .

    4.
    Whywer
    ecapi
    tal
    andl
    eader
    shi
    psov
    eryi
    mpor
    tanti
    near
    lycol
    oni
    zat
    ion?

    5.
    Whati
    smeantbyt
    he"
    mel
    ti
    ngpot
    "?Whatnat
    ional
    i
    tieswer
    erepr
    esent
    edamongt
    heear
    ly
    col
    oni
    sts?

    6.
    Compar
    ethewayi
    mmi
    grant
    scomet
    o-daywi
    tht
    hewayt
    heycamei
    ncol
    oni
    alt
    imes.

    7.
    Cont
    rasti
    ndent
    uredser
    vit
    udewi
    thsl
    aver
    yandser
    fdom.

    8.
    Accountf
    ort
    heanxi
    etyofcompani
    esandpr
    opr
    iet
    orst
    osecur
    ecol
    oni
    sts.

    9.
    Whatf
    orcesf
    avor
    edt
    heheav
    yimpor
    tat
    ionofsl
    aves?

    10.
    Inwhatwaydi
    dtheNor
    thder
    iveadv
    ant
    agesf
    rom sl
    aver
    y?

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    TheChart
    eredCompany.—Compar
    ethefi
    rstandthir
    dchar t
    ersofVir
    gini
    ainMacdonal
    d,
    Documentar
    ySourceBookofAmeri
    canHist
    ory,1606-1898,pp.1-
    14.Anal
    yzet
    hefir
    standsecond
    Massachuset
    tschar
    ter
    sinMacdonal
    d,pp.22-
    84.Speci
    alr
    efer
    ence:
    W.A.
    S.Hewi Engl
    ns, i
    sh
    Tr
    adingCompanies.
    Congregati
    onsandCompact sforSelf
    -government.
    —Ast udyoft heMayf
    lowerCompact,t
    he
    FundamentalOrder
    sofConnect i
    cutandtheFundament alArti
    clesofNewHav enin
    Macdonald,pp.19,
    36,39.Reference:
    Char l
    esBorgeaud,RiseofModernDemocr acy,
    andC.S.
    Lobi
    ngierThePeopl
    , e'
    sLaw, Chaps.I-
    VII.

    ThePropri
    etar
    ySystem.
    —Anal
    ysisofPenn'
    schar
    terof1681,i
    nMacdonal
    d,p.80.Ref
    erence:
    Lodge,Shor
    tHist
    oryoft
    heEngl
    ishColoni
    esinAmeri
    ca,p.211.

    StudiesofIndi
    vi
    dualCol
    oni
    es.
    —Revi
    ewofout st
    andingevent
    sinhist
    oryofeachcol
    ony
    ,
    usingElson,Hi
    stor
    yoftheUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.55-159,ast
    hebasis.

    Biographi
    cal St
    udies.
    —JohnSmith,JohnWi
    nthr
    op,Wil
    l
    iam Penn,LordBalt
    imore,
    Wil
    li
    am Br
    adf
    ord,
    RogerWi ll
    i
    ams, AnneHutchi
    nson,ThomasHooker
    ,andPeterStuyvesant
    ,usi
    nganygood
    encyclopedia.

    I
    ndentur
    edSer vi
    tude.
    —InVirgini
    a,Lodge,ShortHi
    story,
    pp.69-72;inPennsy
    lvani
    a,pp.242-
    244.ContemporaryaccountinCall
    ender,EconomicHistoryoftheUnit
    edStates,
    pp.44-51.
    Speci
    alrefer
    ence:KarlGei
    ser,RedemptionersandIndenturedServ
    ants(Yal
    eRev i
    ew,X,No.2
    Suppl
    ement )
    .

    Sl
    avery.
    —InVirgi
    nia, Shor
    Lodge, tHi
    stor
    y,pp.67-
    69;
    int
    heNor
    ther
    ncol
    oni
    es,
    pp.241,
    275,
    322,408,442.

    ThePeopleoftheCol
    onies.
    —Virgi
    nia, Shor
    Lodge, tHi
    story,
    pp.67-73;
    NewEngland,
    pp.406-
    409,
    441-
    450;Pennsyl
    vani
    a,pp.227-
    229, 240-
    250;NewYork,pp.312-
    313,322-
    335.

    CHAPTERI
    I
    COLONI
    ALAGRI
    CULTURE,
    INDUSTRY,
    ANDCOMMERCE

    TheLandandt
    heWest
    war
    dMov
    ement

    TheSi gnifi
    canceofLandTenur e.—Thewayi nwhi chl andmaybeacqui r
    ed, hel
    d, div
    idedamong
    heir
    s,andboughtandsol dexer cisesadeepi nfluenceont hel i
    feandcul tureofapeopl e.The
    feudalandar ist ocrati
    csoci etiesofEur opewer efoundedonasy stem oflandl ordism whi ch
    waschar acterizedbyt wodi stinctf eatures.Int hef i
    rstpl ace, t
    hel andwasnear l
    yal lheldin
    greatestates, eachownedbyasi ngl epropr i
    etor.Int hesecondpl ace,everyest atewaskept
    i
    ntactundert hel awofpr i
    mogeni ture,whichatt hedeat hofal or dtransferredal lhislanded
    propertytohi sel destson.Thi spr ev entedt hesubdi vi
    sionofest atesandt hegr owt hofal arge
    bodyofsmal lf ar mersorfreehol der sowni ngt heirownl and.I tmadeaf orm oft enant ryor
    servi
    tudei nev itabl eforthemassoft hosewhol aboredont hel and.Italsoenabl edt he
    l
    andlordst omai ntai
    nthemsel v esi npowerasagov erningcl assandkeptt hetenant sand
    l
    aborer ssubj ectt otheireconomi candpol iti
    cal control.Iflandt enurewassosi gni f
    icantin
    Europe, i
    twasequal lyimpor tanti nt hedev elopmentofAmer ica, wher epract i
    callyallthef i
    rst
    i
    mmi gr antswer ef or
    cedbyci rcumst ancest oder i
    v etheirlivelihoodf r
    om t hesoi l
    .
    Exper
    iment
    sinCommonTi l
    l
    age.
    —Int
    heNewWor l
    d,wit
    hit
    sbroadext
    entofl
    andawait
    ingthe
    whit
    eman'splow,i
    twasi
    mpossi
    blet
    oint
    roducei
    nit
    senti
    ret
    yandovert
    hewholear
    eat he
    syst
    em ofl
    ordsand
    tenantsthatexistedacr ossthesea.Soi thappenedthatalmostev erykindofexperimentin
    l
    andt enure,from communi sm tofeudali
    sm,wast ri
    ed.Intheearlydaysoft heJamestown
    colony,t
    hel and,thoughownedbyt heLondonCompany ,wast i
    l
    ledincommonbyt hesett
    ler
    s.
    Nomanhadasepar at
    epl otofhisown.Themot toofthecommuni t ywas:"Laborandshare
    ali
    ke."Al
    l wer esupposedt owor kinthefiel
    dsandr eceiv
    eanequal shareoftheproduce.At
    Plymouth, t
    hePi l
    gr i
    msat temptedasi mil
    arexperiment,l
    ayingoutthef i
    eldsincommonand
    distr
    ibut
    ingt hejointproduceoft hei
    rlaborwit
    hr oughequalit
    yamongt hewor ker
    s.

    Inbothcol oniest hecommuni sticexper iment swer efailures.Angr yatt hel azymeni n
    Jamest ownwhoi dledthei
    rt imeawayandy etexpect edr egul armeal s,Capt ai
    nJohnSmi t
    h
    i
    ssuedamani fest o:"
    Everyonet hatgat herethnotev erydayasmuchasIdo, t
    henextdayshal l
    besetbey ondt her i
    verandf oreverbani shedf rom thef ortandl i
    vether eorst ar v
    e."Event his
    terr
    ibl
    et hreatdidnotbr ingachangei npr oduction.Notunt i
    l eachmanwasgi v enapl otofhi s
    ownt otill
    ,notunt i
    leachgat heredt hefruitsofhi sownl abor, didthecol onypr osper .I
    n
    Plymout h,wher et hecommunal experimentl astedf orfivey ears,ther esultswer esi milarto
    thoseinVi rgi
    nia, andthesy stem wasgi venupf oroneofsepar atefieldsi nwhi chev eryper son
    could"setcor nf orhisownpar ti
    cular .
    "Someot herNewEngl andt owns, refusingt oprof itbythe
    experi
    enceoft hei rPl
    ymout hnei ghbor ,al
    somadeexcur sionsi ntocommonowner shipand
    l
    abor ,
    onl ytoabandont heideaandgoi nforindividual owner shipoft hel and." Bydegr eesi t
    wasseent hatev ent heLord'speopl ecouldnotcar r
    yt hecompl i
    catedcommuni stlegi
    sl ati
    on
    i
    ntoper fectandwhol esomepr actice."

    Feudal El ement si ntheCol onies—Qui tRent s, Manor s, andPl ant ations. —Att heot herendoft he
    scal ewer et hef eudal element sofl andt enur efoundi nt hepr oprietar ycol onies, i
    nt heseaboar d
    regi onsof
    theSout h, andt osomeext entinNewYor k.Thepr opr
    ietorwasi nf actapower ful f
    eudal l
    ord,
    owni ngl and
    grant edt ohi m byr oyal charter.Hecoul dr etainanypar tofitf orhi sper sonal useordi sposeof
    i
    tal l in
    l
    ar georsmal ll
    ots.Whi lehegener al l
    ykeptf orhimsel fanest ateofbar onial proportions, i
    twas
    i
    mpossi ble
    forhi mt omanagedi r
    ect l
    yanyconsi der ablepar toft hel andi nhi sdomi nion.Consequent lyhe
    eithersol d
    i
    tinpar cel sf orlumpsumsorgr antedi tt oindiv i
    dualsoncondi t
    iont hatt heymaket ohi m an
    annual
    pay menti nmoney ,knownas" qui trent."InMar y l
    and, thepr opr i
    et orsomet i
    mescol lectedas
    highas
    £9000( equal t
    oabout$500, 000t o-day)i nasi ngl eyearf r
    om t hissour ce.I nPennsy lvania,the
    qui tr ent s
    broughtahandsomeannual tr
    ibutei ntot heexchequeroft hePennf ami ly.Inther oy alprov i
    nces,
    theki ng
    ofEngl andcl aimedal l revenuescol lectedi nthisf ormf rom thel and, asum amount ingt o
    £19, 000att he
    ti
    meoft heRev oluti
    on.Thequi trent ,
    —"real l
    yaf eudal pay mentf r om f reehol ders,"—wast husa
    mat er i
    al
    sour ceofi ncomef orthecr ownaswel lasf ort hepr opr i
    etors.Wher everi twasl aid,howev er,
    it
    prov edt o
    beabur den, asour ceofconst anti rrit
    ation; andi tbecameaf ormi dabl ei tem int helongl istof
    griev ances
    whi chl edt otheAmer icanRev olut i
    on.

    Somethi
    ngsti
    llmor
    elikethefeudal
    system oft
    heOldWorl
    dappear edint
    henumer ousmanor
    s
    ort
    hehugelandedestat
    esgrantedbythecrown,t
    hecompanies,orthepr
    opri
    etors.I
    nthe
    col
    onyofMaryl
    andalonether
    ewer esi
    xtymanorsofthr
    eethousandacreseach,ownedby
    wealthymenandt i
    l
    ledbyt enantsholdi
    ngsmal lplotsundercer tainrestr
    ictionsoft enure.In
    NewYor kal sotherewer emanymanor sofwi deext ent
    ,mostofwhi chor iginatedintheday sof
    theDutchWestI ndiaCompany ,
    whenext ensiveconcessionswer emadet opat roonst oinduce
    them tobringov erset
    tlers.TheVanRenssel aer,t
    heVanCor tl
    andt ,andtheLi v
    ingstonmanor s
    weresol argeandpopul ousthateachwasent itl
    edt osendar epr esentat
    iv etot heprovinci
    al
    l
    egislat
    ure.Thet enantsont heNewYor kmanor swer einsomewhatt hesameposi tionasser fs
    onoldEur opeanest at
    es.Theywer eboundtopayt heownerar entinmoneyandki nd; they
    groundtheirgrainathismi ll
    ;andtheywer esubjectt ohi
    sjudicialpowerbecausehehel dcourt
    andmet edoutj usti
    ce,insomei nstancesextendingt ocapit
    al punishment .

    Themanor sofNewYor korMaryl


    andwere,however,ofsl
    i
    ghtconsequenceascompar edwi
    th
    thevastpl
    antati
    onsoftheSout
    hernseaboard—hugeestat
    es,farwideri
    nexpansethanmanya
    Europeanbaronyandti
    ll
    edbyslav
    esmor eservi
    lethananyfeudalt
    enants.I
    tmustnotbe
    for
    gottent
    hatthissyst
    em ofl
    and
    tenur
    ebecamet
    hedomi nantfeat
    ureofal
    argesect
    ionandgav
    eadeci
    dedbentt
    othe
    economi
    candpoli
    ti
    cal
    li
    f eofAmer i
    ca.

    Sout
    her
    nPl
    ant
    ati
    onMansi
    on
    TheSmal l Freehol d.—Int heupl andr egionsoft heSout h, howev er,andt hr
    oughoutmostoft he
    Nor th,thedr iftwasagai nstal lformsofser vitudeandt enant r
    yandi nthedirecti
    onoft he
    freehol d;thati s,thesmal l f
    arm ownedout r
    ightandt i
    ll
    edbyt hepossessorandhi sfami l
    y.This
    wasf av or
    edbynat uralcircumst ancesandt hespi ritofthei mmi grants.Foronet hing, the
    abundanceofl andandt hescar cityoflabormadei timpossi blefort hecompani es, the
    propr i
    et ors, ort hecr ownt odev elopov erthewhol econt inentanet wor kofv astestat es.In
    manysect ions, par ti
    cularlyinNewEngl and, thecl i
    mat e,thest onysoi l
    ,thehill
    s,andt henarrow
    valleysconspi redt okeept hef armswi thinamoder atecompass.Foranot herthing,theEngl ish,
    Scot ch-Iri
    sh, andGer manpeasant s,
    eveni ftheyhadbeent enantsi ntheOldWor ld,didnot
    proposet oacceptper manentdependencyofanyki ndint heNew.I ftheycouldnotget
    freehol ds, theywoul dnotset tleatal l
    ;thust heyf orcedpr oprietorsandcompani est obi dfor
    theirent erpr isebysel li
    ngl andi nsmal llots.Soi thappenedt hatt hef r
    eeholdofmodest
    propor tionsbecamet hecher isheduni tofAmer i
    canf armer s.Thepeopl ewhot il
    ledt hef arms
    wer edr awnf rom ev eryquar terofwest ernEur ope; butthef reeholdsy stem gaveauni f
    orm cast
    tothei reconomi candsoci alli
    fei nAmer i
    ca.

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    ANewEngl
    andFar
    mhouse
    SocialEff
    ectsofLandTenur e.
    —Landt enureandt heprocessofwester
    nsettl
    ementthus
    developedtwodisti
    ncttypesofpeopleengagedi nthesamepur sui
    t—agri
    cult
    ure.Theyhada
    commont i
    einthattheybothcult
    ivat
    edt hesoilandpossessedthelocali
    nter
    estand
    i
    ndependencewhi charisefr
    om thatoccupation.Theirmethodsandthei
    rcult
    ure,however
    ,
    di
    fferedwidely
    .

    TheSout hernplant
    er, onhisbroadacr estil
    l
    edbysl aves,r
    esembl edtheEngl i
    shlandl ordonhis
    estatesmor et hanhedi dthecol onialf
    armerwhol aboredwi t
    hhi sownhandsi nt hef iel
    dsand
    forests.Hesol dhisriceandt obaccoi nlar
    geamount sdi
    rectl
    yt oEngli
    shfactors,whot ookhis
    entir
    ecr opinexchangef orgoodsandcash.Hi sfi
    necl ot
    hes,silver
    ware,china,andcut l
    eryhe
    boughti nEnglishmar kets.Lovingt heri
    peoldcultureofthemot hercountry,heof t
    ensenthi s
    sonst oOxf ordorCambr i
    dgef ortheireducati
    on.I
    nshor t,hedependedv erylargelyforhis
    prosper i
    tyandhi senjoymentofl ifeuponcloserelati
    onswi t
    ht heOldWor l
    d.Hedi dnotev en
    needmar kettownsi nwhi chtobuynat i
    vegoods,fortheywer emadeonhi sownpl antati
    onby
    hisownar ti
    sanswhower eusuallygift
    edslaves.

    Theeconomi ccondi t
    ionoft hesmallfarmerwast ot allydiff
    erent.Hi scropswer enotbig
    enought owar rantdirectconnecti
    onwi thEngl i
    shf act orsortheper sonalmaintenanceofa
    corpsofar t
    isans.Heneededl ocalmar kets,andtheyspr angupt omeett heneed.Smi ths,
    hatters,weav ers,wagon- makers,andpot tersatnei ghbor ingtownssuppl i
    edhim wi t
    hther ough
    product soft heirnati
    veski l
    l
    .Thef i
    nergoods, boughtbyt her i
    chpl anterinEngl
    and, thesmal l
    farmeror dinaril
    ycoul dnotbuy .Hi
    swant swer erest r
    ictedt ostaplesl i
    keteaandsugar ,and
    betweenhi m andt heEur opeanmar ketstoodt hemer chant .Hiscommuni t
    ywast herefore
    mor esel f
    -suffi
    cientthant heseaboardl i
    neofgr eatpl ant ati
    ons.Itwasmor eisolated,mor e
    provincial
    ,mor eindependent ,
    mor eAmer ican.Thepl anterfacedt heOl dEast.Thef armer
    facedt heNewWest .

    TheWest wardMov ement .—Yeomanandpl ant ernev ert


    helesswer eal i
    kei noner espect.Thei r
    l
    andhungerwasnev erappeased.Eachhadt heey eofanexper tf
    ornewandf erti
    lesoil;andso,
    northandsout h, assoonasaf ootholdwassecur edont heAt lanti
    ccoast ,t
    hecur r
    entof
    migrat i
    onsetinwest ward,creepingt hroughf orests,acrossr i
    vers,andov ermount ains.Many
    ofthel ateri
    mmi grants,i
    nt heirsearchf orcheapl ands,wer ecompel ledt ogot othebor der; but
    i
    nal ar gepartthepat hbreaker stotheWestwer enat i
    veAmer i
    cansoft hesecondandt hi
    rd
    gener ati
    ons.Expl orers,f
    iredbycur iosityandt hel ureofthemy ster
    iousunknown, andhunt er s,
    furtraders,andsquat ter
    s, f
    ollowingt heirownsweetwi ll
    s,blazedthet rail,
    openi ngpat hsand
    sendingbackst oriesoft henewr egionst heyt r
    av ersed.Thencamet her egularset t
    lerswith
    l
    awf ul ti
    tl
    estothel andstheyhadpur chased,somet imessi nglyandsomet i
    mesi ncompani es.

    InMassachuset ts,
    thewest war dmov ementi srecordedi nt hefoundi ngofSpr i
    ngfieldi n1636
    andGr eatBar ri
    ngtonin1725.Byt heopeni ngoft heei ghteent hcent uryt hepioneer sof
    Connect i
    cuthadpushednor thandwestunt iltheiroutpostt ownsadj oinedt heHudsonVal l
    ey
    sett
    lement s.InNewYor k,thei nlandmov ementwasdi r
    ect edbyt heHudsonRi vert oAl bany,
    andf r
    om t hatoldDut chcent eritr adiat
    edi nev erydirect i
    on, par
    ticularlywest war dt hrought he
    MohawkVal l
    ey.NewJer seywasear lyfi
    ll
    edt oitsborder s,thebegi nningsoft hepr esentci tyof
    NewBr unswickbei ngmadei n1681andt hoseofTr entoni n1685.I nPennsy lvani
    a, asi nNew
    York,thewat erway sdet ermi nedt hemai nl inesofadv ance.Pi oneer s,pushi ngupt hrought he
    val
    leyoft heSchuy lki
    ll,spreadov ert hefertilelandsofBer ksandLancast ercounties, layi
    ngout
    Readingi n1748.Anot hercur rentofmi grationwasdi rectedbyt heSusquehanna, and, in1726,
    thefir
    stf armhousewasbui ltont hebankwher eHar ri
    sbur gwasl aterf ounded.Al ongt he
    southernt i
    erofcount iesat hinlineofset tlement sst r
    et chedwest war dt oPi t
    tsburgh, reaching
    theupperwat ersoftheOhi owhi lethecol onywasst i
    llundert hePennf ami l
    y.

    I
    ntheSoutht
    hewestwardmar chwasequal
    l
    yswi f
    t.Theseaboardwasquickl
    yoccupi
    edbylarge
    pl
    ant
    ersandthei
    rsl
    avesengagedint
    hecult
    ivat
    ionoftobaccoandri
    ce.ThePiedmontPl
    ateau,
    l
    yi
    ngbackf rom t
    hecoastallt
    hewayf r
    om MarylandtoGeorgi
    a,wasfedbytwostreamsof
    migr
    ati
    on,onewestwardfrom theseaandtheothersouthwar
    dfrom t
    heothercol
    onies—Germans
    f
    rom Pennsylv
    aniaandScotch-
    Iri
    shfur
    nishi
    ngthemai nsuppl
    y."
    By1770,t
    ide-
    waterVirgi
    niawas
    f
    ullt
    oov er
    fl
    owingandthe'backcountr
    y'
    oftheBlueRidgeandtheShenandoahwasf ull
    yoccupi
    ed.Ev enthemountai
    nval
    leys.
    ..wer
    e
    cl
    aimedbyst urdypi
    oneers.Bef
    oret heDecl
    arati
    onofI ndependence,t
    heoncomingti
    deof
    home-seeker
    shadreachedthecrestoftheAl
    leghani
    es.
    "

    Di
    str
    ibut
    ionofPopul
    ati
    on,
    1790

    Beyondt hemount ainspi oneer shadal readyv entured,harbi


    nger sofani nvasiont hatwasabout
    tobr eaki nuponKent uckyandTennessee.Asear l
    yas1769t hatmi ghtyNi mrod,Dani elBoone,
    curioust ohuntbuf faloes,ofwhi chhehadhear dwei r
    dreports, passedt hrought heCumber land
    Gapandbr oughtbacknewsofawonder fulcountryawai ti
    ngt hepl ow.Ahi ntwassuf f
    ici
    ent.
    Singly ,
    inpai r
    s, andi ngroups, sett
    lersf oll
    owedt het rai
    lhehadbl azed.Agr eatlandcor poration,
    theTr ansy l
    vaniaCompany ,
    emul atingt hemer chantadv enturersofear l
    iertimes,secur eda
    hugegr antoft erri
    toryandsoughtpr ofitsinquitrentsf r
    om landssol dtof armers.Byt he
    outbr eakoft heRev oluti
    ont herewer esev eralhundr edpeoplei nt heKent uckyregi on.Likethe
    oldercol onists,theydi dnotr eli
    shqui trents,andt heiroppositionwr eckedt heTransy l
    vania
    Company .Theyev encar r
    iedt hei
    rpr otestsintotheCont i
    nental Congr essin1776, forbythat
    ti
    met heywer eour" embr yof ourt
    eent hcol ony."

    I
    ndust
    ri
    alandCommer
    cial
    Dev
    elopment

    Thoughthel aborofthecolonistswasmai nlyspentinfar


    mi ng, t
    herewasast eadygrowthin
    i
    ndustri
    al andcommer ci
    alpursui
    ts.Mostoft hestapl
    eindust r
    iesofto-day,notomitti
    ngiron
    andtext
    iles,havetheirbegi
    nningsincolonialti
    mes.Manuf acturingandtradesoongav er i
    seto
    townswhi chenjoyedani mportanceal
    loutofpr oporti
    ontot heirnumbers.Thegr eatcenter
    sof
    commer ceandf inanceont heseaboardoriginat
    edintheday swhent hekingofEnglandwas
    "l
    ordofthesedomi ni
    ons."
    Domest
    icI
    ndust
    ry:
    Dippi
    ngTal
    l
    owCandl
    es

    Texti
    leManuf actureasaDomest i
    cIndust ry.
    —Col onial women, inadditi
    ont oshari
    ngev er y
    hardshipofpi oneering,oft
    ent heheav yl
    aboroft heopenf i
    eld,dev el
    opedi nthecourseoft i
    me
    anational i
    ndust r
    ywhi chwasal mostexcl usi
    velytheirown.Wool andf l
    axwer erai
    sedin
    abundancei ntheNor t
    handSout h."Everyf ar
    m house, "say sComan, theeconomi chist
    or ian,
    "wasawor kshopwher ethewomenspunandwov et heser ges,kerseys,andlinsey-
    woolsey s
    whichser vedf orthecommonwear ."Byt hecloseoft hesev ent
    eent hcentury,NewEngl and
    manuf acturedclothi nsuffi
    cientquantit
    iest oexpor tittot heSout herncoloniesandt otheWest
    Indi
    es.Ast heindustrydeveloped,mi l
    l
    swer eerectedf ort hemor ediffi
    cultprocessofdy eing,
    weav i
    ng, andf ul
    li
    ng, butcardingandspinni ngcont i
    nuedt obedonei nthehome.TheDut chof
    NewNet her l
    and,theSwedesofDel awar e,andtheScot ch-Iri
    shoft heinteri
    or"werenotone
    whitbehindt heirYankeenei ghbors."

    Theimpor tanceoft hisent erprisetoBr i


    ti
    sheconomi cli
    fecanhar dl
    ybeov eresti
    mat ed.For
    manyacent uryt heEngl ishhadempl oyedtheirfi
    newool enclothast hechiefstapleina
    l
    ucrativ
    ef oreignt r
    ade, andt hegov ernmenthadcomet olookuponi tasanobj ectofspecial
    i
    nterestandpr otect
    ion.Whent hecol onieswer eestabli
    shed,bothmer chantsandst atesmen
    natural
    lyexpect edtomai ntainamonopol yofincreasingvalue;butbeforelongtheAmer i
    cans,
    i
    nsteadofbuy ingclot h,especi allyofthecoarservarieti
    es,weremaki ngittosell
    .Intheplaceof
    customers, herewer eri
    v als.Int heplaceofhelplessr el
    i
    anceuponEngl i
    shmar kets,herewas
    thegerm ofeconomi cindependence.

    IfBri
    ti
    shmer chantshadnotdi scov er
    edi ti
    ntheor di
    narycour seoft rade, observ
    antoff i
    cersin
    theprovinceswoul dhav econv ey edthenewst othem.Ev enintheear lyyearsofthe
    eight
    eent hcenturyther oyalgov ernorofNewYor kwrot eofthei ndustriousAmer icanstohi s
    homegov ernment :"
    Theconsequencewi ll
    bethatiftheycancl ot hethemsel vesonce, notonly
    comfortably,buthandsomel ytoo, withoutthehelpofEngl and,theywhoal r
    eadyar enotv er
    y
    fondofsubmi tt
    ingtogov ernmentwi llsoonthinkofput t
    inginexecut iondesi gnstheyhav e
    l
    onghar bour edintheirbreasts.Thi swi l
    lnotseem strangewheny ouconsi derwhatsor tof
    peoplethiscount r
    yisi nhabit
    edby ."

    TheIronI
    ndustry.
    —Al
    mostequallywidespreadwast heartofir
    onwor king—oneoftheearli
    estand
    mostpict
    uresqueofcol
    onial
    industr
    ies.Ly
    nn, Massachusetts,
    hadaf orgeandskil
    l
    edartisans
    wit
    hinfi
    ft
    eeny ear
    saft
    erthefoundi
    ngofBost on.Thesmel t
    ingofironbeganatNewLondonand
    NewHav enabout1658;i
    nLitchf
    iel
    dcounty ,
    Connecticut
    ,afewy earslater
    ;atGr
    eatBarr
    ington,
    Massachusett
    s,i
    n1731;andnearbyatLenoxsomet
    hir
    tyy
    ear
    saf
    tert
    hat
    .NewJer
    seyhadi
    ron
    wor
    ksatShr ewsbur
    ywit
    hin
    teny earsaf t
    erthef oundingoft hecolonyi n1665.I r
    onf orgesappear edinthev all
    eysoft he
    Delawar eandt heSusquehannaear lyi
    nt hefoll
    owi ngcent ury ,andir
    onmast er
    st henlaidthe
    foundat ionsoffortunesinar egiondest inedtobecomeoneoft hegreati
    roncent er
    soft hewor l
    d.
    Virginiabegani r
    onwor ki
    ngint hey earthatsawt hei nt
    roduct i
    onofslaver
    y.Althought heindustr
    y
    soonl apsed, i
    twasr enewedandf l
    ourishedintheei ghteent hcent ur
    y.Gover
    norSpot swoodwas
    calledt he" TubalCai n"oftheOldDomi nionbecausehepl acedt heindust
    ryonaf i
    rmfoundat i
    on.
    Indeedi tseemst hatev erycolony,exceptGeor gia,haditsi ronf oundry
    .Nail
    s,wire,met al
    li
    cware,
    chai ns, anchors,barandpi gironwer emadei nlargequant i
    ties;andGreatBrit
    ain,byanacti n1750,
    encour agedt hecoloniststoexpor troughi r
    ontot heBr i
    tishI slands.

    Shipbuilding.—Ofallt
    hespecializedindustri
    esint hecol onies, shi
    pbuildingwast hemost
    i
    mpor t
    ant .Theabundanceoff irformast s,oakfort i
    mber sandboar ds,pitchf ortarand
    tur
    pent ine,andhempf orropemadet hewayoft heshi pbui ldereasy.Ear lyint hesevent eenth
    centuryashi pwasbuiltatNewAmst er
    dam, andbyt hemi ddleofthatcent uryshipyardswer e
    scatteredal ongtheNewEngl andcoastatNewbur ypor t
    , Salem, NewBedf ord,Newpor t,
    Prov i
    dence, NewLondon, andNewHav en.YardsatAl banyandPoughkeepsi einNewYor kbuil
    t
    shipsfort het r
    adeofthatcolonywi thEnglandandt heIndi es.Wi l
    mingt onandPhi ladelphia
    soonent eredtheraceandout distancedNewYor k,thoughunabl etoequal thepacesetbyNew
    England.Whi l
    eMar yl
    and,Vir
    ginia,andSout hCarol i
    naal sobui ltshi
    ps, Sout herninterestwas
    mai nl
    yconf i
    nedtothelucrat
    ivebusi nessofproduci ngshi pmat eri
    als:fi
    r,cedar ,hemp, andt ar.

    Fishi
    ng. —Thegr eatestsi ngleeconomi cr esour ceofNewEngl andout sideofagr i
    culturewast he
    fi
    sheries.Thi sindust ry,startedbyhar dysai l
    or sfrom Eur ope, longbef or ethelandi ngoft hePilgrims,
    fl
    ourishedundert hei ndomi t
    abl eseamanshi poft hePur i
    tans, whol abor edwi t
    ht henetandt he
    harpooni nal mostev eryquar teroftheAt lantic."Look,"ex claimedEdmundBur ke,int heHouseof
    Commons, "atthemanneri nwhi cht hepeopl eofNewEngl andhav eofl at
    ecar riedont hewhal e
    fi
    shery.Whi l
    stwef oll
    owt hem amongt het umbl ingmount ainsofi ceandbehol dthem penet rati
    ng
    i
    nt othedeepestf rozenr ecessesofHudson' sBayandDav is'sStraits, whilewear elooki ngfort hem
    beneat hthear cticcircle,weheart hattheyhav epi er
    cedi nt otheopposi teregionofpol arcol d,that
    theyareatt heant i
    podesandengagedundert hef rozenser pentoft hesout h..
    ..Nori sthe
    equinoctialheatmor ediscour agi
    ngt othem t hant he
    accumul atedwi nterofbot hpol es.Weknowt hat,whilstsomeoft hem dr awt hel ineandst rike
    thehar poonont hecoastofAf r
    ica,other srunt hel ongi tudeandpur suet hei rgiganticgame
    alongt hecoastofBr azil.Noseabutwhati sv exedbyt heirf i
    sher ies.Nocl i
    mat et hati snot
    witnesst ot heirtoils.Nei thert heper sev eranceofHol landnort heact iv
    ityofFr ancenort he
    dexterousandf ir
    m sagaci tyofEngl i
    shent er pri
    seev ercar riedthismostper i
    lousmodeofhar d
    i
    ndust ryt ot heextentt owhi chithasbeenpushedbyt hi sr ecentpeopl e."

    Theinf l
    uenceoft hebusi nesswaswi despread.Al argeandl ucrativ
    eEur opeantradewasbui ltupon
    i
    t.Thebet terqualityoft hef i
    shcaughtf orfoodwassol di nthemar ket sofSpain,Portugal
    ,andItal
    y,
    orexchangedf orsalt,lemons, andr aisinsfort heAmer icanmar ket
    .Thel owergradesoff i
    shwer e
    carri
    edt otheWestI ndiesf orslaveconsumpt i
    on,andi npar ttr
    adedf orsugarandmol asses,which
    furni
    shedt herawmat eri
    al sfort het hriv
    ingr um i
    ndust r
    yofNewEngl and.Theseact i
    viti
    es,i
    nturn,
    sti
    mul atedshipbui l
    ding,st eadilyenlar gi
    ngt hedemandf orf i
    shingandmer chantcraf
    tofev erykind
    andt huskeepingt heshi pwr i
    ght s,calkers,r
    opemaker s, andotherar tisansoftheseapor ttowns
    rushedwi thwor k.Theyal soi ncreasedt r
    adewi ththemot hercountr yfor,outofthecashcol l
    ected
    i
    nt hef i
    shmar ketsofEur opeandt heWestI ndies,thecol onist
    spai df orEngli
    shmanuf act
    ures.So
    anev er-
    wideningci rcleofAmer icanent erprisecenteredar oundt hi
    ssi ngleindustr
    y,thenurseryof
    seamanshi pandt hemar iti
    mespi rit
    .

    Oceani
    cCommer ceandAmer icanMer chants.—Allthr
    oughtheei
    ght
    eenthcentur
    y,t
    hecommer ce
    oftheAmericancoloniesspreadi neverydir
    ectionuntili
    tri
    val
    edi
    nthenumberofpeople
    employed,t
    hecapitalengaged, andtheprofitsgleaned,t
    hecommerceofEuropeannat
    ions.A
    modernhistor
    ianhassai d:
    "Theent erpri
    si
    ngmer chantsofNewEngl
    anddevelopedanetworkof
    tr
    aderout
    est
    hatcover
    edwell-
    nighhal
    fthewor
    ld.
    "Thi
    scommer
    ce,
    dest
    inedt
    obeofsuch
    si
    gni
    fi
    cancei
    ntheconfl
    ictwi
    ththemother
    count
    ry,
    present
    ed,
    broadl
    yspeaki
    ng,
    twoaspect
    s.

    Ont heonesi de,iti


    nv ol
    vedt heexpor tofrawmat eri
    alsandagr iculturalproduce.TheSout hern
    col
    oni espr oducedf orshipping, t
    obacco, r
    ice, t
    ar, pit
    ch,andpine; theMi ddlecolonies,grai
    n,
    fl
    our ,
    fur s,l
    umber ,andsal tpork;NewEngl and,fish, f
    lour,
    rum, furs, shoes,andsmal larti
    clesof
    manuf acture.Thev ari
    etyofpr oductswasi nfactast ounding.Asar casticwrit
    er,whil
    esneer ing
    atthei deaofanAmer i
    canuni on,onceremar kedofcol onialtr
    ade: "Whatsor tofdishwi llyou
    make?NewEngl andwi llt
    hrowi nf i
    shandoni ons.Themi ddlest at
    es, fl
    ax -
    seedandf lour.
    Mar yl
    andandVi r
    giniawi l
    laddt obacco.Nor thCar ol
    ina,pi
    tch,tar,andt urpenti
    ne.Sout h
    Carolina, r
    iceandi ndigo,andGeor giawi l
    lsprinklet hewhol ecomposi ti
    onwi thsawdust .Such
    anabsur djumbl ewi l
    lyoumakei fyouat t
    emptt of orm aunionamongsuchdi scordant
    mat erial
    sast hethir
    teenBr i
    tishprovinces."

    Ontheotherside,Americancommer ceinvol
    vedtheimporttrade,
    consist
    ingpri
    ncipal
    lyof
    Engl
    ishandcont i
    nent
    al manufactur
    es, t
    ea,and"Indi
    agoods."Sugarandmol asses,br
    ought
    fr
    om theWestI ndi
    es,suppli
    edtheflourishi
    ngdisti
    ll
    eri
    esofMassachusetts,RhodeIsl
    and,and
    Connecti
    cut
    .Thecar r
    iageofslavesf rom Afr
    icatotheSoutherncol
    oniesengagedhundredsof
    NewEngland'ssail
    orsandt housandsofpoundsofhercapi tal.

    Thedi spositi
    onofimpor t
    edgoodsi nthecol oni
    es,thoughi npartcontroll
    edbyEngl i
    shfactors
    l
    ocat edi nAmerica,employedal soal argeandi mpor t
    antbodyofAmer i
    canmer chantsli
    ket he
    Will
    ingsandMor ri
    sesofPhi ladelphia;theAmor ys,Hancocks, andFaneui l
    sofBost on;andthe
    Livi
    ngst onsandLowsofNewYor k.Intheirzealandenterprise,t
    heywer eworthyrival
    soft heir
    Englishcompet it
    ors,socelebratedf orwor ld-
    widecommer cialoperat
    ions.Thoughf ul
    lyawar eof
    theadv antagestheyenjoyedi nBr it
    ishmar ketsandundert hepr otect
    ionoftheBr i
    ti
    shnav y,the
    Amer icanmer chantswerehi gh-spirit
    edandmet tl
    esome, readytocont endwit
    hr oyaloffi
    cersin
    ordert oshiel
    dAmer i
    caninterestsagai nstoutsi
    deinterf
    erence.

    TheDut
    chWestI
    ndi
    aWar
    ehousei
    nNewAmst
    erdam (
    NewYor
    kCi
    ty)

    Measur edagainsttheimmensebusi nessofmoder nt i


    mes, colonialcommer ceseemsper haps
    tr
    ivial.That
    ,howev er,isnott het estofitssignif
    icance.Itmustbeconsi deredinr elati
    ontothe
    growt hofEngl i
    shcol onial
    tradei ni t
    sent i
    rety—ar el
    ationwhi chcanbeshownbyaf ewstart
    li
    ng
    fi
    gur es.Thewhol eex porttradeofEngl and,incl
    udingt hattot hecolonies,was, i
    n1704, £6,
    509,000.
    Ont heev eoft heAmer icanRev oluti
    on,namel y,i
    n1772, Englishexportstot heAmer i
    cancol
    onies
    aloneamount edto£6, 024,000; inotherwor ds,almostasmuchast hewhol eforeignbusinessof
    Engl andtwogener ationsbef ore.Att hefir
    stdate, colonialt
    radewasbutone- twelfthoftheEnglish
    expor tbusi
    ness; attheseconddat e,itwasconsi derablymor et hanone- t
    hird.I
    n1704,
    Pennsy
    lvani
    aboughti
    nEngl
    i
    shmar
    ket
    sgoodst
    othev
    alueof
    £11,
    459; in1772thepurchasesofthesamecolonyamountedto£507,909.Inshor
    t,
    Pennsylvani
    aimportsi
    ncr easedf
    if
    tyti
    meswi t
    hinsi
    xty
    -ei
    ghtyears,
    amount i
    ngin1772to
    al
    mostt heentir
    eexporttradeofEngl
    andtothecoloni
    esattheopeningofthecent
    ury.The
    Americancolonieswereindeedagreatsour
    ceofwealthtoEngli
    shmer chant
    s.

    Intercoloni alCommer ce.—Alt hought hebadr oadsofcol onialti


    mesmadeov er l
    and
    transpor tationdiffi
    cultandcost l
    y, themanyr i
    versandhar borsal ongt hecoastf avor
    edal i
    vely
    wat er-bornet radeamongt hecol oni es.TheConnect i
    cut,Hudson, Delaware, andSusquehanna
    riversint heNor t
    handt hemanysmal l
    erriv
    ersi ntheSout hmadei tpossiblef orgoodst obe
    broughtf rom, andcar riedto,t hei nteriorregionsi nlit
    tlesail
    ingv esselswi thcompar ati
    veease.
    Sloopsl adenwi t
    hmanuf actur es,domest i
    candf oreign,coll
    ectedatsomeci tyli
    kePr ovidence,
    NewYor k, orPhiladelphia,
    ski rtedt hecoast s,vi
    sitedsmal lport
    s, andsai l
    edupt henavigable
    riverstot radewi thlocal mer chant swhohadf orexchanget herawmat er
    ial
    swhi chtheyhad
    gat heredi nf r
    om nei ghboringf arms.Lar gershipscar r
    iedthegr ain,li
    vestock, cl
    oth,and
    har dwar eofNewEngl andtot heSout herncol onies,wher etheywer etradedf ort obacco, l
    eather,
    tar,andshi ptimber .From thehar bor salongt heConnect i
    cutshor estherewer ef r
    equent
    sailingsdownt hroughLongI sl andSoundt oMar yland,Virgini
    a,andt hedi stantCar oli
    nas.

    Gr owthofTowns. —I nconnect ionwi ththi st hriv


    ingt radeandi ndust rytheregr ewupal ongt hecoast
    anumberofpr osper ouscommer cial cent er swhi chwer esoonr eckonedamongt hef i
    rst
    commer cialtownsoft hewhol eBr itishempi re,compar i
    ngf avor ablyinnumber sandweal t
    hwi t
    h
    suchpor tsasLi verpool andBr i
    st ol.Thest atisti
    cal recor dsoft hatt imear emai nlyguesses; butwe
    knowt hatPhi l
    adel phiast oodf i
    rsti nsi zeamongt heset owns.Ser vi
    ngast hepor tofent ryfor
    Pennsy l
    vani a,Del awar e, andwest ernJer sey , i
    thaddr awnwi t
    hini t
    sbor ders,j
    ustbef oret he
    Rev oluti
    on, about25, 000i nhabi tant s.Bost onwassecondi nrank, withsomewhatmor et han20, 000
    peopl e.NewYor k, the" commer cial capi tal ofConnect icutandol dEastJer sey,"wassl ightlysmal l
    er
    thanBost on, butgr owi ngatast eadyr ate.Thef ourtht owni nsi zewasChar l
    est on,Sout hCar oli
    na,
    wi thabout10, 000i nhabi tants.Newpor tinRhodeI sland, acenterofr um manuf actureandshi pping,
    stoodf i
    fth,wi t
    hapopul ationofabout7000.Bal ti
    mor eandNor fol kwer ecount edas" consi derable
    towns. "Int hei nterior,
    Har t
    fordinConnect i
    cut ,Lancast erandYor ki nPennsy l
    v ania,andAl banyi n
    NewYor k,wi thgr owingpopul ationsandi ncr easingt rade, gavepr ophecyofanur banAmer icaaway
    from t heseaboar d.Theot hertownswer est ragglingv ill
    ages.Wi ll
    iamsbur g,Virginia,forex ampl e,
    hadaboutt wohundr edhouses, i
    nwhi chdwel tadozenf ami l
    i
    esoft hegent r
    yandaf ewscor eof
    tradesmen.I nlandcount yseat sof tenconsi st edofnot hingmor et hanal ogcour thouse, apr ison,
    andonewr etchedi nnt ohousej udges, lawy ers,andl iti
    gant sdur ingt hesessionsoft hecour t
    .

    Thel eadingtownsexer ci
    sedani nfluenceoncol oni
    alopini
    onalloutofpr opor
    ti
    ont otheir
    popul at
    ion.Theywer ethecentersofweal t
    h,foronethi
    ng; oft
    hepressandpol it
    icalactivi
    ty,
    foranot her
    .Mer chantsandartisanscoul dreadil
    ytakeconcert
    edact i
    ononpubl i
    cquest i
    ons
    ari
    singf rom thei
    rcommer cialoperations.Thetownswer ealsocentersfornews, gossip,
    rel
    igi
    ouscont rover
    sy,andpoli
    ticaldiscussion.I
    nthemar ketpl
    acesthef armersfrom the
    count ry
    sidelearnedofBr i
    ti
    shpol i
    ciesandl aws,andso,mingli
    ngwitht hetownsmen, wer e
    drawni ntothemai ncurrentsofopinionwhi chsetintowardcoloni
    al nati
    onali
    sm and
    i
    ndependence.

    Ref
    erences

    J.Bi Hi
    shop, st
    oryofAmer
    icanManuf
    act
    ures(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    E.
    L.Bogar
    t,Economi
    cHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    P.
    A.Br Economi
    uce, cHi
    stor
    yofVi
    rgi
    nia(
    2vol
    s.)
    .
    E.Sempl
    e,Amer
    icanHi
    stor
    yandI
    tsGeogr
    aphi
    calCondi
    ti
    ons.
    Economi
    W.Weeden, candSoci
    alHi
    stor
    yofNewEngl
    and.(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    Quest
    ions

    1.I
    slandi
    nyourcommunit
    yparcel
    edouti
    ntosmal
    lfar
    ms?Cont
    rastt
    hesy
    stem i
    nyour
    communit
    ywiththef
    eudal
    syst
    em ofl
    andtenur
    e.

    2.Areanythi
    ngsownedandusedi
    ncommoni
    nyourcommuni
    ty?Whydi
    dcommon
    ti
    l
    lagefai
    li
    ncoloni
    alt
    imes?

    3.
    Descr
    ibet
    heel
    ement
    saki
    ntof
    eudal
    i
    sm whi
    chwer
    eint
    roducedi
    nthecol
    oni
    es.

    4.
    Expl
    aint
    hesuccessoff
    reehol
    dti
    l
    lage.

    5.
    Compar
    ethel
    i
    feoft
    hepl
    ant
    erwi
    tht
    hatoft
    hef
    armer
    .

    6.
    Howf
    arhadt
    hewest
    ernf
    ront
    ieradv
    ancedby1776?

    7.Whatcol
    oni
    ali
    ndust
    rywasmai
    nlydevel
    opedbywomen?Whywasi
    tver
    yimpor
    tant
    botht
    otheAmeri
    cansandtot
    heEngli
    sh?

    8.
    Whatwer
    ethecent
    ersf
    ori
    ronwor
    king?Shi
    pbui
    l
    ding?

    9.
    Expl
    ainhowt
    hef
    isher
    iesaf
    fect
    edmanybr
    anchesoft
    radeandi
    ndust
    ry.

    10.
    ShowhowAmer
    icant
    radef
    ormedav
    ital
    par
    tofEngl
    i
    shbusi
    ness.

    11.
    Howwasi
    nter
    stat
    ecommer
    cemai
    nlycar
    ri
    edon?

    12.
    Whatweret
    hel
    eadi
    ngt
    owns?Di
    dtheycompar
    eini
    mpor
    tancewi
    thBr
    it
    isht
    ownsoft
    hesame
    per
    iod?

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    LandTenur
    e. I
    —Coman,ndust
    ri
    alHist
    ory(r
    ev.ed.
    ),pp.32-
    38.Speci
    alr
    efer
    ence:
    Bruce,
    EconomicHi
    stor
    yofVi
    rgi
    nia,
    Vol.I
    ,Chap.VII
    I.

    TobaccoPl
    ant
    ingi
    nVi
    rgi
    nia.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,Economi
    cHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.22-
    28.

    Col
    oni
    alAgr
    icul
    tur
    e.—Coman,
    pp.48-
    63.Cal
    lender
    ,pp.69-
    74.Ref
    erence:
    J.R.
    H.Moor
    e,
    I
    ndust
    ri
    alHi
    stor
    yoftheAmeri
    canPeopl
    e,pp.131-
    162.

    Coloni
    alManuf
    actures.
    —Coman,pp.63-
    73.Cal
    lender
    ,pp.29-
    44.Speci
    alr
    efer
    ence:
    Weeden,
    EconomicandSocialHi
    stor
    yofNewEngland.

    Coloni
    alCommer
    ce.
    —Coman,pp.73-
    85.Callender
    ,pp.51-
    63,78-84.Moor
    e,pp.163-
    208.Lodge,
    ShortHi
    stor
    yoft
    heEngl
    i
    shColoni
    es,pp.409-412,
    229-231,312-
    314.
    Chapt
    erI
    II
    SOCI
    ALANDPOLI
    TICALPROGRESS

    Colonial li
    fe, crowdedasi twaswi thhar dandunr emi t
    tingt oil,leftscantl eisuref orthe
    culti
    vationoft hear tsandsci ences.Ther ewasl i
    ttlemoneyi npr ivat
    epur sesorpubl ic
    treasuriest obededi cat edt oschool s, l
    ibraries,andmuseums.Fewt her ewer ewi tht imet oread
    l
    ongandwi del y,andf ewerst ill
    whocoul ddev otet heirlivest ot hingst hatdel ightt heey eand
    themi nd.Andy et ,
    poorandmeagerast heintellect ual l
    ifeoft hecol oni stsmayseem bywayof
    compar ison, her oicef fortswer emadei nev erycommuni tytol iftthepeopl eabov ethepl aneof
    mer eexi stence.Af t
    ert hef ir
    stclear i
    ngswer eopenedi nt hef or eststhoseef for tswer e
    redoubl ed, andwi t
    hl engtheni ngy earst oldupont het houghtandspi ritoft hel and.The
    appear ance, dur ingthest r
    uggl ewi thEngl and, ofanext raordi narygr oupofl eader sf ami l
    iarwith
    history,pol i
    tical philosophy ,
    andt hear tsofwar ,gov ernment ,anddi pl omacyi tsel fbor e
    eloquentt estimonyt ot hehighqual i
    tyoft heAmer i
    cani ntell
    ect .Noone, notev ent hemost
    crit
    ical
    , canr unt hrought hewr i
    ti
    ngsofdi sti
    ngui shedAmer i
    cansscat ter edf rom Massachuset ts
    toGeor gi a—t heAdamses, Ell
    swor th,theMor r
    ises, theLi vingst ons, Hami l
    ton, Fr anklin,
    Washi ngt on, Madi son, Mar shall,Henr y,theRandol phs, andt hePi nckney s—wi thoutcomi ngt o
    theconcl usiont hatther ewassomet hingi nAmer icancol oni al l
    ifewhi chf oster edmi ndsof
    dept handpower .Womensur mount edev engr eat erdi ffi
    cultiest hant hemeni nt hepr ocessof
    self-
    educat ion, andt hei rkeeni nterestinpubl i
    ci ssuesi sev identi nmanyar ecor dliket he
    LettersofMr s.JohnAdamst oherhusbanddur ingt heRev olut i
    on; t
    hewr iti
    ngsofMr s.Mer cy
    Ot i
    sWar ren, thesi sterofJamesOt is,whomeasur edherpenwi ththeBr iti
    shpr opagandi sts;
    andt hepat riotnewspaper sfoundedandmanagedbywomen.

    TheLeader
    shi
    poft
    heChur
    ches

    Inthei ntell
    ect ual l
    ifeofAmer i
    ca, t
    hechur chesassumedar ôl
    eofhi ghimpor tance.Ther ewere
    abundantr easonsf orthis.Inmanyoft hecol onies—Mar yl
    and, Pennsy lv
    ania,andNew
    England—t her eli
    gi ousi mpul sehadbeenoneoft heimpelli
    ngmot i
    vesinstimul ati
    ng
    i
    mmi grat i
    on.Inal l thecol onies,thecl ergy,atleastinthebegi nning,formedt heonl ycl asswi t
    h
    anyleisur et odev ot etomat tersoft hespi ri
    t.Theypr eachedonSunday sandt aughtschool on
    weekday s.Theyl edi nthedi scussionofl ocalproblemsandi nt heformat i
    onofpol i
    tical
    opini
    on, somuchofwhi chwasconcer nedwi thther el
    ati
    onbet weenchur chandst ate.They
    wrotebooksandpamphl ets.Theyf ill
    edmostoft hechairsi nthecol l
    eges;undercl erical
    guidance, i
    ntellectual andspi r
    it
    ual,theAmer icansr ecei
    vedt heirformal educat i
    on.Insev eralof
    thepr ov i
    ncest heAngl i
    canChur chwasest abli
    shedbyl aw.I nNewEngl andt hePur it
    answer e
    supreme, not withst andingt heef f
    ortsoft hecr ownt ooverbeart hei
    rauthorit
    y .IntheMi ddl
    e
    colonies, particularly,themul t
    ipli
    cationofsect smadet hedomi nanceofanysi ngl
    e
    denomi nationi mpossi bl
    e; andi nalloft hem therewasagr owingdi ver
    sityoff ait
    h,whi ch
    promi sedi nt i
    measepar ationofchur chandst ateandf r
    eedom ofopi nion.

    TheChur chofEngland.—Vi r
    giniawast hestrongholdoft heEngl ishsy stem ofchur chandst ate.
    TheAngl i
    canfai
    thandwor shipwer eprescri
    bedbyl aw, sustainedbyt axesimposedonal l,and
    favoredbyt hegover nor,
    thepr ovi
    ncialcouncil
    ors,andt herichestpl anters."TheEst abli
    shed
    Chur ch,
    "saysLodge, "
    wasoneoft heappendagesoft heVi rgi
    niaar ist
    ocr acy.Theycont roll
    ed
    thev estri
    esandthemi ni
    sters,andthepar i
    shchurchst oodnoti nfrequent l
    yont heest at
    eoft he
    planterwhobui l
    tandmanagedi t.
    "Asi nEngland,CatholicsandPr otestantDi ssenterswer eat
    fi
    rstlaidunderheav ydisabil
    iti
    es.Onlyslowlyandonsuf ferancewer etheyadmi tt
    edt othe
    prov i
    nce;butwhenoncet heywer eev encovertl
    ytoler
    at ed,theypr essedst eadilyin,unti
    l,byt he
    Rev olut
    ion,t
    heyout number edtheadher ent
    soft heest abli
    shedor der.
    TheChurchwasalsosanct
    ionedbylawandsuppor
    tedbyt
    axesint
    heCaroli
    nasaf
    ter1704,andin
    Georgi
    aaftert
    hatcol
    onypasseddi
    rect
    lyundert
    hecrowni
    n1754—thi
    sinspit
    eoft
    hef actt
    hatthe
    majori
    tyofthe
    i
    nhabitantswer eDissenter
    s.Agai nstthepr otestsoft heCatholi
    csitwasli
    kewiseestabli
    shed
    i
    nMar yland.InNewYor k,t
    oo, notwit
    hst andingther esist
    anceoft heDut
    ch,theEst
    ablished
    Churchwasf oster
    edbyt heprov inci
    alof f
    ici
    als,andt heAnglicans,embr
    aci
    ngaboutone-
    fi
    ft
    eenthoft hepopul at
    ion,exertedani nfl
    uenceal loutofpropor ti
    ontot
    heirnumbers.

    Manyf actorshelpedt oenhancet hepoweroft heEngl ishChurchinthecol onies.Itwas


    suppor tedbyt heBr i
    tishgov ernmentandt heof fi
    cialclasssentoutt othepr ovinces.It
    sbi shops
    andar chbishopsi nEngl andwer eappoi nt
    edbyt heki ng,anditsfai
    thandser vi
    cewer esetf orth
    byact sofPar l
    iament .Hav ingitsseatofpoweri nt heEngl i
    shmonar chy,itcouldholditscl ergy
    andmi ssi
    onariesl oyaltot hecr ownandsocount eractt osomeext enttheindependentspi ri
    t
    thatwasgr owingupi nAmer i
    ca.TheChur ch,alway sast r
    ongbulwarkoft hest ate,t
    herefor e
    hadapol i
    ticalrôletopl ayher easi nEngland.Abl ebishopsandf ar-
    seeingleader sfi
    rmly
    graspedt hisfactaboutt hemi ddl
    eoft heeighteent hcent uryandredoubledt heireff
    ortsto
    augmentt heinfluenceoft heChur chinpr ovi
    ncial aff
    airs.Unhappil
    yf ortheirplanstheyfailedto
    calculateinadv ancet heef f
    ectoft hei
    rmet hodsupondi ssenti
    ngProtestants,whost il
    l
    cherishedmemor iesofbi t
    terreli
    giousconfli
    ctsint hemot hercountr
    y .

    Puri
    tanism i nNewEngl and.—Iftheest ablishedfait
    hmadef orimper i
    alunit
    y,thesamecoul dnot
    besaidofPur i
    tanism.ThePl ymout hPi l
    grimshadcastof fallallegiancetotheAngl i
    canChur ch
    andestabl ishedasepar ateandi ndependentcongr egat ionbef oret heycamet oAmer i
    ca.The
    Puri
    tans, essay ingatfirstt
    het askofr efor mer swit
    hint heChur ch,soonaf t
    ert heirarri
    valin
    Massachuset ts, l
    i
    kewisef l
    ungof ft hei
    ry okeofuni onwi ththeAngl i
    cans.I
    neacht owna
    separatecongr egationwasor gani zed,themal emember schoosi ngt hepastor,thet eachers,
    andtheot herof fi
    cers.Theyalsocomposedt hevotersint hetownmeet i
    ng,wher esecular
    matterswer edet ermined.Theuni onofchur chandgov ernmentwast huscompl ete,and
    unif
    ormi t
    yoff aithandlifeprescribedbyl awandenf orcedbyci vilauthor
    it
    ies;butt hiswor ked
    forl
    ocal aut onomyi nsteadofi mper i
    alunit y
    .

    Thecl ergybecameapower f
    ul class,domi nantt hrought heirlearningandt heirfearful
    denunci ationsoft hef ai
    thl
    ess.Theywr otethebooksf orthepeopl etoread—t hef amousCot ton
    Mat herhav i
    ngt hreehundr edandei ghty-t
    hreebooksandpamphl etstohi scredit.In
    coöper ationwi t
    ht heci vi
    loff
    icerst heyenf orcedast ri
    ctobser v anceoft hePur itanSabbat h—a
    dayofr estt hatbeganatsi xo'clockonSat urdayev eni
    ngandl asteduntil sunsetonSunday .Al l
    work, alltrading,allamusement ,andal lworldlyconv ersationwer eabsol utelyprohibitedduring
    thosehour s.At hought l
    essmai dser vantwhof orsomeear t
    hlyr easonsmi ledinchur chwasi n
    dangerofbei ngbani shedasav agabond.Rober tPike,adev outPur i
    tan,thinkingt hesunhad
    gonet or est ,venturedf ort
    honhor sebackoneSundayev eningandwasl ucklessenought o
    havear ayofl i
    ghtst r
    ikehi mthr oughar i
    ftinthecl ouds.Thenextdayhewasbr oughti ntocour t
    andf i
    nedf or" hi
    sungodl yconduct .
    "Wi thpersonsaccusedofwi tchcraf
    tt hePur it
    answer estill
    mor er uthless.Whenamani aofper secutionsweptov erMassachuset t
    si n1692, ei
    ght een
    peoplewer ehanged, onewaspr essedt odeat h,manysuf feredi mpr i
    sonment ,andt wodi edin
    j
    ail.

    Justaboutt histi
    me, howev er,therecameabr eakintheuniformi tyofPur i
    tanr ule.Thecr own
    andchur chinEngl andhadl ongl ookeduponi twi t
    hdisf
    avor, andi n1684Ki ngChar l
    esI I
    annull
    edt heoldchar teroft heMassachuset tsBayCompany .Anewdocumenti ssuedsev en
    yearslaterwrestedf rom t hePur i
    tansofthecol onytheri
    ghtt oel ecttheirowngov ernorand
    reserv
    edt hepowerofappoi ntmenttot heking.Ital
    soabolishedt heruleli
    mi t
    ingt hesuf fr
    ageto
    churchmember s,subst ituti
    ngf oritasimplepr opert
    yquali
    fication.Thusar oyal governorand
    anof f
    ici
    al f
    ami l
    y,certaint obeEpi scopali
    ani nfait
    handmonar chi stinsympat hies,wer eforced
    uponMassachuset t
    s; andmember sofallreli
    giousdenominat ions, i
    ftheyhadt her equired
    amountofpr operty,wer eper mitt
    edt otakepartinelect
    ions.Byt hisactinthenameoft he
    crown, t
    hePur it
    anmonopol ywasbr okendowni nMassachuset t
    s, andthatprov incewas
    broughti
    ntoli
    newit
    hConnecti
    cut
    ,RhodeIsl
    and,
    andNewHampshi
    re,
    wher
    epr
    oper
    ty,
    not
    rel
    igi
    ousfai
    th,wast
    hetestf
    orthesuf
    frage.

    Gr
    owt
    hofRel
    i
    giousTol
    erat
    ion.
    —Thoughnei
    thert
    heAngl
    i
    cansofVi
    rgi
    nianort
    hePur
    it
    ansof
    Massachuset tsbel ievedint olerati
    onf orot herdenomi nations, t
    hatpr i
    nci plewasst ri
    ctl
    y
    appl i
    edi nRhodeI sl
    and.Ther e,undert hel eadershipofRogerWi l
    li
    ams, libert yinmat tersof
    consci encewasest abli
    shedi nt hebegi nning.Mar yl
    and, bygr anti
    ngi n1649f reedom t othose
    whopr ofessedt obel ieveinJesusChr i
    st ,openedi tsgatest oal lChr ist
    ians; andPennsy lvani
    a,
    truet othet enet soft heFr iends, gavefreedom ofconsci encet ot hose" whoconf essand
    acknowl edget heoneAl might yandEt ernal Godt obet hecr eator,uphol der ,
    andr uleroft he
    Wor l
    d."Byoneci r
    cumst anceoranot her, t
    heMi ddlecolonieswer et husear l
    ychar acteri
    zedby
    div er
    sityrathert hanuni formi tyofopi ni
    on.Dut chPr otestants, Huguenot s, Quaker s,Bapt i
    sts,
    Pr esbyterians, NewLi ghts,Mor av i
    ans,Lut herans, Cat
    hol i
    cs, andot herdenomi nationsbecame
    toost r
    ongl yintrenchedandt oowi delyscat teredt opermi tanyoneoft hem t orule,i
    fithad
    desi r
    edt odoso.Ther ewer ecommuni tiesandi ndeedwhol esect ionswher eoneoranot her
    chur chpr ev ai
    led,buti nnocol onywasal egislaturesteadilycont rolledbyasi nglegr oup.
    Tol erati
    onencour ageddi versity
    , anddiv ersit
    y, i
    nturn,wor kedf orgr eatert olerati
    on.

    Thegov ernmentandf ait


    hofthedi ssenti
    ngdenomi nati
    onsconspi r
    edwi theconomi cand
    poli
    ti
    caltendenci estodrawAmer i
    caawayf rom theEnglishst ate.Presbyterians,Quaker s,
    Baptist
    s,andPur i
    tanshadnohi erarchyofbi shopsandar chbishopst obi ndt hem t otheseatof
    powerinLondon.Nei therdi
    dt heylooktot hatmet ropol
    isf orguidancei ninterpreti
    ngar ti
    clesof
    fai
    th.Local self
    -governmentinmat tersecclesiasti
    calhel
    pedt otrai
    nt hem forl ocal sel
    f-
    governmenti nmat ter
    spol i
    ti
    cal.Thespiri
    tofi ndependencewhi chledDi ssent erstor ev
    oltinthe
    OldWor l
    d, nourishedasitwasami dfavorablecircumstancesi nt heNewWor l
    d,madet hem all
    themor ezeal ousinthedefenseofev er
    yrightagainstaut hori
    tyimposedf rom wi thout.

    School
    sandCol
    l
    eges

    ReligionandLocal School s.—Oneoft hef ir


    stcar esofeachPr otestantdenomi nationwast he
    educat i
    onoft hechil
    dr eni nt hefai
    th.Int hiswor kt heBi bl
    ebecamet hecenterofi nt erest.The
    Engl i
    shv er
    sionwasi ndeedt heonebookoft hepeopl e.Far mer s,shopkeeper s,andar ti
    sans,
    whosel i
    fehadoncebeenboundedbyt hedai l
    yr outineofl abor ,f
    oundi ntheScr ipt uresnotonly
    ani nspir
    ati
    ont orel
    igiousconduct ,butal soabookofr omance, t
    ravel,andhistory ."Legendand
    annal ,
    "saysJohnRi char dGr een,"
    war -songandpsal m, st
    ate-rollandbiography ,themi ghty
    voicesofpr ophets,t
    hepar ablesofEv angel i
    sts,st ori
    esofmi ssionj ourneys,ofper ilsbyseaand
    amongt heheathen, philosophi cargument s,apocal ypticv i
    sions, al
    lwer efl
    ungbr oadcastov er
    mindsunoccupi edfort hemostpar tbyanyr iv
    al learning..
    ..Asamer elit
    erar
    y
    monument ,theEnglishv ersionoftheBi bleremai nst henobl estexampl eoftheEngl ishtongue."
    Itwast heKingJamesv ersionjustfrom t hepr esst hatt hePilgrimsbr oughtacr osst heseawi th
    them.
    APagef
    rom aFamousSchool
    book
    Fortheaut hori
    tyoftheEstablishedChur chwassubst itutedtheauthorit
    yoft heScri
    ptures.
    ThePur it
    ansdev isedacatechism basedupont heirinterpretati
    onoftheBi bl
    e,and,verysoon
    aftert
    heirarri
    valinAmer i
    ca,theyor deredallpar
    ent sandmast er
    sofser v
    antst obedili
    gentin
    seeingthattheirchil
    drenandwar dswer etaughttor eadr el
    igiousworksandgi veanswer sto
    thereli
    giousquest i
    ons.Massachuset tswasscar celyt went yyearsol
    dbef oreeducationofthis
    characterwasdecl aredtobecompul sory,andprovisionwasmadef orpubl i
    cschoolswhere
    thosenott aughtathomecoul dr eceiveinstr
    ucti
    oni nr eadingandwr i
    ting.

    OutsideofNewEngl andt heideaofcompul soryeducationwasnotr egardedwi t


    hthesame
    favor;butthewhol elandwasnev erthelessdot t
    edwi t
    hl i
    ttl
    eschoolskeptby" dames,iti
    nerant
    teachers,orlocalpar sons."Whet herwet ur
    nt othelif
    eofFr ankli
    nintheNor thorWashingtoni n
    theSout h,wer eadoft inyschoolhouses, whereboy s,andsomet imesgirls,weretaughttor ead
    andwr ite.Wher etherewer enoschool s,fathersandmot hersofthebetterkindgavet hei
    r
    chil
    drent herudiment sofl earni
    ng.Thoughi ll
    it
    eracywaswi despr
    ead, t
    herei sevi
    dencet oshow
    thatthedi f
    fusi
    onofknowl edgeamongt hemasseswasmaki ngsteadypr ogressal
    lthrought he
    eighteenthcent ur
    y.

    ReligionandHi gherLear ning. —Rel i


    giousmot iv
    esent er
    edi nt ot heest abli
    shmentofcol legesas
    wel lasl ocal school s.Har v ar d,foundedi n1636, andYal e, openedi n1718, wer eint ended
    primar il
    yt ot rain"learnedandgodl ymi nisters"fort hePur itanchur chesofNewEngl and.Tot he
    farNor t
    h, Dar tmout h, charter edi n1769, wasdesi gnedf i
    rstasami ssiontot heI ndi ansandt hen
    asacol legef orthesonsofNewEngl andf armer spr epari
    ngt opr each, t
    each, orpr act i
    cel aw.
    TheCol legeofNewJer sey , organizedi n1746andr emov edt oPr i
    ncet onel eveny ear slater ,
    was
    sust ainedbyt hePr esby t
    er ians.Twocol l
    egesl ookedt otheEst abli
    shedChur chast heirsour ce
    ofinspi rati
    onandsuppor t
    : Wi l
    li
    am andMar y,foundedi nVi rginiain1693, andKi ng' sCol lege,
    nowCol umbi aUni versity,
    char teredbyKi ngGeor geI Iin1754, onanappeal f
    rom t heNewYor k
    Angl icans, alar medatt hegr owt hofr eligiousdi ssentandt he" republicant endenci es"oft heage.
    Twocol legesr eveal edadr iftawayf rom sect ari
    anism.Br own, establishedi nRhodeI sl
    andi n
    1764, andt hePhi l
    adel phiaAcademy ,forerunneroft heUni v ersityofPennsy l
    vani a, organi zedby
    Benj ami nFr ankl i
    n, r
    ef l
    ectedt hespi ritoft olerati
    onbygi vi
    ngr epresent at
    ionont heboar dof
    trusteest osev er
    al reli
    gioussect s.ItwasFr anklin'sideat hathi scol l
    egeshoul dpr eparey oung
    ment oserv ei npubl icofficeasl eader soft hepeopl eandor nament stothei rcount ry.

    Self-
    educat ioni nAmer i
    ca. —I mpor tantaswer et heseinst it
    utionsofl earning, highereducat ion
    wasbynomeansconf inedwi thint heirwal l
    s.Manywel l
    -to-dof amiliessentt hei rsonst oOxf ord
    orCambr idgei nEngl and.Pr iv
    atet ut oringi nthehomewascommon.I nst il
    l mor ef ami l
    iest here
    werei ntelligentchi l
    drenwhogr ewupi nt hegr eatcoloni alschool ofadv ersityandwhot rained
    themsel vesunt il,
    inev erycont estofmi ndandwi t
    ,theycoul dv i
    ewi tht hesonsofHar vardor
    Will
    iam andMar yoranyot hercol l
    ege.Such, forexampl e,wasBenj ami nFr ankl in,whose
    charmi ngaut obiography , i
    naddi tiont obei nganAmer icancl assic,isaf i
    ner ecor dofsel f-
    educat ion.Hi sf ormal tr
    ai ni
    ngi nt hecl assr oom wasl imi tedt oaf ewy earsatal ocal school i
    n
    Boston; buthi sself-educat ioncont inuedt hroughouthi sl i
    fe.Heear lymani fest edazeal for
    reading, anddev oured, het el l
    sus, hi sf at
    her '
    sdr ylibr
    ar yont heology ,Buny an'swor ks, Defoe's
    writ
    ings, Plutarch'sLives, Locke' sOnt heHumanUnder standing,andi nnumer ablev olumes
    deali
    ngwi thsecul arsubj ect s.Hisl iter aryst yl
    e,perhapst hebestofhi stime, Franklinacqui red
    bythedi li
    gentandr epeat edanal y sisoft heSpect ator.Inal ifecrowdedwi thlabor s,hef ound
    ti
    met or eadwi delyinnat ural scienceandt owi nsingle-handedr ecogni tionatt hehandsof
    Europeansav antsforhi sdi scov eriesi nel ectr
    icity
    .Byhi sownef fortshe" attainedan
    acquai ntance"wi thLat i
    n, It
    al i
    an, Fr ench, andSpani sh, t
    husunconsci ouslypr epar inghi msel ffor
    thedaywhenhewast ospeakf oral l Amer i
    caatt hecour toft hekingofFr ance.

    Lesserl
    i
    ght
    sthanFr
    ankl
    i
    n,educat
    edbyt
    hesamepr
    ocess,
    wer
    efoundal
    lov
    ercol
    oni
    alAmer
    ica.
    Fr
    om thi
    sfr
    uit
    fulsour
    ceofnat
    iveabil
    i
    ty,
    sel
    f-
    educat
    ed,
    theAmer
    icancausedr
    ewgr
    eat
    st
    rengt
    hint
    het r
    ial
    softheRev
    olut
    ion.
    TheCol
    oni
    alPr
    ess

    TheRiseoft heNewspaper .—Theev olut


    ionofAmer i
    candemocr acyint
    oagov er
    nmentby
    publi
    copini on,enl
    ightenedbyt heopendi scussi
    onofpol i
    ticalquesti
    ons,wasi nnosmal l
    measur eaidedbyaf r
    eepr ess.Thattoo,likeeducati
    on,wasamat t
    erofslowgr owt h.Aprint
    ing
    presswasbr oughtt oMassachuset tsin1639, butitwasputi nchargeofanof fi
    cialcensorand
    l
    imitedtot hepublicationofr el
    igi
    ouswor ks.Fortyyearselapsedbef orethefir
    stnewspaper
    appeared,bear i
    ngt hecurioust i
    tl
    e,Publi
    cOccur rencesBot hForeignandDomest ic,andithad
    notbeenr unningv erylongbef orethegov ernmentofMassachuset tssuppressedi tfor
    di
    scussingapol i
    ti
    cal question.

    Publishi
    ng,indeed, seemedt obeapr ecariousbusiness;butin1704t her ecameasecond
    ventureinjournali
    sm, TheBost onNews- Letter
    ,whichprovedt obeamor elast
    ingent er
    prise
    becausei trefr
    ainedf r
    om cr i
    ti
    cizingt heaut hor
    it
    ies.Sti
    llt
    hepublicinterestlanguished.When
    Frankli
    n'sbrother,James, begant oissuehi sNewEngl andCour antabout1720, hisfri
    ends
    soughtt odissuadehi m, sayi
    ngt hatonenewspaperwasenoughf orAmer i
    ca.Nev ert
    helesshe
    continuedit;andhisconf idenceint hef uturewasr ewarded.Innearlyev erycol
    onyagazet teor
    chronicl
    eappear edwi thi
    nt henextt hirtyyearsormor e.BenjaminFr anklinwasabl etorecor d
    i
    n1771t hatAmer icahadt wenty-fi
    venewspaper s.Bostonledwi t
    hfive.Phi l
    adelphiahadt hree:
    twoinEngl i
    shandonei nGer man.

    Censor shipandRest raintsont hePr ess.—Thei deaofpr i


    nting, unlicensedbyt hegov ernment
    anduncont roll
    edbyt hechur ch,was, howev er,sl
    owi ntakingf orm.Thef oundersoft he
    Amer icancol oni eshadnev erknownwhati twast ohavet hef reeandopenpubl icationof
    books, pamphl ets,broadsi des,andnewspaper s.Whent hear tofpr i
    nt i
    ngwasf i
    rstdiscov ered,
    thecont rolofpubl i
    shi ngwasv estedi ncl eri
    cal authorit
    ies.Af tert heest abli
    shmentoft heSt at
    e
    Chur chi nEngl andi nt hereignofEl izabet h,censor shipoft hepr essbecameapar tofr oyal
    prerogat ive.Pr i
    nt i
    ngwasr estri
    ctedt oOxf ord,Cambr i
    dge, andLondon; andnoonecoul d
    publishany thingwi t
    houtpr evi
    ousappr oval oftheof f
    ici
    al censor .Whent hePur i
    tanswer ei n
    power ,thepopul arpar ty,withazeal whi chr iv
    aledt hatoft hecr own, sought,
    inturn, tosi l
    ence
    royalistandcl ericalwr it
    ersbyav i
    gor ouscensor ship.Aftert her est orati
    onoft hemonar chy,
    cont roloft hepr esswasoncemor epl acedi nroy alhands, wher eitr emainedunt il1695, when
    Parliament ,byf ail
    ingt orenewt helicensi ngact ,
    didawayent i
    relywi ththeoffi
    cial censor ship.
    Byt hatt imepol iti
    cal parti
    eswer esopower fulandsoact iveandpr int i
    ngpresseswer eso
    numer oust hatof fi
    cial r
    eviewofal l publ i
    shedmat t
    erbecameasheeri mpossibilit
    y.

    InAmer i
    ca, l
    ikewi se,somet r
    oubl esomequest ionsar osei nconnect ionwi thfreedom oft he
    press.ThePur i
    tansofMassachuset tswer enol essanxi oust hanKi ngChar l
    esort he
    ArchbishopofLondont oshutoutf r
    om t hepr yingey esoft hepeopl eal l
    lit
    erature" notmet ef or
    them tor ead" ;andsot heyest abli
    shedasy stem ofof fi
    ciallicensingf orpresses, whi chl ast ed
    unti
    l1755.I ntheot hercol onieswher et herewasmor edi v
    er sityofopi ni
    onandpubl i
    sher scoul d
    setupi nbusi nesswi thimpuni ty,theywer enev erthelessconst ant
    lyliabl
    et oar r
    estf orpr int ing
    anythingdi spleasi ngtot hecol onial gov ernment s.In1721t heedi toroftheMer curyi n
    Phil
    adel phiawascal l
    edbef oret hepr opr i
    etarycounci landor deredtoapol ogizeforapol itical
    arti
    cle,andf oral at eroffenseofasi mi l
    archar acterhewast hr ownint ojai
    l.Ast i
    llmor ef amous
    casewast hatofPet erZenger ,aNewYor kpubl isher ,whowasar r
    est edin1735f orcr i
    ticisi ng
    theadmi nist
    rat i
    on.Lawy erswhov ent uredtodef endt heunl uckyedi torwer edepr ivedoft hei r
    l
    icensest opract i
    ce, andi tbecamenecessar yt obr inganat torneyal lthewayf r
    om Phi ladel phia.
    Bythist imet het ensionoff eel i
    ngwashi gh,andt heappr obat i
    onoft hepubl i
    cwasf orthcomi ng
    whent helawy erf orthedef enseexcl aimedt ot hej urythatt hev er
    ycauseofl i
    ber tyitself,not
    thatoft hepoorpr i
    nter,wasont ri
    al !Thev erdictf orZenger ,wheni tfinal
    lycame, wast hesi gnal
    foranout
    burstofpopul
    arr
    ejoi
    cing.Al
    readythepeopl
    eofKi
    ngGeor
    ge'
    spr
    ovi
    nceknewhow
    preci
    ousathi
    ngisthefr
    eedom ofthepress.

    Thankstot
    heschool
    s,f
    ewandscat
    ter
    edast
    heywer
    e,andt
    othev
    igi
    l
    anceofpar
    ent
    s,av
    eryl
    arge
    port
    ion,
    perhapsnear l
    yone-half,ofthecol onistscouldr
    ead.Thr ought henewspaper s,pamphl ets,and
    almanacst hatstr
    eamedf rom t hetypes,thepeoplecoul df oll
    owt hecour seofpubl icevents
    andgr aspthesignif
    icanceofpol it
    icalarguments.AnAmer icanopinionwasi nthepr ocessof
    making—ani ndependentopi nionnour i
    shedbythepr essandenr ichedbydi scussionsar ound
    thefi
    resideandatt het averns.Whent hedayofr esistancet oBri
    tishr ul
    ecame, gov er
    nment
    byopinionwasathand.Forev erypersonwhocoul dheart hev oi
    ceofPat ri
    ckHenr yand
    Samuel Adams, therewer eat housandwhocoul dseet heirappeal sont hepr i
    ntedpage.Men
    whohadspel l
    edoutt heirletterswhileporingoverFr ankli
    n'sPoorRi chard'sAlmanacl i
    vedt o
    readThomasPai ne'
    st hri
    ll
    ingcal ltoarms.

    TheEv
    olut
    ioni
    nPol
    i
    tical
    Inst
    it
    uti
    ons

    Twov erydistinctli
    nesofdev elopmentappear edincoloni
    alpol
    it
    ics.Theone,exalt
    ingroyal
    ri
    ghtsandar istocrati
    cprivi
    leges,wast hedr i
    fttowardprovi
    nci
    algovernmentthroughroyal
    off
    icersappoi ntedinEngland.Theot her,leadingtowarddemocracyandsel f
    -gover
    nment ,
    wast hegrowt hi nthepoweroft hepopul arlegisl
    ativ
    eassembly.Eachmov ementgav e
    i
    mpet ustot heot her,wit
    hincreasingforcedur ingthepassi
    ngyears,unt
    ilatl
    astthefinal
    col
    lisi
    onbet weent het woidealsofgov ernmentcamei nthewarofindependence.

    TheRoy alProvinces.—Oft het hi rteenEngl ishcol oniesei ghtwer er oyalprovincesin1776, with


    gov ernor sappoi nt
    edbyt heki ng.Vi r
    gini
    apassedundert hedirectr uleofthecr owni n1624,
    whent hechar teroft heLondonCompanywasannul l
    ed.TheMassachuset tsBaycor por at
    ion
    l
    osti tschar terin1684, andt henewi nstr
    umentgr antedsev eny earsl at
    erstrippedthecol onists
    ofther ightt ochooset heirchi efexecut ive.Int heear l
    ydecadesoft heeighteent hcenturybot h
    theCar ol i
    naswer egivent hepr ov i
    nciali
    nst eadoft hepr opri
    etaryf or m.NewHampshi re,
    severedf rom Massachuset tsi n1679, andGeor gi a,surrender edbyt het r
    usteesi n1752, went
    i
    nt othehandsoft hecr own.NewYor k,transf erredt ot heDukeofYor konitscapt ur
    ef rom the
    Dut chin1664, becameapr ov incewhenhet ookt hetitleofJamesI Iin1685.NewJer sey ,
    after
    remai ningf ornear l
    yfor tyyear sunderpr opr ietors, wasbr oughtdi r
    ect l
    yundert hekingi n1702.
    Mar yl
    and, Pennsy l
    vania, andDel awar e,althought heyr etainedt heirpr opri
    etarycharacterunt i
    l
    theRev oluti
    on,wer einsomer espect sli
    ket her oy alcol onies,fort heirgovernor swereas
    i
    ndependentofpopul archoi ceaswer etheappoi nteesofKi ngGeor ge.Onlyt wocolonies,
    RhodeI slandandConnect icut , retainedfull self-
    gov ernmentont heev eoftheRev ol
    uti
    on.They
    alonehadgov ernorsandl egi slat uresentirelyoft heirownchoosi ng.

    Thechi efof fi
    ceroftheroy alprov i
    ncewast hegov ernor,whoenj oyedhi ghandi mpor tant
    power swhi chhenat ural
    lysoughtt oaugmentatev eryturn.Heenf or cedthelawsand, usuall
    y
    wi t
    ht heconsentofacounci l,appoi nt
    edthecivilandmi li
    taryoffi
    cers.Hegr antedpar donsand
    reprieves; hewasheadoft hehi ghestcourt;hewascommander -
    in-chiefofthemi l
    iti
    a; helevi
    ed
    troopsf ordefenseandenf orcedmar ti
    all
    awi nti
    meofi nvasion,war ,andrebell
    ion.Inal lt
    he
    provinces, exceptMassachuset ts,henamedt hecounci lorswhocomposedt heupperhouseof
    thelegi slatureandwasl ikelytochooset hosewhof avoredhisclaims.Hesummoned,
    adjour ned, anddissolv
    edt hepopul arassembly,ort helowerhouse; helai
    dbef oreitthe
    project sofl awdesiredbyt hecr own; andhev etoedmeasur eswhi chhet houghtobj ectionabl
    e.
    Her ewer einAmer icaalltheelement sofroyalprerogativeagainstwhi chHampdenhad
    protest edandCr omwel l
    hadbat tledinEngland.
    TheRoy
    alGov
    ernor
    'sPal
    aceatNewBer
    ne

    Thecol oni
    al governorsweregener al
    lysur r
    oundedbyabodyofof f
    ice-
    seeker sandhunt ersforland
    grants.Someoft hem werenobl emenofbr okenest
    ateswhohadcomet oAmer i
    cat oimprov e
    thei
    rf or
    tunes.Thepr etensi
    onsoft hiscircl
    egr at
    edoncol oni
    alner
    ves,andpr iv
    il
    egesgr antedt o
    them, oft
    enatt heexpenseofcol oni
    sts,didmucht odeepenpopularantipathytotheBr it
    ish
    government .Favorsextendedt oadher entsoftheEstabli
    shedChurchdispleasedDi ssenters.The
    reappearanceoft hisformidabl
    euni onofchur chandst at
    e,fr
    om whichtheyhadf l
    ed, st
    ir
    redanew
    theancientwr athagainstthatcombi nati
    on.

    TheCol onialAssembl y.
    —Coi nci
    dentwi t
    ht hedrif
    ttowar dadmi nist
    rationt hroughr oyal
    governorswast hesecondandopposi tetendency ,namel y,asteadygr owt hinthepr acti
    ceof
    self-
    government .Thev otersofEngl andhadl ongbeenaccust omedt oshar eintaxationandl aw
    -makingt hroughr epr
    esent ati
    vesi nPar l
    iament,andt hei deawasear lyi ntr
    oducedi nAmer i
    ca.
    Vir
    giniawasonl ytwelveyear sold( 1619)wheni tsfir
    str epresentat
    iveassembl yappear ed.As
    thetownsofMassachuset tsmul ti
    pliedandi tbecamei mpossi bleforal lthemember soft he
    corporati
    ont omeetatonepl ace, t
    her epresentativ
    ei deawasadopt ed, in1633.Ther iv
    ertowns
    ofConnect icutformedar epresentat i
    vesy st
    em undert heir"Fundament al Order
    s"of1639, and
    theent i
    recolonywasgi v
    enar oy alcharterin1662.Gener osity,aswel laspr acti
    cal
    considerati
    ons, i
    nducedsuchpr oprietor
    sasLor dBal t
    imor eandWi l
    liam Pennt oinvitethei
    r
    colonist
    st oshar einthegov ernmentassoonasanyconsi derableset tl
    ement swer emade.
    Thusbyonepr ocessoranot herev eryoneoft hecol oniessecur edapopul arassembl y.

    I
    tist r
    uethatint hepr ovisionf orpopularelect
    ions,thesuffragewasf i
    nal
    lyrestrictedtopr operty
    owner sortaxpay ers,withal eaningtowar dthefreeholdqual if
    icati
    on.InVi
    rginia, t
    heruralv oterhad
    tobeaf reeholderowni ngatl eastfi
    ft
    yacr esofland, i
    ftherewasnohouseoni t,ortwent y
    -five
    acreswithahouset went y-f
    ivefeetsquare.InMassachuset ts,thevoterf
    ormemberoft he
    assemblyundert hechar terof1691hadt obeaf reeholderofanest at
    eworthf or t
    yshill
    i
    ngsay ear
    atleastorofot herpr opertytot hevalueoff or
    typoundsst er l
    ing.InPennsyl
    v ania,thesuf f
    ragewas
    grantedtofreehol dersowni ngf if
    tyacresormor eofl andwel l seat
    ed,twel
    veacr escleared, andto
    otherpersonswor thatleastf ift
    ypoundsi nlawful money .

    Restr
    ict
    ionsli
    ketheseundoubtedl
    yexcl
    udedf rom thesuffr
    ageav eryconsiderabl
    enumberof
    men,parti
    cul
    arlythemechanicsandart
    isansoft hetowns,whower ebynomeanscont ent
    wit
    htheirposi
    tion.Nev
    ert
    heless,i
    twasrelat
    ivelyeasyforanymant oacquir
    easmal l
    freehol
    d,
    socheapandabundantwasl and;andinfactal argepr
    oporti
    onoft hecolonist
    swer eland
    owners.Thustheassembli
    es, i
    nspit
    eoftheli
    mi t
    edsuffr
    age,acquiredademocr ati
    ctone.

    Thepopularcharacteroftheassembl
    iesi
    ncreasedast heybecameengagedi
    nbattleswiththe
    royal
    andproprietar
    ygov ernor
    s.Whencall
    eduponbyt heexecuti
    vetomakeprovi
    sionforthe
    supportoft
    headmi nistr
    ation,
    thel
    egi
    slat
    uretookadvantageoftheopport
    uni
    tyt
    omaket ermsin
    theinter
    estofthetaxpayer
    s.I
    tmadeannual
    ,notper
    manent
    ,gr
    ant
    sofmoneyt
    opayof
    fi
    cial
    salari
    esandtheninsist
    edupon
    elect
    ingatreasur
    ert
    odolei
    tout.Thusthecolonist
    slearnedsomeoft hemy steri
    esofpubl
    i
    c
    fi
    nance,aswel lasthemanagementofr apaciousof f
    ici
    als.Thelegisl
    atur
    eal sousedit
    s
    powerov ermoneygrant
    stofor
    cet hegover
    nort osignbill
    swhichhewoul dot her
    wisehav
    e
    vetoed.

    ContestsbetweenLegislaturesandGov ernors.
    —Asmaybei magi ned,manyandbi tt
    erwer ethe
    contestsbetweentheroyal andpr opri
    etarygovernorsandthecol onialassembli
    es.Frankl
    in
    rel
    atesanamusi ngstoryofhowt hePennsy l
    vani
    aassembl yheldi nonehandabi llf
    orthe
    executiv
    etosignand, i
    nt heot herhand,themoneyt opayhi ssalary.Then, wi
    thsl
    yhumor ,
    Frankl
    inadds:"Donot,mycour t
    eousreader,takepetatourpropr i
    etaryconstit
    uti
    onfortheseour
    bargainandsaleproceedingsi nlegisl
    ati
    on.Itisahappycount r
    ywher ejusti
    ceandwhatwasy our
    ownbef orecanbehadf orr eadymoney .I
    tisanotheraddit
    iontot hev alueofmoneyandofcour se
    anotherspurtoindust
    ry.Ev erylandisnotsobl essed."

    Itmustnotbet hought ,
    howev er,thateverygov ernorgotof faseasi l
    yasFr anklin'
    st aleimplies.
    Ont hecont rary ,thelegislatures, l
    ikeCæsar ,feduponmeatt hatmadet hem gr eatandst eadil
    y
    encr oacheduponexecut i
    v epr erogat i
    vesast heyt r
    iedoutandf oundt heirst rengt h.Ifwemay
    believecont empor arylament s,thepoweroft hecrowni nAmer i
    cawasdi mi nishingwheni twas
    struckdownal together.InNewYor k,
    thefriendsoft hegov ernorcompl ai nedi n1747t hat"t
    he
    i
    nhabi tantsofpl antati
    onsar egener al
    lyeducat edinrepubl icanpr i
    nciples; uponr epublican
    pri
    nci pl
    esal lisconduct ed.Li ttl
    emor ethanashadowofr oy alaut hori
    tyr emai nsi ntheNor t
    hern
    colonies.""Her e,"echoedt hegov ernorofSout hCarolina,thef ollowingy ear ,"
    levelli
    ngpr i
    nci
    ples
    prev ai
    l;t
    hef rameoft heci vil
    gov er nmentisunhi nged; agov ernor ,
    ifhewoul dbei doli
    zed, must
    betrayhist rust; t
    hepeopl ehav egott heirwhol eadmi nistr
    at i
    oni ntheirhands; t
    heel ect i
    onof
    themember soft heassembl yisbybal l
    ot;notcivil
    post sonl y ,butalleccl esiast i
    cal preferments,
    arei nthedisposal orelect ionoft hepeopl e."

    Thoughbaf fl
    edbythe"level
    li
    ngprinciples"oft hecol onialassemblies,thegov ernorsdidnot
    giveupthecaseashopel ess.Inst
    eadt heyev olvedasy st
    em ofpolicyandact i
    onwhi cht hey
    thoughtcouldbri
    ngtheobst i
    nateprov incial
    st oterms.Thatsy st
    em, t
    raceableintheirletters
    tothegov er
    nmentinLondon, consistedoft hreepar ts:(1)theroyal off
    icersi
    nt hecol onies
    weret obemadei ndependentofthel egislaturesbyt axesimposedbyact sofPar l
    iament ;(2)a
    Brit
    ishstandi
    ngarmywast obemai ntainedinAmer ica;(3)theremai ni
    ngcol oni
    al charters
    weret oberevokedandgov ernmentbydi rectroy al
    aut hori
    tywast obeenl arged.

    Suchasy stem seemedpl ausibl


    eenought oKingGeor geII
    Iandtomanymi ni
    stersoft hecr own
    i
    nLondon.Wi thgovernors,courts,andanar myi ndependentofthecol oni
    sts,t
    heyi magi nedit
    wouldbeeasyt ocarryoutbot hroy alordersandact sofParli
    ament .Thisreasoningseemed
    bothpracti
    calandlogical
    .Norwasi tf
    oundedont heory,f
    oritcamef reshfrom thegov ernors
    themselves.I
    twaswant i
    ngi noner espectonly.Itfai
    ledtotakeaccountoft hef actthatt he
    Americanpeoplewer egrowi ngstrongint hepracticeofself
    -governmentandcoul ddispense
    witht
    het utel
    ageoftheBr it
    ishmi nistr
    y,nomat terhowexcel l
    entitmightbeorhowbenev ol
    ent
    i
    tsint
    entions.

    Ref
    erences

    A.
    M.Ear
    l HomeLi
    e, fei
    nCol
    oni
    alDay
    s.

    A.
    L.Cr TheAngl
    oss, i
    canEpi
    scopat
    eandt
    heAmer
    icanCol
    oni
    es(
    Har
    var
    dSt
    udi
    es)
    .

    E.
    G.Dext
    erHi
    , st
    oryofEducat
    ioni
    ntheUni
    tedSt
    ates.
    C.
    A.Duni
    way
    ,Fr
    eedom oft
    hePr
    essi
    nMassachuset
    ts.

    Benj
    ami
    nFr
    ankl
    i
    n,Aut
    obi
    ogr
    aphy
    .
    E.
    B.Gr ThePr
    eene, ovi
    nci
    alGov
    ernor(
    Har
    var
    dSt
    udi
    es)
    .

    A.
    E.McKinl
    ey,TheSuf
    frageFr
    anchi
    sei
    ntheThi
    rt
    eenEngl
    i
    shCol
    oni
    es(
    Pennsy
    lvani
    a
    Uni
    ver
    sit
    yStudies)
    .

    M.
    C.Ty
    ler
    ,Hi
    stor
    yofAmer
    icanLi
    ter
    atur
    edur
    ingt
    heCol
    oni
    alTi
    mes(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Whyislei
    sur
    enecessar
    yfort
    hepr
    oduct
    ionofar
    tandl
    i
    ter
    atur
    e?Howmayl
    eisur
    ebe
    secur
    ed?

    2.
    Expl
    aint
    heposi
    ti
    onoft
    hechur
    chi
    ncol
    oni
    all
    i
    fe.

    3.
    Cont
    rastt
    hepol
    i
    tical
    rôl
    esofPur
    it
    ani
    sm andt
    heEst
    abl
    i
    shedChur
    ch.

    4.
    Howdi
    ddi
    ver
    sit
    yofopi
    nionwor
    kfort
    oler
    ati
    on?

    5.
    Showt
    heconnect
    ionbet
    weenr
    eli
    gionandl
    ear
    ningi
    ncol
    oni
    alt
    imes.

    6.
    Whyi
    sa"
    freepr
    ess"suchani
    mpor
    tantt
    hingt
    oAmer
    icandemocr
    acy
    ?

    7.
    Rel
    atesomeoft
    het
    roubl
    esofear
    lyAmer
    icanpubl
    i
    sher
    s.

    8.
    Giv
    etheundemocr
    ati
    cfeat
    uresofpr
    ovi
    nci
    algov
    ernment
    .

    9.
    Howdi dthecoloni
    alassembl
    i
    eshel
    ptocr
    eat
    eani
    ndependentAmer
    icanspi
    ri
    t,i
    nspi
    teof
    arest
    ri
    ctedsuf
    frage?

    10.
    Expl
    aint
    henat
    ureoft
    hecont
    est
    sbet
    weent
    hegov
    ernor
    sandt
    hel
    egi
    slat
    ures.

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    Rel
    igiousandI nt
    ell
    ectualLif
    e.—Lodge,ShortHistoryoftheEngl
    ishCol
    onies:(1)i
    nNew
    England,pp.418-438,465-475;(2)i
    nVirgi
    nia,pp.54-61,87-
    89;(
    3)inPennsylv
    ania,pp.232-
    237,
    253-257;(4)i
    nNewYor k,pp.316-321.I
    nteresti
    ngsour cemater
    ial
    sinHartAmer
    , i
    canHi st
    ory
    ToldbyCont empor ar
    ies,
    Vol .I
    I,
    pp.255-275,276-290.

    TheGov er
    nmentofaRoyalProvi
    nce,
    Vir
    gini
    a.—Lodge,
    pp.43-
    50.Speci
    alRef
    erence:
    E.B.
    Gr ThePr
    eene, ovi
    nci
    alGovernor(
    Harvar
    dStudies)
    .

    TheGov
    ernmentofaPr
    opr
    iet
    aryCol
    ony
    ,Pennsy
    lvani
    a.—Lodge,
    pp.230-
    232.

    Gov
    ernmenti
    nNewEngl
    and.
    —Lodge,
    pp.412-
    417.

    TheColoni
    alPr
    ess.
    —Speci
    alRef
    erence:
    G.H.Pay Hi
    ne, st
    oryofJour
    nal
    i
    sm i
    ntheUni
    tedSt
    ates
    (1920)
    .

    Col
    oni
    alLi
    feinGener
    al.
    —JohnFiske,Ol
    dVirgi
    niaandHerNei
    ghbor
    s,Vol
    .II
    ,pp.174-
    269;
    El Hi
    son, st
    oryoftheUni
    tedSt
    ates,pp.197-
    210.

    Col
    oni
    alGov
    ernmenti
    nGener
    al.
    —El
    son,
    pp.210-
    216.
    CHAPTERI
    V
    THEDEVELOPMENTOFCOLONI
    ALNATI
    ONALI
    SM

    Iti
    soneoft hewell-
    knownf actsofhistorythatapeopl eloosel yunitedbydomest i
    ct i
    esofa
    poli
    ti
    cal andeconomi cnat ure,evenapeopl etornbydomest i
    cst r
    ife,maybewel dedintoa
    soli
    dandcompactbodybyanat t
    ackfrom af orei
    gnpower .Thei mper at
    ivecal
    ltocommon
    defense, t
    hehabitofshar i
    ngcommonbur dens,thef usingf orceofcommonser vice—these
    thi
    ngs, i
    nducedbyt henecessi tyofresisti
    ngout sideinterference, actasanamal gam drawing
    togetherallel
    ement s,except,perhaps,themostdi scordant .Thepr esenceoftheenemy
    all
    aysthemostv irulentofquar rel
    s,tempor ar
    ilyatleast."Pol i
    tics,
    "runsanol dsaying,"
    stops
    atthewat er'
    sedge."

    Thisanci entpoliticalpri
    ncipl
    e,sowel lunderstoodi ndi plomat iccircles,appl iednear l
    yaswel lt
    o
    theoriginalthirt
    eenAmer i
    cancol oniesast ot hecount riesofEur ope.Thenecessi t
    yf or
    commondef ense, i
    fnotequal l
    ygr eat,wascer tainlyalway spr essing.Thoughi thasl ongbeen
    thepract i
    cet ospeakoft heear l
    yset tl
    ement sasf oundedi n"awi lderness, "thiswasnotact ual
    ly
    thecase.Fr om t heear l
    iestdaysofJamest ownont hr
    ought hey ear s,theAmer icanpeopl ewer
    e
    confrontedbydanger sfrom without .Allaboutt heirti
    nyset tl
    ement swer eI ndians,growi ng
    mor eandmor ehost il
    east hefront i
    eradv ancedandasshar pconf l
    ictsov erl andar ousedangry
    passions.Tot hesout handwestwast hepowerofSpai n,humi li
    ated, i
    tist rue, bythedi sast
    ert
    o
    theAr mada, butst i
    l
    lpresentingani mposi ngf ronttotheBr it
    ishempi re.Tot henor thandwest
    weret heFr ench, ambi t
    ious,energetic,i
    mper ial i
    ntemper ,andpr epar edt ocont estonl andand
    watert headv anceofBr it
    ishdomi nioni nAmer i
    ca.

    Rel
    ati
    onswi
    tht
    heI
    ndi
    ansandt
    heFr
    ench

    Indi
    anAf fai
    rs.—Itisdiffi
    culttomakegener alstatement saboutt herelati
    onsoft hecoloniststo
    theIndians.Thepr oblem waspr esent edindiff
    er entshapei ndifferentsect ionsofAmer i
    ca.It
    wasnothandl edaccor dingtoanycoher entoruni f
    orm pl anbyt heBr i
    tishgov ernment,whi ch
    alonecouldspeakf orallthepr ovi
    ncesatt hesamet ime.Nei therdidt hepr opr i
    etorsandt he
    gover nor
    swhosucceededoneanot her,inanirregulartrain,hav etheconsi stentpol i
    cyort he
    mat uredexperiencenecessar yf ordeal ingwiselywi thIndianmat t
    ers.Ast hedi fficul
    ti
    esar ose
    mai nlyonthef r
    ontiers,wheret herest lessandpushi ngpi oneerswer emaki ngt heirwaywi th
    gunandax, nearlyever y
    thingthathappenedwast her esul tofchancer athert hanofcal culati
    on.
    Aper sonalquar r
    elbet weent r
    ader sandanI ndian,aj ugofwhi sky ,akegofgunpowder ,the
    exchangeofgunsf orfurs,personal treachery,
    oraf l
    ashofbadt emperof t
    enseti nmot ion
    dest r
    ucti
    veforcesoft hemostt er
    riblecharacter.

    Ononesi deoft hel edgermaybeseti nnumer ablegenerousr ecords—ofSquant oandSamoset


    teachingt hePilgrimst heway softhewi lds;ofRogerWi ll
    i
    amsbuy inghi slandsf r
    om thef r
    iendl
    y
    nativ
    es; orofWi lliam Pennt r
    eat
    ingwi ththem onhi sarri
    valinAmer ica.Ont heothersideoft he
    l
    edgermustber ecordedmanyacr uel andbloodyconf l
    ictast hefront i
    erroll
    edwest wardwi th
    deadlypr ecisi
    on.ThePequot sont heConnect i
    cutborder,sensingt heirdoom, fel
    lupont hetiny
    settl
    ement swithawf ul fur
    yin1637onl yt omeetwi thequallyterr
    iblepuni shment.Agener ation
    l
    ater,KingPhi li
    p, sonofMassasoi t,t
    hef riendofthePi l
    gri
    ms, call
    edhi stri
    besment oawarof
    exterminat i
    onwhi chbroughtthestrengthofal lNewEngl andt othef i
    eldandendedi nhisown
    destructi
    on.I nNewYor k,t
    herel
    ati
    onswi ththeIndians,especiall
    ywi t
    ht heAlgonqui
    nsandt he
    Mohawks,
    weremar
    kedbyperi
    odi
    canddesperatewar
    s.Virgi
    niaandherSout
    her
    nnei
    ghbor
    s
    suf
    fer
    edasdi
    dNewEngland.I
    n1622Opecacano,abr
    otherofPowhatan,t
    he
    fr
    iendoft heJamest ownset tl
    ers,launchedagener almassacre;andin1644heat temptedawarof
    exterminati
    on.In1675t hewhol ef ronti
    erwasablaze.Nathani
    el Baconv ainl
    yatt
    empt edtostirthe
    colonialgovernortoputupanadequat edefenseand,fai
    li
    ngint hatplea,himsel
    fheadedar evolt
    andasuccessf ulexpedit
    ionagainstt heIndi
    ans.AstheVirgi
    niaout postsadvancedintothe
    Kentuckycount ry,t
    hest r
    ifewit
    ht henat i
    veswast r
    ansferr
    edtot hat"darkandbloodygr ound"
    ; whi
    le
    tothesout heast,adesperatestrugglewi tht
    heTuscarorascalledforththecombi nedforcesofthe
    twoCar oli
    nasandVi r
    gini
    a.

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Vi
    rgi
    niansDef
    endi
    ngThemsel
    vesagai
    nstt
    heI
    ndi
    ans
    From suchhor rorsNewJer seyandDel awar eweresav edonaccountoft hei rgeographi
    cal
    l
    ocation.Pennsy lvani
    a,consistentlyfollowingapol i
    cyofconci l
    iati
    on,wasl ikewisespareduntil
    herwester nv anguar dcamei ntof ullconfli
    ctwiththealliedFrenchandI ndians.Geor gi
    a,by
    cl
    evernegot iationsandt reatiesofal l
    iance,managedt okeeponf airt
    ermswi thherbell
    i
    gerent
    CherokeesandCr eeks.Butnei therdiplomacynorgener osit
    ycoul dstaythei nevit
    ableconf
    lict
    asthef r
    ont i
    eradv anced,especiallyaftertheFrenchsol dier
    senlistedtheIndi ansinthei
    r
    i
    mper ialenterprises.Itwast hent hatdesul t
    oryfi
    ghtingbecamegener al
    war fare.
    Engl
    i
    sh,
    French,
    andSpani
    shPossessi
    onsi
    nAmer
    ica,
    1750

    Earl
    yRel ati
    onswitht heFrench. —Dur i
    ngt hefir
    stdecadesofFr enchexplorati
    onand
    sett
    lementi ntheSt.Lawr encecount r
    y,theEnglishcolonies, engrossedwi ththeirown
    problems, gavel
    it
    tleornot houghtt otheirdist
    antneighbor s.Quebec, foundedi n1608,and
    Mont real
    ,in1642,wer etoof araway ,toosmal linpopul at
    ion, andtooslightinstrengthtobe
    muchofamenacet oBost on,Har t
    ford,orNewYor k.Itwast hest atesmeni nFranceand
    England,rathert
    hant hecol onistsi
    nAmer i
    ca,whof i
    rstgraspedt hesignif
    icanceoft heslowly
    conver gi
    ngempi r
    esinNor thAmer ica.Itwast heambi ti
    onofLoui sXIVofFr ance, r
    atherthan
    thelaborsofJesuitmi ssionariesandFr enchr angers,thatsoundedt hefir
    stnot eofcolonial
    alar
    m.

    Evidenceofthisl
    iesinthefactthatthreeconf l
    ict
    sbetweent heEngli
    shandt heFr ench
    occurredbeforet
    heiradvancingfronti
    ersmetont hePennsylvani
    abor der
    .KingWi ll
    iam'sWar
    (1689-1697)
    ,QueenAnne' sWar( 1701-1713) ,
    andKingGeor ge'sWar(1744-1748)owedt hei
    r
    origi
    nsandtheirendingsmainlytothei ntr
    iguesandrival
    ri
    esofEur opeanpower s,although
    theyalli
    nvol
    v edt
    heAmer icancoloniesi nstr
    uggleswiththeFrenchandt hei
    rsav ageal l
    ies.

    TheCl ashi nt heOhioVal ley.—Thesecondoft hesewar shadhar dl


    yclosed, howev er,beforet he
    Engli
    shcol oniststhemsel vesbegant obeser iouslyalarmedaboutt her apidlyexpandi ngFr ench
    domi nionint heWest .Mar quet
    t eandJol i
    et,whoopenedt heLaker egion, andLaSal le,whoi n1682
    hadgonedownt heMi ssissippi totheGulf,hadbeenf oll
    owedbyt hebui ldersoff orts.In1718, t
    he
    Frenchf oundedNewOr l
    eans, thust aki
    ngpossessi onoft hegat ewayt ot heMi ssissippi aswel l
    as
    theSt .Lawr ence.Af ewy ear sl
    at ertheybuiltFortNiagara; i
    n1731t heyoccupi edCr ownPoi nt;i
    n
    1749t heyf ormal l
    yannouncedt heirdominionov eralltheterrit
    orydrainedbyt heOhi oRi ver.Having
    assertedt hisloftyclaim, theysetoutt omakei tgoodbyconst ruct
    ingi nthey ears1752- 1754For t
    LeBufnearLakeEr ie,For tVenangoont heupperwat ersoft heAllegheny ,andFor tDuquesneat
    thejunctionoft hest reamsf or
    mi ngt heOhio.Thought heywer ewar nedbyGeor geWashi ngton,in
    thenameoft hegov er norofVi rginia,tokeepoutoft err
    it
    or y"sonotoriouslyknownt obepr opertyof
    thecrownofGr eatBr itai
    n,"theFr enchshowednosi gnsof
    r
    eli
    nqui
    shi
    ngt
    hei
    rpr
    etensi
    ons.

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Br
    addock'
    sRet
    reat
    TheFi nal Phase—t heFr enchandI ndianWar .
    —Thusi thappenedt hatt heshotwhi chopenedt he
    SevenYear s' War,knowni nAmer i
    caast heFr enchandI ndianWar ,wasf i
    redint hewi l
    dsof
    Pennsy l
    vani a.Ther ebegant heconf li
    ctthatspreadt oEuropeandev enAsiaandf inall
    yinvolved
    EnglandandPr ussia,ont heonesi de,andFr ance,Austri
    a,Spain,andmi norpower sont heother.
    OnAmer icansoi l,t
    hedef eatofBr addocki n1755andWol f
    e'sexpl oitincapturi
    ngQuebecf our
    yearsl aterwer ethedr amat i
    cfeatures.Ont hecont i
    nentofEur ope, Englandsubsi dized
    Prussianar mst oholdFr anceatbay .InIndia,onthebanksoft heGanges, asont hebanksof
    theSt .Lawr ence,Br i
    ti
    shar mswer etri
    umphant .Wellcouldt hehistor i
    anwr i
    te:"Conquest s
    equalingi nr apidit
    yandf arsurpassinginmagni t
    udet hoseofCor tesandPi zarrohadbeen
    achiev edi nt heEast .
    "Wel lcouldthemer chant sofLondondecl ar
    et hatundert he
    admi nistrationofWi l
    li
    am Pi t
    t,theimper i
    algeniusoft hi
    swor l
    d-wideconf li
    ct,commer cehad
    been" uni tedwi thandmadet of l
    ouri
    shbywar ."

    From thepoi ntofviewoft heBri


    tishempi re,ther esultsoft hewarwer emoment ous.Bythepeace
    of1763, Canadaandt heterr
    it
    oryeastoft heMi ssissippi,exceptNewOr l
    eans,passedunderthe
    Brit
    ishf l
    ag.Ther emainderoftheLouisianat erri
    torywast ransf er
    redtoSpainandFr enchimperi
    al
    ambi t
    ionsont heAmer i
    cancontinentwer elaidt orest .I
    nex changeforHavana,whicht heBr
    it
    ish
    hadsei zeddur i
    ngthewar ,Spai
    ncededt oKingGeor gethecol onyofFlor
    ida.Notwithoutwarr
    ant
    di
    dMacaul aywr i
    teinafteryearsthatPitt"wast hef irstEngl ishmanofhistime;andhehadmade
    Englandt hefir
    stcount r
    yinthewor ld.
    "

    TheEf
    fect
    sofWar
    far
    eont
    heCol
    oni
    es

    Thevari
    ouswar swi
    ththeFrenchandt heI
    ndians,t
    ri
    v i
    ali
    ndetai
    lastheyseem to-
    day,
    hada
    prof
    oundinfl
    uenceoncolonialli
    feandont hedestinyofAmerica.Cir
    cumstancesbeyond
    thecont
    rolofpopul
    arassemblies,j
    eal
    ousoftheiri
    ndivi
    dual
    power s,
    compell
    ed

    coöperati
    onamongt hem, gr
    udgingandst i
    ngynodoubt,butsti
    llcoöperati
    on.TheAmer i
    can
    people,moreeagertobebusyi nthei
    rfi
    eldsoratthei
    rtr
    ades,wer esimplyforcedtoraiseand
    supportarmies,
    tolearnt
    hear t
    sofwar f
    are,andtopract
    ice,i
    finasmal ltheater,
    thescienceof
    stat
    ecraft
    .Theseforces,
    allcumulati
    ve,
    dr ovet
    hecoloni
    sts,sotenaciouslyprovi
    ncial
    intheir
    habi
    ts,inthedir
    ect
    ionofnationali
    sm.
    TheNewEngl
    andConf
    eder
    ati
    on.
    —Itwasi
    nthei
    ref
    for
    tst
    odeal
    wit
    hthepr
    obl
    emspr
    esent
    edby
    the
    I
    ndianandFr enchmenacet hattheAmer i
    canst ookt hefirststepst owardunion.Thought herewer e
    manycommont i
    esamongt heset tl
    er sofNewEngl and,itrequir
    edadeadl yfearoft heI
    ndianst o
    producei n1643t heNewEngl andConf ederati
    on, composedofMassachuset ts,Pl
    ymout h,
    Connect i
    cut,andNewHav en.Thecol oniessouni tedwer eboundt ogetherin"afir
    m andper petual
    l
    eagueoff r
    iendshipandami t
    yforof fenseanddef ense,mut ualserv i
    ceandsuccor ,uponalljust
    occasions."Theymadepr ov i
    si
    onf ordi str
    ibuti
    ngt hebur densofwar samongt hemember sand
    provi
    dedf oracongr essofcommi ssionersfrom eachcol onytodet er mineuponcommonpol ici
    es.
    Forsomet wentyy ear
    stheConf ederationwasact iveandi tcontinuedt oholdmeet ingsuntil
    af t
    er
    theextincti
    onoft heIndi
    anperilont hei mmedi atebor der.

    Vir
    ginia,nol esst hanMassachuset t
    s,wasawar eoft heimport
    anceofinter
    coloni
    al
    coöper at
    ion.Int hemi ddl
    eoft heseventeenthcentur y,
    theOldDominionbegant r
    eati
    esof
    commer ceandami tywit
    hNewYor kandt hecoloniesofNewEngl and.In1684delegatesfr
    om
    Vir
    giniametatAl banywiththeagentsofNewYor kandMassachuset tstodi
    scussproblems
    ofmut ual defense.Af ewy ear
    sl at
    ertheOl dDomi nioncoöperat
    edloyall
    ywiththeCaroli
    nasin
    defendingt heirbor der
    sagainstIndi
    anforay s.

    TheAl banyPl anofUni on.—Anat temptatagener alcol onialuni


    onwasmadei n1754.Ont he
    suggest ionoft heLor dsofTr adeinEngl and, aconf erencewashel datAl banyt oconsi der
    Indianrel ations, t
    odev isemeasur esofdef enseagai nstt heFrench, andt oent erinto"articl
    esof
    uni onandconf ederati
    onf orthegener al defenseofhi sMaj est
    y'
    ssubj ectsandi nterestsin
    Nor thAmer i
    caaswel lintimeofpeaceasofwar ."NewHampshi re, Massachuset ts,
    Connect icut,RhodeI sland,NewYor k,Pennsy l
    vania, andMar yl
    andwer erepresented.Af tera
    l
    ongdi scussi on,aplanofuni on,draftedmai nly
    , i
    tseems, byBenj ami nFrankli
    n, wasadopt ed
    andsentt ot hecoloniesandt hecr ownf orappr oval.Thecol oni
    es, j
    ealousoft heirindi
    v i
    dual
    rights,ref usedt oacceptt heschemeandt hekingdi sappr oveditf orthereason, Franklinsaid,
    thatithad" t
    oomuchwei ghtinthedemocr aticpar toft heconst i
    tut i
    on."Thought heAlbany
    uni onfailed, thedocumenti ssti
    l
    l wor thyofst udybecausei tforecastmanyoft heper plexing
    pr obl
    emst hatwer enotsol vedunt i
    lthirt
    y -
    threey earsaf t
    erward, whenanot herconv entionof
    whi chal soFr ankl
    inwasamemberdr aft
    edt heConst i
    tutionoftheUni tedSt at
    es.

    Benj
    ami
    nFr
    ankl
    i
    n

    TheMi l
    itaryEducationoft heCol onists.—Thesamewar st hatshowedt hepr ovincialst hemeani ng
    ofunionl i
    kewiseinstruct edt hem i nthear tofdef endingt heirinsti
    tutions.Par ticularl
    ywast histrue
    ofthelastFrenchandI ndi anconf l
    ict,whichst ret
    chedal lthewayf r
    om Mai net ot heCar ol
    inasand
    madeheav ycallsupont hem al lfort r
    oops.Theanswer ,itisadmi t
    ted, wasf arf rom sat isf
    act oryto
    theBrit
    ishgov ernmentandt heconductoft hemi l
    it
    iamenwasf arfrom prof essi onal;butthousands
    ofAmer icansgotat ast e, ast r
    ongt aste,ofactual f
    ighti
    ngi nthef i
    eld.Menl ikeGeor geWashi ngton
    andDani elMor ganlearnedl essonst hatwer enotf orgotteni naf t
    ery ears.TheysawwhatAmer i
    can
    mili
    ti
    amencoul ddounderf av orableci r
    cumst ancesandt heywat chedBr i
    ti
    shr egul ar
    soper atingon
    Amer i
    cansoi l
    ."Thiswhol etransact i
    on,"shrewdl yremar kedFr anklinofBr addock' scampai gn, "
    gave
    usAmer i
    canst hefi
    rstsuspi ciont hatourexal tedideasoft heprowessofBr iti
    shr egul artr
    oopshad
    notbeenwel lfounded. "Itwasnomer eaccidentt hattheVi rgi
    niacol onelwhodr ewhi sswor d
    undertheel
    m atCambri
    dgeandt
    ookcommandoft hear
    myoft
    heRev
    olut
    ionwast
    hebr
    ave
    off
    icerwhohad"spur
    nedthewhi
    stl
    eofbul
    l
    ets"att
    he
    memor
    abl
    ebat
    tl
    einwest
    ernPennsy
    lvani
    a.

    FinancialBurdensandCommer cialDisorder.
    —Whi l
    et heprovinci
    alswer elearni nglessonsin
    war f
    aretheywer ealsopay ingthebi l
    ls.Allt
    heconf li
    ctswer ecostlyintreasur easi nblood.King
    Phili
    p'
    swarl eftNewEngl andweakandal mostbankr upt.TheFr enchandI ndi anstrugglewas
    especiall
    yexpensi ve.Thet went y-
    fiv
    et housandmenputi nthef i
    eldbyt hecol onieswer e
    sustainedonlybyhugeout laysofmoney .Papercur rencystreamedf rom thepr essanddebt s
    wer eaccumul ated.Commer cewasdr i
    venfrom itsusual channelsandpr iceswer eenhanced.
    Whent heendcame, bothEnglandandAmer icawer estagger i
    ngunderheav yl i
    abil
    iti
    es,andto
    makemat terswor set herewasaf allofpri
    cesaccompani edbyacommer cial depressi
    onwhi ch
    extendedov eraper iodoft eny ears.Itwasint hemi dstofthiscr i
    sisthatmeasur esoft axat
    ion
    hadt obedev isedt opayt hecostoft hewar ,
    pr eci
    pitati
    ngthequar relwhichl edt oAmer ican
    i
    ndependence.

    TheExpul sionofFrenchPowerf r
    om Nor t
    hAmer i
    ca.—Theef f
    ectsoft hedef eatadmi nistered
    toFrance, astimeproved, weredi
    ffi
    culttoestimate.SomeBr iti
    shst atesmenr egardedi tasa
    happycircumst ancethatthecolonists,al
    readyresti
    veundert heiradmi ni
    str
    ation,hadno
    forei
    gnpowerathandt oai dthem incaset heystr
    uckf orindependence.Amer i
    canl eaders, on
    theotherhand, nowthatt hesoldi
    ersofKi ngLouiswer edrivenf rom thecont i
    nent,thoughtt hat
    theyhadnoot hercountrytofeariftheycastoffBrit
    ishsov ereignty.Atallevents,France,
    thoughdef eated,wasnotoutoft hespher eofAmer icaninfluence; for
    , aseventsprov ed,itwas
    thefort
    unat eFrenchall
    iancenegot i
    atedbyFr ankl
    inthatassur edt hetriumphofAmer ican
    armsintheWaroft heRev ol
    uti
    on.

    Col
    oni
    alRel
    ati
    onswi
    tht
    heBr
    it
    ishGov
    ernment

    Itwasnei thertheIndianwar snortheFrenchwar sthatfi


    nall
    ybroughtfor
    thAmer i
    can
    nationali
    ty.Thatwast heproductoft helongstr
    ifewiththemot hercount
    rywhichcul
    mi natedin
    unionf orthewarofi ndependence.Thef orcest
    hatcr eat
    edthisnati
    ondidnotoperat
    ei nthe
    coloniesalone.Thechar acteroftheEnglishsoverei
    gns,thecourseofeventsinEngl
    i
    sh
    domest i
    cpolit
    ics,andEngli
    shmeasur esofcontroloverthecoloni
    es—executi
    ve,l
    egi
    slati
    ve,and
    j
    udicial—mustal lbetakenint oaccount.

    TheLastoft heSt uarts.—Thest rugglesbetweenChar l


    esI(1625- 49)andt hepar l
    i
    ament ary
    partyandt heturmoi loft hePur i
    tanrégime( 1649-60)soengr ossedt heat t
    entionofEngl i
    shmen
    athomet hattheyhadl it
    tletimet othinkofcolonialpoli
    ciesortoi nterferewithcolonialaff
    air
    s.
    Ther estorat
    ionoft hemonar chyin1660, accompani edbyinternal peaceandt heincreasi
    ng
    poweroft hemer cant il
    eclassesi ntheHouseofCommons, changedal lthat.I
    nt hereignof
    CharlesII(1660-85) ,himsel faneasy -
    goingperson, t
    hepol i
    cyofr egul ati
    ngt r
    adebyactof
    Parli
    amentwasdev elopedi ntoacloselyknitsyst
    em andpower ful agenciest osuperv i
    sethe
    colonieswer ecreated.Att hesamet i
    measy stem ofstri
    ctercont r
    ol overt hedomi ni
    onswas
    usheredi nbytheannul mentoft heoldchar t
    erofMassachuset tswhi chconf erredsomuchsel f
    -governmentont hePur i
    tans.

    Charles'successor ,JamesI I,amanofst ernerstuffandjealousofhi sauthorityint


    hecol oni
    esas
    wellasathome, continuedthepol i
    cythusinauguratedandenl argeduponi t
    .Ifhecouldhav ekept
    histhrone,hewoul dhav ebentt heAmer i
    cansunderahar shruleorbroughtoni nhisdomi ni
    onsa
    revol
    ut i
    onliket hatwhi chhepr ecipit
    atedathomei n1688.Hedet erminedtouni t
    etheNor thern
    coloniesandi ntroduceamor eef fici
    entadministr
    ationbasedont hepat t
    ernoft heroyalprovi
    nces.
    Hemadeamar ti
    net,SirEdmundAndr os,
    gov er
    norofal l
    NewEngl and, NewYor k,andNewJer sey
    .
    Thechar terofMassachuset ts, annull
    edinthelastday sofhi sbrother
    'sreign,hecontinuedto
    i
    gnor e,andt hatofConnect icutwoul dhav ebeensei zedifithadnotbeenspi ri
    tedawayandhi dden,
    accordingtot raditi
    on, i
    nahol l
    owoak.
    Forsever
    almont hs,Androsgav
    et heNort
    herncol
    oni
    esatast
    eofil
    l
    -temper
    eddespot
    ism.He
    wrungquitr
    entsf r
    om landownersnotaccust
    omedtofeudal
    dues;
    heabrogat
    edti
    tl
    estoland
    where,
    inhisopinion,
    theywer eunlawful
    ;heforcedtheEpiscopal serv
    iceupont heOldSouthChurchinBoston;and
    hedeni edthewritofhabeascorpustoapr eacherwhodenouncedt axati
    onwithout
    representat
    ion.I
    nthemi ddleofhi
    sar bitr
    arycourse,howev er
    ,hi
    shandwasst ayed.Thenews
    camet hatKingJameshadbeendet hr onedbyhi sangrysubject
    s,andthepeopleofBoston,
    kindli
    ngaf i
    reonBeaconHi ll,
    summonedt hecount r
    ysidetodisposeofAndros.Theresponse
    waspr omptandhear ty.Thehatedgov ernorwasar r
    ested,impri
    soned,andsentbackacross
    theseaunderguar d.

    Theov ert
    hrowofJames, fol
    lowedbyt heaccessi
    onofWi ll
    iam andMar yandbyassur
    ed
    parl
    iamentarysupremacy,hadani mmediateeff
    ectinthecol oni
    es.Theneworderwasgreeted
    withthanksgiv
    ing.Massachusett
    swasgi venanothercharterwhich,t
    houghnotsoli
    beralas
    thefir
    st,r
    estoredthespi
    ri
    tifnottheenti
    relet
    terofself
    -government.Intheot
    hercol
    onies
    whereAndr oshadbeenoper at
    ing,theol
    dcourseofaf f
    airswasr esumed.

    TheI ndifferenceoft heFirstTwoGeor ges.—Ont hedeat hin1714ofQueenAnne, thesuccessorof


    KingWi ll
    iam, thethronepassedt oaHanov erianpr i
    ncewho, t
    houghgr atefulforEnglishhonor s
    andr evenues, wasmor einterest
    edi nHanov erthani nEngland.Geor geIandGeor geI I,whose
    combi nedr eignsext endedf rom 1714t o1760, neverev enlearnedt ospeakt heEnglishlanguage,
    atleastwi t
    houtanaccent .Thenecessi tyoftakingt houghtaboutcol onial aff
    airsboredbot hof
    them sot hatt hestoutestdefenderofpopul arpr i
    vil
    egesi nBostonorChar l
    estonhadnogr oundto
    compl ainoft heexerciseofper sonal prerogativ
    esbyt heking.Mor eover ,duri
    ngal argepar tofthis
    period,thedi rectionofaffairswasi nt hehandsofanast uteleader,SirRober tWal pole,who
    betrayedhi ssomewhatcy ni
    cal v
    iewofpol i
    ti
    csbyadopt i
    ngashi smot to: "Letsl
    eepingdogsl ie.
    "
    Her evealedhi sappreciati
    onofpopul arsentimentbyexcl aiming:"Iwillnotbet hemi nisterto
    enforcet axesatt heexpenseofbl ood."Suchki ngsandsuchmi nisterswer enotli
    kelytoar ouse
    theslumber ingr esi
    stanceoft het hi
    rteencoloniesacr ossthesea.

    Cont r
    ol oftheCr ownov ertheCol onies.—Whi l
    enoEngl i
    shr ul erfrom JamesI ItoGeor geIII
    venturedt ointerfer
    ewi thcol onialmat t
    er sper sonally,const antcont r
    ol ov erthecol onieswas
    exercisedbyr oy aloffi
    cersact i
    ngundert heaut horit
    yoft hecr own.Sy st emat i
    csuper vi
    sion
    begani n1660, whent herewascr eatedbyr oy alorderacommi t
    teeoft heki ng'scounci lto
    meetonMonday sandThur sday sofeachweekt oconsi derpet i
    tions,memor ials,and
    addressesr espect i
    ngt hepl antati
    ons.In1696ar egularboar dwasest ablished, knownast he
    "LordsofTr adeandPl antations,"whichcont inued, untiltheAmer icanRev oluti
    on, toscr ut
    inize
    closelycolonialbusiness.Thechi efdut i
    esoft heboar dwer et oexami neact sofcol onial
    l
    egislatures,torecommendmeasur est ot hoseassembl i
    esf oradopt ion, andt ohear
    memor i
    alsandpet it
    ionsf r
    om t hecol oniesr elati
    vet othei raff ai
    rs.

    Themet hodsempl oy
    edbyt hi
    sboar dwerev ari
    ed.Al llawspassedbyAmer i
    canl egisl
    atures
    camebef oreitforrevi
    ewasamat terofrouti
    ne.I fitfoundanactunsat isfactory,it
    recommendedt othekingtheexer ciseofhisv etopower ,knownast heroy aldisall
    owance.Any
    personwhobel ievedhispersonalorpr opert
    yr i
    ght sinjuredbyacol oni
    al l
    awcoul dbehear dby
    theboar dinper sonorbyat t
    orney;insuchcasesi twast hepr act
    icet
    ohearatt hesamet i
    me
    theagentoft hecolonysoinvolved.Ther oyalv etopowerov ercoloni
    all
    egi slat
    ionwasnot ,
    theref
    ore, aformal af
    fai
    r,butwasconst ant
    lyempl oyedont hesuggesti
    onofahi ghlyeffi
    cient
    agencyoft hecrown.Allthi
    swasi naddi ti
    ont ot hepower sexerci
    sedbyt hegov ernorsinthe
    royalprovinces.

    JudicialControl
    .—Supplementingthisadministrati
    vecontroloverthecol onieswasaconst ant
    superv i
    si
    onbyt heEngli
    shcourtsoflaw.Theki ng,byvirt
    ueofhi sinherentaut hority
    ,cl
    aimedand
    exercisedhighappel l
    atepowersov eral
    lj
    udicial t
    ri
    bunalsintheempi re.Ther i
    ghtofappeal fr
    om
    l
    ocal courts,expressl
    ysetfort
    hinsomechar ters,was,ont heeveoft heRev olut
    ion,maint
    ainedin
    ever
    ycol ony.Anysubj ecti
    nEnglandorAmer ica,who,inther egul
    arlegal course, wasaggri
    evedby
    anyactofacol oniall
    egisl
    atur
    eoranydecisionofacol onialcourt
    ,hadt her ight,
    subjecttocertai
    n
    regulat
    ions,t
    ocarryhi
    scasetotheki
    ngincounci
    l,
    forci
    nghisopponentt
    ofoll
    owhim acrossthe
    sea.Intheexerci
    seofappel
    lat
    epower,t
    hekingincounci
    lacti
    ngasacourtcoul
    d,andfrequentl
    y
    did,declar
    eactsofcol
    oni
    al
    l
    egi
    slat
    uresdul
    yenact
    edandappr
    oved,
    nul
    landv
    oid,
    ont
    hegr
    oundt
    hatt
    heywer
    econt
    rar
    y
    t
    oEngli
    shlaw.

    I
    mper ialControl i
    nOper ati
    on.—Dayaf terday ,weekaf t
    erweek, yearaf t
    eryear, t
    hemachinery
    forpol it
    icalandj udicialcontrol overcolonialaff
    airswasinoper ation.Atonet i
    met heBri
    ti
    sh
    gov ernorsint hecol onieswer eor derednott oapproveanycol oniallawi mposingadutyon
    Europeangoodsi mpor tedinEngl ishvessel s.Again,whenNor thCar oli
    nalaidat axonpeddler
    s,
    thecounci l
    obj ectedt oitas" restri
    cti
    veupont hetradeanddi spersionofEngl ishmanufactur
    es
    throughoutt hecont inent.
    "Atot herti
    mes, I
    ndiantradewasr egulatedi ntheinterest
    softhe
    whol eempi reorgr antsofl andsbyacol oniall
    egislat
    ureweresetasi de.Vi
    rginiawasforbi
    dden
    tocl oseherpor t
    st oNor t
    hCar oli
    nalestt hereshouldberetali
    ation.

    Inshor t
    , foreignandi ntercolonialtr
    adewer esubj
    ectedtoacont r olhi
    ghert hant hatoft
    he
    colony,for eshadowi ngadaywhent heConst i
    tuti
    onoftheUni tedSt ateswast ocommi tto
    Congr esst hepowert or egul at
    einterstateandf orei
    gncommer ceandcommer cewitht
    he
    Indians.Asuper i
    orjudi ci
    al power ,
    tower ingabov ethatofthecol onies,astheSupr emeCourt
    atWashi ngtonnowt ower sabov ethest ates,keptthecoloniall
    egi sl
    atureswit hinthemetes
    andboundsofest ablishedl aw.Inthet housandsofappeal s,memor i
    als,peti
    tions,and
    compl aints, andther uli
    ngsanddeci sionsupont hem,wer ewr i
    tt
    ent her ealhistoryofBri
    ti
    sh
    i
    mper i
    alcont r
    olovert heAmer icancoloni es.

    Sogreatwast hebusinessbeforet heLor dsofTradet hatt


    hecol oni
    eshadtokeepskill
    ed
    agent
    si nLondont oprot
    ecttheirinterests.Ascommongr ievancesagai
    nsttheoperat
    ionof
    thi
    smachi neryofcont r
    olarose,thereappear edineachcol onyaconsider
    ablebodyofmen,
    wit
    hthemer chantsinthelead,whochaf edatt herestr
    aint
    simposedont hei
    renterpri
    se.Onlya
    powerfulblowwasneededt owel dt hesebodi esintoacommonmassnour i
    shingthespir
    itof
    col
    onialnational
    ism.Whent other epeatedmi norir
    rit
    ati
    onswer eaddedgeneralandsweeping
    measuresofPar l
    iamentapplyi
    ngt oev er
    ycolony,thereboundcamei ntheRevoluti
    on.

    Parliament aryCont roloverCol onialAff


    airs.
    —AssoonasPar l
    iamentgai nedinpoweratt he
    expenseoft heking,itreachedoutt obri
    ngt heAmer icancoloni esunderi tsswayaswel l
    .Between
    theexecut ionofChar lesIandt heaccessi onofGeor geI I
    I,
    ther ewasenact edani mmensebodyof
    l
    egi slat
    ionr egulati
    ngt heshippi ng,t
    rade,andmanuf actur
    esofAmer i
    ca.Al lofit,
    basedont he
    "mer canti
    le"t heorythenpr evalentinallcountr
    iesofEur ope, wasdesi gnedt ocont r
    oltheoverseas
    plantati
    onsi nsuchawayast of ost
    erthecommer cialandbusi nessint erest
    soft hemot hercount
    ry,
    wher emer chant sandmenoff inancehadgott heupperhand.Accor dingt othistheor
    y ,
    thecoloni
    es
    oftheBr i
    ti
    shempi reshoul dbeconf i
    nedtoagr i
    cultureandt hepr oductionofr awmat eri
    als,and
    forcedt obuyt hei
    rmanuf act
    uredgoodsofEngl and.

    TheNavigat
    ionActs.—Inthefi
    rstrankamongt hesemeasur esofBri
    ti
    shcolonial pol
    icymustbe
    pl
    acedthenavigat
    ionlawsf r
    amedf orthepurposeofbuil
    dingupt heBri
    ti
    shmer chantmarine
    andnavy—armssoessent ial
    indefendingthecoloni
    esagainsttheSpani
    sh, Dutch,andFrench.
    Thebeginni
    ngofthistypeoflegisl
    ationwasmadei n1651andi twaswor kedouti nt
    oasy stem
    ear
    lyi
    nthereignofChar l
    esII(1660-85).

    TheNav igati
    onAct s,inef f
    ect, gaveamonopol yofcolonialcommer cetoBr i
    ti
    shships.No
    tr
    adecoul dbecar ri
    edonbet weenGr eatBrit
    ainandherdomi nionssav einv essel
    sbui l
    tand
    mannedbyBr i
    ti
    shsubj ects.NoEur opeangoodscoul dbebr oughtt oAmer i
    casavei ntheshi ps
    ofthecount rythatproducedt hem ori nEnglishships.Thesel aws, whichwer ealmostf atalto
    Dutchshippingi nAmer ica,fellwithsev eri
    tyupont hecol oni
    sts,compel l
    ingthem topayhi gher
    fr
    eightrates.Theadv erseef fect,howev er
    ,wasshor t-
    li
    ved, f
    orthemeasur esstimulated
    shi
    pbuildinginthecol onies,wher et heabundanceofr awmat er
    ialsgav ethemast erbuildersof
    Amer i
    caanadv antageov erthoseoft hemot hercountry.Thust hecolonistsintheendpr ofi
    ted
    f
    rom t
    her
    est
    ri
    cti
    vepol
    i
    cywr
    it
    teni
    ntot
    heNav
    igat
    ionAct
    s.
    TheAct sagai nstManuf act ures.—Thesecondgr oupofl awswasdel i
    beratelyai medt opr ev ent
    col onialindust riesfrom compet ingt ooshar plywiththoseofEngl and.Amongt heear liestof
    thesemeasur esmaybecount edt heWool enActof1699, forbiddingt heexpor t at
    ionofwool en
    goodsf rom t hecol oni esandev ent hewool ent radebetweent ownsandcol onies.When
    Par li
    amentl ear ned,ast her esultofani nquiry,thatNewEngl andandNewYor kwer emaki ng
    thousandsofhat say earandsendi ngl ar genumber sannual lytot heSout her ncoloni esandt o
    Ireland,Spai n, andPor tugal ,itenact edi n1732al awdecl aringt hat"nohat sorf el
    ts, dy edor
    undy ed, finishedorunf i
    ni shed"shoul dbe" putuponanyv essel orl adenuponanyhor seorcar t
    wi thintentt oexpor ttoanypl acewhat ev er.
    "Theef f
    ectoft hismeasur eupont hehati ndust ry
    wasal mostr uinous.Af ewy earsl aterasi milarblowwasgi v ent othei r
    oni ndust r
    y .Byanact
    of1750, pigandbari ronf rom t hecol onieswer egivenfreeent r
    yt oEngl andt oencour aget he
    pr oductionoft her awmat eri
    al;butatt hesamet imet helawpr ov i
    dedt hat"nomi l
    l orot her
    engi nef orsl itti
    ngorr ollingofi ron, nopl ati
    ngf orget owor kwi that i
    l
    thammer ,andnof urnace
    formaki ngst eel "shoul dbebui l
    ti nthecol onies.Asf orthoseal readybui l
    t,theywer edecl ared
    publ i
    cnui sancesandor der edcl osed.Thust hreei mportanteconomi cinterestsoft hecol onist
    s,
    thewool en, hat ,andi r
    oni ndust ries,wer el aidundert heban.

    TheTr adeLaws. —Thet hirdgr oupofrestri


    ctivemeasur espassedbyt heBr it
    ishPar l
    i
    ament
    rel
    atedtothesal eofcol onialproduce.Anactof1663r equiredthecoloniest oexpor tcertai
    n
    art
    icl
    est oGreatBr i
    tainort oherdomi nionsalone;whi lesugar,tobacco,andgi ngerconsi gned
    tothecontinentofEur opehadt opasst hroughaBr iti
    shpor tpay i
    ngcustom dut iesand
    thr
    oughaBr i
    ti
    shmer chant 'shandspay ingt heusual commi ssion.Atfir
    stt obaccowast heonly
    oneoft he"enumer atedar t
    icles"whichser i
    ouslyconcer nedtheAmer icancol onies,t
    her est
    comingmai nlyfrom t heBr it
    ishWestI ndies.Inthecour seoft i
    me, howev er,othercommodi ti
    es
    wereaddedt ot heli
    stofenumer atedarti
    cles,unt
    ilby1764i tembr acedr i
    ce, navalstores,
    copper,fur
    s,hides,iron, lumber ,andpearlashes.Thi swasnotal l
    .Thecol onieswer e
    compel l
    edtobr ingthei rEuropeanpur chasesbackt hroughEngl i
    shpor t
    s, payingdutiestot he
    governmentandcommi ssi
    onst omer chant sagai
    n.

    TheMol assesAct .
    —Notcont entwi thlawsenact edint hei nterestofEnglishmerchantsand
    manuf acturers,
    Par l
    iamentsoughtt opr otectt heBr iti
    shWestI ndiesagainstcompet i
    ti
    onf r
    om
    theirFr enchandDut chneighbor s.NewEngl andmer chant shadl ongcarriedonalucrativetrade
    witht heFr enchislandsintheWestI ndiesandDut chGui ana, wheresugarandmol assescoul d
    beobt ainedinlargequant i
    tiesatl owpr ices.Act ingont hepr otestsofEngl i
    shplantersinthe
    BarbadoesandJamai ca,Par l
    iament ,i
    n1733, passedt hef amousMol assesActimposi ng
    dutiesonsugarandmol assesi mpor tedi ntothecol oniesf rom foreigncountri
    es—rateswhi ch
    woul dhav edestroyedtheAmer icant r
    adewi tht heFr enchandDut chi
    fthelawhadbeen
    enfor ced.Thedut ies,howev er,wer enotcol lected.Themol assesandsugart radewi t
    hthe
    foreigner swentonmer ri
    ly,smuggl i
    ngt akingt hepl aceofl awf ul t
    raffi
    c.

    Effectoft heLawsi nAmer ica.—Ascompar edwi ththest ri


    ctmonopol yofhercol oni altrade
    whi chSpai nconsi stent lysoughtt omai ntai
    n,thepol i
    cyofEngl andwasbot hmoder at eand
    l
    iber al.Further mor e,ther est r
    icti
    velawswer esuppl ement edbymanymeasur esi ntendedt obe
    favor ablet ocol onialprosper i
    ty.TheNav i
    gationAct s,forexampl e, r
    edoundedt ot headv antage
    ofAmer i
    canshi pbui l
    der sandt heproducer sofhemp, tar,l
    umber ,
    andshi pstoresi ngener al.
    Fav orsi nBr it
    ishpor tswer egr antedt ocolonialproducer sasagai nstf or
    eigncompet i
    tor sand
    i
    nsomei nstancesbount i
    eswer epaidbyEngl andt oencour agecol onialenterprise.Takenal li
    n
    all,
    ther eismuchj ust i
    ficationi nthear gumentadv ancedbysomemoder nschol ar st othe
    effectt hatt hecol onistsgai nedmor ethantheyl ostbyBr iti
    shtradeandi ndust r
    ial l
    egi slation.
    Cer tainl
    yaf tertheest abl i
    shmentofi ndependence, whenf reefrom t heseoldr est ri
    ctions, the
    Amer icansf oundt hemsel veshandi cappedbybei ngt r
    eatedasf oreigner
    sr athert hanf av ored
    trader sandt her ecipientsofbount iesi nEngli
    shmar kets.
    Bethatasitmay,i
    tappearsthatthecol
    oni
    stsf
    eltli
    tt
    lei
    rri
    tati
    onagai
    nstthemothercount
    ry
    onaccountofthetr
    adeandnav igat
    ionl
    awsenactedprevi
    oust ot
    hecloseoft
    heFrenchand
    I
    ndi
    anwar .Rel
    ati
    vel
    yf ewwereengagedinthehatandironindust
    ri
    esascomparedwi t
    hthose
    i
    nfarmingandplanti
    ng,sothat
    England'
    spolicyofrestri
    ctingAmer
    icatoagri
    cult
    uredidnotconf
    li
    ctwit
    hthei
    nter
    est
    softhe
    majorit
    yoftheinhabitants.Thewooleni
    ndustr
    ywasl ar
    gelyi
    nthehandsofwomenandcarr
    ied
    oninconnect i
    onwitht hei
    rdomesti
    cduties,
    sothatitwasnotthesol
    esuppor
    tofany
    considerabl
    enumberofpeopl e.

    Asamat teroffact,moreover,
    therestri
    cti
    velaws,especial
    lythoser el
    ati
    ngtotrade,wer enot
    ri
    gidlyenforced.Cargoesoftobaccower eboldlysenttocontinentalport
    swithoutev enso
    muchasabowt otheEnglishgovernment,towhichdutiesshoul dhavebeenpai d.Sugarand
    mol assesfrom theFrenchandDut chcolonieswereshippedint oNewEngl andinspiteofthe
    l
    aw.Roy aloff
    icerssomet i
    mesprotestedagainstsmuggl i
    ngandsomet imesconnivedati t
    ;
    butatnot imedi dtheysucceedinstoppingit.Takenalli
    nall,veryli
    ttl
    ewashear dof" t
    he
    gall
    ingrestrai
    ntsoft r
    ade"unti
    laft
    ertheFrenchwar ,whent heBr i
    ti
    shgov er
    nmentsuddenl y
    entereduponanewcour se.

    Summar
    yoft
    heCol
    oni
    alPer
    iod

    I
    nt heper i
    odbetweent helandingoft heEngli
    shatJamest own, Vir
    gini
    a,i
    n1607,andtheclose
    oftheFrenchandI ndianwari n1763—aper i
    odofacent uryandahal f—anewnationwasbeing
    preparedont hi
    scontinenttotakei t
    splaceamongt hepower softheeart
    h.Itwasanepochof
    migrati
    on.West er
    nEur opecont ri
    butedemigrantsofmanyr acesandnati
    onali
    ti
    es.TheEngli
    sh
    l
    edt heway .Nexttothem innumer i
    calimportancewer etheScot ch-
    Iri
    shandtheGermans.Int
    o
    themel t
    ingpotwer ealsocastDut ch,Swedes, French,Jews, Welsh,andI
    ri
    sh.Thousandsof
    negroeswer ebroughtfrom Africatotil
    lSouthernfieldsorlaborasdomest i
    cservant
    sinthe
    North.

    Whydi dtheycome?Ther easonsar ev ari


    ous.Someoft hem, thePil
    gri
    msandPur i
    tansof
    NewEngl and,theFr enchHuguenot s,Scotch-I
    rishandIri
    sh, andtheCathol
    icsofMar y
    land,
    fl
    edf r
    om int
    olerantgov er
    nment sthatdeni edthem therighttoworshipGodaccordingt othe
    di
    ctatesoftheirconsciences.Thousandscamet oescapet hebondageofpov ert
    yintheOl d
    Wor l
    dandt ofi
    ndf reehomesi nAmer ica.Thousands,li
    ket henegroesfrom Af
    ri
    ca,were
    draggedhereagai nstthei
    rwill
    .Thel ureofadv entur
    eappeal edtotherestl
    essandthel ureof
    profi
    tstotheenterpr i
    si
    ngmer chants.

    Howdi dtheycome?Insomecasesr el
    igi
    ousbrother
    hoodsbandedt ogetherandbor r
    owedor
    furni
    shedt hefundsnecessaryt opaytheway .I
    nothercasesgreatt r
    adingcompani eswer e
    organizedtofoundcolonies.Againitwast hewealt
    hypr opr
    iet
    or,l
    ikeLor dBalt
    imor eorWill
    iam
    Penn,whounder t
    ooktoplantset t
    lements.Manyimmi grant
    swer eabletopayt heirownway
    acrosst hesea.Other
    sboundt hemselvesoutforaterm ofyearsi
    nexchangef orthecostofthe
    passage.Negr oeswerebr oughtonaccountoft heprofi
    tsderi
    vedf r
    om theirsaleasslaves.

    What everthemot i
    vef ortheircoming,howev er
    ,theymanagedt ogetacrosst hesea.The
    i
    mmi grantssettowor kwi thawill
    .Theycutdownf orests,buil
    thouses,andlaidoutfi
    elds.They
    foundedchur ches,schools, andcoll
    eges.Theysetupf orgesandwor kshops.Theyspunand
    wov e.Theyfashionedshi psandsai l
    edt heseas.Theybar teredandtraded.Her eandthereon
    favorableharborstheyest abli
    shedcentersofcommer ce—Bost on,Provi
    dence, NewYork,
    Philadelphi
    a,Balt
    imore, andChar l
    eston.Assoonasaf irmf oothol
    dwassecur edontheshore
    l
    inet heypressedwest war duntil
    ,bythecloseoft hecolonialperi
    od,t
    heywer eal r
    eadyont he
    crestoft heAll
    eghanies.

    Thoughtheywerewidel
    yscatteredalongat housandmi l
    esofseacoast,thecolonist
    swer eunit
    ed
    i
    nspiri
    tbymanycommont i
    es.Themaj orporti
    onofthem wer eProt
    estants.Thelanguage,thelaw,
    andtheli
    ter
    atur
    eofEnglandfurnishedthebasisofnationalunit
    y.Mostoft hecoloni
    stswere
    engagedinthesamehardtask;thatofconquer i
    ngawilderness.Toti
    esofki nshi
    pandl anguage
    wereaddedtiescreat
    edbynecessity.Theyhadtounit
    eindef
    ense;fi
    rst
    ,againstt
    heIndiansand
    l
    ateragai
    nsttheFrench.Theywereallsubj
    ectsofthesamesover
    eign—thekingofEngland.The
    Engli
    shParl
    iamentmadel awsforthem andtheEngli
    shgover
    nmentsupervisedthei
    rlocalaf
    fai
    rs,
    thei
    rtr
    ade,andtheirmanufact
    ures.Commonf orces
    assai
    l
    edt
    hem.Commongr
    iev
    ancesv
    exedt
    hem.Commonhopesi
    nspi
    redt
    hem.

    Manyoft hethingswhi chtendedt ouni t


    et hem l
    ikewisetendedt ot hr
    owt hem intooppositiont
    o
    theBrit
    ishCr ownandPar li
    ament .Mostoft hem werefreeholders;thatis,far
    mer swhoowned
    thei
    rownl andandt il
    l
    edi twit
    hthei rownhands.Af r
    eesoilnour i
    shedt hespiritoffreedom.The
    majorit
    yoft hem wer eDissenters, cri
    ti
    cs,notfri
    ends,oftheChur chofEngl and, t
    hatstanch
    defenderoft heBr i
    ti
    shmonar chy .Eachcol onyintimedev elopedi t
    sownl egislat
    ureelectedby
    thevoters; i
    tgrewaccust omedt omaki nglawsandl ayingtaxesf orit
    self.Her ewasapeopl e
    l
    earningsel f-
    rel
    ianceandsel f
    -gov ernment .Theattemptstost rengthent heChur chofEngl and
    i
    nAmer i
    caandt hetransformati
    onofcol oniesintoroyalprovincesonlyf annedt hespiri
    tof
    i
    ndependencewhi chtheywer edesi gnedtoquench.

    Never theless, theAmer icansowedmuchoft heirpr osper i


    tyt otheassi stanceoft he
    governmentt hatirri
    t atedt hem.I twast hepr otectionoft heBr i
    ti
    shnav ythatprevent edHolland,
    Spain, andFr ancef rom wi pingoutthei rsettlement s.Thought heirmanuf actureandt r
    adewer e
    controlledint hei nter estsoft hemot hercount ry,theyal soenj oy edgr eatadvantagesi nher
    mar kets.Fr eet radeexi stednowher eupont heear th; butthebr oadempi r
    eofBr i
    tainwasopen
    toAmer icanshi psandmer chandise.Itcoul dbesai d, wit
    hgoodr eason, t
    hatthedi sadvantages
    whicht hecol onistssuf feredthroughBr it
    ishr egulat ionoft heirindust ryandtradewer emor e
    thanof fsetbyt hepr iv i
    legest heyenjoy ed.St i
    llthati ssomewhatbesi det hepoint,former e
    economi cadv antagei snotnecessar il
    yt hedet ermi ni ngfact orint hefateofpeopl es.A
    thousandci rcumst anceshadhel pedt odev el opont hi scont i
    nentanat ion,t
    oinspi reitwit
    ha
    passionf orindependence, andtopr epar eitforadest i
    nygr eatert hanthatofapr osper ous
    domi nionoft heBr i
    tishempi re.Theeconomi sts, whot ri
    edt opr ov ebyl ogi
    cunassai lablet
    hat
    Amer icawoul dber icherundert heBr it
    ishf l
    ag, coul dnotchanget hespi ri
    tofPatrickHenr y,
    Samuel Adams, Benj ami nFr ankli
    n,orGeor geWashi ngt on.

    Ref
    erences

    G.
    L.Beer
    ,Or
    igi
    noft
    heBr
    it
    ishCol
    oni
    alSy
    stem andTheOl
    dCol
    oni
    alSy
    stem.

    A.Br
    adl
    eyTheFi
    , ghtf
    orCanadai
    nNor
    thAmer
    ica.

    C.
    M.Andr Col
    ews, oni
    alSel
    f-
    Gov
    ernment(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .

    H.Eger
    t Shor
    on, tHi
    stor
    yofBr
    it
    ishCol
    oni
    alPol
    i
    cy.

    F.Par Fr
    kman, anceandEngl
    andi
    nNor
    thAmer
    ica(
    12v
    ols.
    ).

    R.Thwai
    t Fr
    es, ancei
    nAmer
    ica(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .

    J.Wi
    nsor
    ,TheMi
    ssi
    ssi
    ppiVal
    l
    eyandCar
    ti
    ert
    oFr
    ont
    enac.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Howwoul
    dyoudef
    ine"
    nat
    ional
    i
    sm"
    ?

    2.
    Cany
    ougi
    veanyi
    l
    lust
    rat
    ionsoft
    hewayt
    hatwarpr
    omot
    esnat
    ional
    i
    sm?

    3.
    Whywasi
    timpossi
    blet
    oest
    abl
    i
    shandmai
    ntai
    nauni
    for
    m pol
    i
    cyi
    ndeal
    i
    ngwi
    tht
    heI
    ndi
    ans?

    4.
    Whatwast
    heout
    comeoft
    hef
    inal
    clashwi
    tht
    heFr
    ench?

    5.
    Enumer
    atet
    hef
    ivechi
    efr
    esul
    tsoft
    hewar
    swi
    tht
    heFr
    enchandt
    heI
    ndi
    ans.Di
    scusseachi
    n
    det
    ail
    .
    6.
    Expl
    ainwhyi
    twast
    hatt
    hechar
    act
    eroft
    heEngl
    i
    shki
    ngmat
    ter
    edt
    othecol
    oni
    sts.

    7.
    Cont
    rastEngl
    andundert
    heSt
    uar
    tswi
    thEngl
    andundert
    heHanov
    eri
    ans.

    8.
    Expl
    ainhowt
    heEngl
    i
    shCr
    own,
    Cour
    ts,
    andPar
    li
    amentcont
    rol
    l
    edt
    hecol
    oni
    es.

    9.
    Namet het
    hreei
    mpor
    tantcl
    assesofEngl
    i
    shl
    egi
    slat
    ionaf
    fect
    ingt
    hecol
    oni
    es.Expl
    ain
    each.

    10.
    Doy
    out
    hinkt
    heEngl
    i
    shl
    egi
    slat
    ionwasbenef
    ici
    alori
    njur
    ioust
    othecol
    oni
    es?Why
    ?

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    Ri
    seofFrenchPoweri
    nNor
    thAmer
    ica.
    —Speci
    alr
    efer
    ence:
    Franci
    sPar
    kman,
    St
    ruggl
    eforaConti
    nent
    .

    TheFrenchandIndianWar s.
    —Speci
    alrefer
    ence:
    W.M.Sl Fr
    oane, enchWarandthe
    Revol
    uti
    on,Chaps.VI-I
    X.Parkman,Montcal
    m andWol
    fe,
    Vol.I
    I,
    pp.195-
    299.El
    son,Hi
    stor
    y
    oft
    heUni t
    edStates,pp.171-
    196.

    Engl
    i
    shNavigat
    ionActs.
    —Macdonald,Document
    arySour
    ceBook,
    pp.55,
    72,
    78,
    90,
    103.
    I
    Coman,ndustr
    ialHi
    stor
    y,pp.79-
    85.

    Br
    it
    ishCol
    oni
    alPol
    i
    cy.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,Economi
    cHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.102-
    108.

    TheNewEnglandConfederat
    ion.—Anal
    yzet
    hedocumentinMacdonal
    d,Sour
    ceBook,
    p.45.
    Speci
    alr
    efer
    ence:
    Fiske,Begi
    nningsofNewEngl
    and,pp.140-
    198.

    TheAdmi
    nist
    rat
    ionofAndr
    os.
    —Fi Begi
    ske, nni
    ngs,
    pp.242-
    278.

    Biographi
    cal
    Studies.
    —Wi l
    li
    am Pi
    ttandSi
    rRober
    tWal
    pol
    e.Consul
    tGr Shor
    een, tHi
    stor
    yof
    England,ont
    heirpoli
    cies,
    usingt
    heindex
    .

    PARTI
    I.CONFLI
    CTANDI
    NDEPENDENCE

    CHAPTERV
    THENEW COURSEI
    NBRI
    TISHI
    MPERI
    ALPOLI
    CY

    OnOctober25,
    1760,
    KingGeor
    geI
    Idi
    edandt
    heBr
    it
    ishcr
    ownpassedt
    ohi
    syounggr
    andson.
    Thef
    ir
    st
    George,t
    hesonoft heElectorofHanov erandSophiathegranddaughterofJamesI ,wasa
    thor
    oughGermanwhonev erev enlearnedtospeakthelanguageofthel andoverwhichhe
    rei
    gned.ThesecondGeor genev ersawEngl andunt
    ilhewasaman.HespokeEngl i
    shwi t
    han
    accentandunti
    lhisdeathpr ef
    er redhisGermanhome.Dur ingthei
    rreign,thepr
    inci
    plehad
    becomewel l
    establi
    shedthatt heki ngdidnotgover
    nbutact edonlythroughminist
    ers
    repr
    esenti
    ngthemaj or
    it
    yinPar li
    ament .

    Geor
    geI
    IIandHi
    sSy
    stem

    TheChar acteroftheNewKi ng.


    —Thet hirdGeor gerudel
    ybroket heGermant radit
    ionofhi sfami l
    y.
    Her esent edtheimput ationthathewasaf orei
    gnerandonal l
    occasionsmadeadi splayofhi s
    Brit
    ishsy mpathi
    es.Tot hedr aftofhisf i
    rstspeecht oParli
    ament ,headdedt hepopul arphrase:
    "Bornandeducat edint hiscount r
    y,IgloryinthenameofBr it
    on. "Macaulay,t
    heEngl i
    shhi stori
    an,
    certainlyofnol i
    kingforhi ghroyalprerogativ
    e, saidofGeorge:"They oungkingwasabor n
    Englishman.Al lhistastesandhabi t
    s,goodandbad, wereEnglish.Nopor t
    ionofhi ssubjectshad
    anythingt oreproachhi m with..
    ..Hisage, hi
    s
    appear ance,andallthatwasknownofhi schar acterconci
    li
    at edpublicfavor.Hewasi nt he
    bloom ofy outh;hisper sonandaddr esswer epleasing;scandal i
    mput edtohi m nov ice;and
    fl
    atter ymi ghtwithoutgl ari
    ngabsur dityascr i
    bet ohim manypr i
    ncelyvir
    tues."

    NeverthelessGeor geIIIhadbeenspoiledbyhi smot her,hist


    utors,andhi scour ti
    ers.Under
    thei
    rinfl
    uencehedev elopedhighandmi ght ynotionsaboutthesacr ednessofr oyalauthori
    ty
    andhisdut ytocheckt hepr et
    ensionsofPar li
    amentandt heminister
    sdependentuponi t.His
    motherhaddi nnedintohisearstheslogan: "George,beking!
    "Lor dBut e,histeacherand
    advi
    ser ,
    hadt oldhimt hathishonorrequiredhimt otakeanact iv
    epar tintheshapi ngofpublic
    poli
    cyandt hemaki ngoflaws.Thuseducat ed, hesurroundedhimsel fwi t
    hcour ti
    erswho
    encouragedhi mi nthedet er
    minati
    ontor uleaswel lasreign,t
    osubdueal l par
    ties,andtoplace
    himselfattheheadoft henationandempi r
    e.

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Geor
    geI
    II

    Poli
    ti
    calPartiesandGeor geIII
    .—Thest at
    eoft hepoli
    ti
    calpar
    ti
    esfavoredtheplansoft heki
    ngt o
    rest
    oresomeoft heancientlusterofthecrown.TheWhi gs,whowerecomposedmai nlyofthe
    smallerfr
    eehol der s,merchants,inhabi
    tant
    soft owns,andProtest
    antnon-conf
    ormi st
    s,hadgrown
    haughtyandov erbear i
    ngt hr
    oughl ongcontinuanceinpowerandhadasaconsequencer ai
    sedup
    manyenemi esi nt hei
    rownr anks.Theiropponent s,
    theTori
    es,hadbythisti
    megi venupal l
    hopeof
    rest
    oringtot het hronethedi r
    ectSt uar
    tli
    ne;buttheysti
    ll
    cheri
    shedtheirol
    dnot i
    onsaboutdi v
    ine
    ri
    ght.Withtheaccessi onofGeor ge
    BIthecovetedopportuni
    tycametothem tor
    all
    yar
    oundthethr
    oneagai
    n.George
    recei
    vedhisToryfr
    iendswithopenarms,gav
    ethem of
    fi
    ces,
    andboughtthem seat
    sin
    theHouseofCommons.
    TheBr i
    ti
    shPar li
    ament arySystem.—Thepecul iariti
    esoft heBr it
    ishPar liamentatt het imemade
    smoot hthewayf ortheki ngandhi sal l
    i
    eswitht heirdesi gnsf orcont rolli
    ngt heent ire
    government .I
    nt hef i
    rstplace,theHouseofLor dswascomposedmai nlyofher editarynobl es
    whosenumbert hekingcoul dincreasebyt heappoi nt mentofhi sfavor i
    tes,asofol d.Though
    themember soft heHouseofCommonswer eelectedbypopul arvote, theydi dnotspeakf or
    themassofEngl i
    shpeopl e.Greatt ownsl i
    keLeeds, Manchest er,andBi rmi ngham, forexampl e,
    hadnor epresent at
    ivesatal l
    .Whi l
    et her ewereaboutei ghtmi l
    lioninhabi tantsinGr eatBr i
    tain,
    ther
    ewer ein1768onl yabout160, 000v ot
    ers;thatist osay ,onlyaboutonei nev eryt enadul t
    maleshadav oicei nthegov ernment .Manybor oughsr eturnedoneormor emember stot he
    Commonsal t
    hought heyhadmer elyahandf ul ofvot er sori nsomei nst ancesnov otersatal l
    .
    Furt
    hermor e,theset i
    nybor oughswer eoft
    encont r
    ol ledbyl ordswhoopenl ysoldt her ightof
    repr
    esentationtot hehi ghestbidder .The"rotten-bor oughs, "ast heywer ecalledbyr eformer s,
    wereapubl icscandal ,butGeor geIIIr eadi
    lymadeuseoft hem t ogethi sf r
    iendsi ntot heHouse
    ofCommons.

    Geor
    geI
    II
    '
    sMi
    nist
    ersandThei
    rCol
    oni
    alPol
    i
    cies

    Grenvil
    leandtheWarDebt .
    —Wi thinay earaftert
    heaccessionofGeor geII
    I,
    Will
    iam Pit
    twas
    tur
    nedoutofof fi
    ce,t
    hekingtreatinghim wit h"
    grossi
    nciv
    ili
    ty"andthecrowdsshout i
    ng"Pi
    tt
    for
    ever!"Thedir
    ecti
    onofaffai
    rswasent r
    ustedtomenenjoy ingtheki
    ng'sconfi
    dence.
    Leadershipi
    ntheHouseofCommonsf el
    ltoGeorgeGrenvil
    le,agraveandlabori
    ousman
    whof oryear
    shadgr oanedovert heincreasingcostofgovernment.

    Thef i
    rsttaskaf t
    ert heconcl usionofpeacei n1763wast headj ustmentoft hedi sordered
    fi
    nancesoft heki ngdom.Thedebtst oodatt hehighestpoi ntinthehi storyoft hecount ry
    .Mor e
    revenuewasabsol ut elynecessar yandGr envil
    lebegant osear chf orit,t
    ur ni
    nghi sattenti
    on
    fi
    nal l
    yt ot heAmer i
    cancol onies.I
    nt hisquesthehadt heaidofazeal ouscol l
    eague, Charles
    Townshend, whohadl ongbeeni npubl i
    cser vi
    ceandwasf ami l
    i
    arwi ththedi ff
    iculti
    es
    encount eredbyr oy al gov ernorsinAmer ica.Theset women, wit
    ht hesuppor toftheent ir
    e
    mi nist
    r y
    , i
    naugur atedi nFebr uary,1763,"anewsy stem ofcol onialgov ernment .I
    twas
    announcedbyaut hor itythatt herewer etobenomor erequi si
    ti
    onsf rom t hekingt othecol oni
    al
    assembl iesforsuppl ies, butthatthecol oni
    eswer et obet axedi nsteadbyactofPar li
    ament .
    Col onialgov ernorsandj udgeswer etobepai dbyt heCr own; theywer etobesuppor tedbya
    standingar myoft went yr egi
    ment s;andal l
    theex pensesoft hi
    sf orcewer etobemetby
    par l
    iament ar
    yt axation. "

    Rest ri
    cti
    onofPaperMoney( 1763).
    —Amongt hemanycompl ai
    ntsf i
    l
    edbef oretheboar dof
    tradewer ev i
    gorouspr ot
    estsagainstthei ssuanceofpapermoneybyt hecoloniallegisl
    atures.
    Thenewmi ni
    stryprovidedar emedyint heactof1763, whichdecl ar
    edv oidallcoloniallaws
    aut hori
    zi
    ngpapermoneyorext endi
    ngt hel ifeofoutst
    andingbi l
    ls.Thislawwasai medatt he
    "cheapmoney "whicht heAmer i
    canswer ef ondofmakingwhenspeci ewasscar ce—money
    whi chtheytri
    edt oforceont hei
    rEngli
    shcr editor
    sinretur
    nf orgoodsandi npay mentoft he
    i
    nt erestandprinci
    pal ofdebts.Thusthef irstchapterwaswr itt
    eni nthelongbat tl
    eov ersound
    moneyont hiscontinent.

    Limitat
    iononWest ernLandSal es.
    —Lat erinthesamey ear(
    1763)Geor geI I
    Iissuedar oy al
    proclamat i
    onproviding,amongot herthings,forthegov ernmentoft heterr
    itoryrecentlyacqui redby
    thetreatyofPar i
    sfrom t heFrench.Oneoft heprovisionsinthisroyaldecreet ouchedf rontiersmen
    tothequi ck.Thecont estsbetweent heki ng'
    sof f
    icersandt hecolonistsovert hedispositionof
    westernlandshadbeenl ongandshar p.TheAmer i
    canschaf edatr est
    rict
    ionsonset t
    lement .The
    mor eadv entur
    ouswer econtinuall
    ymov i
    ngwestand" squatt
    ing"onlandpur chasedf rom t he
    I
    ndiansorsi mplyseizedwi t
    houtaut horit
    y.Toputanendt othis,t
    hekingf orbadeal lf
    urther
    purchasesf rom t
    heI ndians,reservi
    ngt othecr ownt her i
    ghttoacquiresuchl andsanddi sposeof
    them forsettl
    ement .Asecondprovi
    sioninthesamepr ocl
    amationvestedthepowerofl i
    censi
    ng
    tradewi t
    htheIndians,i
    ncludi
    ngthelucr
    ativ
    efurbusiness,i
    nthehandsofr oyaloff
    icer
    sinthe
    colonies.Thesetwol i
    mitati
    onsonAmer i
    canfreedom andenter
    priseweredeclaredtobeinthe
    i
    nt er
    estofthecrownandf orthepr
    eservat
    ionoftheright
    softheIndiansagainstfr
    aud
    andabuses.

    TheSugarActof1764. —Ki ngGeor ge'smi ni


    ster
    snextt urnedt heirattenti
    ont omeasur esoft axation
    andt rade.Si ncet heheav ydebtunderwhi chEngl andwasl abor i
    nghadbeenl argelyincur r
    edi nthe
    defenseofAmer ica,not hingseemedmor ereasonabl et ot hem thant hepr oposi t
    iont hatthe
    coloniesshoul dhel pt obeart hebur denwhichfellsoheav ilyupont heEngl isht axpayer .TheSugar
    Actof1764wast her esul toft hisreasoning.Therewasnodoubtaboutt hepur poseoft hi
    slaw, for
    i
    twassetf orthcl earlyint het i
    tle:"Anactf orgranti
    ngcer taindut i
    esint heBr it
    ishcol oniesand
    pl
    ant ati
    onsi nAmer ica...f orappl yingtheproduceofsuchdut ies..
    .towar dsdef r
    ay i
    ngt heexpenses
    ofdef ending, protect i
    ngandsecur ingthesaidcoloni esandpl antati
    ons. .
    .andf ormor eeffectuall
    y
    preventingt hecl andest ineconv ey anceofgoodst oandf r
    om t hesai dcoloni esandpl antati
    onsand
    i
    mpr ovi
    ngandsecur ingt het r
    adebet weenthesameandGr eatBrit
    ain."Theol dMol assesActhad
    beenpr ohi bi
    tive;theSugarActof1764wascl earl
    yi ntendedasar evenuemeasur e.Speci fi
    eddut ies
    wer elaiduponsugar ,i
    ndi go,cal i
    co, sil
    ks,
    andmanyot hercommodi ti
    esi mpor tedi ntothecol onies.
    Theenf or cementoft heMol assesActhadbeenut terlynegl ected;butthisSugarActhad" teethin
    i
    t."Speci alprecaut ionsast obonds, securi
    ty,
    andr egi strationofshi pmast ers,accompani edby
    heav ypenal ti
    es, promi sedav i
    gor ousexecut i
    onoft henewr ev
    enuel aw.

    Thest ri
    ctter
    msoft heSugarActwer estrengthenedbyadmi nistrat
    ivemeasur es.Underal aw
    ofthepr evi
    ousy earthecommander sofar medv esselsstati
    onedal ongt heAmer icancoast
    wereaut hori
    zedt ostop,search, and,onsuspi cion, sei
    zemer chantshi psappr oachingcol oni
    al
    ports.Bysupplement ar
    yorders, theentir
    eBr i
    tishof fi
    cial
    forcei nAmer icawasi nst r
    uctedt obe
    dil
    i
    genti ntheexecut ionofallt
    radeandnav i
    gat i
    onl aws.Rev enuecol lectors,offi
    cersoft he
    armyandnav y,andr oyalgovernor swerecur t
    lyor deredtothef r
    ontt odot hei
    rfulldutyint he
    matt erofl
    awenf orcement .Theor di
    narymot i
    v esf orthedischar geofof f
    icial
    obligationswer e
    sharpenedbyanappeal toavarice, f
    ornav al
    of fi
    cer swhosei zedof fender sagainstt helaw
    werer ewardedbyl argeprizesoutoft heforf
    eituresandpenal ti
    es.

    TheSt ampAct( 1765)


    .—TheGr envi
    ll
    e- Townshendcombi nationmov edsteadi l
    yt owar dsitsgoal .
    Whi l
    et heSugarActwasunderconsi derat i
    oninPar l
    iament ,Gr envi
    ll
    eannouncedapl anf orast amp
    bil
    l.Thenex tyearitwentt hroughbot hHouseswi thaspeedt hatmusthav east oundedi t
    saut hors.
    Thev ot eintheCommonsst ood205i nf avorto49agai nst ;
    whi l
    eintheLor dsi twasnotev en
    necessar ytogot hr
    ought heformalit
    yofacount .AsGeor geI I
    Iwast empor arilyinsane, the
    measur ereceivedroyal assentbyacommi ssionact i
    ngasaboar dofr egency .Protest sofcolonial
    agent sinLondonwer ef util
    e."Wemi ghtaswel lhavehinder edt hesun'sprogr ess!"ex claimed
    Franklin.Protestsofaf ewopponent si nt heCommonswer eequal lyvain.Themi nistrywasf irmi n
    i
    tscour seandf rom al
    l appear ancest heSt ampActhar dl
    yr ousedasmuchasal anguidi nter
    estin
    thecityofLondon.I nfact, i
    tisrecordedt hatthefatefulmeasur eattr
    actedl essnot icet hanabi ll
    providingforacommi ssi ontoactf ort heki ngwhenhewasi ncapacitated.

    TheSt ampAct ,li


    ketheSugarAct ,decl
    aredt hepur poseoftheBritishgov ernmenttoraise
    revenueinAmer ica"
    towar dsdef rayi
    ngtheexpensesofdef ending, protecti
    ng,andsecuringt he
    Bri
    tishcoloniesandplantationsinAmer ica."Itwasal ongmeasur eofmor ethanfif
    tysections,
    careful
    lyplannedandski l
    lf
    ul l
    ydrawn.Byi tspr ovi
    sionsduti
    eswer ei mposedonpr acti
    call
    yal l
    papersusedi nlegal
    t r
    ansact i
    ons,—deeds, mor tgages,i
    nventor
    ies, writ
    s,bailbonds,
    —on
    l
    icensest opracti
    cel
    awandsel l
    liquor,
    oncol l
    egedi pl
    omas, pl
    ayingcar ds,dice,pamphlets,
    newspaper s,al
    manacs, calendars,andadv ertisements.Thedragnetwascl osel
    yknit,f
    or
    scarcelyanythi
    ngescaped.

    TheQuar t
    eri
    ngAct( 1765).—Theministerswereawar et hatt
    heStampActwoul drouseoppositi
    on
    i
    nAmer ica—howgr eattheycouldnotconj ect
    ure.Whi l
    et hemeasurewasbei ngdebated,afr
    iendof
    General
    Wol f
    e,ColonelBar r
    é,whoknewAmer i
    cawel l,
    gav et
    hem anomi nouswar ni
    ngi nt
    he
    Commons." Bel
    iev
    eme—r ememberIt hisdaytoldy ouso—"heexcl ai
    med,"thesamespi ri
    tof
    fr
    eedom whichactuatedt hatpeopl
    eatf ir
    stwillaccompanyt hem sti
    l
    l..
    .apeoplejealousofthei
    r
    l
    iber
    ti
    esandwhowi l
    lvi
    ndi
    catethem, i
    fev ertheyshoul
    dbeviol
    ated."Theanswerofthemini
    str
    yto
    aprophecyofforcewasathreatofforce.Preparat
    ionswer
    eaccor di
    nglymadetodispat
    chalarger
    numberofsoldierst
    hanusualtothecolonies,and
    t
    hei
    nkwashardl
    ydryontheSt
    ampActwhenPar l
    iamentpassedt
    heQuarteri
    ngActorder
    ing
    t
    hecol
    oni
    stst
    oprov
    ideaccommodati
    onsf
    orthesoldier
    swhoweretoenforcethenewlaws.
    "
    Wehavet
    hepowert
    otaxthem,
    "sai
    doneoftheminist
    ry,"
    andwewi
    llt
    axthem."

    Col
    oni
    alResi
    stanceFor
    cesRepeal

    Popul arOpposi ti
    on.—TheSt ampActwasgr eetedinAmer icabyanout burstofdenunci at
    ion.
    Themer chantsoftheseaboar dcitiest ooktheleadi nmaki ngadi gnifi
    edbutunmi stakable
    protest ,agreei
    ngnott oi mportBr i
    tishgoodswhi lethehat edl awst oodupont hebooks.
    Lawy er s,someoft hem i ncensedatt heheav ytaxesont heiroper ati
    onsandot hersinti
    midated
    bypat riotswhor efusedt oper mitthem t ousestampedpaper s,
    joinedwi ththemer chants.
    Aristocr at
    iccoloni
    al Whigs, whohadl onggrumbl edatt headmi nistr
    ati
    onofr oy algovernors,
    protest edagainsttaxationwi thoutt heirconsent,astheWhi gshaddonei nol dEngl and.There
    wer eTor i
    es,however ,i
    nt hecoloniesasi nEngland—manyoft hem oft heoff i
    cialclass—who
    denouncedt hemer chants,lawyers, andWhi gar i
    stocratsas" sediti
    ous, f
    actiousand
    republican."Yettheopposi ti
    ont otheSt ampActandi tsaccompany ingmeasur e,
    theQuar ter
    ing
    Act ,
    gr ewst eadil
    yal l
    throught hesummerof1765.

    Inalittl
    ewhileitwast akenupi nt hestreetsandalongthecount r
    yside.Allthrought heNor t
    h
    andi nsomeoft heSout herncol onies,theresprangup,asifbymagi c,commi t
    t eesand
    societi
    espledgedt oresistt heSt ampActt othebitt
    erend.Thesepopul arsoci etieswere
    knownasSonsofLi bertyandDaught ersofLiberty
    :thefor
    meri ncl
    udingar ti
    sans, mechani
    cs,
    andl aborer
    s;andt helatter,patri
    ot i
    cwomen.Bot hgroupswereal i
    keint hattheyhadasy et
    takenlitt
    lepartinpublicaf f
    airs.Manyar ti
    sans,aswellasallt
    hewomen, wereexcl udedfrom
    therighttovotef orcolonialassembl y
    men.

    Whi l
    et hemer chantsandWhi ggent l
    emenconf i
    nedt hei reffortschiefl
    ytodr aft
    ingwel l-
    phrased
    protest sagai nstBr i
    ti
    shmeasur es, theSonsofLi ber tyoper atedint hestreetsandchose
    roughermeasur es.Theyst i
    rr
    edupr iotsi nBoston,NewYor k,Phi
    ladelphia,andChar l
    eston
    whenat tempt swer emadet osell
    t hest amps.Theysackedandbur nedther esi
    dencesofhi gh
    royal of f
    icers.Theyor ganizedcommi t
    teesofi nquisiti
    onwhobyt hreatsandi nt
    imi dati
    on
    curtailedt hesal eofBr i
    ti
    shgoodsandt heuseofst ampedpaper s.Infact ,
    theSonsofLi bert
    y
    carriedt heiroper ati
    onstosuchexcessest hatmanymi ldopponent softhest ampt axwere
    fri
    ght enedanddr ewbacki nastoni shmentatt hefor cest heyhadunl oosed.TheDaught ersof
    Libertyi naqui et
    erwaywer emaki ngav eryeff
    ecti
    v er esistancetot hesal eofthehat edgoods
    byspur ringondomest i
    cindustri
    es, theirownpar ticularpr ov i
    ncebei ngthemanuf actureof
    clothing, anddev i
    singsubst i
    tut
    esf ortaxedf oods.Theyhel pedtofeedandcl othet hei
    rfamili
    es
    withoutbuy ingBr it
    ishgoods.

    Pat
    ri
    ckHenr
    y

    Legisl
    ati
    veActionagai
    nsttheSt ampAct.
    —Leadersint
    hecol oni
    alassembli
    es,accustomedto
    batt
    leagainstBri
    ti
    shpoli
    cies,suppor
    tedt
    hepopularpr
    otest.TheStampActwassi gnedonMarch
    22,1765.OnMay30, t
    heVi r
    gini
    aHouseofBurgessespassedasetofr esol
    uti
    onsdecl ar
    ingt
    hat
    theGener
    alAssembl
    yofthecol
    onyal
    onehadt
    her
    ightt
    olayt
    axesupont
    hei
    nhabi
    tant
    sandt
    hat
    att
    emptstoimposet
    hem
    otherwi
    sewer e"i
    ll
    egal,unconst
    it
    uti
    onal
    ,andunj
    ust.
    "Itwasinsupportoftheseresol
    uti
    onst
    hat
    Patri
    ckHenr yut
    ter
    edt heimmor t
    alchal
    l
    enge:"
    CæsarhadhisBrutus,CharlesIhi
    sCromwell
    ,and
    GeorgeII
    I..
    ..
    "
    Criesof"Treason"wer ecalmlymetbytheoratorwhofini
    shed:"GeorgeI I
    Imayprofi
    tbythei
    r
    example.Ifthatbetreason, makethemostofit.
    "

    TheSt ampActCongr ess.—TheMassachuset tsAssembl yanswer edt hecallofVirginiaby


    i
    nv i
    ti
    ngt hecoloniest oelectdelegatestoaCongr esst obehel dinNewYor ktodiscusst he
    sit
    uati
    on.Ni necol oni
    esr espondedandsentr epresentat i
    ves.Thedel egates,whi l
    epr ofessi
    ng
    thewar mestaf fecti
    onf ortheking'spersonandgov ernment ,fir
    ml yspr eadonr ecordaser i
    es
    ofresoluti
    onst hatadmi ttedofnodoubl emeani ng.Theydecl aredt hatt axescouldnotbe
    i
    mposedwi t
    houtt hei
    rconsent ,giventhroughtheirrespect i
    vecol oni al assemblies;thatthe
    StampActshowedat endencyt osubv ertthei
    rri
    ght sandl iber
    t i
    es; thatt herecentt r
    adeact s
    werebur densomeandgr ievous;andthatt her
    ighttopet i
    ti
    ont heki ngandPar l
    iamentwas
    thei
    rher i
    tage.Theyt hereuponmade" humbl esupplication"forther epeal oftheSt ampAct .

    TheStampActCongr esswasmor ethananassembl yofpr ot


    est.I
    tmarkedt heri
    seofanew
    agencyofgovernmenttoexpresst
    hewi l
    lofAmerica.Itwasthegerm ofagov ernmentwhich
    i
    nt i
    mewast osupersedethegovernmentofGeorgeIIIinthecoloni
    es.I
    tforeshadowedthe
    CongressoftheUni
    tedStatesundertheConst
    itut
    ion.Itwasasuccessf ulat
    temptatunion.
    "Ther
    eoughttobenoNewEngl andmen,"decl
    aredChr ist
    opherGadsden,intheStampAct
    Congress,
    "noNewYor ker
    sknownont heCont
    inent,butallofusAmer i
    cans."

    TheRepeal oftheStampActandt heSugarAct.—TheeffectofAmer i


    canresi
    stanceonopini
    onin
    Englandwast ell
    i
    ng.Commer cewiththecoloni
    eshadbeenef fect
    ivel
    yboycott
    edbyt heAmeri
    cans;
    shipslayidl
    yswingingatthewharves;bankr
    uptcyt
    hreatenedhundredsofmerchantsinLondon,
    Brist
    ol,andLiver
    pool.Worki
    ngmeni nthemanufact
    uringtownsofEnglandwer ethr
    ownoutof
    empl oyment.Thegov er
    nmenthadsownf oll
    yandwasr eaping,i
    nplaceofthecovetedrev
    enue,
    rebell
    ion.

    Perplexedbyt hest ormt heyhadr ai


    sed,theministerssummonedt othebaroft heHouseof
    Commons, Benj ami nFr anklin,t
    heagentforPennsy lvani
    a,whowasi nLondon." Doyout hinkit
    ri
    ght ,
    "askedGr env ill
    e,"thatAmer i
    cashouldbepr otectedbyt hi
    scount r
    yandpaynopar tofthe
    expenses? "Theanswerwasbr i
    ef:"
    Thatisnotthecase; thecoloniesraised,clot
    hed,andpai d
    duringt helastwart went y
    -fi
    v et
    housandmenandspentmanymi ll
    i
    ons."Thencameani nquir
    y
    whet herthecol oni stswoul dacceptamodi f
    iedstampact ."
    No, never,
    "repli
    edFrankli
    n,"never!
    Theywi l
    lneversubmi ttoi t
    !"Itwasnextsuggestedt hatmi l
    i
    taryforcemi ghtcompel obedience
    tolaw.Fr ankli
    nhadar eadyanswer ."Theycannotf orceamant otakest amps...
    .Theymaynot
    fi
    ndar ebell
    ion; theymay ,i
    ndeed,makeone. "

    Ther epealoftheSt ampActwasmov edintheHouseofCommonsaf ewday slater.The


    sponsorf orther epeal spokeofcommer ceint
    errupted,debtsdueBr it
    ishmer chantspl acedin
    j
    eopar dy,Manchest erindust ri
    esclosed,worki
    ngmenunempl oyed, oppr essioni nsti
    tuted,and
    thelossoft hecol oni est hreatened.PittandEdmundBur ke,thef ormerneart hecloseofhi s
    career,t
    hel att
    erj ustbegi nninghis,arguedcogentlyinfavorofr etraci
    ngt hest epstakent he
    yearbefore.Gr env il
    ler efused."Amer i
    camustl earn,"hewailed,"thatpr ayersar enott obe
    broughttoCæsart hroughr i
    otandsedi ti
    on.
    "Hispr otest
    swer eidl e.TheCommonsagr eedto
    therepeal onFebr uary22, 1766,ami dthecheersoft hevict
    or i
    ousmaj or i
    ty.Itwascar r
    ied
    throughtheLor dsi nt hef aceofst r
    ongopposi t
    ionand, onMar ch18, reluctant l
    ysignedbyt he
    king,nowr estoredt ohi srightmind.

    I
    nresci
    ndingt
    heStampAct,Par
    li
    amentdi
    dnotadmitthecont
    enti
    onoftheAmeri
    cansthati
    twas
    wi
    thoutpowert
    otaxthem.Onthecont
    rar
    y,i
    taccompani
    edtherepeal
    withaDecl
    arat
    oryAct
    .It
    announcedthatthecoloniesweresubordi
    nat
    etothecrownandPar
    li
    amentofGreatBri
    tai
    n;t
    hat
    thekingandParli
    amentt heref
    orehadundoubt
    edauthori
    tyt
    omakelawsbi
    ndingthecol
    oniesinal
    l
    caseswhatsoever;andthattheresol
    uti
    onsandpr
    oceedingsoft
    hecol
    oni
    stsdenyi
    ngsuch
    authori
    tywerenull
    andv oid.
    Ther epeal wasgr eetedbyt hecol onistswithgreatpopul
    ardemonst r
    ations.Bellswererung;
    toaststot hekingwer edrunk; andtrader esumedi t
    snormal course.TheDecl arator
    yAct,asa
    mer epaperr esoluti
    on, didnotdi st
    urbt hegoodhumoroft hosewhoagai ncheer edthenameof
    KingGeor ge.Thei rconfidencewassoonst r
    engthenedbythenewst hatev entheSugarActhad
    beenr epealed,thuspr acticall
    yrestoringtheconditi
    onofaffairsbeforeGr envi
    ll
    eandTownshend
    i
    naugur atedtheirpolicyof" thoroughness. "

    Resumpt
    ionofBr
    it
    ishRev
    enueandCommer
    cial
    Pol
    i
    cies

    TheTownshendAct s( 1767).—Thet ri
    umphoft hecol oni st
    swasbr i
    ef.ThoughPi tt,
    thefriendof
    Amer i
    ca, wasoncemor eprimemi nister,andseat edi ntheHouseofLor dsast heEar lof
    Chat ham, hissev ereillnessgav etoTownshendandt heTor ypar typr acti
    cal controlover
    Parli
    ament .Unconv i
    ncedbyt heexper i
    encewi t
    htheSt ampAct ,Townshendbr oughtforwar d
    andpushedt hroughbot hHousesofPar l
    iamentt hr eemeasur es, whicht othisdayar e
    associ atedwi t
    hhi sname.Fi rstamonghi sr estri
    ctiv el awswast hatofJune29, 1767, which
    placedt heenf orcementoft hecol l
    ectionofdut iesandcust omsoncol onialimpor tsand
    expor tsinthehandsofBr i
    ti
    shcommi ssioner sappoi nt edbyt heki ng,resi
    denti nt hecolonies,
    paidf rom theBr i
    tisht reasury,andindependentofal lcont r
    ol byt hecol onists.Thesecond
    measur eofthesamedat eimposedat axonl ead,gl ass, paint,tea, andaf ewot herarti
    cles
    i
    mpor tedintothecol onies,therevenueder i
    v edf r
    om t hedut iest obeappl i
    edt owar dthe
    pay mentoft hesal ar
    iesandot herexpensesofr oy al colonialofficials.Athirdmeasur ewast he
    TeaActofJul y2, 1767, aimedatt het eat r
    adewhi cht heAmer i
    canscar ri
    edoni ll
    egall
    ywi th
    foreigners.Thislawabol i
    shedt hedutywhi cht heEastI ndi
    aCompanyhadt opayi nEngl andon
    teaexpor t
    edt oAmer ica,foritwast houghtt hatEngl isht eamer chant smi ghtt husf i
    ndit
    possi bletounder sellAmer i
    cant easmuggl ers.

    WritsofAssi stanceLegal i
    zedbyPar l
    iament.—HadPar l
    iamentbeencont entwi t
    hl ayingduties,
    j
    ustasamani festati
    onofpowerandr ight
    ,andnegl ectedthei
    rcollection, perhapsl it
    tlewould
    havebeenhear doft heTownshendAct s.I
    tprovided,howev er
    ,forthest r i
    ct,event hehar sh,
    enforcementoft helaw.Itorderedcustomsof f
    icerstor emainatthei rpost sandputanendt o
    smuggl i
    ng.Int her ev
    enueactofJune29, 1767,itexpresslyauthorizedt hesuper iorcour tsof
    thecoloniest oissue"wr i
    tsofassist
    ance,"empower i
    ngcustomsof fi
    cerst oenter" anyhouse,
    warehouse, shop, cell
    ar,orotherpl
    acei nt
    heBritishcoloniesorplant ati
    onsi nAmer i
    cato
    searchforandsei ze"prohibi
    tedorsmuggl edgoods.

    Thewr itofassistance,whichwasagener al searchwarr


    antissuedt or evenueofficers,wasan
    ancientdevicehat ef
    ultoapeopl ewhocher ishedthespi
    ritofpersonal independenceandwho
    hadmadeact ual gai
    nsi nt
    hepr act
    iceofcivill
    ibert
    y.Toal
    lowa" mi nionoft helaw"t oentera
    man' shouseandsear chhispapersandpr emi ses,wast
    oomuchf ort heemot ionsofpeopl e
    whohadf l
    edt oAmer i
    cainaquestf orsel
    f-gov er
    nmentandf r
    eehomes, whohadbr avedsuch
    hardshipstoest abli
    shthem, andwhowant edt otr
    adewit
    houtof fi
    cialinterf
    erence.

    Thewr itofassi st
    ancehadbeenusedi nMassachuset tsi n1755t opr ev entil
    l
    icittr
    adewi thCanada
    andhadar ousedav i
    olenthost i
    li
    tyatt hatt i
    me.I n1761i twasagai nt hesubj ectofabi t
    ter
    controversywhi char osei nconnectionwi t
    ht heapplicationofacust omsof fi
    cert oa
    Massachuset tscourtforwr it
    sofassi st ance" asusual .
    "Thi sapplicationwasv ainl
    yopposedby
    JamesOt isi naspeechoff i
    vehour s'dur ati
    on—aspeechofsuchf ireandel oquencet hatitsent
    everymanwhohear ditaway" readyt ot akeupar msagai nstwri
    tsofassi stance."Oti
    sdenounced
    thepracticeasanexer ciseofarbi
    trarypowerwhi chhadcostoneki nghi sheadandanot herhis
    thr
    one, atyr ant'sdevicewhi chplacedt helibertyofev erymani nj eopar dy,enablinganypet t
    yof f
    icer
    towor kpossi blemal i
    ceonanyi nnocentci t
    izenont hemer estsuspi ci on,andt ospreadt err
    orand
    desolati
    ont hr ought hel and."Whatascene, "heexcl aimed, "
    doest hisopen!Ev eryman, promptedby
    revenge,il
    l-humor ,
    orwant onnesstoi nspectt heinsi
    deofhi sneighbor 'shouse, maygetawr itof
    assi
    stance.Other
    swill
    aski tf
    rom self
    -def
    ense;onear
    bit
    raryexerti
    onwill
    provokeanotherunt
    il
    societ
    yisinvol
    vedint
    umul tandblood."Hedidmorethanattackthewriti
    tsel
    f.Hesaidthat
    Parl
    iamentcouldnotestabl
    ishitbecauseitwasagai
    nsttheBrit
    ishconsti
    tuti
    on.Thi
    swasan
    assert
    ionresti
    ngon
    sl
    enderfoundation,butitwasquicklyechoedbythepeopl
    e.Thenandt her
    eJamesOt is
    soundedthecall t
    oAmer i
    catoresistt
    heexerci
    seofarbi
    trarypowerbyr oyal
    of f
    icers."Then
    andther
    e,"wroteJohnAdams, "thechil
    dIndependencewasbor n."Suchwasthehat edwritt
    hat
    Townshendpr oposedt oputint
    ot hehandsofcustomsofficer
    si nhisgri
    m determinationto
    enfor
    cethelaw.

    TheNewYor kAssemblySuspended. —Inthever


    ymont hthatTownshend' sActswer esigned
    bytheking, Parl
    iamentt
    ookast il
    lmor edrast
    icstep.Theassembl yofNewYor k, protesting
    againstthe"rui
    nousandinsuppor t
    able"expenseinvol
    v ed,hadfail
    edt omakepr ov i
    sionf orthe
    careofBr i
    ti
    sht r
    oopsinaccordancewi ththeter
    msoft heQuar t
    eri
    ngAct .Parl
    i
    amentt her ef
    ore
    suspendedt heassemblyuntili
    tpromi sedtoobeythelaw.I twasnotunt ilat
    hirdelect i
    onwas
    heldthatcompl i
    ancewiththeQuar ter
    ingActwaswr ungf rom therel
    uct antprovince.Int he
    meant i
    me, allt
    hecoloni
    eshadl earnedonhowf railafoundationtheirrepresentativebodi es
    rest
    ed.

    RenewedResi
    stancei
    nAmer
    ica

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Samuel
    Adams

    TheMassachuset tsCi rcular( 1768).—Massachuset ts,undertheleader shi


    pofSamuel Adams,
    resolvedt oresistthepol i
    cyofr enewedinter v
    ent ioni nAmer i
    ca.Athi ssuggest iont he
    assembl yadopt edaCi r
    cularLet t
    eraddressedt ot heassembl iesoft heothercol onies
    i
    nf ormingt hem oft hest ateofaf fai
    rsi
    nMassachuset tsandr oundlycondemni ngt hewhole
    Briti
    shpr ogram.TheCi rcularLet t
    erdecl
    ar edt hatPar l
    iamenthadnor i
    ghttolayt axeson
    Amer icanswi thoutt heirconsentandt hatt hecol oni st
    scoul dnot,from thenatur eoft hecase,
    ber epresentedi nPar li
    ament .Itwentonshr ewdl yt osubmi ttoconsi derat
    ionthequest i
    onas
    towhet heranypeopl ecoul dbecal l
    edfr
    eewhower esubjectedt ogov ernorsandj udges
    appoi nt
    edbyt hecrownandpai doutoffundsr aisedi ndependently.Itinvi
    tedtheot her
    colonies,inthemostt emper at etones,t
    ot aket houghtaboutt hecommonpr edicamenti n
    whi chtheywer eallplaced.

    TheDi ssoluti
    onofAssembl i
    es.—Thegov ernorofMassachuset ts,hear i
    ngoft heCi rcul
    arLet ter
    ,
    orderedtheassembl ytorescinditsappeal.Onmeet i
    ngr efusal,hepr ompt lydissolvedit.The
    Mar yl
    and, Georgi
    a, andSouthCar oli
    naassembl iesindorsedt heCi rcularLetterandwer eal so
    dissolvedatonce.TheVi r
    gini
    aHouseofBur gesses,thoroughlyar oused, passedr esolutions
    onMay16, 1769,declar
    ingthatthesol er
    ightofi mposingt axesi nVirginiawasv estedini ts
    l
    egislature,asser
    tinganewt herightofpetiti
    ont othecr own, condemni ngthet ransportationof
    personsaccusedofcr imesort ri
    albeyondt heseas, andbeseechi ngt heki ngf orar edr
    essof
    thegener algri
    evances.Thei mmedi atedi
    ssol uti
    onoft heVi r
    giniaassembl y,initsturn,wast he
    answeroft heroyalgovernor.

    TheBost
    onMassacr
    e.—Amer
    icanopposi
    ti
    ont
    otheBr
    it
    ishaut
    hor
    it
    ieskeptst
    eadi
    l
    yri
    singas
    assembli
    eswer edissol
    ved,thehousesofcitizenssearched,andtr
    oopsdi
    stri
    but
    edin
    i
    ncreasi
    ngnumber samongt hecentersofdiscontent
    .Mer chant
    sagai
    nagreednott
    oimport
    Bri
    ti
    shgoods, t
    heSonsofLi bertyrenewedtheiragit
    ati
    on,andwomensetaboutthepatr
    onage
    ofhomepr oductssti
    llmoreloyall
    y.
    Ontheni ghtofMar ch5, 1770, acr owdont hestreet
    sofBost onbegantojost
    leandtease
    someBr iti
    shr egul
    arsstati
    onedi nt hetown.Thi
    ngswentf r
    om badt oworseuntil
    some" boy s
    andyoungf ell
    ows"begant ot hrowsnowbal l
    sandstones.Thentheexasperat
    edsoldiersfir
    ed
    i
    ntothecr owd, ki
    ll
    i
    ngf i
    v eandwoundi nghalfadozenmore.Thedayaf t
    erthe"massacre,"a
    massmeet ingwasheldi nt het ownandSamuel Adamswassentt odemandt hewit
    hdrawal of
    thesoldi
    ers.Thegov ernorhesi tatedandt ri
    edtocompromi se.Fi
    ndingAdamsr el
    ent
    less,the
    governoryieldedandor deredt her egular
    saway .

    TheBostonMassacr est i
    rr
    edt hecount ryfrom NewHampshi r
    etoGeor gia.Popularpassi
    onsran
    hi
    gh.Thegui l
    tysoldi
    erswer echar gedwi t
    hmur der.Theirdef
    ensewasunder taken,i
    nspit
    eoft he
    wrathofthepopulace,byJohnAdamsandJosi ahQuincy,whoasl awyersthoughtev ent
    hewor st
    off
    endersentit
    ledtotheirful
    lrightsinlaw.Inhisspeecht othejury,however,Adamswar nedthe
    Bri
    ti
    shgov er
    nmentagai nstit
    scour se,sayi
    ng,that"f
    rom thenatureofthingssoldier
    squarter
    edina
    populoustownwi l
    lal
    way soccasi ont womobswher etheywi l
    lpreventone."Twooft hesoldi
    ers
    wereconvict
    edandl i
    ghtlypunished.

    Resist
    ancei ntheSouth.
    —They earfoll
    owingtheBost onMassacresomeci tizensofNor t
    h
    Caroli
    na,goadedbyt heconductoftheroyalgovernor,openl
    yresi
    stedhisaut horit
    y.Manywer e
    ki
    ll
    edasar esultandsevenwhower etakenprisonerswerehangedast rai
    tors.Al i
    ttl
    elat
    erroyal
    tr
    oopsandl ocalmil
    it
    iametinapitchedbattl
    enearAl amanceRiver
    , cal
    l
    edt he" Lexi
    ngtonofthe
    South."

    TheGaspeeAf fai
    randt heVirginiaResol utionsof1773. —Onseaaswel lasonl and,fr
    ict
    ion
    betweent her oyaloffi
    cer sandt hecol onistsbrokeoutintoov er
    tacts.Whi l
    epatrol
    li
    ngNar ragansett
    Baylookingf orsmuggl ersonedayi n1772, t
    hear medship,Gaspee, r
    anashor eandwascaught
    fast
    .Duringt heni ghtsev eralmenf rom Pr ovidenceboardedthev esseland,aft
    erseizi
    ngt hecrew,
    setitonfire.Ar oyalcommi ssion, sentt oRhodeI slandtodiscovertheof f
    endersandbr i
    ngt hem to
    account,fail
    edbecausei tcouldnotf i
    ndasi ngleinf
    ormer.Thev eryappointmentofsucha
    commi ssionar ousedt hepat ri
    ot sofVi r
    giniatoact i
    on;andinMar ch,1773,theHouseofBur gesses
    passedar esol uti
    oncr eatingast andi ngcommi t
    teeofcorrespondencet odevelopcoöperation
    amongt hecol oni
    esinr esistancet oBr i
    ti
    shmeasur es.

    TheBost onTeaPar t
    y .
    —Althought heBr i
    ti
    shgov ernment,fi
    ndingtheTownshendr evenueacta
    fail
    ur e,repealedin1770al lthedut i
    esexceptt hatont ea,
    itinnowayr elaxedi t
    sr esolveto
    enf orcet heothercommer ci
    al regulati
    onsithadi mposedont hecol onies.Mor eov er,
    Par li
    amentdeci dedtorel
    ievet heBr it
    ishEastIndiaCompanyoft hef i
    nanci aldi
    ffi
    cul t
    iesinto
    whi chi thadf al
    lenpart
    lybyr easonoft heTeaActandt hecolonialboy cottthatfollowed.In
    1773i tagr eedtoret
    urntot heCompanyt heregularimportduties,l
    ev i
    edi nEngland, onal lt
    ea
    transshi ppedt oAmer i
    ca.Asmal limpostoft hreepence,tobecol l
    ect edinAmer ica,wasl ef
    tas
    ar emi nderoft hepri
    ncipl
    el aiddowni ntheDecl ar
    atoryActthatPar l
    iamenthadt her ighttotax
    thecol oni sts.

    Thisar rangementwi t
    ht heEastI ndiaCompanywasobnoxi oustot hecol onistsforsev eral
    reasons.I twasanactoff av ori
    tism foronething,intheinterestofagr eatmonopol y.For
    anot herthing,i
    tpromi sedt odumpont heAmer icanmar ket,suddenly ,
    ani mmenseamountof
    cheapt eaandsocauseheav ylossestoAmer i
    canmer chantswhohadl argest ocksonhand.I t
    threatenedwi thruinthebusi nessofal lthosewhower eengagedi nclandest inetradewi ththe
    Dut ch.Itcarri
    edwi t
    hi tani rr
    it
    atingtaxoft hr
    eepenceoni mpor ts.InChar leston,Annapol is,
    New
    Yor k,andBost on,captainsofshi pswhobr oughtteaundert hi
    sactwer er oughlyhandl ed.One
    nightinDecember ,1773, abandofBost oncit
    izens,disguisedasI ndians, boardedt hehat edtea
    shipsanddumpedt hecar gointot heharbor.Thiswasser i
    ousbusi ness, foritwasopen,
    fl
    agr ant,deter
    mi nedv i
    olationoft helaw.Assucht heBr i
    ti
    shgov ernmentv i
    ewedi t.
    Ret
    ali
    ati
    onbyt
    heBr
    it
    ishGov
    ernment

    Recept
    ionoft
    heNewsoftheTeaRi
    ot.
    —Thenewsofthet
    eari
    otinBost
    onconf
    ir
    medKingGeor
    ge
    i
    nhisconvi
    cti
    ont
    hatt
    hereshoul
    dbenosof
    tpoli
    cyi
    ndeal
    ingwit
    hhisAmeri
    cansubj
    ect
    s."
    Thedi
    e
    i
    scast,
    "
    hest atedwi t
    hev i
    dentsat i
    sfacti
    on."
    Thecol oni
    esmustei t
    hertr
    iumphorsubmi t..
    ..Ifwet ake
    ther esolute
    part,theywi l
    l undoubtedlybev erymeek."LordGeor geGermai
    nchar acteri
    zedthet eapar tyas
    "thepr oceedingsofat umultuousandriotousrabblewhoought,iftheyhadt heleastpr udence,
    tofol l
    owt heirmer cantil
    eempl oymentsandnott r
    oublethemselveswithpol i
    ti
    csand
    gov ernment ,whicht heydonotunder st
    and."Thisexpressed,
    inconcisef or
    m, exactlythe
    sent i
    ment sofLor dNor t
    h,whohadt henfort hr
    eey ear
    sbeentheking'schiefminister.EvenPi t
    t,
    LordChat ham, waspr eparedt osupportt
    hegov ernmentinupholdi
    ngi t
    saut hor
    ity.

    TheFi veI ntolerableAct s.—Par liament ,beginni ngonMar ch31, 1774, passedf iv
    est ringent
    measur es, knowni nAmer icanhi st
    oryast hef ive"int ol
    er ableact s.
    "Theywer eaimedatcur ing
    theunr estinAmer ca.Thef
    i i
    r stoft hem wasabi llabsol utelyshut t
    ingt hepor tofBost onto
    commer cewi ththeout si
    dewor d.Thesecond,
    l followingcl osely,revokedt heMassachuset ts
    char t
    erof1691andpr ovi
    dedf ur t
    hermor ethatt hecounci l
    or sshoul dbeappoi nt
    edbyt heki
    ng,
    thatalljudgesshoul dbenamedbyt her oyal gov ernor ,andt hattownmeet i
    ngs( exceptt oelect
    certainof fi
    cers)coul dnotbehel dwithoutt hegov ernor'sconsent .At hirdmeasur e,af ter
    denounci ngthe" uttersubv ersionofal ll
    awf ul gov er nment "inthepr ovinces,author i
    zedr oyal
    agent stot ransfertoGr eatBr it
    ai nortoot hercol oni esthet ri
    alsofof fi
    cer sorotherper sons
    accusedofmur derinconnect i
    onwi t
    ht heenf orcementoft helaw.Thef our t
    hactl egal i
    zedthe
    quar t
    eringoft r
    oopsi nMassachuset tst owns.Thef if
    thoft hemeasur eswast heQuebecAct ,
    whi chgr antedr el
    igioust olerationt otheCat holicsi nCanada, extendedt heboundar iesof
    Quebecsout hwar dt otheOhi oRi ver,andest abl ished, int hiswest ernr egion,governmentbya
    viceroy.

    Thei ntolerabl
    eact swentt hr oughPar l
    iamentwi thextraordinarycel eri
    ty.Ther ewasan
    opposi ti
    on, al
    ertandi nformed; butitwasi neffective.Burkespokeel oquentlyagai nstthe
    Bostonpor tbil
    l,condemni ngi troundlyforpuni shingthei nnocentwi ththegui l
    ty,and
    showi nghowl i
    kelyitwast obr i
    nggr aveconsequencesi ni tstrain.Hewashear dwi threspect
    andhi spl easwer erejected.Thebi llpassedbot hhouseswi thoutadi vi
    sion,t heent r
    y
    "unanimous"bei ngmadeupont hei
    rjournalsalthoughi tdi dnotaccur atel
    yr epr esentthestate
    ofopi ni
    on.Thel awdest royingthechar terofMassachuset tspassedt heCommonsbyav ote
    ofthreet oone; andt het hi
    rdi nt
    olerableactbyav ot eoffourt oone.Thet ri
    umphoft he
    ministrywascompl ete."Whatpassedi nBost on,"exclaimedt hegr eatjurist
    , Lor dMansf i
    eld,
    "i
    stheov ertactofHi ghTr easonpr oceedi ngfrom ourov erlenityandwantoff oresight.
    "The
    crownandPar l
    iamentwer euni tedinresor t
    ingtopuni ti
    vemeasur es.

    Inthecol oniesthelawswer erecei


    vedwi t
    hconst er nat
    ion.Tot heAmer i
    canProtest ant
    s,the
    QuebecActwast hemostof fensiv
    e.Thatpr ojectt heyv i
    ewednotasanactofgr aceorofmer cy
    butasadi rectatt
    emptt oenli
    stFrenchCanadi ansont hesi deofGr eatBr
    it
    ain.TheBr i
    ti
    sh
    gov er
    nmentdi dnotgrantrel
    igi
    oust olerat
    iontoCat hol
    icseitherathomeori nIrelandandt he
    Amer icanscoul dseenogoodmot ivei ngranti
    ngi tinNor t
    hAmer i
    ca.Theactwasal so
    offensivebecauseMassachuset t
    s,Connect icut,andVi rgi
    niahad,underthei
    rchar ters,l
    arge
    claimsi ntheterri
    toryt
    husannexedt oQuebec.

    Toenf orcet
    hesei nt
    olerabl
    eactsthemili
    taryarm oft
    heBr i
    tishgovernmentwasbroughti
    ntoplay.
    Thecommander -
    in-chiefoft
    hearmedf orcesinAmerica,GeneralGage,wasappoint
    edgovernorof
    Massachusetts.Reinforcementswerebroughttothecolonies,f
    ornowKi ngGeorgewastogive"the
    rebel
    s,"ashecalledthem, atast
    eofstrongmedi ci
    ne.Themaj estyofhislawwastobev i
    ndi
    cated
    byforce.

    Fr
    om Ref
    ormt
    oRev
    olut
    ioni
    nAmer
    ica

    TheDoct
    ri
    neofNat
    ural
    Right
    s.—Thedi
    ssol
    uti
    onofassembl
    i
    es,
    thedest
    ruct
    ionofchar
    ter
    s,and
    theuseoftroopsproducedinthecoloniesanewphasei nthestruggl
    e.Intheearl
    ydaysofthe
    contestwit
    ht heBri
    ti
    shminist
    ry,
    theAmer i
    cansspokeoft heir"
    ri
    ghtsasEnglishmen"and
    condemnedt heactsofParl
    iamentasunl awful,asvi
    olati
    ngthepr i
    nci
    plesoftheEngl
    ish
    consti
    tut
    ionunderwhichtheyalll
    ived.Whent heysawt hatsuchargumentshadnoef fecton
    Parl
    iament,theytur
    nedforsupporttotheir"
    natural
    ri
    ghts."Thel atterdoct r
    ine,inthef ormi nwhi chitwasempl oy edbyt hecol oni
    sts,wasas
    Engli
    shast heconst i
    t uti
    onal argument .JohnLockehadusedi twithgoodef f
    ectindef enseof
    theEnglishr evoluti
    oni nthesev enteent hcent ury.Amer icanl eaders,fami l
    iarwiththewr iti
    ngs
    ofLocke, alsot ookuphi sthesisint hehouroft heirdistr
    ess.Theyopenl ydeclaredthatt heir
    ri
    ghtsdidnotr estafteral lupont heEngl ishconst i
    tutionorachar terfrom thecr own."Old
    MagnaCar tawasnott hebegi nningofal lthi
    ngs, "retort
    edOt i
    swhent heconstitut
    ional
    argumentf ailed."AtimemaycomewhenPar li
    amentshal l declareev eryAmer icanchar t
    erv oid,
    butthenat ural,inher
    ent ,andi nseparabl er i
    ght soft hecolonist sasmenandasci t
    izenswoul d
    remai nandwhat everbecameofchar terscannev erbeabol i
    shedunt i
    l t
    hegener al
    conflagrat
    ion."Oft hesameopi nionwast hey oungandi mpet uousAl exanderHami l
    ton."The
    sacredrightsofmanki nd,"heexcl aimed, "arenott ober ummagedf oramongol dparchment s
    ormust yrecor ds.Theyar ewr it
    tenaswi thasunbeam i nt hewhol ev olumeofhumandest inyby
    thehandofdi vinit
    yitself,andcannev erbeer asedorobscur edbymor t
    alpower .
    "

    Firm ast heAmer i


    canleaderswer einthestatementanddef enseoft hei rri
    ghts,thereisev ery
    reasonf orbel i
    evingthatinthebeginningtheyhopedt oconfinet heconf li
    cttother ealm ofopinion.
    Theyconst antl
    yav owedt hattheywereloyal t
    ot heki ngwhenpr otestinginthest rongestlanguage
    againsthi spolici
    es.EvenOt is,r
    egardedbyt heloyalistsasaf ir
    ebrand, wasinf actattempt ingto
    avertrevolutionbywi nningconcessionsfrom Engl and."Iarguet hiscausewi ththegr eater
    pleasure,"hesol emnlyur gedinhisspeechagai nstthewr it
    sofassi stance, "
    asitisinf avorof
    Brit
    ishliberty..
    .andasi ti si
    noppositi
    ontoaki ndofpower ,theexer ciseofwhi chi nformer
    periodscostoneki ngofEngl andhisheadandanot herhisthr one."

    BurkeOf ferstheDoct ri
    neofConci l
    iati
    on.—Thef l
    oodi ngti
    deofAmer icansent imentwascor rectl
    y
    measur edbyoneEngl i
    shmanatl east,EdmundBur ke,whoqui ckl
    ysawt hatat tempt stor estrainthe
    ri
    seofAmer i
    candemocr acywer eef f
    ortst oreverset heprocessesofnat ure.Hesawhowf i
    xedand
    rootedint henat ureoft hingswast heAmer i
    canspi rit
    —howi nev i
    table, howi rr
    esi sti
    ble.Hewar ned
    hiscount r
    y ment hatt hereweret hreeway sofhandl ingthedel icatesi tuation—andonl ythr ee.One
    wast oremov ethecauseoff r
    ictionbychangi ngt hespiri
    toft hecol oni sts—anut teri
    mpossi bil
    it
    y
    becauset hatspi ri
    twasgr oundedi ntheessent i
    al ci
    rcumst ancesofAmer i
    canl i
    fe.Thesecondwas
    toprosecut eAmer icanleadersascr i
    mi nals;
    oft hishebeggedhi scount ryment obewar el estthe
    colonist
    sdecl aret hat"agov ernmentagai nstwhi chacl ai
    m ofl i
    bertyist antamountt ohi ght reason
    i
    sagov ernmentt owhi chsubmi ssi
    oni sequiv al
    entt oslavery."Thet hi rdandr ightwayt omeett he
    problem, Burkeconcl uded,wast oacceptt heAmer i
    canspi ri
    t,repeal theobnoxi ousmeasur es,and
    receivethecol oniesi ntoequal part
    nership.

    Ev entsPr oducet heGreatDeci sion.—Ther i


    ghtway , i
    ndicatedbyBur ke,wasequal l
    yimpossi ble
    toGeor geI IIandt hemaj or
    ityinPar li
    ament .Tot heirnarrowmi nds,Amer i
    canopi nionwas
    cont empt i
    bleandAmer icanr esistanceunl awful,ri
    otous,andt reasonabl e.Thecor rectway ,i
    n
    theirv i
    ew, wastodi spatchmor etroopst ocr ushthe" rebels";
    andt hatv eryactt ookthecont est
    from t her ealm ofopinion.AsJohnAdamssai d: "
    Factsar estubbor nthings."Opi ni
    onswer e
    unseen, butmar chingsoldierswer ev i
    sibl
    et ot heverieststreeturchin."Now, "saidGouv erneur
    Mor ris,"thesheep, si
    mpl east heyar e,cannotbegul l
    edasher etofore."I
    twast oolatetot alk
    aboutt heexcel l
    enceoft heBr iti
    shconst i
    tuti
    on.Ifanyonei sbewi lderedbyt hecont r
    oversiesof
    moder nhi stori
    ansast owhyt hecr isiscameatl ast,hecancl arifyhisunder standingbyr eading
    agai nEdmundBur ke'
    sst at
    elyor ati
    on, OnConci l
    i
    ationwi thAmer ica.

    Ref
    erences

    G.
    L.Beer
    ,Br
    it
    ishCol
    oni
    alPol
    i
    cy(
    1754-
    63)
    .

    E.Channi Hi
    ng, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    Vol
    .II
    I.
    R.Fr
    othi Ri
    ngham, seoft
    heRepubl
    i
    c.

    G.
    E.Howar
    d,Pr
    eli
    minar
    iesoft
    heRev
    olut
    ion(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .
    J.
    K.Hosmer
    ,SamuelAdams.

    J.
    T.Mor Benj
    se, ami
    nFr
    ankl
    i
    n.

    M.
    C.Ty
    ler
    ,Pat
    ri
    ckHenr
    y.

    J.
    A.Woodbur
    n(edi
    tor
    ),TheAmer
    icanRev
    olut
    ion(
    Sel
    ect
    ionsf
    rom t
    heEngl
    i
    shwor
    kbyLecky
    ).

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Showhowt
    hechar
    act
    erofGeor
    geI
    IImadef
    ort
    roubl
    ewi
    tht
    hecol
    oni
    es.

    2.
    Expl
    ainwhyt
    hepar
    tyandpar
    li
    ament
    arysy
    stemsofEngl
    andf
    avor
    edt
    hepl
    ansofGeor
    geI
    II
    .

    3.
    Howdi
    dthest
    ateofEngl
    i
    shf
    inancesaf
    fectEngl
    i
    shpol
    i
    cy?

    4.Enumerat
    efi
    veimport
    antmeasuresoft
    heEngl
    i
    shgov
    ernmentaf
    fect
    ingt
    hecol
    oni
    es
    between1763and1765.Expl
    aineachi
    ndetai
    l
    .

    5.
    Descr
    ibeAmer
    icanr
    esi
    stancet
    otheSt
    ampAct
    .Whatwast
    heout
    come?

    6.
    ShowhowEngl
    andr
    enewedherpol
    i
    cyofr
    egul
    ati
    oni
    n1767.

    7.
    Summar
    izet
    heev
    ent
    sconnect
    edwi
    thAmer
    icanr
    esi
    stance.

    8.
    Wit
    hwhatmeasur
    esdi
    dGr
    eatBr
    it
    ainr
    etal
    i
    ate?

    9.
    Cont
    rast"
    const
    it
    uti
    onal
    "wi
    th"
    nat
    ural
    "ri
    ght
    s.

    10.
    Whatsol
    uti
    ondi
    dBur
    keof
    fer
    ?Whywasi
    trej
    ect
    ed?

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    PowersConf
    erredonRev
    enueOf
    fi
    cer
    sbyWr
    it
    sofAssi
    stance.
    —Seeawr
    iti
    nMacdonal
    d,
    Sour
    ceBook,p.109.

    TheActsofParl
    i
    amentRespect
    ingAmer
    ica.
    —Macdonal
    d,pp.117-
    146.Assi
    gnonet
    oeach
    st
    udentforr
    eportandcomment
    .

    Sour
    ceStudi
    esont
    heSt
    ampAct
    .—Har
    t,Amer
    icanHi
    stor
    yTol
    dbyCont
    empor
    ari
    es,
    Vol
    .II
    ,pp.
    394-
    412.

    Sour
    ceSt
    udi
    esoft
    heTownshendAct
    s.—Har
    t,Vol
    .II
    ,pp.413-
    433.

    Ameri
    canPri
    ncipl
    es.
    —Prepar
    eat abl
    eofthem fr
    om theResolut
    ionsoft
    heSt
    ampAct
    Congr
    essandtheMassachuset
    tsCircul
    ar.Macdonal
    d,pp.136-
    146.

    AnEngl
    i
    shHi
    stor
    ian'
    sVi
    ewoft
    hePer
    iod.
    —Gr Shor
    een, tHi
    stor
    yofEngl
    and,
    Chap.X.

    Engl
    i
    shPol
    i
    cyNotI
    njur
    ioust
    oAmer
    ica.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,Economi
    cHi
    stor
    y,pp.85-
    121.
    AReviewofEngl
    i
    shPol
    i
    cy.
    —Woodr
    owWi
    l Hi
    son, st
    oryoft
    heAmer
    icanPeopl
    e,Vol
    .II
    ,pp.129-
    170.

    TheOpeni
    ngoft
    heRev
    olut
    ion.
    —El Hi
    son, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.220-
    235.

    CHAPTERVI
    THEAMERI
    CANREVOLUTI
    ON

    Resi
    stanceandRet
    ali
    ati
    on

    TheCont inental Congress.


    —Whent henewsoft he" i
    ntoler
    ableact s"reachedAmer i
    ca,ev eryone
    knewwhatst r
    ongmedi ci
    nePar li
    amentwaspr epar edtoadmi nist
    ertoal lt
    hosewhor esistedits
    author
    ity.ThecauseofMassachuset tsbecamet hecauseofal l t
    hecol oni
    es.Opposit
    iont oBrit
    ish
    poli
    cy,hit
    hertol ocalandspasmodi c, nowt ookonanat i
    onal character.Tolocalcommi t
    teesand
    provi
    ncialconv entionswasaddedaCont inentalCongr ess,appr opri
    atelycall
    edbyMassachuset ts
    onJune17, 1774, attheinstigati
    onofSamuel Adams.Ther esponset othesummonswasel ectri
    c.
    Byhurriedandi rregularmet hodsdel egateswer eel ecteddur i
    ngt hesummer ,andonSept ember5
    theCongr essdul yassembl edi nCarpent er'
    sHall i
    nPhi l
    adelphia.Manyoft hegreat
    estmeni n
    Amer i
    cawer et here—Geor geWashi ngt onandPat rickHenr yfrom VirginiaandJohnandSamuel
    Adamsf r
    om Massachuset ts.Ev er
    yshadeofopi nionwasr epresented.Somewer eimpat i
    entwith
    milddev i
    ces;themaj ori
    tyfavoredmoder ation.

    TheCongressdrewupadecl ar
    ationofAmer i
    canright
    sandst atedinclearanddigni
    fied
    l
    anguagethegri
    evancesofthecol oni
    sts.Itappr
    ov edt
    her esistancetoBr i
    ti
    shmeasur es
    off
    eredbyMassachusett
    sandpr omi sedtheunitedsuppor tofallsecti
    ons.Itprepar
    edan
    addresst
    oKingGeorgeandanot hertot hepeopleofEngland, disavowingtheideaof
    i
    ndependencebutfi
    rmlyatt
    ackingt hepoli
    ciespursuedbyt heBr it
    ishgovernment.

    TheNon- I
    mpor t
    ati
    onAgr eement .
    —TheCongr esswasnotcont ent,howev er,wi t
    hpr ofessi
    ons
    off ait
    handwi thpeti
    ti
    ons.I ttookoner ev oluti
    onaryst ep.Itagreedt ostopt hei mpor t
    ationof
    Br i
    ti
    shgoodsi ntoAmer ica, andtheenf orcementoft hisagreementi tplacedi nt hehandsof
    l
    ocal "
    commi t
    teesofsaf etyandi nspect i
    on,"tobeel ectedbyt hequal if
    iedv oters.The
    signifi
    canceoft hi
    sactioni sobv i
    ous.Congr essthrewi tsel
    fathwar tBrit
    ishlaw.I tmadear ule
    tobi ndAmer i
    canciti
    zensandt obecar ri
    edi ntoeffectbyAmer icanof f
    icers.Itsetupast ate
    wi t
    hint heBrit
    ishstateandl aiddownat estofallegiancet othenewor der.Thecol onists,
    who
    upt ot hismomenthadbeenwav ering,
    hadt ochooseoneaut horit
    yort heot her.Theywer ef or
    theenf orcementoft henon- importati
    onagr eementort heywer eagai nstit.Theyei therbought
    Engl i
    shgoodsort heydi dnot .Inthespiritofthetoast —" MayBr i
    tainbewi seandAmer i
    cabe
    free"—t hefir
    stContinental Congressadj ournedinOct ober,havingappoi ntedt hetenthofMay
    foll
    owi ngf orthemeet i
    ngofasecondCongr ess,shoul dnecessityrequire.

    LordNor th'
    s"Oliv
    eBranch."—Whent henewsoft heacti
    onoft heAmer i
    canCongressr eached
    England,PittandBurkewar mlyurgedarepealoftheobnoxiouslaws,butinvai
    n.Alltheycould
    wringfrom theprimemi ni
    ster,LordNort
    h,wasasetof" conci
    liat
    oryr
    esoluti
    ons"proposingto
    rel
    ievefrom taxati
    onanycolonyt hatwouldassumeitsshareofimperialdef
    enseandmake
    provisi
    onf orsupport
    ingthelocaloffi
    cer
    softhecrown.This"oliv
    ebranch"wasaccompani ed
    byaresol
    uti
    onassuri
    ngt
    heki
    ngofsupportatal
    lhazar
    dsi
    nsuppr
    essi
    ngt
    her
    ebel
    l
    ionandby
    ther
    estr
    aini
    ngactofMar
    ch30,1775,
    whichin
    ef
    fectdest
    roy
    edt
    hecommer
    ceofNewEngl
    and.

    BloodshedatLexi ngtonandConcor d(Apr i


    l19, 1775)
    .—Meanwhi letheBrit
    ishauthor i
    ti
    esin
    Massachuset tsrelaxednoneoft heireffortsinupholdingBriti
    shsov erei
    gnty.General Gage,
    heari
    ngt hatmili
    tarystoreshadbeencol lectedatConcor d,dispatchedasmal lforcetosei ze
    them.Byt hi
    sacthepr ecipi
    tatedtheconf li
    cthehadsoughtt oav oid.AtLexingt
    on, ont heroad
    toConcor d,occurred"theli
    ttl
    ethi
    ng"t hatpr oduced"thegreatev ent."Anunexpectedcol li
    sion
    beyondt hethoughtorpur poseofanymanhadt r
    ansferr
    edt hecont estfr
    om thefor um tothe
    battl
    efield.

    TheSecondCont inentalCongr ess.—Thoughbl oodhadbeenshedandwarwasact uall


    yat
    hand, t
    hesecondCont inentalCongr ess,whichmetatPhiladel
    phiainMay ,1775,wasnoty et
    convincedt hatconcili
    at i
    onwasbey ondhumanpower .Itpeti
    ti
    onedt hekingtoint
    erposeon
    behalfoft hecolonistsinor derthatt heempi r
    emightavoidthecalamiti
    esofcivil
    war .Onthe
    l
    astdayofJul y
    ,itmadeat emper at
    ebutf ir
    m answertoLordNor t
    h'soff
    erofconciliat
    ion,
    stati
    ngt hatthepr oposal wasunsat isfactor
    ybecauseitdidnotrenouncet heri
    ghttotaxor
    repealtheof fensiveactsofPar l
    iament .

    Force, t
    heBr i
    ti
    shAnswer .—JustastherepresentativesofAmer icawer eaboutt opr esentthel ast
    peti
    tionofCongr esstotheki ngonAugust23, 1775, Geor geIIIi
    ssuedapr oclamat ionofr ebellion.
    Thisannouncementdecl aredthatt
    hecolonists,"misledbydanger ousandi ll
    -designi ngmen, "wer e
    i
    nast ateofinsurr
    ecti
    on; i
    tcall
    edonthecivilandmi litarypower st obring"thet r
    aitor stojustice";
    andi tthreat
    enedwi t
    h"condignpunishmentt heauthor s,perpetrat
    ors,andabet t
    orsofsuch
    tr
    aitorousdesigns."I
    tclosedwi t
    htheusual prayer:"
    God, sav etheking."Laterinthey ear
    ,
    Parli
    amentpassedasweepi ngactdestr
    oyingall t
    radeandi nter
    cour sewithAmer ica.Congr esswas
    si
    lentatl ast
    .Forcewasal soAmer i
    ca'sanswer .

    Amer
    icanI
    ndependence

    Dri
    fti
    ngintoWar.
    —AlthoughtheCongresshadnotgivenupallhopeofr econcil
    iationinthespr i
    ng
    andsummerof1775, ithadfi
    rmlyr
    esolvedtodefendAmer i
    canright
    sbyar msi fnecessar y
    .I t
    tr
    ansformedthemili
    ti
    amenwhohadassembl ednearBoston,aft
    erthebat t
    leofLexi ngt
    on,intoa
    Conti
    nentalar
    myandsel ect
    edWashingtonascommander -i
    n-chi
    ef.Itassumedt hepowersofa
    governmentandpreparedtorai
    semoney ,
    wagewar ,andcarr
    yondi plomaticrelati
    onswi t
    hf orei
    gn
    countri
    es.

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Spi
    ri
    tof1776
    Ev
    entsf
    oll
    owedt
    hickandf
    ast
    .OnJune17,
    theAmer
    icanmi
    l
    iti
    a,byt
    hest
    ubbor
    ndef
    enseofBunker
    Hi
    ll
    ,
    showedt hatitcouldmakeBr iti
    shr egularspaydear lyforal l
    theygot.OnJul y3,Washi ngton
    tookcommandoft hear myatCambr i
    dge.I nJanuar y,1776, aft
    erbit
    terdisappointmentsin
    drummi ngupr ecruit
    sf orit
    sar myi nEngl and,Scotland, andI rel
    and,theBr i
    ti
    shgov ernment
    concl
    udedat reatywiththeLandgr av eofHesse- Cassel inGer manycont racti
    ng,ata
    handsomef igure,forthousandsofsol diersandmanypi ecesofcannon.Thi swast he
    crowni
    ngi nsulttoAmer i
    ca.Suchwast hev iewofal l
    friendsoft hecoloniesonbot hsidesof
    thewater .Suchwas, l
    ongaf terward, t
    hej udgmentoft heconser vat
    ivehistori
    anLecky :"The
    conductofEngl andinhi ri
    ngGer manmer cenari
    est osubduet heessentiall
    yEnglishpopulati
    on
    beyondt heAt lanti
    cmader econcili
    ationhopel essandi ndependencei nevit
    able.
    "Thenewsof
    thi
    swret chedt r
    ansactioninGer mansol diershadhar dlyr eachedAmer i
    cabef or
    et hereranall
    downt hecoastt hethrill
    i
    ngst orythatWashi ngtonhadt akenBost on, onMar ch17, 1776,
    compel l
    ingLor dHowet osailwithhisent irearmyf orHal ifax.

    TheGr owt hofPubl i


    cSent imentinFav orofIndependence. —Eventswer ebeari
    ngthe
    Amer icansawayf rom theiroldposi t
    ionundert heBr it
    ishconstit
    ut i
    ontowar dafi
    nalseparati
    on.
    Slowlyandagai nsttheirdesires,prudentandhonor ablemen, whocher i
    shedtheti
    esthat
    unitedt hem t otheol dor deranddr eadedwi t
    hgenui nehorrorallthoughtofrevol
    uti
    on,were
    drawni nt othepat ht hatledtot hegreatdecision.Inal lpar
    tsoft hecount r
    yandamongal l
    cl
    asses, thequest ionoft hehourwasbei ngdebated." Amer i
    canindependence,"asthe
    hi
    storianBancr oftsay s,"wasnotanactofsuddenpassi onnorthewor kofonemanorone
    assembl y.Ithadbeendi scussedi nev erypartofthecount rybyf armersandmer chants,by
    mechani csandpl anters,bythef i
    shermenal ongt hecoastandt hebackwoodsmenoft heWest;
    i
    nt ownmeet i
    ngsandf rom thepulpit;atsocialgatheringsandar oundt hecampf i
    res;i
    n
    countyconv enti
    onsandconf er
    encesorcommi tt
    ees; i
    ncol oni
    alcongr essesandassembl i
    es."

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    ThomasPai
    ne

    Paine's"Commonsense. "
    —I nthemi dstofthisfermentofAmer i
    canopi ni
    on,abol dand
    el
    oquentpamphl eteerbrokeinupont hehesitati
    ngpubl i
    cwi t
    hapr ogr am forabsolute
    i
    ndependence, withoutfearsandwi t
    houtapol ogies.I
    nt heearlyday sof1776, ThomasPai ne
    i
    ssuedt hefir
    stofhi sfamoust r
    acts,"Commonsense, "apassi onateat tackupont heBrit
    ish
    monar chyandanequal l
    ypassi onatepleaforAmer i
    canl i
    bert
    y .Castingasi dethelanguageof
    petiti
    onwi t
    hwhi chAmer icanshadhi ther
    toaddr essedGeor geI I
    I,Painewentt otheother
    extremeandassai ledhim wi t
    hmanyav i
    olentepithet.Hecondemnedmonar chyitsel
    fasa
    system whi chhadl aidthewor ld"i
    nbl oodandashes. "Insteadofpr aisingtheBrit
    ish
    const i
    tuti
    onunderwhi chcolonistshadbeencl ai
    mi ngtheirr
    ights,hebr usheditasideas
    ri
    diculous,protesti
    ngt hatitwas" owingtot heconst i
    tuti
    onoft hepeopl e,nottothe
    const i
    tuti
    onoft hegov ernment ,t
    hattheCr owni snotasoppr essiveinEngl andasi nTurkey."

    Havingt hussummar i
    lysweptawaythegr oundsofall
    egiancetotheoldorder
    ,Pai
    neproceeded
    rel
    entlesslytoanargumentfori
    mmedi ateseparat
    ionfrom GreatBri
    tai
    n.Ther
    ewasnothinginthe
    sphereofpr acti
    cali
    nter
    est
    ,heinsi
    sted,whichshouldbindthecoloniest
    othemothercountr
    y.
    All
    egiancet oherhadbeenresponsi
    bleforthemanywar sinwhichtheyhadbeeni
    nvolved.
    Reasonsoft
    radewerenotl
    esswei
    ght
    yinbehal
    fofi
    ndependence."
    Ourcor
    nwi
    l
    lfet
    chi
    tspr
    icei
    n
    anymarketi
    nEuropeandour
    i
    mpor t
    edgoodsmustbepaidfor
    ,buythem wherewewi l
    l.
    "Astomat t
    ersofgov
    ernment
    ,"i
    tis
    notinthepowerofBrit
    aintodothiscontinentjusti
    ce;t
    hebusinessofitwil
    lsoonbetoo
    weight
    yandintr
    icat
    etobemanagedwi t
    hanyt olerabl
    edegreeofconveni
    encebyapowerso
    di
    stantfr
    om usandsoveryi
    gnor
    antofus."

    Therei saccordi nglynoal ternati


    vetoi ndependencef orAmer ica."Every
    thingt hatisr i
    ghtor
    naturalpleadsf orsepar ation.Thebl oodoft heslain,theweepi ngv oi
    ceofnat urecries''t
    istimeto
    part.
    '..
    .Ar ms,t helastresor t,mustdeci dethecont est;theappeal wasthechoi ceoft hekingand
    thecont i
    nenthat haccept edt hechallenge..
    ..Thesunnev ershoneonacauseofgr eaterwor th.
    '
    Tisnott heaf fairofaci ty
    , a
    count y,aprov inceoraki ngdom, butofacont i
    nent ...
    .'Tisnott heconcer nofaday ,ay earoran
    age;
    posterit
    yisi nvolvedint hecont estandwi l
    lbemor eorl essaffectedtot heendoft imebyt he
    proceedingsnow.Nowi st heseed- t
    imeofCont i
    nent al union,
    f ai
    th,andhonor ...
    .O!y et hatlove
    manki nd!Yet hatdar e
    opposenotonl yt het y
    ranny ,butthet yrant
    ,standfort h..
    ..LetnamesofWhi gandTor ybeext inct
    .
    Letnone
    otherbehear damongust hant hoseofagoodci tizen, anopenandr esol utef r
    iend, anda
    vir
    tuoussuppor terofther i
    ghtsofmanki ndandoft hef reeandi ndependentst at esofAmer i
    ca.
    "
    Asmor et han100, 000copi eswer escat t
    eredbr oadcastov erthecount r
    y, patri
    ot sexcl aimed
    withWashi ngton: "Sounddoct rineandunanswer abl ereason! "

    TheDr i
    ftofEv entstowar dI ndependence. —Offi
    cialsupportfort heideaofi ndependencebegan
    tocomef r
    om manyquar ters.Ont het ent hofFebr uary,1776, Gadsden, i
    nt hepr ovi
    ncial
    conv entionofSout hCar olina,adv ocat edanewconst it
    uti
    onf ort hecolonyandabsol ute
    i
    ndependencef orallAmer i
    ca.Theconv enti
    onbal kedatthel atterbutwenthal fwayby
    abolishingthesy stem ofr oy aladmi nistrationandest abli
    shingacompl et epl anofsel f-
    gover nment .Amont hl
    at er,onApr i
    l12, thenei
    ghbor ingstateofNor t
    hCar olinautteredthe
    daringphr asef r
    om whichot hersshr ank.I tempower edi t
    srepr esentati
    vesi ntheCongr essto
    concurwi t
    ht hedelegatesoft heot hercol oni
    esindecl ari
    ngindependence.RhodeI sl
    and,
    Massachuset ts,andVirginiaqui cklyr espondedt ot hechallenge.Theconv ent i
    onoft heOld
    Domi nion,onMay15, i
    nst ructedi t
    sdel egatesatPhi l
    adelphiat oproposet hei ndependenceof
    theUni tedCol oniesandt ogi vet heassentofVi r
    giniatotheactofsepar ation.Whent he
    resoluti
    onwascar r
    iedtheBr it
    ishf l
    agont hestatehousewasl oweredf oral lti
    me.

    Meanwhi letheContinentalCongr esswasal i


    v etot hecour seofev entsout side.Thesubj ectof
    i
    ndependencewasconst antl
    ybei ngraised."Arewer ebels?"exclaimedWy ethofVi rgi
    niaduringa
    debateinFebr uar
    y."No:wemustdecl areourselvesaf r
    eepeopl e."Othershesi tatedandspokeof
    waiti
    ngf orthearr
    ivalofcommi ssionersofconci l
    iation."I
    snotAmer icaal r
    eadyi ndependent?"
    askedSamuel Adamsaf ewweeksl ater."
    Whynott hendeclareit?"Stil
    ltherewasuncer taint
    yand
    delegatesav oi
    dedthedirectwor d.Af ewmor eweeksel apsed.Atl ast,
    onMay10, Congress
    declaredthattheauthori
    tyoftheBr i
    ti
    shcr owni nAmer icamustbesuppr essedandadv i
    sedt he
    coloniestosetupgov ernment soft heirown.
    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    ThomasJeffer
    sonReadi ngHi
    sDraf
    toft
    he
    Decl
    arat
    ionofI
    ndependencetotheCommit
    teeof
    Congress
    IndependenceDecl ared.—Thewaywasf ullyprepar ed, therefore,when,
    onJune7, theVirgini
    a
    delegationintheCongr essmov edt hat"theseuni tedcol oniesareandofr i
    ghtoughtt obef ree
    andi ndependentst ates."Acommi tt
    eewasi mmedi atel yappoi ntedt
    odraftaformal document
    setti
    ngf orthther easonsf ortheact ,andonJul y2al l thest atessaveNewYor kwentonr ecord
    i
    nf avorofsev eringt heirpoli
    ti
    cal connectionwi thGr eatBr i
    tain.Twodaysl at
    er,Jul
    y4,
    Jefferson'sdraftoft heDecl ar
    ationofI ndependence, changedi nsomeslightparti
    cular
    s, was
    adopt ed.Theoldbel linIndependenceHal l
    , asitisnowknown, r
    angoutthegladt i
    dings;
    couriersswi f
    tl
    ycar r i
    edt henewst ot heuttermosthaml etandf arm.Anewnat ionannounced
    i
    t swilltohaveapl aceamongt hepower soft hewor ld.

    Tosomedocument sisgiveni mmor tali


    ty.TheDecl arati
    onofI ndependencei soneoft hem.
    Amer icanpat ri
    otism i sforeverassoci atedwi thit
    ;butpat ri
    otism alonedoesnotmakei t
    i
    mmor t
    al.Neitherdoest hev i
    gorofi tslanguageort hesev erityofitsindi
    ctmentgi veita
    securepl aceint her ecordsoft ime.Thesecr etofit
    sgr eatnessl i
    esi nthesimpl ef
    actt hatitis
    oneoft hememor ablelandmar ksi nthehi storyofapol it
    icalidealwhi chforthreecenturies
    hasbeent akingf orm andspr eadingthroughoutt heear th,chal l
    engingkingsandpot entates,
    shakingdownt hronesandar istocracies,breakingthear mi esofirresponsibl
    epoweronbat t
    le
    fi
    eldsasf arapartasMar stonMoorandChât eau-Thier
    ry.Thati deal,nowsof amil
    i
    ar, t
    henso
    novel,issummedupi nthesimpl esent ence: "Government sder i
    vet heirj
    ustpower sfrom t he
    consentoft hegov erned."

    Wri
    tt
    enina"decentrespectf
    ortheopini
    onsofmanki
    nd,"t
    osetf
    ort
    hthecauseswhich
    i
    mpell
    edtheAmer i
    cancoloni
    ststoseparat
    efr
    om Bri
    tai
    n,t
    heDecl
    arat
    ioncont
    ainedal
    ongl
    i
    st
    of"
    abusesandusurpat
    ions"whi
    chhadi
    nducedt
    hem t
    othr
    owof
    fthegov
    ernmentofKi
    ng
    Geor
    ge.Thatsect
    ionofthe
    Declar
    ati
    onhaspassedint
    o"anci
    ent"hist
    oryandissel
    dom r
    ead.I
    tist
    hepartlay
    ingdowna
    newbasisforgover
    nmentandgivi
    nganewdi gnit
    ytothecommonmant hathasbecomea
    househol
    dphraseintheOl
    dWor l
    dasi ntheNew.

    Inthemor eendur ingpassagest herear efourf undament alideaswhi ch, from thest andpointof
    theoldsy stem ofgov ernment ,weret heessenceofr evoluti
    on: (1)allmenar ecr eatedequal
    andar eendowedbyt hei rCreatorwithcertainunal ienabler i
    ght sincludingl i
    fe,li
    berty,andt he
    pursuitofhappi ness; (2)thepur poseofgov ernmenti stosecur et heser i
    ght s;(3)gov ernments
    deri
    vet heirjustpower sf rom theconsentoft hegov erned; (
    4)whenev eranyf orm of
    governmentbecomesdest ructi
    veoft heseendsi tist herightoft hepeopl etoal t
    erorabol ishit
    andinst i
    tutenewgov er nment ,l
    ayingitsfoundat ionsonsuchpr inciplesandor ganizingi t
    s
    powersi nsuchf orm ast ot hem shallseem mostl ikelytoef fecttheirsaf etyandhappi ness.
    Herewast hepr eludet ot hehistori
    cdr amaofdemocr acy—achal l
    enget oev eryform of
    governmentandev er
    ypr ivi
    legenotf oundedonpopul arassent .

    TheEst
    abl
    i
    shmentofGov
    ernmentandt
    heNewAl
    l
    egi
    ance

    TheCommi t
    teesofCor respondence.—Assoonasdebat ehadpassedi ntoarmedr esistance,
    thepat r
    iotsfounditnecessar ytoconsoli
    datethei
    rfor cesbyor gani
    zingci vi
    lgover nment .This
    wasr eadil
    yef f
    ected,f
    ort hemeanswer eathandint ownmeet ings,prov i
    nci
    allegislatures,and
    commi t
    teesofcor r
    espondence.Thewor ki
    ngt ool
    soft heRev oluti
    onwer einfactthe
    commi t
    teesofcor r
    espondence—smal l
    ,l
    ocal,unoff
    icial groupsofpat riotsfor
    medt oexchange
    viewsandcr eatepublicsent i
    ment.Asear l
    yasNov ember ,1772,suchacommi tt
    eehadbeen
    createdinBost onundert heleadershi
    pofSamuel Adams.I theldregularmeet ings, sent
    emi ssar
    iestoneighboringt owns,andcarri
    edonacampai gnofeducat ioninthedoct rinesof
    l
    iber t
    y.
    TheCol
    oni
    esofNor
    thAmeri
    caattheTimeoft
    heDecl
    arat
    ionof
    Independence
    Uponl ocal organizati
    onssi milari nchar actertot heBost oncommi tteewer ebuiltcounty
    commi tteesandt hent helargercol onialcommi t
    tees, congresses,andconv entions,all
    unof f
    icialandr epresenti
    ngt her ev oluti
    onaryel ement s.Or di
    naril
    ythepr ovi
    ncialconvent i
    onwas
    mer elytheol dlegisl
    ativeassembl yf reedfrom all r
    oy ali
    stsy mpathizersandcont roll
    edby
    patri
    ot s.Finall
    y,upont hesecol onial assembl ieswasbui lttheContinentalCongr ess,the
    precursorofuni onundert heAr ticlesofConf ederationandul t
    imatelyundertheConst it
    uti
    onof
    theUni tedSt ates.Thiswast her ev olutionarygov ernmentsetupwi thi
    nt heBrit
    ishempi rein
    Amer ica.

    StateConst it
    uti
    onsFr amed. —Wi thther i
    seoft hesenewassembl i
    esoft hepeopl e,theold
    colonial government sbr okedown.Fr om ther oy alprovi
    ncest hegov ernor,thej udges,andt he
    highof ficersfl
    edi nhast e,andi tbecamenecessar ytosubst i
    tutepat r
    iotaut hor i
    ti
    es.The
    appeal tot hecoloniesadv i
    singt hem toadoptanewf orm ofgov er nmentf ort hemsel ves,
    i
    ssuedbyt heCongr essi nMay , 1776, wasqui cklyact edupon.Bef or etheexpi rati
    onofay ear,
    Virgini
    a, NewJer sey ,Pennsy lvani a,
    Del aware,Mar yl
    and,Georgia, andNewYor khaddr aft
    ed
    newconst i
    tuti
    onsasst at es,notascol oniesuncer tai
    noftheirdest inies.Connect icutand
    RhodeI sland,holdi
    ngt hatt heiranci entcharterswer eequaltothei rneeds, mer elyrenounced
    theirall
    egi ancetot heki ngandwentonasbef or esof arasthef or m ofgov er nmentwas
    concer ned.Sout hCar ol i
    na, whi chhaddr aft
    edat emporaryplanear lyin1776, drewupanew
    andmor ecompl eteconst it
    utioni n1778.Twoy earslaterMassachuset t
    swi thmuch
    deliberationputintof or ceitsf undament all
    aw, whichi nmostofi t sessent i
    al featuresr emains
    unchangedt o-
    day .

    Thenewst ateconsti
    tuti
    onsint heirbroadout l
    inesf oll
    owedcol oni almodel s.Forther oyal
    governorwassubst it
    utedagov ernororpr esidentchosenusual l
    ybyt helegislatur
    e;butint wo
    i
    nstances, NewYor kandMassachuset ts,bypopul arvote.Forthepr ovinci
    al councilt
    herewas
    substi
    tuted,exceptinGeorgia,asenat e;whi let hel owerhouse, orassembl y,wascont inued
    vi
    rtual
    lywi t
    houtchange.Theol dpr opertyr estrictionont hesuffrage, thoughl oweredsl i
    ghtl
    yin
    somest ates,wascont i
    nuedi nfullforcet ot hegr eatdi scontentoft hemechani csthusdepr ived
    oftheballot.Thespecialquali
    fications,laiddowni nsev eralconstituti
    ons, forgovernors,
    senators,andrepresentat
    ives,indicatedt hatt her evoluti
    onar yl
    eader swer enotpr eparedf or
    anyradicalexperimentsindemocr acy.Thepr otest sofaf ewwomen, likeMr s.JohnAdamsof
    Massachuset tsandMr s.Henr yCor binofVi r
    gi nia, againstagov ernmentwhi chexcludedt hem
    fr
    om pol i
    ti
    calright
    swer etr
    eat edasmi ldcur iosi ti
    esofnosi gni
    ficance, alt
    houghi nNewJer sey
    womenwer eall
    owedt ovoteformanyy ear sont hesamet ermsasmen.

    Bythenewst ateconst i
    tut
    ionsthesignsandsy mbolsofroyalpower,ofauthor
    it
    yder i
    vedfrom
    anysourcesav e"thepeople,
    "weresweptasi deandrepubli
    cangov ernmentsonani mposing
    scalepr
    esentedf orthefir
    stti
    met othemoder nwor l
    d.Copi
    esoft heseremarkabledocument s
    prepar
    edbypl aincit
    izensweret r
    anslat
    edintoFrenchandwi del
    ycircul
    atedinEurope.There
    theyweredestinedtoser veasaguideandi nspi
    rati
    ont oagenerati
    onofconstit
    ution-
    maker s
    whosemi ssi
    oni twast obeginthedemocraticrevol
    utioni
    ntheOl dWor l
    d.

    TheAr t
    iclesofConf eder
    ation.
    —Thef ormationofst ateconst it
    uti
    onswasaneasyt askfort
    he
    revol
    uti
    onar yleader
    s.Theyhadonl yt
    obuildonf oundationsalreadylai
    d.Theestabli
    shmentof
    anational syst
    em ofgov er
    nmentwasanot hermat t
    er.Ther ehadalwaysbeen,itmustbe
    remember ed,asyst
    em ofcent r
    alcontrol
    ov ert hecolonies,butAmer i
    canshadhadl it
    tl
    e
    experi
    encei nitsoperati
    on.Whent hesuperv isi
    onoft hecr ownofGr eatBri
    tai
    nwassuddenl y
    broken,thepat r
    iotl
    eaders,accustomedmer elytoprovincialstat
    esmanship,werepoorly
    trai
    nedforact i
    ononanat i
    onalstage.

    Manyf
    orceswor
    kedagai
    nstt
    hosewho,
    li
    keFr
    ankl
    i
    n,hadav
    isi
    onofnat
    ional
    dest
    iny
    .Ther
    ewer
    e
    dif
    fer
    encesineconomi ci
    nterest—commer ceandindust
    ryintheNorthandt heplanti
    ngsy stem of
    theSouth.Therewerecontest sovertheapporti
    onmentoftaxesandt hequotasoft r
    oopsf or
    commondef ense.Tothesepr acti
    caldi
    ffi
    cul
    ti
    eswereaddedl ocalpr
    ide,t
    hev estedri
    ghtsofst at
    e
    andvil
    lagepolit
    ici
    ansintheirprovinci
    aldi
    gnit
    y,andthescarci
    tyofmenwi thal argeout
    lookupon
    thecommonent erpr
    ise.
    Nev er theless, necessi t
    ycompel l
    edt hem t oconsi dersomesor toff eder ati
    on.Thesecond
    Cont inent al Congr esshadhar dlyopenedi tswor kbef oret hemostsagaci ousl eadersbegant o
    urget hedesi rabili
    tyofaper manentconnect ion.Asear l
    yasJul y,1775, Congr essr esol
    vedt o
    goi ntoacommi tt
    eeoft hewhol eont hest ateoft heuni on,andFr anklin, undaunt edbythef at
    e
    ofhi sAl banypl anoft wentyy ear sbefor e,agai npr esentedadr aftofaconst i
    tution.Longand
    desul tor ydebat esf ol
    l
    owedandi twasnotunt i
    llatein1777t hatCongr esspr esent edtothe
    statest heAr ti
    clesofConf eder ati
    on.Pr ov incialjealousiesdel ayedr ati
    fication,andi twasthe
    springof1781, afewmont hsbef orethesur r
    enderofCor nwal l
    i
    satYor kt own, whenMar yland,
    thel astoft hest ates,
    appr ovedt heAr ticles.Thi spl anofuni on, thoughi twasal lthatcouldbe
    wrungf rom t her eluct
    antst ates, provi
    dedf orneitherachi efexecut i
    venorasy stem offederal
    cour ts.Itcr eat edsi mplyaCongr essofdel egat esinwhi cheachst atehadanequal voi
    ceand
    gavei tther ightt ocall upont hest atelegi slaturesf orthesi newsofgov ernment —moneyand
    soldier s.

    TheAppl i
    cati
    onofTest sofAl legi
    ance. —Asthesuccessi vestepswer etakeni nt hedirectionof
    i
    ndependentgov ernment,thepat ri
    otsdev i
    sedandappl iedtestsdesignedt odiscov erwhower e
    forandwhower eagai nstthenewnat ioninthepr ocessofmaki ng.Whent hef irstCont inental
    Congr essagreednott oallowt heimpor tati
    onofBr it
    ishgoods, i
    tprovi
    dedf orthecr eati
    onof
    l
    ocal commi t
    teest oenforcet herules.Suchagenci eswer edulyformedbyt hechoi ceofmen
    favor
    ingt hescheme, allopponent sbeingexcl udedfrom t heelecti
    ons.Befor ethesebodi es
    thosewhoper sistedinbuy ingBr i
    ti
    shgoodswer esummonedandwar nedorpuni shed
    accordingt ocir
    cumst ances.Assoonast henewst at econstitut
    ionswer eputi ntoef fect,l
    ocal
    commi tt
    eessett owor kint hesamewayt of err
    etoutall whower enotout spokeni nthei r
    suppor tofthenewor deroft hings.

    Mobbi
    ngt
    heTor
    ies

    Thesepatr
    iotagenci
    es,
    beari
    ngdif
    fer
    entnamesi
    ndi
    ffer
    entsect
    ions,wer
    esometimesr
    uthl
    essi
    n
    thei
    rmethods.Theycal
    leduponal
    lmentosignt
    het
    estofloy
    alt
    y,fr
    equentl
    yknownast
    he
    "
    associ
    ati
    ontest
    ."Thosewhoref
    usedwer
    epr
    ompt
    lybr
    andedasout
    laws,
    whi
    l
    esomeoft
    he
    moredanger
    ouswer ethr
    own
    i
    ntoj ai
    l.Thepri
    soncampi nConnect i
    cutatonet imeheldthef ormergovernorofNew
    Jerseyandt hemay orofNewYor k.Thousandswer eblack-l
    istedandsubjectedto
    espionage.Theblack-l
    istofPennsy lv
    aniacontainedthenamesofnear l
    yf i
    vehundred
    personsofpr ominencewhower eundersuspicion.Loyali
    stsorTor i
    eswhower ebold
    enought ospeakandwr i
    teagainsttheRev ol
    uti
    onwer esuppr essedandtheirpamphlets
    burned.Inmanypl aces,part
    icul
    arlyintheNorth,thepropert
    yoft heloyal
    istswas
    confiscatedandtheproceedsappl iedtothecauseoft heRev olut
    ion.

    Thewor koftheof f
    icialagenciesforsuppressi
    onofopposi t
    ionwassomet imessuppl ement edby
    mobv i
    olence.Af ewTor ieswer ehangedwi t
    houtt r
    ial,andot hersweretarr
    edandf eathered.One
    wasplaceduponacakeofi ceandhel dthere"untilhisloy al
    tytoKingGeorgemi ghtcool.
    "Whol e
    fami
    li
    eswer edr i
    venoutoft hei
    rhomest of i
    ndtheirwayasbestt heycoul
    dwi thi
    ntheBr i
    tishli
    nesor
    i
    ntoCanada, wheret heBr i
    ti
    shgov ernmentgav ethem l ands.Suchexcesseswer edeploredby
    Washington,buttheywer edef endedonthegr oundt hati neffectaciv
    ilwar,aswellasawarf or
    i
    ndependence, wasbei ngwaged.

    ThePat ri
    otsandTor i
    es.—Thus, byonepr ocessoranot her,t
    hosewhower etobeciti
    zensoft he
    newr epubli
    cwer eseparatedfrom thosewhopr ef
    erredtobesubj ectsofKingGeorge.Just
    whatpr oport
    ionoftheAmer i
    cansf av
    or edindependenceandwhatshar eremainedloyaltothe
    Brit
    ishmonar chyther
    ei snowayofknowi ng.Thequest i
    onofr evol
    uti
    onwasnotsubmi ttedto
    popularvote,andont hepointofnumber swehav econf l
    icti
    ngevidence.Onthepatri
    otside,
    thereisthetesti
    monyofacar efulandinformedobser ver,JohnAdams, whoassertedt hattwo-
    thi
    rdsoft hepeopleweref ortheAmer icancauseandnotmor ethanone-thi
    rdopposedt he
    Revoluti
    onatal l
    stages.

    Onbehal foft hel oyal


    ists,orTori
    esast heywer epopul ar
    lyknown, extravagantclai
    mswer e
    made.JosephGal l
    oway ,whohadbeenamemberoft hef i
    rstConti
    nent alCongressandhad
    fl
    edt oEngl andwhenhesawi tst
    emper ,testi
    fi
    edbef oreacommi tt
    eeofPar l
    iamentin1779
    thatnotone- fi
    fthoft heAmer i
    canpeoplesuppor tedtheinsur r
    ecti
    onandt hat"manymor ethan
    four-
    fif
    thsoft hepeopl epreferaunionwi t
    hGr eatBrit
    ainuponconst i
    tutionalpri
    nci
    plesto
    i
    ndependence. "Att hesamet i
    meGener al Robert
    son, whohadl iv
    edi nAmer i
    catwent y
    -four
    years,declaredt hat"mor ethantwo-thi
    rdsoft hepeopl ewoul dprefertheking'sgovernmentt o
    theCongr ess' t
    y r
    anny .
    "Inanaddr esstotheki nginthaty earacommi tteeofAmer i
    canl oyal
    ist
    s
    assertedthat" thenumberofAmer i
    cansi nhisMaj esty'
    sar myexceededt henumberoft r
    oops
    enli
    stedbyCongr esstoopposet hem. "

    TheChar acteroft heLoy ali


    sts.—WhenGener al Howeev acuatedBost on, mor ethanat housand
    peoplef l
    edwi thhi m.Thi sgreatcompany ,accor dingtoacar efulhistor i
    an, "f
    or medthe
    ari
    stocracyoft hepr ovi
    ncebyv ir
    tueoftheiroff i
    cial r
    ank;oftheirdi
    gni fiedcal li
    ngsand
    professions; oft heirheredit
    ar ywealthandoft heircultur
    e."Theactofbani shmentpassedby
    Massachuset t sin1778, list
    ingov er300Tor ies,"readsl i
    kethesoci al registeroft heoldestand
    noblestf amiliesofNewEngl and,
    "mor ethanoneoutoff i
    vebeinggr aduat esofHar v
    ar dColl
    ege.
    Thesamewast rueofNewYor kandPhi l
    adelphi a;namel y,
    thatthel eadi ngloy ali
    stswer e
    promi nentof ficialsoftheol dorder,cler
    gymenandweal thymer chant s.Wi thpassi onthe
    l
    oy al
    istsf oughtagai nsttheinev i
    tabl
    eorwi thangui shofhearttheyl eftasr efugeesforal if
    eof
    uncertaintyinCanadaort hemot hercountr y
    .

    ToriesAssailt
    hePat riots.—TheTor ieswhor emai nedinAmer i
    caj oi
    nedt heBriti
    sharmybyt he
    thousandsorinot herway saidedther oy alcause.Thosewhower eski
    llfulwit
    hthepen
    assail
    edthepat r
    iotsinedi tor
    ials,r
    hy mes, sat i
    res, andpolit
    icalcatechi
    sms.Theydecl aredthat
    themember sofCongr esswer e"obscur e,pet t
    ifoggingattorneys,bankr uptshopkeepers,
    outl
    awedsmuggl ers,etc."Thepeopl eandt heirl eaderstheychar acter
    izedas" wret
    ched
    banditt
    i..
    .theref
    useanddr egsofmanki nd."Thegener al
    si nthear myt heysneeredatas" men
    ofrankandhonornear l
    yonaparwi t hthoseoft heCongr ess."
    Patr
    iotWrit
    ersAr
    ousetheNat
    ionalSpir
    it.
    —StungbyTor
    ytaunt
    s,pat
    ri
    otwrit
    ersdevotedthemsel
    ves
    tocreat
    ingandsust
    aini
    ngapubli
    copinionfavor
    abl
    etotheAmeri
    cancause.Moreover,t
    heyhadto
    combat
    thedepr essi
    onthatgrewoutoft hemi sf
    or t
    unesint heearl
    yday softhewar.Aterr
    ibl
    e
    disast erbefel
    lGeneral
    sAr noldandMont gomer yinthewinterof1775ast heyatt
    emptedto
    bringCanadai nt
    other evolut
    ion—adi sasterthatcost5000men; r
    epeatedcal
    amiti
    es
    har assedWashi ngt
    oni n1776ashewasdef eatedonLongI sland,dr
    ivenoutofNewYork
    City, andbeatenatHar lem HeightsandWhi t
    ePlains.Thesereverseswerealmosttoogreat
    fort hest out
    estpat
    riots.

    Pamphl et eers, preachers, andpubl i


    cistsrose, however,tomeett heneedsoft hehour.John
    Witherspoon, pr ovostoft heCol legeofNewJer sey,f
    orsookt heclassroom f ort
    hefiel
    dof
    polit
    icalcont rov ersy.Thepoet ,
    Phi l
    ipFreneau, fl
    ungt auntsofcowar diceatt heTori
    esand
    celebratedt hespi ri
    toflibertyinmanyast i
    rri
    ngpoem.Songs, ball
    ads,plays,andsatir
    es
    fl
    owedf rom t hepr essi nanunendi ngst r
    eam.Fastday s, battl
    eanni v
    er sar
    ies,cel
    ebrati
    onsof
    i
    mpor t
    antst epst akenbyCongr essaf f
    ordedt opat r
    ioti
    ccl ergymenabundantoppor tunit
    ies
    forsermons." DoesMr .Wi berdpr eachagainstoppr ession? "anxiouslyinquiredJohnAdams
    i
    nal ettert ohi swi fe.Theanswerwasdeci sive."Theclergyofev erydenomi nati
    on,not
    except i
    ngt heEpi scopalian, t
    hunderandl i
    ghtenev erySabbat h.Theypr ayforBostonand
    Massachuset ts.Theyt hankGodmostexpl ici
    tlyandf erventlyforourremar kablesuccesses.
    Theypr ayf ort heAmer icanar my ."

    ThomasPai nenev erlethispenr est.Hehadbeenwi tht hef or cesofWashi ngtonwhent hey


    retr
    eatedf rom For tLeeandwer ehar r
    iedf rom NewJer seyi ntoPennsy lvani
    a.Heknewt heef f
    ect
    ofsuchr eversesont hear myaswel lasont hepubl i
    c.I nDecember ,1776, hemadeasecondgr eat
    appealt ohi scount ry
    meni nhi spamphl et,"TheCr isis,"thef irstpar tofwhi chhehadwr i
    ttenwhile
    defeatandgl oom wer eallabouthi m.
    Thistractwasacr yf orcont i
    nuedsuppor toftheRev olution." Thesear ethetimest hattry
    men' ssoul s,"heopened." Thesummersol dierandt hesunshi nepat riotwill
    ,inthiscr i
    sis,
    shrinkf r
    om t heser viceofhi scount ry
    ; buthet hatst andsi tnowdeser vesthel oveandt hanks
    ofmenandwomen. "Painel aidhi slashf iercelyont heTor ies,br andi ngev eryoneasacowar d
    groundedi n" servil
    e, slav
    ish, self-
    interestedf ear."Hedepl or edt hei nadequacyoft hemi li
    ti
    a
    andcal ledf orar eal army .Her efutedt hechar get hatt her etreatt hr oughNewJer seywasa
    disasterandhepr omi sedv i
    ct orysoon." Byper sev eranceandf ortitude,"heconcl uded, "we
    havet hepr ospectofagl or i
    ousi ssue; bycowar di
    ceandsubmi ssi ont hesadchoi ceofav ari
    ety
    ofev i
    ls—ar av agedcount r
    y ,
    adepopul atedci ty,habi tationswi thoutsaf etyandsl av er
    ywi thout
    hope....Lookont hispi ct
    ureandweepov erit
    ."Hisr i
    ngi ngcal l toar mswasf oll
    owedbyanot her
    andanot herunt i
    lthel ongcont estwasov er.

    Mi
    l
    itar
    yAf
    fai
    rs

    TheTwoPhasesoft heWar .
    —Thewarwhi chopenedwi t
    hthebat t
    leofLexington, onApril19, 1775,
    andcl osedwi t
    ht hesur renderofCornwal li
    satYor ktownonOct ober19, 1781,passedt hrought wo
    dist
    inctphases—t hef i
    rstlasti
    ngunti
    l t
    het r eatyofalli
    ancewi
    t hFrance,in1778, andt hesecond
    unti
    l t
    heendoft hest ruggle.Duri
    ngt hefirstphase, thewarwasconf i
    nedmai nlytot heNor th.The
    outstandingfeatur esoft hecontestwer etheev acuati
    onofBost onbyt heBrit
    ish,theexpul sionof
    Amer icanforcesf rom NewYor kandt heirr etr
    eatthroughNewJer sey,thebattleofTr enton, the
    seizureofPhi l
    adel phiabyt heBri
    ti
    sh( Sept ember ,1777),t
    heinvasionofNewYor kbyBur goy neand
    hiscapt ur
    eatSar at ogainOct ober,
    1777, andt heencampmentofAmer icanforcesatVal leyFor ge
    forthet er
    ri
    blewi nterof1777- 78.

    Thefinalphaseoft
    hewar ,
    openingwit
    hthetr
    eatyofalli
    ancewi t
    hFranceonFebruar
    y6, 1778,was
    confi
    nedmai nl
    ytotheMiddlestat
    es,
    theWest,andtheSouth.Inthefi
    rstspher
    eofactionthechief
    eventswerethewit
    hdrawaloftheBri
    ti
    shfr
    om Phil
    adelphia,
    thebatt
    leofMonmout h,andthe
    i
    nclosureoftheBri
    ti
    shinNewYor kbydepl
    oyi
    ngAmer icanforcesfr
    om Mor r
    ist
    own,NewJer sey,
    uptoWestPoi nt.IntheWest ,GeorgeRogersClark,byhi
    sf amousmar chint
    otheI l
    li
    noiscountr
    y ,
    securedKaskaskiaandVi ncennesandl ai
    daf i
    rm gri
    pont hecountr
    ybetweentheOhi oandt he
    GreatLakes.I
    ntheSout h,
    thesecondper i
    odopenedwi thsuccessesfortheBri
    tish.Theycaptured
    Savannah,conqueredGeor gia,andrest
    oredtheroyalgovernor
    .In1780theyseizedChar l
    eston,
    administ
    eredacr ushingdefeattothe
    Amer i
    canforcesunderGat esatCamden, andov er
    ranSouthCar oli
    na,thoughmeet i
    ngr eversesat
    CowpensandKi ng'
    sMount ain.Thencamet heclosi
    ngscenes.Cor nwalli
    sbegant helastofhi s
    operati
    ons.Hepur suedGener alGreenefarint
    oNor thCarol
    ina,clashedwithhim atGuilfordCourt
    House,reti
    redtothecoast ,t
    ookchar geofBr i
    ti
    shforcesengagedi nplunderi
    ngVirgini
    a, and
    fort
    if
    iedYorktown,wherehewaspennedupbyt heFr enchf
    leetfrom theseaandt hecombi ned
    FrenchandAmer i
    canforcesonl and.

    TheGeogr aphi calAspect soft heWar .


    —Fort heBr i
    ti
    sht hetheateroft hewarof feredmany
    problems.Fr om f i
    rsttol asti textendedf r
    om Massachuset tstoGeor gia,adist
    anceofal mosta
    thousandmi l
    es.Itwasnear l
    yt hreethousandmi lesfrom themai nbaseofsuppl iesand,though
    theBr i
    ti
    shnav ykeptt hechannel open,transpor
    tswer econst antlyf
    allingpreytodar i
    ng
    pri
    vateersandf l
    eetAmer icanwarv essels.Thesea, ont heotherhand, offer
    edaneasymeans
    oftransportationbet weenpoi ntsalongthecoastandgav ereadyaccesst otheAmer ican
    centersofweal t
    handpopul ation.OfthistheBriti
    shmadegooduse.Thoughear l
    yforcedto
    giveupBost on, theysei zedNewYor kandkepti tuntilt
    heendoft hewar ;theytookPhi l
    adelphi
    a
    andr et
    ainedi tuntilthreat enedbyt heapproachoft heFr enchfleet;
    andt heycapt uredandhel d
    bothSav annahandChar leston.War s,
    howev er,
    ar eseldom wonbyt heconquestofci ti
    es.

    Parti
    cul arlywast histrueint hecaseoft heRev oluti
    on.Onl yasmal l porti
    onoft heAmer ican
    peoplel ivedint owns.Count rymenbackf rom thecoastwer einnowaydependentupont hem
    foral i
    vel i
    hood.Theyl i
    vedont heproduceoft hesoil,notupont hepr ofi
    tsoft r
    ade.Thisv ery
    factgav est r
    engt htot hem i nthecont est.Whenev ertheBr i
    tishventur edfarfrom thepor tsof
    entry,theyencount eredrev erses.Bur goynewasf orcedtosur r
    enderatSar atogabecausehe
    wassur roundedandcutof ff rom hisbaseofsuppl i
    es.Assoonast heBr i
    ti
    shgotawayf rom
    Charlest on,t
    heywer ehar assedandwor riedbytheguer r
    ill
    awar riorsofMar i
    on, Sumter,
    and
    Pickens.Cor nwal li
    scoul dt echnicall
    ydef eatGreeneatGui lfordfarint heinteri
    or ;
    buthecoul d
    nothol dt heinlandr egionhehadi nv aded.Sustai
    nedbyt heirownl abor ,possessingthe
    i
    nteriort owhi chtheirar miescoul dr eadi
    lyretr
    eat,suppli
    edmai nlyfrom nat i
    ver esour
    ces, the
    Amer icanscoul dnotbehemmedi n,pennedup, anddest royedatonef el
    lblow.

    TheSeaPower .
    —TheBr i
    ti
    shmadegooduseoft heirf
    leeti ncut
    tingof
    fAmer icant rade,but
    contr
    oloftheseadi dnotseri
    ouslyaf
    fectt
    heUni tedSt ates.Asanagricul
    turalcount ry
    ,therui
    n
    ofit
    scommer cewasnotsuchav i
    talmatt
    er.Allthemat eri
    alsf
    oracomf ort
    ablet hough
    somewhatr udelif
    ewererightathand.I
    tmadel ittl
    edifferencetoanationfi
    ghtingf orexist
    ence,
    i
    fsil
    ks,fi
    nelinens,andchi
    nawarewer ecutoff.Thiswasanev i
    ltowhi
    chsubmi ssionwas
    necessar
    y.

    Nordidt hebril
    l
    iantexploi t
    sofJohnPaul JonesandCapt ainJohnBar r
    ymat er
    ial
    lychanget he
    sit
    uati
    on.Theydemonst ratedt heskil
    lofAmer i
    canseamenandt heircourageasf i
    ghtingmen.
    Theyraisedther atesofBr iti
    shmar ineinsurance,buttheydi dnotdethronethemistressoft he
    seas.Lessspect acular
    , andmor edisti
    nctive,werethedeedsoft hehundr edsofprivateer
    sand
    minorcapt ai
    nswhoov er hauledBrit
    ishsuppl yshipsandkeptBr it
    ishmer chant
    meni nconst ant
    anxiet
    y.Notunt ilt
    heFr enchf leetwast hr
    owni nt
    othescal e,weretheBr i
    ti
    shcompel l
    edt o
    reckonseriouslywiththeenemyont heseaandmakepl ansbasedupont hepossibi
    lit
    iesofa
    mar i
    ti
    medi saster.

    Commandi ngOf ficers.—Ont hescor eofmi l


    it
    aryl eadershipiti
    sdiff
    iculttocompar ethecont ending
    for
    cesi nt
    her evolutionarycont est.Thereisnodoubtt hatallt
    heBriti
    shcommander swer emenof
    experi
    enceint hear tofwar fare.SirWi l
    l
    iam Howehadser vedinAmer i
    cadur ingtheFr enchWarand
    wasaccount edanexcel lentofficer,
    ast ri
    ctdisci
    pl i
    narian,andagallantgent l
    eman.Nev er t
    hel
    esshe
    l
    ovedease, society,andgoodl iving,andhisex pulsionf r
    om Boston,hisfailur
    et oov er
    whel m
    Washingtonbysal l
    i
    esf r
    om hiscomf ortabl
    ebasesatNewYor kandPhi ladelphia,destroyedev er
    y
    shredofhismi li
    taryr eputat
    ion.JohnBur goyne,towhom wasgi venthet askofpenet ratingNew
    Yorkfrom Canada, hadl ikewiseseenser vi
    ceint heFr enchWarbot hinAmer icaandEur ope.Hehad,
    however,atouchofthetheatri
    cali
    nhisnat
    ureandaftert
    hecollapseofhispl
    ansandthesurr
    ender
    ofhi
    sar myin1777,hedev otedhist
    imemainlyt
    olightl
    it
    erat
    ure.SirHenryCl
    int
    on,whodi
    rect
    ed
    themov ementwhichendedi nthecapt
    ureofCharl
    estoni
    n1780, had"lear
    nedhist
    radeonthe
    cont
    inent,
    "andwasr egardedasamanof
    di
    screti
    onandunder st
    andi
    nginmili
    tar
    ymat ters.LordCornwall
    is,whoseachievement sat
    CamdenandGui lf
    ordwereblot
    tedoutbyhi ssurrenderatYorkt
    own, hadseenserviceinthe
    SevenYears'
    Warandhadundoubt edtalentswhi chheafter
    warddi splay
    edwithgreatcredi
    tto
    hi
    mselfinI
    ndia.Thoughnoneofthem, perhaps,weremenoff i
    rst
    -rateabil
    i
    ty,
    theyallhad
    tr
    aini
    ngandexperiencetogui
    dethem.

    Geor
    geWashi
    ngt
    on

    TheAmer icanshadahosti nWashi ngt onhi msel f.Hehadl ongbeeni nterestedinmi l


    it
    aryst r
    at egy
    andhadt estedhi scool nessunderf i
    redur ingt hef i
    rstcl
    asheswi ththeFr enchnear l
    ytwent yy ears
    before.Hehadnodoubt saboutt hej usticeofhi scause, suchaspl aguedsomeoft heBriti
    sh
    gener al
    s.Hewasast ernbutr easonabl edi sciplinari
    an.Hewasr eserv
    edandpat ient,
    li
    ttl
    egi vent o
    exaltati
    onatsuccessordepr essionatr everses.I nthedarkhouroft heRev oluti
    on, "
    whathel dt he
    patri
    otf orcest oget her?"asksBev eri
    dgei nhisLi feofJohnMar shall
    .Thenheanswer s:"Geor ge
    Washi ngtonandheal one.Hadhedi edorbeenser i
    ouslydisabl
    ed, t
    heRev oluti
    onwoul dhav e
    ended. .
    ..Washi ngtonwast hesoul oftheAmer icancause.
    Washi ngtonwast hegov ernment .Washi ngtonwast heRev olut
    ion."TheweaknessofCongr ess
    i
    nf urnishingmenandsuppl ies, t
    hei ndol enceofci vi
    li
    ans,whol i
    vedateasewhi l
    et hearmy
    starved,theint ri
    guesofar myof f
    icersagai nsthi m suchast he"Conwaycabal ,"thecowar diceof
    LeeatMonmout h, event het reasonofBenedi ctAr nol
    d,whiletheystir
    reddeepemot i
    onsi nhis
    breastandar ousedhi mt omakepassi onat epl east ohiscountrymen, didnotshakehi sironwi l
    l
    orhisf i
    rm det erminat iontoseet hewart hrought othebitt
    erend.Thewei ghtofWashi ngton's
    mor al f
    orcewasi mmeasur abl e.

    Oft hegener al swhoser vedunderhi m,nonecanr eallybesaidt ohav ebeenexper ienced


    mi l
    i
    t arymenwhent hewaropened.Benedi ctAr nold,theunhappyt raitorbutbr av eanddar ing
    soldier ,wasadr uggi st ,
    booksel ler,andshi powneratNewHav enwhent henewsofLexi ngt on
    call
    edhi mt obat tl
    e.Hor ati
    oGat eswasl ookeduponasa" seasonedsol dier"becausehehad
    enter edt heBr i
    ti
    shar myasay out h,hadbeenwoundedatBr addock' smemor abledef eat, and
    hadser vedwi thcr editdur i
    ngt heSev enYear s'War ;buthewast hemostconspi cuousf ailureof
    theRev olution.Thet riumphov erBur goynewast hewor kofot hermen; andhi scr ushi ngdef eat
    atCamdenputanendt ohi smi li
    tar ypretensi ons.Nat hanaelGr eenewasaRhodeI slandf armer
    andsmi thwi thoutmi l
    itaryexper iencewho, whenconv i
    ncedt hatwarwascomi ng, readCæsar '
    s
    Comment ariesandt ookupt heswor d.Franci sMar ionwasashyandmodestpl ant erofSout h
    Carol inawhosesol epassageatar mshadbeenabr iefbutdesper atebr ushwi tht heI ndianst en
    ortwel vey earsear l
    i
    er .Dani elMor gan, oneoft heher oesofCowpens, hadbeenat eamst erwi t
    h
    Braddock' sar myandhadseensomef i
    ghtingdur ingt heFrenchandI ndi anWar ,buthi smi lit
    ary
    knowl edge, from t hepoi ntofv iewofat r
    ainedBr it
    ishof fi
    cer,wasnegl igible.JohnSul li
    vanwas
    asuccessf ul l
    awy eratDur ham, NewHampshi r
    e,andamaj orint helocal mi l
    it
    iawhendut y
    summonedhi mt olaydownhi sbr iefsandt akeupt heswor d.Ant honyWay newasa
    Pennsy lvaniaf armerandl andsur veyorwho, onhear i
    ngt heclashofar ms, r
    eadaf ewbookson
    war ,raisedar egi ment ,andof feredhi mselff orserv i
    ce.Suchi st hest oryoft hechi efAmer ican
    mi l
    i
    t aryleader s,andi tist ypical oft hem all.Somehadseenf ight i
    ngwi tht heFr enchand
    Indians, butnoneoft hem hadseenwar f
    areonal argescal ewi t
    hr egul art r
    oopscommanded
    accordi
    ngtothestrat
    egyevol
    vedinEuropeanexperi
    ence.Courage,nati
    veabil
    it
    y,qui
    cknessof
    mind,andknowledgeofthecount
    rytheyhadinabundance,andinbat t
    lessuchaswerefought
    duri
    ngtheRevoluti
    onall
    thosequal
    it
    iescountedheavi
    lyinthebalance.
    For
    eignOff
    icer
    sinAmer icanSer vi
    ce.—Tonativ
    egeniuswasaddedmi li
    tar
    yt alentf
    rom
    beyondt
    heseas.BaronSt euben,wellschool
    edintheironrégi
    meofFr eder
    ickt heGreat
    ,
    cameoverf
    rom Pr
    ussia,
    joinedWashi ngt
    onatVall
    eyForge,anddayaf
    terdaydri
    lledand

    manuv eredthemen, laughingandcur singashet urnedr awcount rymeni ntor egularsol di


    ers.
    From Fr ancecamey oungLaf ayetteandt hesternDeKal b,fr
    om Pol andcamePul aski and
    Kosci usko;—allacquaint edwi ththear t
    sofwaraswagedi nEuropeandf i
    ttedforl eader shipas
    wellast eaching.Laf ayettecameear ly,in1776,inashi pofhi sown, accompani edbysev eral
    offi
    cer sofwi deexper i
    ence, andr emai nedloyall
    yt hroughoutt hewarshar ingt hehar dshipsof
    Amer icanar myl i
    fe.Pul askifellatt hesiegeofSav annahandDeKal batCamden.Kosci usko
    survivedt heAmer icanwart odef endi nvaintheindependenceofhi snativeland.Tot hese
    disti
    ngui shedforeigners, whof r
    eelyt hrewintheirlotwi t
    hAmer icanr ev
    olutionar yfortunes,
    wasduemuchoft hatspi r
    itanddi scipli
    newhi chfitt
    edr awr ecruit
    sandt emper ament al
    mi l
    i
    tiament ocopewi t
    hami litarypoweroft hefirstrank.

    TheSol di
    ers.
    —Asf arastheBr i
    ti
    shsol di
    erswereconcer nedtheirannalsareshortandsi mple.
    Theregularsf r
    om thestandingarmywhower esentov erattheopeningoft hecont est,the
    recr
    uitsdrummedupbyspeci aleffort
    sathome, andt hethousandsofHessi ansbought
    outri
    ghtbyKi ngGeor gepresentedf ewproblemsofmanagementt otheBriti
    shof f
    icer s.These
    commonsol dierswerefarawayf rom homeandenl i
    stedf orthewar.Nearlyallofthem wer e
    welldisci
    pli
    nedandmanyoft hem experiencedinact ualcampai gns.Thearmi esofKi ngGeor ge
    foughtbravely,astherecordsofBunkerHi l
    l
    ,Brandy wine,andMonmout hdemonst rat e.Manya
    manandsubor di
    nateoffi
    cerand,forthatmat t
    er, someoft hehighoffi
    cersexpresseda
    rel
    uctanceatf i
    ghtingagainstthei
    rownki n;
    buttheyobey edor der
    s.

    TheAmer icans,ont heot herhand, whiletheyf oughtwit hgrim determination,asmenf ighti


    ng
    fortheirhomes, wer el ackingi ndiscipl
    ineandi nt heexper i
    enceofr egul
    art r
    oops.Whent he
    warbr okei nupont hem, therewer enocommonpr eparati
    onsf orit.Therewasnocont inent
    al
    army ;t
    her ewereonl yl ocal bandsofmi li
    ti
    amen, manyoft hem exper i
    encedi nfightingbutfew
    ofthem " regul
    ars"int hemi li
    tarysense.Mor eovertheywer ev ol
    unt eersservingf orashor tt
    ime,
    unaccust omedt osev eredi scipli
    ne,andi mpat i
    entatther estrai
    ntsi mposedont hem bylong
    andar duouscampai gns.Theywer econt i
    nuallyleavi
    ngt heser vi
    cej ustatthemostcr it
    ical
    moment s."Themi li
    tia,"lament edWashi ngton,"comei n,youcannott ellhow; go, y
    oucannott el
    l
    wher e;consumey ourpr ov isi
    ons; exhausty ourst or
    es;andl eaveyouatl astatacr iti
    cal
    moment ."

    Againandagai nWashi ngtonbeggedCongr esstoprovi


    def oranar myofr egularsenli
    stedfor
    thewar,thoroughl
    ytrainedandpai daccor di
    ngt osomedef init
    eplan.Atlasthewasabl eto
    overcome,inpartatleast ,
    thechroni cfearofcivil
    i
    ansinCongr essandt owr ingfrom that
    rel
    uctantbodyanagr eementt ogr anthal fpaytoallof
    ficer
    sandabonust oal lpr
    ivat
    eswho
    servedunti
    ltheendoft hewar.Event hi
    sscheme, whi
    chWashi ngtonregardedasf arshortof
    j
    usticetothesoldi
    ers,di dnotproducequi ckresul
    ts.I
    twasneart hecloseoft heconfli
    ctbefor
    e
    hehadanar myofwel l
    -discipl
    i
    nedv eteranscapableofmeet ingBr i
    ti
    shregularsonequal ter
    ms.

    Thought hereweret i
    meswhenmi li
    ti
    amenandf ront i
    ersmendi dvali
    antandef fect
    ivewor k,i
    tisdue
    tohistori
    calaccuracytodenyt hetime- honor edtraditi
    ont hataf ewmi nutemenov erwhelmedmor e
    numer ousforcesofregularsi nasev eny ears'warf orindependence.Theydi dnothingoft hesort.
    Forthev i
    ctori
    esofBenni ngton, Trenton,Sar atoga,andYor ktownt herewer et hedefeatsofBunker
    Hil
    l,
    LongI sland,WhitePlains,Ger mant own, andCamden.Notoncedi danar myofmi l
    i
    tiamen
    overcomeanequal numberofBr i
    tishregul arsinanopent r
    ialbybat t
    le."Tobr ingment obewel l
    acquaintedwiththedutiesofasol dier,
    "wr oteWashi ngt on,"r
    equirestime. .
    ..Toexpectthesame
    serv
    icef r
    om rawandundi scipli
    nedr ecruitsasf rom v eteransoldiersist oexpectwhatnev erdid
    andper hapsneverwi l
    lhappen. "
    HowtheWarWasWon.—Thenhowdidt
    heAmer i
    canarmywint
    hewar?Foronethi
    ngther
    ewere
    del
    aysandbl
    under
    sont
    hepartoft
    heBri
    ti
    shgeneral
    swho,i
    n1775and1776,dal
    li
    edi
    nBoston
    andNew
    Yorkwi thlargebodiesofr egul artr
    oopswhent heymi ghthav ebeendeal ingparalyzingblows
    atthescat teredbandst hatconst it
    utedt heAmer icanar my ."Not hingbutt hesupinenessor
    foll
    yoft heenemycoul dhav esav edus, "solemnl yav erredWashi ngtonin1780.St i
    ll
    itisfairto
    sayt hatthisapparentsupi nenesswasnotal lduet ot heBr it
    ishgener als.Themi nistersbehind
    them believedthatal ar gepar tofthecol onistswer eloyalandt hatcompr omisewoul dbe
    promot edbyi nacti
    onr atherthanbyawarv i
    gor ouslypr osecut ed.Victorybymast erlyinacti
    vit
    y
    wasobv iouslybett
    ert hanconquest ,
    andt hesl i
    ght erthewoundst hequickertheheal i
    ng.Later
    i
    nt heconf li
    ctwhent heseasonedf orcesofFr ancewer ethrowni ntothescale,t
    heAmer i
    cans
    themsel veshadl earnedmanyt hi
    ngsaboutt hepr acticalconductofcampai gns.Allalong,the
    Brit
    ishwer eembar r
    assedbyt hepr oblem ofsuppl i
    es.Thei rtroopscoul dnotf oragewi ththe
    skil
    lofmi l
    it
    iamen,ast heywer ei nunfami l
    iarterrit
    or y
    .Thel ongov er
    seav oyageswer e
    uncer t
    ainatbestanddoubl ysowhent hewar shipsofFr ancej oinedtheAmer i
    canpr ivat
    eersin
    preyingonsuppl yboat s.

    TheBr i
    ti
    shwer einfactbatt
    eredandwor ndownbyaguer r
    il
    lawarandout doneont wo
    i
    mpor tantoccasi
    onsbysuper iorforces—atSar at
    ogaandYor kt
    own.St er
    nfact
    sconv inced
    them fi
    nall
    ythatanimmensear my ,whichcouldber aisedonl ybyasupr emeeffort,
    woul dbe
    necessarytosubduet hecoloniesifthathazardousent erpri
    secouldbeaccompl ishedatall.
    TheylearnedalsothatAmer i
    cawoul dthenbeal i
    enated,fretf
    ul,andthesceneofendl ess
    uprisi
    ngscall
    ingforanarmyofoccupat i
    on.Thatwasapr i
    cewhi chstagger
    edev enLordNor t
    h
    andGeor geII
    I.Moreover,t
    herewer ef orcesofoppositionathomewi thwhichtheyhadt o
    reckon.

    Womenandt heWar.—Atnot imewer ethewomenofAmer i


    cai ndifferenttot hest ruggl
    ef or
    i
    ndependence.Wheni twasconf inedtothereal
    m ofopi niontheydi dt heirpar tincreati
    ng
    publ
    icsentiment.Mr s.Eli
    zabethTimothee,f
    orexampl e, f
    oundedi nChar l
    est
    on, i
    n1773, a
    newspapert oespouset hecauseoft heprovi
    nce.Fart othenor ththesi sterofJamesOt is,Mrs.
    MercyWar ren,earl
    ybeggedhercount r
    yment oresttheircaseupont heirnatur alr
    ights,
    andi n
    i
    nfl
    uenti
    al cir
    clessheur gedtheleaderstost
    andf astbyt heirprinciples.WhileJohnAdams
    wastossingaboutwi t
    huncertaintyatt
    heCont i
    nentalCongr ess, hi
    swi f
    ewaswr it
    inglett
    er st
    o
    hi
    m declaringherfaithin"i
    ndependency."

    Whent hewarcamedownupont hecountry ,womenhel pedinev er


    yf i
    eld.Insust ainingpubli
    c
    sentimenttheywer eactive.Mrs.War r
    enwi that i
    relesspencombat tedl oyali
    stpr opagandain
    manyadr amaandsat ire.Almostev eryr
    ev olut
    ionaryl eaderhadawi feordaught erwho
    renderedserviceinthe"secondl i
    neofdef ense."Mr s.Washi ngtonmanagedt hepl antat
    ion
    whiletheGener alwasatt hefrontandwentnor thtof acet heri
    gorsoftheawf ul winteratVall
    ey
    Forge—ani nspirati
    ontoherhusbandandhi smen.Thedaught erofBenj ami nFranklin,Mrs.
    SarahBache, whi l
    eherfatherwaspl eadi
    ngt heAmer icancausei nFrance, sett hewomenof
    Pennsy l
    vaniatowor ksewi ngandcol l
    ect
    ingsuppl ies.Ev ennearthefiri
    ngl inewomenwer eto
    befound, ai
    dingt hewounded, hauli
    ngpowdert othef ront,andcarryi
    ngdi spat chesatt heperi
    l
    oftheirl
    ives.

    Intheeconomicspher e,thewor kofwomenwasi nv aluable.Theyharv est


    edcr opswi thout
    enj
    oy i
    ngthepicturesquet it
    leof"farmer et
    tes"andt heycannedandpr eservedforthewounded
    andthepr i
    sonersofwar .Oftheirl
    abori nspinningandweav i
    ngi ti
    srecorded: "
    Immedi atel
    yon
    beingcutofffr
    om t heuseofEngl i
    shmanuf actures, thewomenengagedwi t
    hintheirown
    famili
    esinmanuf acturingvari
    ouski ndsofcl othfordomest icuse.Theyt huskeptt heir
    householdsdecent l
    ycl adandt hesurplusoft heirlabor stheysol dtosuchaschoset obuy
    rat
    herthanmakef orthemsel ves.Inthiswayt hef emal epartoff amil
    i
    esbyt hei
    rindust ryand
    str
    icteconomyf requent l
    ysuppor t
    edt hewhol edomest iccir
    cle,evi
    ncingt hestrengthoft hei
    r
    att
    achmentandt hev alueoftheirservice.
    "
    Fortheirwarwor k,
    womenwer ecommendedbyhi ghaut hori
    tiesonmor
    ethanoneoccasion.
    Theywer egivenmedal sandpubli
    ctesti
    monialsevenasi nourownday.Washingt
    onthanked
    them forthei
    rlaborsandpaidtri
    but
    etot hem f
    ortheinspirat
    ionandmater
    ial
    aidwhichthey
    hadgiv entothecauseofindependence.
    TheFi
    nancesoft
    heRev
    olut
    ion

    Whent heRevoluti
    onopened, therewer ethi
    rteenlit
    tl
    et r
    easuriesi
    nAmer i
    cabutnocommon
    treasury,andfr
    om f i
    rstt
    olastt heCongr esswasi ntheposi t
    ionofabeggarratherthana
    sov er
    eign.Havi
    ngnoaut hor
    ityt olayandcollecttaxesdirect
    lyandknowingthehat redofthe
    prov i
    ncial
    sfortaxati
    on,i
    tresor tedmainlytoloansandpapermoneyt ofinancethewar ."Doyou
    think,
    "boldlyi
    nquiredoneoft hedel egates,"
    thatIwillconsenttol
    oadmyconst i
    tuentswith
    taxeswhenwecansendt othepr int
    erandgetawagonl oadofmoney ,
    onequi reofwhichwi l
    l
    payf orthewhole?"

    PaperMoneyandLoans. —Actingont hi
    scur iousbutappeal i
    ngpol i
    ti
    cal economy ,Congr ess
    i
    ssuedi nJune, 1776, t
    womi ll
    i
    ondol larsinbillsofcr edittober edeemedbyt hest atesont he
    basisoft hei
    rrespect i
    vepopulati
    ons.Ot herissuesf ol
    lowedi nquicksuccessi on.Inal l
    about
    $241,000,000ofcont i
    nent
    alpaperwaspr inted, t
    owhi cht hesev er
    alst atesaddednear l
    y
    $210,000,000oft heirownnotes.Thencamei nterest-
    bearingbondsi nev erincreasing
    quantit
    ies.Severalmi l
    li
    onswer ealsobor rowedf r
    om Fr anceandsmal l sumsf r
    om Hol landand
    Spain.I
    ndesper ationanat i
    onal l
    otterywashel d,producingmeagerr esul ts.Thepr opertyof
    Torieswasconf iscatedandsol d,bringingi nabout$16, 000,000.Beggi ngl ett
    erswer esentt o
    thestatesaskingt hem torai
    ser evenuesf ort hecont i
    nental t
    reasury
    , butt hestates, burdened
    withtheirownaf fair
    s,gaveli
    ttl
    eheed.

    Infl
    ationandDepr eciation.—Aspapermoneyf lowedf rom t hepr ess, i
    trapi
    dl ydecl
    inedin
    purchasingpowerunt ilin1779adol larwaswor thonl yt woort hreecent singol dorsilv
    er .
    Attempt sweremadebyCongr essandt hestatest ocompel peoplet oacceptt henotesat
    facev al
    ue;butthesewer eli
    keat t
    empt st omakewat erf l
    owuphi l
    l.Speculatorscollect
    edat
    oncet ofatt
    enont hecal ami t
    iesoft herepubli
    c.For t
    uneswer emadeandl ostgambl i
    ngont he
    pri
    cesofpubl icsecur i
    tieswhi lethepat r
    iotarmy ,
    halfcl othed,wasf r eezi
    ngatVal l
    eyFor ge.
    "Speculati
    on,peculation, engrossing,for
    estall
    ing,
    "excl aimedWashi ngt on,"aff
    ordtoomany
    mel anchol
    yproof soft hedecayofpubl i
    cv i
    rt
    ue.Not hing, Iam conv inced,butthedepr eciati
    on
    ofourcur r
    ency...aidedbyst ockj obbingandpar tydissensi onshasf edthehopesoft he
    enemy .
    "

    Rober
    tMor
    ri
    s

    ThePat riotFinancier
    s.—Tot heef f
    ortsofCongr essinfinancingt hewarwer eaddedt helabors
    ofprivatecitizens.HaynSolomon, amer chantofPhiladelphia,suppliedmember sofCongr ess,
    i
    ncludingMadi son,Jeff
    erson, andMonr oe,andar myof fi
    cers,li
    keLeeandSt euben,withmoney
    fortheirdailyneeds.Alltogetherhecont ri
    butedthehugesum ofhal fami l
    li
    ondollar
    st othe
    Amer i
    cancauseanddi edbrokeni npur se, i
    fnotinspiri
    t,aBr it
    ishprisonerofwar.Anot her
    Phil
    adel phiamer chant,
    Rober tMor r
    is,wonf orhimselfthenameoft he" patr
    iotfi
    nancier"
    becausehel aborednightanddayt ofindt hemoneyt omeett hebill
    swhi chpouredinupont he
    bankruptgov ernment.Whenhi sownf undswer eexhausted, hebor r
    owedf rom hisfr
    iends.
    Experi
    encedint
    hehandl
    ingofmerchandi
    se,hecreat
    edagenciesati
    mport
    antpoint
    sto
    di
    stri
    butesuppl
    i
    estothetr
    oops,
    thusdispl
    ayingadmini
    str
    ati
    veaswellasf
    inanci
    alt
    alent
    s.
    Womenor ganized"
    dri
    ves"formoney ,contr
    ibutedt heirplateandt heirj
    ewel s,andcol l
    ected
    fr
    om doort odoor.Far
    mer stookwor t
    hlesspaperi nr eturnfortheirproduce, andsol di
    erssaw
    manyapaydaypasswi t
    houty i
    eldi
    ngthem apenny .Thusbyt hel aborsandsacr if
    icesof
    ci
    ti
    zens,theissuanceofpapermoney , l
    ott
    eries,thefloat i
    ngofl oans,borr
    owi ngsinEur ope,
    andtheimpr essmentofsupplies,t
    heCongr essst agger edthrought heRev oluti
    onlikeapauper
    whoknowsnothowhi snextmeal i
    stobesecur edbuti scontinuouslyrel
    ievedatacr i
    sisbya
    ki
    ndlyfat
    e.

    TheDi
    plomacyoft
    heRev
    olut
    ion

    Whent heful lmeasur eofhonori sgi ventot hesoldi


    ersandsai lorsandt heircommandi ng
    offi
    cer s,t
    heci vil
    ianswhomanagedf i
    nancesandsuppl ies,thewr iter swhosust ainedthe
    Amer i
    canspi rit
    ,andt hewomenwhodi dwel lthei
    rpart,thereyetr emai nsthedut yof
    recogni zi
    ngt heachi evement sofdiplomacy .Theimportanceoft hisf ieldofact i
    vitywaskeenly
    appr eciat
    edbyt heleadersi ntheCont inentalCongress.Theywer ef airl
    ywel lversedin
    Europeanhi story.Theyknewoft hebal anceofpowerandt hesy mpat hies,interests,and
    prejudicesofnat i
    onsandt heirr
    ulers.Allthisinf
    ormationt heyturnedt ogoodaccount ,i
    n
    openi ngrelationswi thcontinentalcountri
    esandseeki ngmoney ,suppl i
    es,andev enmi l
    it
    ary
    assistance.Fort het ransactionofthisdel i
    catebusiness, t
    heycr eat edasecr etcommi tt
    eeon
    foreigncor r
    espondenceasear l
    yas1775andpr eparedtosendagent sabr oad.

    Amer i
    canAgent sSentAbroad. —Hav inghear dthatFr ancewasi ncli
    ningaf riendlyeart ot he
    Amer i
    cancause, theCongress, inMar ch,1776, sentacommi ssionertoPar i
    s, Si
    lasDeaneof
    Connect i
    cut,oftenstyl
    edthe" fi
    r stAmer i
    candi plomat .
    "Lat erintheyearaf or m oft reatytobe
    presentedt oforeignpowerswasdr awnup, andFr anklin,Ar t
    hurLee, andDeanewer eselectedas
    Amer i
    canr epresentati
    vesatthecour tof" HisMostChr i
    stianMaj estytheKi ngofFr ance."JohnJay
    ofNewYor kwaschosenmi ni
    st ert oSpai ni n1779; JohnAdamswassentt oHol landt hesamey ear
    ;
    andot heragent sweredispatchedt oFl orence, Vienna, andBer l
    i
    n.Ther epresent ati
    v eselectedfor
    St.Petersburgspentt wofruit
    lessy earsther e,"i
    gnor edbyt hecour t
    ,li
    vinginobscur ityand
    experi
    encingnot hi
    ngbuthumi liationandf ailur
    e."Freder i
    ckt heGr eat,ki
    ngofPr ussi a,expresseda
    desir
    et ofindinAmer i
    caamar ketf orSi l
    esianlinensandwool ens,but,fear
    ingEngl and'scommand
    ofthesea, her efusedtogivedir ectaidt ot heRev olutionarycause.

    EarlyFrenchI nterest.
    —Thegr eatdi plomatictri
    umphoft heRev olutionwaswonatPar is,and
    Benjami nFr ankl i
    nwast heher ooft heoccasi on, althoughmanyci rcumst ancespr eparedthe
    wayf orhi ssuccess.Loui sXVI '
    sf oreignmi ni
    st er,CountdeVer gennes, beforet hear r
    ivalofany
    Amer icanr epr esentat
    ive,hadbr oughtt otheat tentionoft hekingt heoppor tunityofferedbyt he
    outbreakoft hewarbet weenEngl andandhercol onies.Heshowedhi m howFr ancecoul d
    redresshergr ievancesand" reducet hepowerandgr eatnessofEngl and"—theempi rethatin
    1763hadf orceduponherahumi l
    iatingpeace" atthepr i
    ceofourpossessi ons, ofour
    commer ce, andourcr editi
    nt heI ndi es,atthepr iceofCanada, Louisiana, I
    sleRoy ale,Acadia,
    andSenegal ."Equal l
    ysuccessf ul i
    ngai ni
    ngtheki ng'sinter estwasacur i
    ousFr enchadv enturer
    ,
    Beaumar chais, amanofweal th, alov erofmusi c,andt heaut horoft wopopul arpl ays,"Fi
    garo"
    and" TheBar berofSev i
    ll
    e."Theset womenhadal r
    eadyur gedupont hekingsecr etaidfor
    Amer icabef or eDeaneappear edont hescene.Shor tlyaf terhisar r
    ivaltheymadeconf identi
    al
    arrangement st ofurnishmoney , clothing,powder ,andot hersuppl i
    est ot hestruggl i
    ngcol oni
    es,
    alt
    houghof f
    icialrequestsf orthem wer eoffi
    ciallyrefusedbyt heFr enchgov ernment .

    Frankli
    natPari
    s.—WhenFr ankli
    nr eachedParis,hewasreceiv
    edonl yi
    npr iv
    atebytheki ng'
    s
    minister
    ,Ver
    gennes.TheFr enchpeopl e,
    howev er,
    mademani festthei
    raffecti
    onforthe" pl
    ain
    republi
    can"i
    n"hisful
    ldresssuitofspot t
    edManchestervelvet
    ."Hewasknownamongmenof
    l
    ettersasanauthor,ascienti
    st,andaphi l
    osopherofext
    raordinar
    yabili
    ty.His"PoorRichard"had
    thri
    cebeentransl
    atedintoFrenchandwasscat ter
    edinnumer ousedit
    ionst hr
    oughouttheki ngdom.
    Peopleofallr
    anks—mini
    sters,l
    adiesatcourt
    ,phi
    losopher
    s,peasant
    s,andstableboys—knewof
    Frankl
    inandwishedhim successinhismissi
    on.Thequeen,MarieAntoi
    net
    te,fatedt
    oloseher
    headinar ev
    olut
    ionsoontof ol
    low,pl
    ayedwithfi
    reby
    encour
    agi
    ng"
    ourdearr
    epubl
    i
    can.
    "

    Fort hekingofFr ance,howev er,t hiswasmor eseriousbusi ness.Engl andr esent edthe
    presenceoft his"trai
    tor
    "inPar is, andLoui shadt obecaut iousaboutpl ungi ngi ntoanot herwar
    thatmi ghtalsoenddi sastrousl y.Mor eov er,t
    heear l
    yper i
    odofFr ankl i
    n'
    ssoj ourni nPariswasa
    darkhourf ortheAmer i
    canRev olut ion.Washi ngton'sbrill
    iantexpl oitatTr ent ononChr i
    stmas
    night,1776, andt hebattlewi thCor nwal l
    i
    satPr incetonhadbeenf ollowedbyt hedi sasterat
    Brandy wine,thel ossofPhi ladel phi a,thedef eatatGer mant own, andt her etirementt oVal ley
    Forgef orthewi nterof1777- 78.NewYor kCityandPhi ladel phia—twost rategi cpor t
    s—wer ei
    n
    Brit
    ishhands; theHudsonandDel awar eriverswerebl ocked; andGener alBur goy newi t
    hhi s
    Brit
    isht r
    oopswasonhi swaydownt hrought hehear tofnor t
    hernNewYor k,cutt i
    ngNew
    Englandof ffr
    om t herestoft hecol onies.Nowondert heki ngwascaut ious.Thent he
    unexpect edhappened.Bur goy ne, hemmedi nfr
    om al lsidesbyt heAmer i
    canf orces,hisflanks
    harri
    ed, hisforagingpar ti
    esbeat enback, hissuppliescutof f,surrender edonOct ober17, 1777,
    toGener al Gates, whohadsuper sededGener alSchuy l
    erint imet or eceivet hehonor .

    Treati
    esofAl l
    ianceandCommer ce(1778).—Newsoft hisvi
    ctory ,
    placedbyhi storiansamong
    thefif
    teendecisivebat t
    lesoft hewor l
    d,reachedFr anklinoneni ghtearlyinDecemberwhi l
    ehe
    andsomef ri
    endssatgl oomi l
    yatdi nner.Beaumar chais,whowaswi thhim,graspedatonce
    themeani ngoft hesi tuati
    onandsetof ftot hecourtatVer sai
    lleswi thsuchhast et hathe
    upsethiscoachanddi slocatedhisar m.Theki ngandhi sministerswer eatlastconv i
    ncedthat
    thehourhadcomet oai dtheRev oluti
    on.Treatiesofcommer ceandal l
    iancewer edr awnup
    andsignedi nFebr uary ,
    1778.Thei ndependenceoft heUni tedSt ateswasr ecogni zedby
    Franceandanal li
    ancewasf or medt oguar anteethatindependence.Combi nedmi l
    it
    aryacti
    on
    wasagr eeduponandLoui sthenf ormall
    ydecl aredwaronEngl and.Menwhohad, afewshort
    yearsbefore,f
    oughtoneanot herinthewi l
    dernessofPennsy l
    v aniaoront hePl ainsof
    Abraham, werenowr angedsi debysi deinawaront heEmpi ret hatPit
    thader ect edandt hat
    GeorgeI I
    Iwaspul lingdown.

    SpainandHollandI nvolv
    ed.
    —Wi thi
    naf ewmonths,Spain,remember ingthesteadydecli
    neof
    herseapowersi ncet heday
    soft heArmadaandhopi ngt odrivetheBr it
    ishoutofGibral
    tar
    ,
    oncemor ejoi
    nedt heconcertofnati
    onsagainstEngl
    and.Hol land, amemberofal eagueof
    armedneutral
    sf ormedi npr
    otestagai
    nstBrit
    ishsearchesont hehi ghseas, sentherfl
    eett
    o
    unit
    ewiththeforcesofSpai n,
    France,andAmer i
    catopr eyuponBr i
    tishcommer ce.Toallt
    his
    tr
    oubleforEnglandwasaddedt hedangerofapossiblerevoltinIreland,wherethespiri
    tof
    i
    ndependencewasf l
    amingup.

    TheBr it
    ishOfferTer mstoAmer i
    ca. —Seeingthecoloni st
    saboutt obej oinedbyFr ancei na
    commonwaront heEngl i
    shempi re,LordNorthproposed, i
    nFebr uar y,1778, arenewal of
    negotiati
    ons.Bysol emnenact ment ,Parli
    amentdeclar editsintentionnott oexer ci
    set heright
    ofimposi ngtaxeswi thi
    nthecoloni es;atthesamet i
    mei tauthorizedt heopeni ngof
    negotiati
    onsthroughcommi ssioner stobesenttoAmer i
    ca.At rucewast obeest abli
    shed,
    pardonsgr anted,object
    ionabl
    el awssuspended, andt heoldimper i
    al constit
    uti
    on, asitstood
    beforetheopeni ngofhost i
    li
    ti
    es, r
    est or
    edt of
    ullvi
    gor .Itwast oolat e.Eventshadt akent he
    aff
    airsofAmer i
    caoutoft hehandsofBr i
    ti
    shcommi ssionersanddi plomat s.

    Effect
    sofFrenchAi d.—TheFrenchal l
    iancebr oughtshipsofwar ,l
    argesumsofgol dandsil
    ver
    ,
    l
    oadsofsuppl i
    es,andaconsi der abl
    ebodyoft r
    ainedsoldierst otheaidoft heAmer i
    cans.
    Timelyaswast hishelp,i
    tmeantnosuddenchangei nthef ortunesofwar .TheBr i
    ti
    sh
    evacuatedPhil
    adelphiainthesummerf oll
    owi ngthealli
    ance, andWashi ngton'str
    oopswer e
    encouragedtocomeoutofVal leyForge.Theyi nfli
    ctedaheav yblowont heBr i
    ti
    shat
    Monmout h,butthetreasonableconductofGener alCharlesLeepr ev
    entedat ri
    umph.The
    recover
    yofPhi l
    adelphiawasof fsetbythetreasonofBenedi ctArnold,thelossofSav annah
    andChar l
    eston(1780),andthedef eatofGat esatCamden.
    Thef ul
    leff
    ectoftheFrenchal
    l
    iancewasnotf
    eltunt
    il1781,whenCor
    nwall
    i
    swentintoVi
    rgi
    niaand
    sett
    ledatYorktown.AccompaniedbyFr
    encht
    roopsWashi ngt
    onsweptr
    apidl
    ysout
    hwardand
    pennedt he
    Bri
    tishtotheshor ewhi l
    eapower fulFrenchf l
    eetshutof ftheirescapebysea.I twast his
    mov ement, whichcertai
    nlycouldnothav ebeenexecut edwi t
    houtFr enchai d,thatputanendt o
    all
    chanceofr estori
    ngBriti
    shdomi ni
    oni nAmer i
    ca.Itwast hesur renderofCor nwalli
    sat
    Yorktownt hatcausedLor dNor t
    ht opacet hefloorandcr yout :"I
    tisallover!Itisall
    ov er!
    "What
    mighthav ebeendonewi thouttheFr enchal l
    iancelieshiddenf rom manki nd.Whatwas
    accompl i
    shedwi t
    hthehelpofFr enchsol di
    ers,sail
    ors,off
    icers,money ,
    andsuppl ies,i
    sknown
    toalltheearth."Allt
    hewor ldagree,"exultantl
    ywr oteFranklinfrom Par i
    stoGener alWashington,
    "t
    hatnoexpedi t
    ionwasev erbetterplannedorbet terexecuted.I tbri
    ghtenst heglorythatmust
    accompanyy ournamet ot helatestpost eri
    ty.
    "Diplomacyaswel lasmar ti
    al val
    orhadi tsreward.

    PeaceatLast

    Brit
    ishOpposi ti
    ont ot heWar .—Inmeasur ingt hefor cest hatl edtot hef inaldi scomf i
    tur eofKi ng
    Geor geandLor dNor th, i
    tisnecessar ytoremembert hatf r
    om t hebegi nningt ot heendt he
    Brit
    ishmi nistryathomef acedapower ful
    ,informed, andr elentlessopposi t
    ion.Ther ewer e
    vigor ouspr otest s,f
    irstagai nstt heobnoxi ousact swhi chpr ecipitatedt heunhappyquar rel,then
    agai nstthewayi nwhi cht hewarwaswaged, andf i
    nal lyagainstt hef util
    est ruggl et or etaina
    holdupont heAmer i
    candomi nions.Amongt hemember sofPar l
    iamentwhot hunder edagai nst
    thegov ernmentwer et hef i
    rstst atesmenandor atorsoft heland.Wi lli
    am Pi tt,EarlofChat ham,
    thoughhedepl oredt hei deaofAmer i
    cani ndependence, denouncedt hegov er nmentast he
    aggr essorandr ejoi
    cedi nAmer icanresistance.EdmundBur kelev eledhi sheav ybat teries
    agai nstev erymeasur eofcoer cionandatl aststrov ef orapeacewhi ch,whi legiv i
    ng
    i
    ndependencet oAmer ica,woul dwor kf orreconci l
    iationr atherthanest rangement .Char l
    es
    JamesFoxgav et hecol onieshi sgener oussy mpat hyandwar mlychampi onedt heirright s.
    Out sideoft heci rcl
    eofst atesment herewer est outf ri
    endsoft heAmer icancausel ikeDav id
    Hume, t
    hephi losopherandhi storian,andCat herineMacaul ay ,
    anaut horofwi defameanda
    republ i
    canbol denought oencour ageWashi ngtoni nseei ngi tthrough.

    Againstt
    hispower f
    ul opposition,thegovernmentenl ist
    edawhol earmyofscr i
    besand
    j
    ournali
    ststopouroutcr iti
    cism ont heAmer icansandt hei
    rfr
    iends.Dr .SamuelJohnson,
    whom itemploy edint hisbusiness, wassosav aget hateventhemi nister
    shadtot onedown
    hispamphletsbef orepr i
    nti
    ngt hem.Farmor ewei ghtywasEdwar dGi bbon,whowasi nti
    met o
    winfameast hehi storianoft heDecl i
    neandFal loftheRomanEmpi r
    e.Hehadatf irstopposed
    thegovernment; but,onbei nggi venalucrati
    v epost ,heusedhissharppeni nit
    ssuppor t,
    causinghisfr
    iendst or i
    diculehi mintheselines:

    "King
    Geor ge, i
    na
    fri
    ght
    LestGi bbon
    shoul dwr ite
    Thest oryof
    Engl and's
    disgr ace,
    Thoughtno
    waysosur e
    Hispent o
    secur e
    Ast ogi ve
    thehi storian
    apl ace. "
    Lor
    dNor
    thYi
    elds.
    —Ast
    imewor
    eon,
    event
    sbor
    eheav
    il
    yont
    hesi
    deoft
    heopponent
    soft
    he
    government '
    smeasur es.Theyhadpr edictedthatconquestwasi mpossi ble,andt heyhadur ged
    theadv antagesofapeacewhi chwoul di nsomemeasur er estoretheaf fectionsoft he
    Amer icans.Ev eryday '
    snewsconf i
    rmedt heirpr
    edictionsandl entsuppor ttotheirar gument s.
    Mor eover,thewar ,
    whi chsprangoutofanef for
    ttor elieveEngl i
    shbur dens, madet hose
    burdensheav i
    ert hanev er
    .Mi l
    itaryexpenseswer edai l
    yi ncr easing.Tradewi ththecol oni
    es, the
    greatestsingleout letforBri
    ti
    shgoodsandcapi tal,waspar alyzed.Theheav ydebtsdueBr i
    t i
    sh
    mer chantsinAmer icawer enotonl yunpaidbutpost ponedi ntoani ndefinitefuture.Irelandwas
    onthev er
    geofr evoluti
    on.TheFr enchhadadanger ousf leetont hehighseas.I nv aindi dthe
    kingasser tinDecember ,1781, thatnodi ff
    icul
    ti
    eswoul dev ermakehi m consentt oapeace
    thatmeantAmer icanindependence.Par li
    amentknewbet ter ,
    andonFebr uary27, 1782, i
    nt he
    HouseofCommonswascar ri
    edanaddr esst othethr oneagai nstcont inuingt hewar .Burke,
    Fox, t
    hey oungerPi tt,Barr
    é,andot herfr
    iendsoft hecol oniesv otedi ntheaf fir
    mat ive.Lor d
    Northgav enot icethent hathismi ni
    str
    ywasatanend.Theki ngmoaned: "
    Necessi tymademe
    yiel
    d."

    InApr i
    l
    ,1782, Franklinr eceiv
    edwor dfrom t heEngl ishgov ernmentt hatitwaspr eparedtoent er
    i
    ntonegot i
    ati
    onsl eadi ngtoaset tlement .Thiswasembar rassing.Inthet reatyofal l
    iancewi t
    h
    France,theUni t
    edSt ateshadpr omi sedt hatpeaceshoul dbeaj ointaffairagreedt obybot h
    nati
    onsi nopenconf erence.Findi
    ngFr ance, howev er,opposedt osomeoft heirclaims
    respecti
    ngboundar i
    esandf i
    sheries,theAmer i
    cancommi ssionersconf er
    redwi ththeBr i
    tish
    agentsatPar iswit houtconsul ti
    ngt heFr enchmi nister
    .Theyact uall
    ysi gnedapr eli
    mi nar
    y
    peacedr aftbeforet heyi nfor
    medhi m oft heiroperat i
    ons.WhenVer gennesr eproachedhi m,
    Frankli
    nr epli
    edthatt hey"hadbeengui lt
    yofnegl ectingbienséance[ goodmanner s]buthoped
    thatthegr eatworkwoul dnotber uinedbyasi ngleindiscretion."

    TheTer msofPeace( 1783) .


    —Thegener alset
    tlementatPar isi
    n1783wasat r
    iumphfor
    America.Engl
    andrecogni zedtheindependenceoft heUnitedSt ates,namingeachstate
    speci
    fical
    ly
    ,andagreedt oboundar i
    esextendingf r
    om theAt l
    antictotheMi ssi
    ssippi
    andf r
    om
    theGreatLakestotheFl ori
    das.EnglandheldCanada, Newf oundland,andt heWestIndies
    i
    ntact,madegainsinIndia,andmai ntai
    nedhersupr emacyont heseas.Spai nwonFlori
    daand
    Minorcabutnotthecov etedGibral
    tar.Fr
    ancegai nednothi
    ngi mpor tantsavethesati
    sfacti
    on
    ofseeingEnglandhumbl edandt hecoloni
    esindependent .

    Thegener ouster
    mssecur edbyt heAmer i
    cancommi ssionatPar i
    scal ledf ort
    hsur priseand
    grati
    tudeintheUnitedStatesandsmoot hedthewayf orar enewal ofcommer cialrelationswi t
    h
    themot hercount
    ry.Atthesamet i
    met heygav egenui
    neanxi et
    ytoEur opeandi plomat s."This
    federalr
    epubli
    cisbor napigmy ,
    "wr otetheSpani shambassadort ohisr oyal mast er."Adaywi ll
    comewheni twil
    lbeagi ant;ev
    enacol ossusf or
    midablet othesecount ries.Liber t
    yof
    conscienceandthef aci
    li
    tyforestablishinganewpopul at i
    ononi mmensel ands, aswel lasthe
    advantagesofthenewgov ernment, will
    drawt hi
    therf
    armer sandar ti
    sansf rom al lthenat ions.
    Inafewy earsweshal lwatchwithgr iefthetyr
    annicalexistenceoft hesamecol ossus. "
    Nor
    thAmer
    icaaccor
    dingt
    otheTr
    eat
    yof1783

    Summar
    yoft
    heRev
    olut
    ionar
    yPer
    iod

    Theindependenceoft heAmer i
    cancol onieswasf oreseenbymanyEur opeanstat
    esmenas
    theywatchedthegr owthoft hei
    rpopul ation,
    weal t
    h,andpower ;butnoonecoul dfixthehour
    ofthegreatevent.Until1763theAmer icancolonistsli
    vedfai
    rl
    yhappilyunderBrit
    ishdomi ni
    on.
    Therewerecolli
    si
    onsf rom timetot i
    me, ofcourse.Roy al
    governorscl
    ashedwi t
    hst if
    f-necked
    coloni
    all
    egisl
    atures.Ther ewereprotest sagainsttheexerci
    seoft heki
    ng'svetopoweri n
    specif
    iccases.Nevertheless,onthewhol e,t
    her el
    ati
    onsbetweenAmer icaandthemot her
    countr
    ywer emor eami cablein1763t hanatanyper iodundert
    heSt uartrégi
    mewhi chcl osed
    i
    n1688.

    Thecr ash, wheni tcame, wasnotdel i


    berat elywi lledbyanyone.I twast hepr oductofanumberof
    forcest hathappenedt oconv ergeabout1763.Thr eey earsbef ore,therehadcomet othethr one
    Geor geI I
    I,ayoung, pr oud, i
    nexperienced, andst ubbor nki ng.Fornear lyfiftyyearshispr edecessor s,
    Ger mansast heywer ei nlanguageandi nt erest ,hadal lowedt hi
    ngst odr iftinEnglandandAmer i
    ca.
    Geor geI I
    Idecidedt hathewoul dbeki ngi nf actaswel l asinname.Aboutt hesamet imeEngl and
    broughtt oacl oset hel ongandcost l
    yFr enchandI ndianWarandwasst aggeringunderaheav y
    burdenofdebtandt axes.Thewarhadbeenf oughtpar tl
    yindef enseoft heAmer i
    cancol oniesand
    nothingseemedmor er easonablet oEngl i
    shst atesment hant hei deat hatthecol oniesshoul dbear
    partoft hecostoft hei rowndef ense.Att hisj unct urether ecamei ntopr omi nence, i
    nr oyalcouncils,
    twomenbentont axi ngAmer i
    caandcont roll
    inghert rade, Grenv i
    lleandTownshend.Theki ngwas
    will
    ing,theEngl i
    sht axpay erswer ethankf ul foranypr omi seofr el
    ief,andst atesmenwer efoundt o
    under t
    aket heexper iment .Englandt herefor esetoutuponanewcour se.Shei mposedt axesupon
    thecol onists,regulat edt heirtr
    adeandsetr oy alof fi
    cersupont hem t oenf orcet helaw.Thi sact i
    on
    evokedpr otestsfrom t hecol onist
    s.Theyhel daSt ampActCongr esst odecl aretheirri
    ghtsand
    petiti
    onf orar edressofgr ievances.Someoft hemor er estlessspi ri
    tsriotedi nthest r
    eets,sacked
    t
    hehousesoft
    heki
    ng'
    sof
    fi
    cer
    s,andt
    oreupt
    hest
    ampedpaper
    .
    Frightenedbyupr i
    si
    ng,theEnglishgov ernmentdr ewbackandr epeal
    edtheSt ampAct.Theni t
    veer edagainandr enewedi tspoli
    cyofi nterference.Interfer
    enceagaincal l
    edfort
    hAmer i
    can
    prot est
    s.Protestsarousedshar perr
    etaliation.Mor eBrit
    ishregularsweresentovertokeepor der
    .
    Mor eir
    ri
    tat
    ingl awswerepassedbyPar li
    ament .Rioti
    ngagai nappeared:teawasdumpedi nthe
    har borofBost onandsei zedintheharborofChar l
    est on.TheBr i
    ti
    shanswerwasmor eforce.The
    responseoft hecoloni
    stswasaCont inent al Congressf ordefense.Anunexpectedanduni nt
    ended
    clashofar msatLexi ngtonandConcor di nt hespringof1775br oughtforthfr
    om theki
    ngof
    Engl andapr oclamati
    on: "TheAmer i
    cansar er ebel
    s! "

    Thediewascast .TheAmer i
    canRev ol uti
    onhadbegun.Washi ngtonwasmadecommander -i
    n-
    chi
    ef.Armi eswer
    er ai
    sed,moneywasbor rowed,ahugev ol
    umeofpapercur rencywasissued,
    andforeignaidwassummoned.Fr ankl i
    npliedhisdipl
    omati
    car tsatPar i
    sunt ili
    n1778he
    i
    nducedFr ancetothrowherswordi ntot hebalance.Threeyearsl at
    er,
    Cor nwalli
    ssurr
    endered
    atYorktown.In1783,bytheformal t
    reat yofpeace,GeorgeIIIacknowledgedt heindependence
    oftheUni t
    edStat
    es.Thenewnat ion, endowedwi t
    hanimper ialdomainstretchingfr
    om the
    Atl
    anti
    cOceant otheMi ssi
    ssippi
    Ri ver,beganitscareeramongt hesovereignpowersoft he
    ear
    th.

    Inthesphereofci vi
    lgov ernment ,theresul
    tsoftheRev ol
    uti
    onwer eequallyremarkabl
    e.Royal
    off
    icersandroyal authorit
    ieswer edri
    venfrom t
    hef ormerdominions.Allpowerwasdeclared
    tobeint hepeople.Allthecol oniesbecamest ates,eachwithi
    tsownconst i
    tuti
    onorplanof
    government.Thet hir
    teenst ateswer eunitedincommonbondsundert heArticl
    esof
    Confederati
    on.Ar epubliconal argescalewasinstit
    uted.Thustherewasbegunanadv enture
    i
    npopul argovernmentsuchast hewor l
    dhadnev erseen.Coul
    di tsucceedorwasi tdest
    ined
    tobreakdownandbesuppl antedbyamonar chy?Thef ateofwhol econti
    nentshungupont he
    answer.

    Ref
    erences

    J.Fi TheAmer
    ske, icanRev
    olut
    ion(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    Li
    H.Lodge, f
    eofWashi
    ngt
    on(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    W.Sumner
    ,TheFi
    nanci
    erandt
    heFi
    nancesoft
    heAmer
    icanRev
    olut
    ion.

    O.Tr
    evel
    y TheAmer
    an, icanRev
    olut
    ion(
    4vol
    s.)
    .Asy
    mpat
    het
    icaccountbyanEngl
    i
    shhi
    stor
    ian.

    M.
    C.Ty
    ler
    ,Li
    ter
    aryHi
    stor
    yoft
    heAmer
    icanRev
    olut
    ion(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    C.
    H.VanTyne,TheAmer
    icanRev
    olut
    ion(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)andTheLoy
    ali
    stsi
    nthe
    Amer
    icanRevol
    uti
    on.

    Quest
    ions

    1.Whatwasthenon-i
    mportat
    ionagr
    eement
    ?Bywhatbodywasi
    tadopt
    ed?Whywasi
    t
    rev
    olut
    ionar
    yinchar
    acter
    ?

    2.
    Cont
    rastt
    hewor
    koft
    hef
    ir
    standsecondCont
    inent
    alCongr
    esses.

    3.
    Whydi
    def
    for
    tsatconci
    l
    iat
    ionf
    ail
    ?

    4.
    Tracet
    hegr
    owt
    hofAmer
    icani
    ndependencef
    rom opi
    niont
    othespher
    eofact
    ion.
    5.
    Whyi
    stheDecl
    arat
    ionofI
    ndependencean"
    immor
    tal
    "document
    ?
    6.
    Whatwast
    heef
    fectoft
    heRev
    olut
    iononcol
    oni
    algov
    ernment
    s?Onnat
    ional
    uni
    on?

    7.
    Descr
    ibet
    hecont
    estbet
    ween"
    Pat
    ri
    ots"and"
    Tor
    ies.
    "

    8.
    Whatt
    opi
    csar
    econsi
    der
    edunder"
    mil
    i
    tar
    yaf
    fai
    rs"
    ?Di
    scusseachi
    ndet
    ail
    .

    9.
    Cont
    rastt
    heAmer
    icanf
    orceswi
    tht
    heBr
    it
    ishf
    orcesandshowhowt
    hewarwaswon.

    10.
    Comparethewor
    kofwomeni
    ntheRev
    olut
    ionar
    yWarwi
    tht
    hei
    rlabor
    sint
    heWor
    ldWar
    (1917-
    18)
    .

    11.
    Howwast
    heRev
    olut
    ionf
    inanced?

    12.
    Whyi
    sdi
    plomacyi
    mpor
    tanti
    nwar
    ?Descr
    ibet
    hedi
    plomat
    ict
    ri
    umphoft
    heRev
    olut
    ion.

    13.
    Whatwast
    henat
    ureoft
    heopposi
    ti
    oni
    nEngl
    andt
    othewar
    ?

    14.
    Giv
    etheev
    ent
    sconnect
    edwi
    tht
    hepeaceset
    tl
    ement
    ;thet
    ermsofpeace.

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    TheSpi
    ri
    tofAmer
    ica.
    —Woodr
    owWi
    l Hi
    son, st
    oryoft
    heAmer
    icanPeopl
    e,Vol
    .II
    ,pp.98-
    126.

    Amer i
    canRi ghts.
    —Dr awupatableshowingallt
    hepr i
    nci
    pleslai
    ddownbyAmer i
    canl
    eadersin
    (1)t
    heResol v esoftheFir
    stConti
    nent
    alCongress,Macdonald,Document
    arySour
    ceBook,pp.
    162-166;(2)theDecl ar
    ati
    onoftheCausesandt heNecessit
    yofTakingUpArms,Macdonal
    d,
    pp.176-183; and(3)theDecl
    arati
    onofIndependence.

    TheDeclar
    ationofI
    ndependence.
    —Fi TheAmer
    ske, icanRev
    olut
    ion,
    Vol
    .I,
    pp.147-
    197.El
    son,
    Hist
    oryoftheUnit
    edStates,
    pp.250-
    254.

    Dipl
    omacyandt heFr
    enchAll
    i
    ance.—Hart
    ,Amer
    icanHist
    oryTol
    dbyContempor
    ari
    es,
    Vol
    .II
    ,pp.574
    -
    590.Fi
    ske,
    Vol.II,
    pp.1-
    24.Call
    enderEconomi
    , cHi st
    oryoftheUni
    tedStat
    es,
    pp.159-
    168;
    El
    son,pp.275-280.

    Bi
    ographi
    cal
    Studies.
    —Washi
    ngton,Fr
    ankli
    n,Samuel Adams,Pat
    ri
    ckHenr
    y,
    ThomasJeff
    erson—emphasi
    zi
    ngt hepecul
    iarser
    vicesofeach.

    TheTor
    ies.
    —Har
    t,Cont
    empor
    ari
    es,
    Vol
    .II
    ,pp.470-
    480.

    Val
    l
    eyFor
    ge.
    —Fi
    ske,
    Vol
    .II
    ,pp.25-
    49.

    TheBat
    tl
    esoft
    heRev
    olut
    ion.
    —El
    son,
    pp.235-
    317.

    AnEngl
    i
    shVi
    ewoft
    heRev
    olut
    ion.
    —Gr Shor
    een, tHi
    stor
    yofEngl
    and,
    Chap.X,
    Sect
    .2.

    Engli
    shOpi
    nionandt
    heRev
    olut
    ion.
    —Tr
    evel
    y TheAmer
    an, icanRev
    olut
    ion,
    Vol
    .II
    I(orPar
    t2,
    Vol
    .
    I
    I),
    Chaps.XXIV-
    XXVI
    I.
    PARTI
    II
    .THEUNI
    ONANDNATI
    ONALPOLI
    TICS

    CHAPTERVI
    I
    THEFORMATI
    ONOFTHECONSTI
    TUTI
    ON

    ThePr
    omi
    seandt
    heDi
    ff
    icul
    ti
    esofAmer
    ica

    Ther i
    seofay oungr epubli
    ccomposedoft hir
    teenstates,eachgov er
    nedbyof fi
    cial
    s
    popularlyel
    ectedunderconst itutionsdraftedby"theplainpeopl e,"wasthemostsi gnif
    icant
    featur
    eoft heei ghteenthcent ury.Themaj orit
    yoft hepatri
    ot swhosel aborsandsacr i
    fi
    ces
    hadmadet hispossi blenaturallylookedupont heirworkandpr onouncedi tgood.Those
    Amer i
    cans, howev er,whopeer edbeneat hthesurfaceoft hings,sawt hattheDeclarat
    ionof
    Independence, eveni fspl
    endidl yphrased,andpaperconst i
    tutions,dr
    awnbyf i
    nest
    enthusiasm "uninstructedbyexper i
    ence,"couldnotalonemaket herepubli
    cgreatand
    prosperousorev enf r
    ee.Allaroundt hem theysawchaosi nfinanceandi nindustr
    yandper i
    ls
    fortheimmedi at efuture.

    TheWeaknessoft heAr ti
    cl esofConf eder ati
    on.—Thegov ernmentundert heAr ticlesof
    Conf eder at
    ionhadnei thert hest rengt hnort heresour cesnecessar ytocopewi t
    ht heproblems
    ofr econst r
    ucti
    onl eftbyt hewar .Thesol eorganofgov ernmentwasaCongr esscomposedof
    from t wot osev enmember sf r
    om eachst atechosenast helegislatur emi ghtdi rectandpai dby
    thest ate.Indet ermi ningal l quest i
    ons, eachst atehadonev ote—Del awar et husenj oyingthe
    samewei ghtasVi rginia.Ther ewasnopr esidentt oenf orcethel aws.Congr esswasgi v
    en
    powert oselectacommi tteeoft hi
    rteen—onef rom eachst ate—toactasanexecut ivebody
    wheni twasnoti nsessi on; butt hisdev ice,onbei ngt r
    iedout ,prov edaf ailure.Ther ewasno
    sy stem ofnat i
    onal cour t
    st owhi chci ti
    zensandst at
    escoul dappeal fort hepr otect ionoftheir
    rightsort hroughwhi chtheycoul dcompel obediencet ol aw.Thet wogr eatpower sof
    gov er nment ,mi l
    itaryandf inanci al,wer ewi t
    hheld.Congr ess,iti
    st rue, coul daut hor ize
    expendi turesbuthadt or elyupont hest atesforthepay mentofcont ributionst omeeti t
    sbill
    s.
    Itcoul dal soor dert heest abl i
    shmentofanar my ,butitcoul donlyr equestt hest at est osupply
    theirr espect i
    vequot asofsol diers.Itcoul dnotlayt axesnorbr i
    nganypr essur etobearupona
    singl eci t
    izenint hewhol ecount ry.Itcouldactonl ythrought hemedi um oft hest at e
    gov er nment s.

    Financi alandCommer cialDisorder s.—Inthefieldofpublicfi


    nance, thedisorderswer epr onounced.
    Thehugedebti ncur r
    eddur ingthewarwasst i
    lloutstandi
    ng.Congresswasunabl et opayei therthe
    i
    nt erestort hepr incipal.Publiccr editor
    swer eindespai r,
    asthemar ketvalueoft heirbondssankt o
    twent y-fiv
    eorev ent encent sont hedol l
    ar.Thecur rentbi
    ll
    sofCongr esswer eunpai d.Assomeone
    compl ained, t
    herewasnotenoughmoneyi nthet r
    easurytobuypenandi nkwi t
    hwhi chtor ecord
    thet ransact i
    onsoft heshadowl egislat
    ure.Thecur rencywasi nutterchaos.Mi ll
    ionsofdol l
    arsin
    not esissuedbyCongr esshadbecomemer etrashwor t
    hacentort woont hedollar.Therewasno
    otherexpr essionofcont emptsof orcefulasthepopul arsayi
    ng:"notwor thaCont inental
    ."Tomake
    mat t
    erswor se,sev eralofthest at eswer epouringnewst reamsofpapermoneyf rom thepr ess.
    Almostt heonl ygoodmoneyi nci rculat
    ionconsi st
    edofEngl i
    sh,French, andSpani shcoi ns,andt he
    publi
    cwasev endefraudedbythem becausemoneychangerswerebusycli
    ppingandfi
    l
    ingaway
    themetal
    .Foreigncommer cewasunset t
    led.Theent
    ir
    eBri
    ti
    shsystem oft
    radediscr
    imi
    nati
    onwas
    tur
    nedagainsttheAmer i
    cans,
    andCongr ess,havi
    ngno
    powert oregulateforeigncommer ce,wasunabletoretali
    ateortonegotiat
    et r
    eat
    ieswhi chitcoul
    d
    enforce.Domest iccommer cewasimpededbyt hejealousiesoft
    hest at
    es,whicherectedtari
    ff
    barri
    ersagainsttheirneighbor s.Thecondit
    ionofthecur r
    encymadet heexchangeofmoneyand
    goodsext r
    emel ydiff
    icult
    , and, asi
    ftoincr
    easetheconf usi
    on,backwardstatesenactedlaws
    hi
    nder i
    ngthepr omptcol lect i
    onofdebtswithi
    ntheirborders—anevil
    whichnot hi
    ngbutanat i
    onal
    system ofcour t
    scoul dcur e.

    Congr essinDi sreput


    e.—Withtreat
    iessetatnaughtbyt hestates,thelawsunenf or ced,the
    tr
    easur yempt y,andthepubliccreditgone,theCongr essoftheUni tedStatesf el
    lintoutter
    di
    sr epute.Itcall
    eduponthest atestopayt heirquot
    asofmoneyi ntothetr
    easur y,onlytobe
    tr
    eat edwi t
    hcont empt.Evenitsownmember slookeduponi tasasol emnf ut
    ili
    ty.Someoft he
    ablestmenr efusedtoacceptelecti
    ont oit
    , andmanywhodi dt akethedoubt fulhonorf ail
    edto
    att
    endt hesessions.Agai
    nandagai nitwasi mpossibletosecur eaquor um forthet ransacti
    on
    ofbusi ness.

    Troublesoft heSt ateGov ernments.—Thest ategovernment s,f


    reetopursuetheirowncourse
    withnoi nterf
    erencef rom wi t
    hout,hadalmostasmanydi ff
    icul
    ti
    esastheCongr ess.Theytoo
    wereloadedwi threv oluti
    onar ydebtscalli
    ngforheav ytaxesuponanal r
    eadyrestive
    population.Oppr essedbyt heirfi
    nancialburdensanddi scouragedbythefall
    inpr i
    ceswhich
    fol
    lowedt her eturnofpeace, thefarmersofsev eralstatesjoi
    nedinaconcertedef f
    ortand
    compel ledtheirlegislaturestoissuelargesumsofpapermoney .Thecurr
    encyfelli
    nv al
    ue,
    butnev erthel
    essi twasf orcedonunwi ll
    ingcredit
    orst osquareoldaccounts.

    Ineverypartofthecountr
    ylegisl
    ativ
    eact i
    onf l
    uct
    uatedviolentl
    y.Lawswer emadeoney ear
    onlytober epeal
    edthenextandr eënactedthethi
    rdyear.Landswer esoldbyonel egi
    slatur
    e
    andthesal eswerecancel
    edbyi tssuccessor.Uncer
    taint
    yanddi str
    ustwer ethenatural
    consequences.Menofsubst ancelongedf orsomepowert hatwouldf orbi
    dst at
    estoissuebil
    l
    s
    ofcredit,t
    omakepapermoneyl egaltenderinpaymentofdebt s,ortoi mpairtheobli
    gati
    onof
    contracts.Menheavil
    yindebt,ontheot herhand,
    urgedev enmor edrasti
    cactionagainst
    credi
    tors.

    Sogr eatdi dt hedi scont entoft hef ar mer si nNewHampshi rebecomei n1786t hatamob
    surroundedt hel egislatur e,demandi ngar epeal ofthet axesandt hei ssuanceofpapermoney .
    Itwaswi thdi fficultythatanar medr ebel l
    ionwasav oided.I nMassachuset tst hemal contents,
    undert hel eader shipofDani elShay s,acapt ainint heRev olutionaryar my ,or gani zedt hatsame
    yearopenr esi st ancet othegov er
    nmentoft hest ate.Shay sandhi sf oll
    ower spr otestedagai nst
    theconductofcr editorsi nforeclosingmor tgagesupont hedebt -
    bur denedf armer s,againstt he
    l
    awy er sfori ncr easingt hecost sofl egal proceedi ngs, againstt hesenat eoft hest atet he
    member sofwhi chwer eappor ti
    onedamongt het ownsont hebasi soft heamountoft axes
    paid,agai nstheav ytaxes, andagai nstt her efusal oft hel egislaturet oissuepapermoney .They
    seizedt het ownsofWor cesterandSpr ingfieldandbr okeupt hecour tsofj ust ice.Allthrough
    thewest ernpar toft hest atether evoltspr ead, sendi ngashockofal armt oev er ycenterand
    sectionoft hey oungr epubl i
    c.Onl ybyt hemostv i
    gor ousact ionwasGov ernorBowdoi nabl eto
    quelltheupr ising; andwhent hattaskwasaccompl i
    shed, t
    hest at
    egov ernmentdi dnotdar eto
    execut eanyoft hepr isoner sbecauset heyhadsomanysy mpat hizers.Mor eov er ,
    Bowdoi nand
    several member soft hel egi
    slaturewhohadbeenmostzeal ousi nt heirattacksont he
    i
    nsur gent swer edef eatedatt heensui ngel ect i
    on.Theneedofnat ional assist ancef orstate
    gover nment sint i
    mesofdomest i
    cv i
    ol encewasev ery wher eemphasi zedbymenwhower e
    opposedt or ev ol uti
    onar yact s.

    Alarm ov
    erDangerstotheRepubli
    c.—LeadingAmericanci
    ti
    zens,watchi
    ngthedrif
    tofaff
    airs,
    wereslowlydri
    ventotheconcl
    usionthatthenewshipofstat
    esopr oudl
    ylaunchedafewy ears
    beforewascareeni
    ngintoanarchy."
    Thefactsofourpeaceandindependence,
    "wroteafri
    end
    ofWashington,"
    donotatpresentwearsopr omisi
    nganappearanceasIhadf ondl
    ypaint
    edi n
    mymi nd.Theprej
    udi
    ces,jeal
    ousi
    es,andturbul
    enceofthepeopleatti
    mesalmostst
    aggermy
    confi
    denceinourpol
    it
    icalest
    abli
    shments;andalmostoccasi
    onmet othi
    nkt
    hatt
    heywil
    lshow
    themselv
    esunworthyofthenoblepri
    zeforwhichwehav econtended."
    Washi ngtonhimsel fwasprofoundl ydiscouraged.Onhear ingofShay s'sr ebell
    ion, he
    exclaimed: "
    What, graci
    ousGod, i
    smant hatthereshoul dbesuchi nconsi stencyand
    perfi
    diousnessinhi sconduct !I
    tisbutt heotherdayt hatwewer esheddi ngourbl oodto
    obtaintheconst i
    tutionsunderwhi chwenowl i
    ve—const itutionsofourownchoi ceand
    maki ng—andnowwear eunsheat hi
    ngourswor dt oov erturnt hem. "Thesamey earheburst
    outinal amentov err umorsofr estori
    ngroyal gov ernment ."Iam t oldt hatev enrespectabl
    e
    charactersspeakofamonar chicalgovernmentwi thouthor ror.From t hinkingpr oceeds
    speaking.Hencet oact ingi
    sof tenbutasi nglest ep.Buthowi rresisti
    bleandt r
    emendous!
    Whatat r
    iumphf orourenemi estov eri
    fytheirpredictions!Whatat r
    iumphf ortheadv ocat
    es
    ofdespot ism t
    ofindt hatwear eincapableofgov erningour selves!"

    Congr essAttemptsSomeRef orms.—TheCongr esswasnoti ndif


    ferentt otheev entst hatdi sturbed
    Washi ngton.Onthecont r
    aryi tputf ort
    hmanyef fort
    st ocheckt endenci essodanger oust of i
    nance,
    commer ce,i
    ndustries,andt heConf ederationitself
    .In1781, evenbef oret het r
    eatyofpeacewas
    signed,theCongress, havingf oundouthowf util
    ewer ei tst axingpower s,carri
    edar esol ut
    ionof
    amendmentt otheAr t
    icl
    esofConf ederation,authorizingt hel evyofamoder at
    edut yoni mpor ts.
    Yetthismi l
    dmeasur ewasr ejectedbyt hest ates.Twoy earsl atertheCongr esspr epar edanot her
    amendmentsanct ioningthel evyofdut i
    esoni mpor ts,tobecol l
    ectedt histimebyst at eofficersand
    appliedtothepay mentoft hepubl icdebt .Thismor elimi t
    edpr oposal ,
    desi gnedt osav epubl i
    c
    credit,l
    i
    kewisefailed.In1786, t
    heCongr essmadeat hirdappeal tot hest atesforhel p, declari
    ng
    thattheyhadbeensoi rr
    egul arandsonegl i
    genti npay ingt heirquot asthatf urtherrelianceupon
    thatmodeofr ai
    singr evenueswasdi shonor ableanddanger ous.

    TheCal
    l
    ingofaConst
    it
    uti
    onal
    Conv
    ent
    ion

    Hami lt
    onandWashi ngtonUrgeRef orm. —Theat t
    empt satr eform bytheCongr esswer e
    accompani edbydemandf or,bothwi thinandwi t
    houtt hatbody ,aconventiont oframeanew
    planofgov ernment .In1780, t
    hey out hful AlexanderHami l
    ton, r
    eali
    zi
    ngt heweaknessoft he
    Arti
    cles,sowi delydi scussed,proposedagener alconv enti
    onf orthepurposeofdr aft
    inganew
    constit
    utiononent irelydi
    ffer
    entpr inciples.Wi thti
    relessener gyhest r
    ovet obr inghis
    countryment ohi sv iew.Washi ngton, agr eeingwithhi m onev erypoint,
    declar ed,inaci rcular
    l
    et t
    ertot hegov ernor s,t
    hatthedur ationoft heunionwoul dbeshor tunlesst herewasl odged
    somewher easupr emepower" t
    or egulat eandgov ernthegener alconcernsoft heconf eder ated
    republi
    c."Thegov ernorofMassachuset t s,dist
    urbedbyt hegr owthofdiscont ental l
    abouthi m,
    suggestedt othest atelegi
    slaturein1785t headv i
    sabilit
    yofanat i
    onalconv entiont oenl arge
    thepower soft heCongr ess.Thel egislatur eapprov edthepl an,butdidnotpr essi ttoa
    conclusion.

    Al
    exanderHami
    l
    ton

    TheAnnapol
    isConv
    ent i
    on.—Actionf
    inallycamefrom t
    heSouth.TheVir
    gini
    alegi
    slat
    ure,t
    aking
    thi
    ngsint
    oit
    sownhands, cal
    ledaconf erenceofdel
    egatesatAnnapol
    i
    st oconsi
    dermat t
    ersof
    tax
    ati
    onandcommer ce.Whent heconv enti
    onassembledin1786,i
    twasfoundthatonlyfi
    ve
    stat
    eshadt akenthetroubletosendrepr
    esentat
    ives.Theleader
    swer edeepl
    ydiscour
    aged,but
    theresourcef
    ulHami l
    ton,adelegat
    efrom NewYor k,t
    urnedtheaff
    airtogoodaccount.He
    securedtheadoptionofar esol
    uti
    on,
    cal
    l
    ingupont
    heCongr
    essi
    tsel
    ftosummonanot
    herconv
    ent
    ion,
    tomeetatPhi
    l
    adel
    phi
    a.

    ANat i
    onalConvent
    ionCalled(1787).
    —TheCongr ess,astar
    dyasev er
    , atl
    astdecidedin
    Febr
    uary,1787,t
    oissuethecal l
    .Fear
    ingdrast
    icchanges,however,i
    trestr
    ictedthe
    conventi
    onto"t
    hesoleandexpr esspurposeofrevisi
    ngtheArti
    clesofConf ederat
    ion.
    "
    Jeal
    ousofitsownpower s, i
    taddedthatanyalt
    erati
    onsproposedshoul dber ef
    err
    edtothe
    Congressandthestatesforthei
    rapproval
    .

    Everyst atei
    ntheunion,exceptRhodeI sland,
    respondedtothiscall.Indeedsomeoft hestat
    es,
    havi
    ngt heAnnapoli
    sresoluti
    onbef or
    et hem,hadalreadyant
    icipatedt heCongressby
    sel
    ect i
    ngdelegatesbeforethef or
    mal summonscame.Thus, byt heper si
    stenceofgover
    nors,
    l
    egislatures,
    andpr i
    vat
    ecitizens,t
    herewasbr oughtaboutthelong- desir
    ednat i
    onal
    conventi
    on.
    InMay ,1787,itassembledinPhi l
    adel
    phi a.

    TheEmi nentMenoft heConv ent i


    on.—Ont her oll
    oft hatmemor abl econv entionwer efif
    ty-
    fiv
    e
    men, atl easthal fofwhom wer eacknowl edgedt obeamongt hef or emostst atesmenand
    thinkersi nAmer i
    ca.Ev eryf i
    eldofst atecraftwasr epresent edbyt hem: warandpr acti
    cal
    managementi nWashi ngton, whowaschosenpr esidentoft heconv enti
    on; dipl
    omacyi n
    Frankl i
    n, nowol dandf ullofhonori nhi sownl andaswel lasabr oad; fi
    nancei nAl exander
    Hami ltonandRober tMor ri
    s; l
    awi nJamesWi l
    sonofPennsy lvani a; thephi losophyof
    gov ernmenti nJamesMadi son, call
    edt he" fat
    heroft heConst i
    tut i
    on. "Theywer enott heorists
    butpr act i
    cal men, r
    ichi npol i
    ticalexper ienceandendowedwi thdeepi nsighti ntot hespr i
    ngsof
    humanact ion.Threeoft hem hadser vedi ntheSt ampActCongr ess: Dicki nsonofDel aware,
    Wi l
    li
    am Samuel JohnsonofConnect icut,andJohnRut l
    edgeofSout hCar ol i
    na.Ei ghthadbeen
    signer soft heDecl arationofI ndependence: ReadofDel awar e, Sher manofConnect i
    cut,Wy t
    he
    ofVi r
    gi nia,GerryofMassachuset ts,Franklin,Rober tMor ri
    s,Geor geCl ymer ,andJamesWi lson
    ofPennsy l
    vania.Allbutt wel vehadatsomet i
    meser vedint heCont inental Congr essand
    eighteenwer emember soft hatbodyi nt hespringof1787.Washi ngt on,Hami l
    ton, Miffl
    i
    n,and
    Char l
    esPi nckneyhadbeenof ficersint heRev olutionaryar my .Sev enoft hedel egat eshad
    gainedpol it
    icalexperienceasgov ernor sofst ates."Theconv ent ionasawhol e,"accor di
    ngt o
    thehi storianHildreth,"represent edinamar kedmannert het alent ,intell
    igence, andespeci all
    y
    theconser vativesent i
    mentoft hecount ry.
    "

    TheFr
    ami
    ngoft
    heConst
    it
    uti
    on

    ProblemsInvol
    v ed. —Thegr eatpr obl
    emsbef oretheconv entionwer eninei nnumber :(1)Shall
    the
    Arti
    clesofConfeder at
    ionber evisedoranewsy stem ofgov ernmentconst ructed?( 2)Shallthe
    governmentbef oundedonst atesequal i
    npowerasundert heAr t
    iclesoront hebr oaderand
    deeperfoundationofpopul at i
    on?( 3)Whatdirectshareshal lthepeopl ehav eint heel ecti
    onof
    nati
    onaloffi
    cers?
    (4)Whatshallbet hequal i
    ficati
    onsf orthesuffr
    age?( 5)Howshal ltheconf li
    ctingi nterest
    soft he
    commer ci
    alandt hepl anti
    ngst at esbebalancedsoast osaf eguardt heessent ialrightsofeach?
    (6)Whatshallbet hefor m ofthenewgov ernment ?(7)Whatpower sshallbeconf er r
    edoni t?(8)
    Howshal lt
    hest atel egisl
    aturesber est
    rai
    nedf rom t
    hei rat
    tacksonpr oper t
    yr i
    ghtssuchast he
    i
    ssuanceofpapermoney ?
    (9)Shallt
    heappr ov alofall t
    hest at
    esbenecessar y ,asundert heAr ti
    cles,fort headopt i
    onand
    amendmentoft heConst ituti
    on?

    Revi
    sionoftheArticlesoraNewGov ernment?—Themomentt hefi
    rstproblem wasrai
    sed,
    repr
    esentati
    vesofthesmal l
    stat
    es,l
    edbyWi l
    li
    am PatersonofNewJer sey,wereonthei
    rfeet
    .
    Theyfearedthat
    ,iftheArticl
    eswereov ert
    hrown,theequalit
    yandr i
    ghtsoft hestat
    eswouldbe
    puti
    nj eopar
    dy.Theirprotestwastherefor
    ev i
    gorous.Theycitedthecallissuedbythe
    Congressinsummoni ngtheconventi
    onwhi chspecifi
    call
    ystatedthattheywer eassembl
    edfor
    "t
    hesoleandexpr
    esspurposeofr ev i
    singtheArti
    clesofConfeder
    ati
    on."Theycit
    edalsotheir
    i
    nstr
    ucti
    onsfr
    om thei
    rstatelegi
    slatures,whichauthor
    izedthem t
    o"rev
    iseandamend"t he
    exi
    sti
    ngschemeofgovernment ,
    nott omakear evolut
    ioninit
    .Todepartfr
    om theauthori
    zati
    on
    l
    aiddownbytheCongressandt hel egisl
    atureswouldbetoexceedthei
    rpowers,theyargued,
    andtobetr
    aythet
    rustreposedint hem byt hei
    rcountr
    ymen.
    Tot hei
    rcontenti
    ons, Randol
    phofVi rgi
    niarepli
    ed:"Whent hesalvat i
    onoftherepubli
    cisat
    stake,i
    twoul dbet r
    easontoourt r
    ustnottopr oposewhatwef i
    ndnecessar y.
    "Hami l
    ton,
    remindingthedelegatesthatthei
    rwor kwasst il
    lsubjecttotheappr ovalofthestat
    es,frankly
    saidthatont hepointofthei
    rpower shehadnoscr uples.Withthei ssueclear
    ,theconvention
    castasidetheAr t
    icl
    esasi ft
    heydidnotexi standpr oceededtot hewor kofdrawingupanew
    constit
    uti
    on,"lay
    ingitsfoundati
    onsonsuchpr i
    nciplesandor ganizingit
    spower sinsuch
    form"ast othedelegatesseemed" mostl i
    kelytoaffectthei
    rsafet yandhappiness."

    AGov ernmentFoundedonSt atesoronPeopl e?—TheCompr omise.—Def eatedi nt hei rat temptt o


    l
    imi ttheconv ent iont oamer er ev isionoft heAr ti
    cles, t
    hespokesmenoft hesmal lerst ates
    redoubl edt heiref fortstopr eser vet heequal ityoft hest at
    es.Thesi gnal forar adi caldepar turef rom
    theAr ti
    clesont hispoi ntwasgi venear l
    yint hesessi onswhenRandol phpr esent ed" theVi rginia
    plan."Hepr oposedt hatthenewnat ional legislatureconsi stoft wohouses, t
    hemember sofwhi ch
    wer etobeappor tionedamongt hest atesaccor dingt otheirweal thorf reewhi tepopul ation, ast he
    conv entionmi ghtdeci de.Thispl anwasv ehement l
    ychal l
    enged.Pat er
    sonofNewJer seyf latl
    y
    avowedt hatnei therhenorhi sst at ewoul dev erbowt osucht yranny.Asanal ter native, he
    present ed" theNewJer seypl an"cal lingf oranat i
    onal l
    egi
    sl atureofonehouser epr esent ingst ates
    assuch, notweal thorpeopl e—al egi slatureinwhi chal lst
    at es, l
    argeorsmal l,
    woul dhav eequal
    voice.Wi lsonofPennsy lvania,onbehal foft hemor epopul ousst ates,tookupt hegaunt l
    etwhi ch
    Patersonhadt hrowndown.I twasabsur d, heur ged, for180, 000meni nonest at et ohav et hesame
    weighti nnat i
    onal counsel sas750, 000meni nanot herstate." Thegent l
    emanf rom NewJer sey ,"he
    said,"iscandi d.Hedecl areshi sopi ni onbol dly...
    .Iwi llbeequal lycandid....Iwillnev erconf eder ate
    onhi spr inciples."Sot hebi t
    tercont r oversyr anont hroughmanyexci t
    ingsessi ons.

    GreekhadmetGr eek.Theconv enti


    onwashopel esslydeadlockedandont hever
    geof
    dissoluti
    on, "
    scarceheldt oget
    herbyt hestr
    engthofahair ,
    "asoneofthedelegat
    esremar ked.
    Acr ashwasav ertedonl
    ybyacompr omise.I
    nsteadofaCongr essofonehouseaspr ovi
    dedby
    theAr ti
    cles,theconventionagr eeduponal egi
    slatur
    eoft wohouses.IntheSenate,t
    he
    aspirati
    onsoft hesmal lstateswer etobesat i
    sfi
    ed,foreachstatewasgiventwomember sin
    thatbody .Intheformationoft heHouseofRepr esentat
    ives,t
    helar
    gerstateswereplacated,f
    or
    i
    twasagr eedthatthemember soft hatchamberwer etobeappor t
    ionedamongt hestateson
    thebasi sofpopul ati
    on,countingthree-fi
    ft
    hsoftheslaves.

    TheQuest ionofPopul arElection.—Themet hodofsel ectingf ederal off


    icersandmember sof
    Congr essal soproducedanacr i
    moni ousdebat ewhi chr ev ealedhowdeep- seat edwast hedi strust
    ofthecapaci t
    yoft hepeopl etogov er
    nthemsel ves.Fewt herewer ewhobel ievedt hatnobr anchof
    thegov ernmentshoul dbeel ecteddi r
    ectlybyt hev oter s;stil
    lfewerwer et here,howev er,who
    desir
    edt oseeal l
    br anchessochosen.Oneort woev enexpr essedadesi r
    ef oramonar chy.The
    danger sofdemocr acywer est ressedbyGer ryofMassachuset t
    s:"Al l
    theev ilsweexper i
    encef low
    from anexcessofdemocr acy.Thepeopl edonotwantv ir
    tuebutar ethedupesofpr etended
    patri
    ots..
    ..Ihav ebeent oorepublicanher etofor ebuthav ebeent aught
    byexper i
    encet hedangerofal evelingspiri
    t."Tot he" democr aticlicentiousnessoft hest ate
    l
    egislatur
    es, "Randol phsoughtt oopposea" firm senat e."Tocheckt heexcessesofpopul ar
    governmentChar lesPi nckneyofSout hCar olinadecl ar edt hatnooneshoul dbeel ect edPr esident
    whowasnotwor th$100, 000andt hathighpr opertyqual if
    icationsshoul dbepl acedonmember s
    ofCongr essandj udges.Ot hermember soft heconv ent ionwer est outl
    yopposedt osuch" high-
    tonednot ionsofgov ernment .
    "Fr ankl
    inandWi lson,bot hfrom Pennsy lvania,vigorousl y
    champi onedpopul arelecti
    on;whi l
    emenl i
    keMadi soni nsistedt hatatl eastonepar tofthe
    governmentshoul dr estont hebr oadfoundat ionoft hepeopl e.

    Outoft
    hisclashofopi
    nionalsocamecompr omise.Onebranch,
    theHouseofRepresentat
    ives,
    it
    wasagreed,
    wast obeelect
    eddirect
    lybythevot
    ers,whil
    etheSenator
    sweretobeelected
    i
    ndir
    ect
    lybythestat
    elegisl
    atur
    es.ThePresi
    dentwast obechosenbyelect
    orssel
    ectedasthe
    l
    egisl
    aturesofthest
    atesmightdeter
    mi ne,
    andt
    hej
    udgesoft
    hef
    eder
    alcour
    ts,
    supr
    emeand
    i
    nferi
    or,bythePresi
    dentandtheSenate.

    TheQuest
    ionoft
    heSuf
    frage.
    —Thebat
    tl
    eov
    ert
    hesuf
    fragewasshar
    pbutbr
    ief
    .Gouv
    erneur
    Morr
    is
    proposedt hatonl yl
    andowner sshoul dbepermit
    tedtovote.Madisonr epl
    iedthatthestate
    l
    egislatur
    es, whichhadmadesomucht roubl
    ewithradi
    callaws,wereelectedbyf r
    eeholders.
    Afterthedebat e,thedelegates, unabletoagr
    eeonanypr opert
    yli
    mi t
    ationsont hesuff
    rage,
    decidedthatt heHouseofRepr esentati
    vesshoul
    dbeelectedbyv ot
    ershav ingthe
    "quali
    fi
    cati
    onsr equi
    sit
    ef orelectorsofthemostnumer ousbranchoft hestatelegi
    slat
    ure."Thus
    theyaccept edthesuf f
    ragepr ov i
    sionsofthestat
    es.

    TheBal ancebet weent hePlantingandt heCommer cialStat


    es.—Af tert hedebat eshadgoneon
    forafewweeks, Madi soncamet otheconcl usiont hattherealdivisioni ntheconv ent i
    onwas
    notbetweent helargeandt hesmal lstatesbutbet weent heplanti
    ngsect i
    onf oundedonsl av e
    l
    aborandt hecommer cialNorth.Thusheant i
    cipatedbynear lythree- quartersofacent ur
    y" the
    i
    rrepr
    essi bleconfli
    ct.
    "Thepl antingst ateshadnei therthef r
    eewhi tepopul ati
    onnort heweal th
    oftheNor t
    h.Therewer e,countingDel aware,sixoft hem asagainstsev encommer cialstates.
    Dependentf ort
    heirprosperit
    ymai nl
    yupont hesaleoft obacco, ri
    ce, andot herstaplesabr oad,
    theyfearedt hatCongressmi ghti mposer estr
    aintsupont heirenter prise.Beingweakeri n
    number s,theywer eafraidthatthemaj orit
    ymi ghtlayanunf airburdenoft axesupont hem.

    Represent at
    ionandTaxat ion.—TheSout hernmember soft heconv entionwer et hereforevery
    anxi
    oust osecuref ortheirsectiont helar gestpossibler epr
    esent ationinCongr ess, andatt hesame
    ti
    met or estrai
    nthet axingpoweroft hatbody .Twodev i
    ceswer et houghtadapt edt otheseends.
    Onewast ocountt heslavesaspeopl ewhenappor tioningrepresent at
    ivesamongt hestates
    accordingt otheirrespectivepopul ations; t
    heotherwast oprovidet hatdi r
    ecttaxesshoul dbe
    apporti
    onedamongt hestat es,
    inpr opor ti
    onnott othei rwealthbutt othenumberoft heirfr
    eewhite
    i
    nhabitants.Forobv i
    ousr easonst heNor therndelegatesobj ectedt ot heseproposal s.Oncemor ea
    compr omi seprov edtobet hesolution.Itwasagr eedt hatnotall theslav esbutt hree-fi
    fthsofthem
    shouldbecount edf orbothpur poses—r epresentati
    onanddi rectt axation.

    Commer ceandt heSlav eTrade. —Sout herninterestswer eal soinvol


    v edinthepr oj
    ecttoconf er
    uponCongr esst hepowert or egulat ei
    nter st
    ateandf oreigncommer ce.Tot hemanuf acturing
    andtradingst atest hi
    swasessent ial
    .Itwoul dprev entinterstat
    et ar
    iffsandtradejealousies;i
    t
    wouldenabl eCongr esst opr otectAmer icanmanuf acturesandt obr eakdown, byappropriate
    retal
    i
    ati
    ons, foreigndi scri
    mi nat i
    onsagai nstAmer icancommer ce.Tot heSoutht heproposal
    wasmenaci ngbecauset ari
    ffsmi ghtinterferewitht hef r
    eeexchangeoft hepr oduceof
    plant
    ati
    onsi nEur opeanmar ket s,andnav i
    gationact smi ghtconf i
    net hecarryi
    ngt r
    adet o
    Amer i
    can,thatisNor thern,shi ps.Thei mpor tati
    onofsl aves,mor eover,i
    twasf earedmi ghtbe
    heavil
    ytaxedori mmedi atel
    ypr ohibit
    edal together.

    Theresultofthi
    sandr elatedcontrover
    sieswasadebat eont hemer it
    sofslaver
    y.Gouv erneur
    Morri
    sdel i
    veredhi
    smi ndandhear tonthatsubj
    ect,denouncingslaveryasanefari
    ous
    i
    nsti
    tuti
    onandt hecurseofheav enonthestatesinwhichitprevai
    led.MasonofVi rgi
    nia,a
    sl
    aveholderhimself
    ,washar dl
    ylessoutspoken,sayi
    ng:"Sl
    averydiscouragesart
    sand
    manufactures.Thepoordespi selaborwhenperformedbysl aves.Theypr ev
    entthemigr ati
    on
    ofwhit
    eswhor eal
    lyst
    r engthenandenr i
    chacount r
    y."

    Thesy st
    em, however,hadi tsdef ender s.Repr esentativesfrom Sout hCar oli
    naarguedt hattheir
    enti
    reeconomi cl
    iferestedonsl avel aborandt hatt hehighdeat hrateinther i
    ceswamps
    madecont i
    nuousimpor tationnecessar y.Ell
    swor thofConnect i
    cuttookt hegroundthatt he
    conventi
    onshouldnotmeddl ewi thsl avery."Themor alit
    yorwi sdom ofsl av
    ery,
    "hesaid, "ar
    e
    consider
    ati
    onsbelongingt ot hest ates.Whatenr i
    chesapar tenrichesthewhol e.
    "Tot hef utur
    e
    heturnedanunt r
    oubledf ace: "
    Aspopul ati
    oni ncreases, poorl aborerswillbesoplentyast o
    rendersl
    avesuseless.Slaver yint i
    mewi l
    lnotbeaspecki nourcount r
    y."Vir
    gini
    aandNor th
    Caroli
    na,al
    readyov er
    stockedwi thslav es, f
    av oredpr ohibi
    tingt hetraff
    icinthem;butSout h
    Caroli
    nawasadamant .Shemusthav ef reshsuppl iesofsl av esorshewoul dnotfederate.
    Soitwasagreedthat
    ,whil
    eCongressmightr
    egul
    atef
    orei
    gnt
    radebymajori
    tyvot
    e,t
    heimport
    ati
    on
    ofsl
    avesshouldnotbefor
    biddenbefor
    ethel
    apseoft
    wentyy
    ears,
    andthatanyimportt
    axshoul
    d
    notexceed
    $10ahead.Att hesamet ime,i
    nconnect i
    onwi t
    hther egulati
    onofforeigntr
    ade,itwas
    sti
    pul
    atedthatat wo-t
    hir
    dsv ot
    ei ntheSenateshouldbenecessaryi ntherati
    fi
    cationof
    tr
    eati
    es.Afurt
    herconcessiontot heSouthwasmadei ntheprovi
    sionforthereturnofr
    unaway
    sl
    aves—apr ov
    isionalsousefuli
    nt heNorth,
    whereindent uredser
    vantswer eaboutas
    tr
    oublesomeassl avesinescapingfrom t
    heirmasters.

    TheForm oftheGov er
    nment.
    —Astothedetai
    lsofthefr
    ameofgovernmentandthegrand
    pri
    nci
    plesinv
    olved,t
    heopini
    onoftheconv
    entionebbedandf
    lowed,deci
    sionsbei
    ngtakeni
    n
    theheatofdebate,
    onlytoberev
    okedandtakenagain.

    TheExecut ive.—Therewasgener alagr eementt hatthereshouldbeanexecut i


    vebr anch;forrel
    iance
    uponCongr esst oenforceitsownl awsandt r
    eati
    eshadbeenabr okenreed.Ont hechar acterand
    functionsoft heexecut i
    ve,howev er,ther ewer emanyv iews.TheNewJer seyplancal ledfora
    counci lsel
    ectedbyt heCongr ess; t
    heVi rgi
    niaplanpr ovi
    dedt hattheexecutiv
    ebr anchshoul dbe
    chosenbyt heCongr essbutdi dnotst atewhet heritshoul dbecomposedofoneorsev eralper
    sons.
    Ont hismat tertheconv enti
    onv otedf i
    rstonewayandt henanot her;fi
    nall
    yitagreedonasi ngle
    execut i
    vechoseni ndirectl
    ybyel ectorssel ectedast hest atel
    egisl
    aturesmightdeci de,servi
    ngfor
    foury ears,
    subjecttoimpeachment ,andendowedwi t
    hr egalpowersinthecommandoft hearmy
    andt henav yandi ntheenf orcementoft helaws.

    TheLegislativeBranch—Congr ess. —Aftertheconv entionhadmadet hegr eatcompr omise


    betweenthel ar
    geandsmal l
    commonweal thsbygi v i
    ngr epresentationt ostatesi ntheSenat e
    andtopopul ati
    onint heHouse, thequest i
    onofmet hodsofel ecti
    onhadt obedeci ded.Ast o
    theHouseofRepr esentati
    vesi twasr eadilyagr eedt hatthemember sshoul dbeel ectedby
    dir
    ectpopul arvote.Ther ewasal soeasyagr eementont hepr oposit
    iont hatast r
    ongSenat e
    wasneededt ocheckt he"turbulence"oft hel owerhouse.Fourdev i
    ceswer efinall
    ysel ected
    toaccompl i
    sht hispur pose.Int hefir
    stplace, t
    heSenat orswer enott obechosendi rectlyby
    thevoter
    sbutbyt helegisl
    aturesoft hest ates, thusremov i
    ngt heirelectiononedegr eef r
    om
    thepopulace.I nthesecondpl ace, t
    heirterm wasf ixedatsi xy ear
    si nsteadoft wo, asi nthe
    caseoftheHouse.I nthethirdpl ace,provi
    si onwasmadef orcont i
    nuitybyhav ingonl yone-
    thi
    rdofthemember sgooutatat i
    mewhi l
    et wo-thi
    rdsr emai nedinser vice.Finall
    y, i
    twas
    provi
    dedt hatSenat orsmustbeatl eastthirtyy earsoldwhi leRepr esent ati
    vesneedbeonl y
    twenty-
    fi
    ve.

    TheJudi ciary.
    —Theneedf orfeder alcourtst ocarryoutthel awwashar dlyopent odebat e.The
    feeblenessoft heAr ti
    clesofConf ederationwas, i
    nal ar
    gemeasur e,att
    ributedt othewantofa
    j
    udiciar ytohol dst atesandi ndivi
    dualsi nobedi encetothel awsandt r
    eatiesoft heunion.
    Nev erthelessont hispoi nttheadv ocat esofst ates'ri
    ghtswer eextremelysensi ti
    ve.Theyl ooked
    withdi strustuponj udgesappoi ntedatt henat i
    onal capit
    al andemanci patedf rom locali
    nterest
    s
    andt raditions;theyr emember edwi t
    hwhati nsistencetheyhadcl aimedagai nstBritai
    nther i
    ghtof
    l
    ocal trialbyjuryandwi thwhatconst ernationtheyhadv i
    ewedt heproposal tomakecol onialj
    udges
    i
    ndependentoft heassembl i
    esint hemat t
    eroft heirsal
    aries.Reluctantl
    yt heyy i
    eldedtothe
    demandf orfeder alcour ts,consent i
    ngatf irstonlytoasupr emecour ttorev i
    ewcaseshear din
    l
    owerst at ecourtsandf inallytosuchaddi t
    ional i
    nferi
    orcour t
    sasCongr essmi ghtdeem necessary.

    TheSy stem ofChecksandBal ances.


    —I tist
    husappar entt hatthef r
    amer soft heConst i
    tution,
    i
    nshapi ngt hefor m ofgover
    nment,arrangedforadi stribut ionofpoweramongt hr eebranches,
    executi
    v e, l
    egi
    slati
    ve,andjudi
    cial
    .Str
    ictl
    yspeaki ngwemi ghtsayf ourbranches, forthe
    l
    egisl
    atur e,orCongr ess,wascomposedoft wohouses, el ectedi ndif
    fer
    entway s, andoneof
    them,theSenat e,wasmadeacheckont hePr esidentt hr oughi tspowerofr ati
    fyingt r
    eaties
    andappoi ntments."Theaccumulati
    onofal lpower s,legi slative,executi
    ve, andjudi ci
    al,
    int he
    samehands, "wr ot
    eMadi son,"
    whetherofone, afew, ormany ,andwhet herher editary
    ,self-
    appointed, orel
    ective,mayjust
    lybepr onouncedt hev er ydef i
    niti
    onoft yranny."Thedev i
    ces
    whi
    chtheconv
    ent
    ionadoptedt
    opreventsuchacentr
    ali
    zat
    ionofauthor
    it
    ywer
    eexceedi
    ngl
    y
    i
    ngeni
    ousandwel
    lcal
    culat
    edtoaccompli
    shthepurposesoftheaut
    hors.

    Thel egi
    slat
    ureconsi st
    edoft
    wohouses,themembersofwhichweretobeappor
    ti
    onedona
    dif
    ferentbasis,elect
    edindi
    ff
    erentway
    s,andtoser
    vefordi
    ff
    erentt
    erms.Avetoonal
    lit
    sact
    swas
    vestedinaPr esident
    electedinamannernotempl oyedint hechoiceofei t
    herbr anchoft helegi
    slat
    ur e,
    servingf or
    foury ear
    s, andsubj ecttoremov alonlybyt hediff
    icul
    tpr ocessofi mpeachment .Afteral awhad
    runt hegant letofbothhousesandt heexecut i
    ve,itwassubj ecttointerpr
    etati
    onandannul ment
    byt hejudiciary,appointedbythePr esidentwiththeconsentoft heSenateandser vingf orlif
    e.
    Thusi twasmadeal mostimpossiblef oranypolit
    icalpartytogetpossessi onofallbranchesof
    thegov ernmentatasi ngl
    epopularelect i
    on.AsHami ltonr emar ked,thefri
    endsofgood
    gov ernmentconsi dered"ever
    yinsti
    tutioncalculat
    edtor est r
    aint heexcessoflawmaki ngand
    tokeept hingsi nthesamest ateinwhi chtheyhappent obeatanygi venperi
    odasmor el ikel
    y
    todogoodt hanhar m. "

    ThePower softheFeder alGovernment .


    —Ont hequest i
    onoft hepower stobeconf erredupon
    thenewgov ernmentt herewasl essoccasi onf oraseriousdispute.Ev enthedel egatesfrom
    thesmal lstat
    esagr eedwi ththosef rom Massachuset ts,Pennsy l
    vania,andVi r
    giniathatnew
    powersshoul dbeaddedt othosei nt
    rustedt oCongressbyt heAr ti
    clesofConf ederati
    on.The
    NewJer seypl anaswel l astheVirginiaplanrecognizedt hi
    sfact.Someoft hedelegates,li
    ke
    Hami l
    tonandMadi son, evenproposedt ogi veCongr essagener allegislat
    iveauthor i
    tycoveri
    ng
    allnat
    ionalmat t
    ers;butot hers,f
    rightenedbyt hespect erofnationali
    sm, i
    nsist
    edonspeci f
    ying
    eachpowert obeconf erredandf inall
    ycar r
    iedtheday .

    Taxat i
    onandCommer ce.—Ther ewer enonebol denought odissentf rom thepr oposi t
    ionthat
    revenuemustbepr ovidedt opaycur rentexpensesanddi scharget hepubl i
    cdebt .Whenonce
    thedisput eov ertheappor tionmentofdi rectt axesamongt hesl avest ateswasset t
    led,i
    twas
    aneasymat tertodecidet hatCongr essshoul dhav epowert olayandcol l
    ectt axes,dut i
    es,
    i
    mpost s,andexci ses.Int hiswayt henat ional gov ernmentwasf reedf rom dependenceupon
    stubbor nandt ardylegislat uresandenabl edt ocollectfundsdi rectlyfrom citizens.Ther ewere
    l
    ikewi senonebol denought ocontendt hatt heanar chyofst at
    et ariffsandt rade
    discri
    mi nationsshouldbel ongerendur ed.Whent hef earsofthepl antingstateswer eallay
    ed
    andt he" bargain"overthei mpor t
    ati
    onofsl aveswasr eached,theconv ent
    ionv est edin
    Congr esst hepowert or egul at
    eforeignandi nterstatecommer ce.

    NationalDefense.—Thenecessi tyf
    ornat i
    onal defensewasr eali
    zed,thoughthef earof
    hugemi li
    taryestablishmentswasequal l
    ypresent .Theoldpr acticeofrelyi
    ngonquot as
    fur
    nishedbyt hest atelegisl
    atureswascompl etelydiscr
    edited.Asi nthecaseoft axesa
    dir
    ectauthor i
    tyoverci t
    izenswasdemanded.Congr esswast heref
    oregivenfullpowert o
    rai
    seandsuppor tarmi esandanav y .I
    tcouldempl oythestat emi l
    i
    tiawhendesi rable;buti
    t
    couldatthesamet i
    memai ntai
    nar egularar
    myandcal ldi
    rect l
    yuponal labl
    e-bodi edmales
    i
    fthenat ureofacr isiswast houghttorequirei t
    .

    The"Necessar yandPr oper"Clause.—Tot hespecifi


    edpowerv estedinCongr essbyt he
    Consti
    tution,t
    headv ocatesofast r
    ongnat i
    onalgovernmentaddedagener alclause
    author
    izingitt
    omakeal llaws" necessar
    yandpr oper"forcar
    ryingintoeffectanyandal loft
    he
    enumer atedpowers.Thiscl ause,i
    nterpr
    etedbyt hatmastermind, ChiefJusti
    ceMar shall
    ,was
    l
    aterconst r
    uedtoconf erpower saswi deast herequir
    ementsofav astcountryspanninga
    conti
    nentandt aki
    ngi t
    spl aceamongt hemi ght
    ynat i
    onsoftheear th.

    Rest r
    aintsont heStates.—Frami ngagov ernmentandendowi ngi twithlargepower swer ebyno
    meanst hesol econcer noft heconv ention.Itsv eryexistencehadbeenduequi teasmucht othe
    conductoft hest at
    elegi sl
    aturesast ot hefutil
    iti
    esofapar alyzedCont inentalCongress.I
    nev er
    y
    state,explainsMar shallinhisLifeofWashi ngton,t herewasapar t
    yofmenwhohad" mar kedout
    forthemsel v
    esamor ei ndulgentcour se.Viewi ngwi t
    hextremet endernesst hecaseoft hedebtor,
    thei
    ref fort
    swer eunceasi nglydirect
    edt ohi srelief.Toexactaf aithf
    ul compl i
    ancewi t
    hcont r
    acts
    was, i
    nt heiropi ni
    on,ahar shmeasur ewhi cht hepeopl ecouldnotbear .Theywer euniformlyin
    favorofr elaxingtheadmi ni
    strat
    ionofj ustice,ofaf fordingfacil
    itiesfort hepaymentofdebt s,orof
    suspendi ngt heircol
    lection,andr emitti
    ngt axes. "
    Thelegi
    slat
    uresunderthedominanceoft
    hesemenhadenactedpapermoneyl
    awsenabl
    ing
    debt
    orstodischarget
    heirobl
    i
    gationsmoreeasi
    l
    y.Theconv
    enti
    onputanendtosuchpr
    acti
    ces
    byprovi
    dingthatno
    stat eshoul demi tbill
    sofcr edi tormakeany thingbutgol dorsi lverl egal t
    enderi nt hepay ment
    ofdebt s.Thest atelegi slatureshadenact edlawsal l
    owi ngment opayt heirdebt sbyt urning
    ov ert ocreditorsl andorper sonal pr
    oper t
    y; t
    heyhadr epeal edt hechar terofanendowedcol l
    ege
    andt akent hemanagementf rom t hehandsoft helawf ultrustees; andt heyhadot herwi se
    i
    nt erferedwi tht heenf orcementofpr ivateagr eement s.Theconv ent ion, t
    aki ngnot i
    ceofsuch
    mat t
    er s,i
    nsertedacl ausef or biddingst at
    es" toi mpairtheobl i
    gat ionofcont racts."Themor e
    vent urousoft her adical shadi nMassachuset tsraisedt hest andar dofr ev oltagai nstthe
    aut hor i
    ti
    esoft hest ate.Theconv enti
    onanswer edbyabr iefsent encet ot heef fectt hatt he
    Presi dentoft heUni tedSt ates, t
    obeequi ppedwi thar egularar my , woul dsendt r oopst o
    suppr essdomest i
    ci nsur rectionswhenev ercal leduponbyt hel egi slatureor , i
    fitwasnoti n
    sessi on, bythegov er noroft hest ate.Tomakesur et hatther est rictionsont hest at eswoul d
    notbedeadl et ters,thef eder al Const i
    tuti
    on, l
    aws, andt reatieswer emadet hesupr emel awof
    thel and, tobeenf orcedwhenev ernecessar ybyanat ional j
    udici aryandexecut i
    veagai nst
    violationsont hepar tofanyst ateaut hori
    ties.

    Prov i
    sionsforRati
    fi
    cationandAmendment .
    —Whentheframeofgov ernmenthadbeen
    determi ned,t
    hepower stobev est
    edi
    nithadbeenenumerat
    ed,andt herest
    ri
    cti
    onsuponthe
    stateshadbeenwr i
    ttenint
    othebond,t
    hereremai
    nedthr
    eefinalquesti
    ons.Howshallt
    he
    Const i
    tutionberat
    if
    ied?Whatnumberofst at
    esshal
    lbenecessarytoputiti
    ntoeff
    ect
    ?How
    shallitbeamendedi nt hefut
    ure?

    Ont hefir
    stpoint,themandat eunderwhi chtheconv enti
    onwassi tt
    ingseemedpositi
    ve.The
    Arti
    clesofConf ederati
    onwer estil
    lineffect
    .Theypr ovi
    dedthatamendment scouldbemadeonl y
    byunani mousadopt ioninCongr essandt heapprovalofall
    thestates.Asiftogivef
    orcetothis
    provisi
    onoflaw, thecallfortheconv ent
    ionhadexpr essl
    ystat
    edt hatall
    alt
    erat
    ionsandrevi
    sions
    shouldber eportedtoCongr essforadopt i
    onorrejecti
    on,Congressitsel
    ftotr
    ansmitthedocument
    ther
    eaftertothest atesforthei
    rrevi
    ew.

    Tohav eobser vedt hestri


    ctlett
    eroft helawwouldhav edef eat
    edthepurposesoft hedel egates,
    becauseCongr essandt hest at
    elegislat
    ureswereopenl yhosti
    letosuchdr asticchangesas
    hadbeenmade.Unani mousr at
    ifi
    cation,asevent
    spr oved,wouldhavebeeni mpossi ble.
    Thereforet hedelegatesdecidedt hattheConstit
    utionshouldbesenttoCongr esswitht he
    recommendat i
    ont hatit,
    inturn,tr
    ansmi tthedocument ,nottothest
    atelegislatures,
    butt o
    convent i
    onshel dinthest at
    esfort hespecialobj
    ectofdecidinguponrati
    fication.Thispr ocess
    wasf oll
    owed.I twast heirbeli
    efthatspecialconventi
    onswoul dbemor efriendlythant hestate
    l
    egislatures.

    Theconv ent
    ionwasequal lypositi
    veindeal i
    ngwi t
    hthepr obl
    em oft henumberofst ates
    necessarytoest
    abli
    shthenewConst itut
    ion.At t
    empt stochanget heAr ti
    cleshadfailed
    becauseamendmentr equi redtheappr ovalofev erystat
    eandt herewasal way satleastone
    recal
    cit
    rantmemberoft heuni on.Theopposi tiont oanewConst it
    utionwasundoubt edl
    y
    formi
    dable.RhodeIsl
    andhadev enrefusedtot akepar ti
    nf r
    ami ngit,andherhostil
    i
    tywasdeep
    andopen.Sot heconventioncastasi dethepr ovisi
    onoft heArticl
    esofConf eder
    ati
    onwhi ch
    requi
    redunanimousappr ov alf
    oranychangei nt heplanofgov ernment ;i
    tdecreedthatthenew
    Constit
    uti
    onshouldgoint oef f
    ectwhenr atif
    iedbyni nestates.

    Inprovi
    dingforfutur
    echangesi ntheConst it
    utioni
    tsel
    ftheconventionalsothrustasi
    detheol d
    rul
    eofunani mousappr oval,
    anddeci dedthatanamendmentcoul dbemadeonat wo-t
    hir
    ds
    voteinbothhousesofCongr essandr at
    ifi
    cati
    onbyt hr
    ee-f
    ourt
    hsoft hestates.Thischange
    wasofpr ofoundsignif
    icance.Everystat
    eagr eedtobeboundint hef ut
    urebyamendment sduly
    adoptedev enincaseitdidnotappr ovethem it
    self
    .Americai
    nthiswaysetoutupont hehi gh
    roadthatledfrom aleagueofst at
    est oanation.
    TheSt
    ruggl
    eov
    erRat
    if
    icat
    ion

    OnSeptember17,1787,theConst
    it
    uti
    on,havi
    ngbeenf i
    nal
    lydr
    aft
    edincl
    earandsimplelanguage,
    amodel t
    oall
    maker soffundamental
    law,wasadopted.Theconv
    enti
    on,
    afternear
    lyf
    ourmont hs
    ofdebat
    einsecr
    etsession,fl
    ungopenthedoorsandpresent
    edtotheAmericanst
    hefini
    shedplan
    fort
    henew
    gov
    ernment
    .Thent
    hegr
    eatdebat
    epassedt
    othepeopl
    e.

    AnAdv
    ert
    isementofTheFeder
    ali
    st

    TheOpposi ti
    on.—Stormsofcr it
    icism atoncedescendedupont heConstit
    uti
    on." Fraudul ent
    usurpati
    on! "exclai
    medGer ry,whohadr efusedt osignit."Amonst er"outofthe"t hickv eilof
    secrecy,
    "decl aimedaPennsy l
    vanianewspaper ."Anir
    on- handeddespot i
    sm willbet heresult,
    "
    protest
    edat hir
    d."We, '
    thelow-bor n,
    '
    "sarcasticall
    ywroteaf ourt
    h,"wil
    lnowadmi tt he' six
    hundredwel l
    -born'
    immedi atel
    yt oestabli
    sht hismostnobl e, mostexcell
    ent,
    andt rulydivine
    constit
    ution."ThePr esi
    dentwillbecomeaki ng; Congresswi l
    lbeast y
    ranni
    cal asPar li
    amenti n
    theoldday s; t
    hestateswi l
    lbeswal l
    owedup; ther i
    ghtsoft hepeoplewi l
    lbetrampl edupon; the
    poorman' sj usti
    cewi l
    lbelostintheendl essdel aysofthef ederalcourt
    s—suchwast hestrai
    n
    ofthepr otestsagainstrati
    fi
    cation.

    Def enseoft heConst it


    uti
    on.
    —Mov edbyt het empestofopposi ti
    on,Hami lt
    on, Madison,and
    Jayt ookupt heirpensi ndefenseoft heConst i
    tution.Inaser iesofnewspaperar ti
    clest hey
    discussedandexpoundedwi theloquence, learning, anddi gnit
    yev eryimpor tantclauseand
    prov i
    sionoft hepr oposedplan.Thesepaper s,afterwar dscollectedandpubl ishedinav ol
    ume
    knownasTheFeder ali
    st,
    formt hefi
    nestt extbookont heConst i
    tut
    iont hathasev erbeen
    printed.Ittakesi t
    spl ace,mor eover,
    amongt hewi sestandwei ghti
    estt reati
    sesongov ernment
    everwr it
    teni nanyl anguagei nanyt ime.Ot hermen, notsogi fted,werenol essear nestinthei
    r
    suppor tofr ati
    fi
    cation.Inpri
    v atecorrespondence, editori
    als,pamphl ets, andlett
    erstot he
    newspaper s,theyur gedthei
    rcount r
    yment of orgett heirparti
    sanshipandaccepta
    Const it
    utionwhi ch,inspiteofanydef ect
    sgr eatorsmal l
    ,wast heonl yguar anteeagai nst
    dissoluti
    onandwar fareathomeanddi shonorandweaknessabr oad.

    Cel
    ebr
    ati
    ngt
    heRat
    if
    icat
    ion
    Cel
    ebr
    ati
    ngt
    heRat
    if
    icat
    ion

    TheAct i
    onoft heSt ateConv entions.—Bef oret heendoft heyear
    ,1787,threest ateshad
    rati
    fi
    edt heConst i
    tuti
    on:Del awar eandNewJer seyunani mousl
    yandPennsy l
    v aniaaf t
    erashort,
    thoughsav age,contest.Connect i
    cutandGeor gi afoll
    owedear l
    ythenexty ear.Thencamet he
    battl
    er oy ali
    nMassachuset ts, endinginr ati
    ficat i
    oni nFebruar
    ybythenar rowmar ginof187
    votesto168.I nthespr i
    ngcamet henewst hatMar y l
    andandSouthCarolinawer e" undert
    he
    newr oof ."OnJune21, NewHampshi re,wher et hesent i
    mentwasatf ir
    stst r
    ongenought o
    defeatt heConst it
    uti
    on, j
    oinedt henewr epublic, i
    nfluencedbythefavorabledeci sionin
    Massachuset ts.Swiftcourierswer esentt ocar rythenewst oNewYor kandVi rginia,wherethe
    questionofr atif
    icati
    onwasst i
    ll undecided.Ni nest ateshadaccepteditandwer euni t
    ed,
    whethermor esawf i
    ttojoinornot .
    Meanwhil
    e,however
    ,Vi
    rgi
    nia,
    afteral
    ongandsearchingdebate,
    hadgivenherappr
    ovalbya
    nar
    rowmar gi
    n,l
    eavi
    ngNewYor kasthenextseatofanxi
    ety.I
    nthatst
    atethepopul
    arvotef
    ort
    he
    del
    egat
    estothe
    convent
    ionhadbeencl earl
    yandheavi
    lyagainstrati
    fi
    cat
    ion.Ev
    entsfinal
    lydemonst
    rat
    edt he
    fut
    il
    it
    yofresi
    stance,andHami l
    tonbygoodjudgmentandmast erl
    yargumentswasatlastable
    tomarshalamajorit
    yoft hi
    rt
    ytotwent
    y -
    sevenv otesi
    nfavorofrat
    ifi
    cati
    on.

    Thegreatcontestwasover.Al
    lthestat
    es,exceptNorthCarol
    inaandRhodeIsl
    and,hadr
    ati
    fi
    ed.
    "ThesloopAnarchy,
    "wrot
    eanebul l
    i
    entjournal
    ist
    ,"whenlasthear
    dfrom wasashor
    eonUnion
    rocks.
    "

    TheFi r
    stEl
    ect i
    on.
    —Intheaut umnof1788, electi
    onswer ehel
    dtof i
    ll
    theplacesi
    nthenew
    government.Publicopini
    onwasov er
    whelminglyinfav orofWashingtonasthefi
    rstPresident.
    Yiel
    dingtothei mport
    unit
    iesoffriends,heaccept edt heposti
    nt hespiri
    tofpubl
    i
    cser vi
    ce.OnApr il
    30,1789,het ooktheoathofof f
    iceatFeder alHallinNewYor kCi t
    y."Longli
    veGeorgeWashi ngton,
    Presi
    dentoft heUnit
    edSt at
    es!"criedChancel l
    orLivingstonassoonast heGeneralhadkissedthe
    Bibl
    e.Thecr ywascaughtbyt heassembl edmul t
    itudeandgi venback.Anewexper i
    menti n
    populargovernmentwasl aunched.

    Ref
    erences

    M.Far
    r TheFr
    and, ami
    ngoft
    heConst
    it
    uti
    onoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    P.
    L.For
    d,Essay
    sont
    heConst
    it
    uti
    onoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    TheFeder
    ali
    st(
    inmanyedi
    ti
    ons)
    .

    G.Hunt
    ,Li
    feofJamesMadi
    son.

    A.
    C.McLaughl
    i
    n,TheConf
    eder
    ati
    onandt
    heConst
    it
    uti
    on(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Accountf
    ort
    hef
    ail
    ureoft
    heAr
    ti
    clesofConf
    eder
    ati
    on.

    2.
    Expl
    aint
    hedomest
    icdi
    ff
    icul
    ti
    esoft
    hei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    stat
    es.

    3.
    Whydi
    def
    for
    tsatr
    efor
    m byt
    heCongr
    esscomet
    onaught
    ?

    4.
    Nar
    rat
    etheev
    ent
    sleadi
    ngupt
    otheconst
    it
    uti
    onal
    conv
    ent
    ion.

    5.
    Whower
    esomeoft
    hel
    eadi
    ngmeni
    ntheconv
    ent
    ion?Whathadbeent
    hei
    rpr
    evi
    oust
    rai
    ning?

    6.
    Stat
    ethegr
    eatpr
    obl
    emsbef
    oret
    heconv
    ent
    ion.

    7.
    Inwhatrespect
    swer
    ethepl
    ant
    ingandcommer
    cial
    stat
    esopposed?Whatcompr
    omi
    ses
    werereached?

    8.
    Showhowt
    he"
    checkandbal
    ance"sy
    stem i
    sembodi
    edi
    nourf
    orm ofgov
    ernment
    .

    9.
    Howdi dthepowersconf
    err
    edupont
    hef
    eder
    algov
    ernmenthel
    pcur
    ethedef
    ect
    soft
    he
    Ar
    ticl
    esofConfeder
    ati
    on?

    10.I
    nwhatwaydidt
    hepr
    ovi
    sionsf
    orr
    ati
    fyi
    ngandamendi
    ngt
    heConst
    it
    uti
    ondepar
    t
    fr
    om theol
    dsyst
    em?
    11.
    Whatwast
    henat
    ureoft
    heconf
    li
    ctov
    err
    ati
    fi
    cat
    ion?
    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    Engl
    ishTr
    eat
    mentofAmer
    icanCommer
    ce.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,Economi
    cHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.
    210-
    220.

    Fi
    nanci
    alCondi
    ti
    onoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates.
    —Fi Cr
    ske, i
    ti
    calPer
    iodofAmer
    icanHi
    stor
    y,pp.163-
    186.

    Di
    sor
    der
    edCommer
    ce.
    —Fi
    ske,
    pp.134-
    162.

    Sel
    fi
    shConductoft
    heSt
    ates.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,pp.185-
    191.

    TheFai
    l
    ureoft
    heConf
    eder
    ati
    on.
    —El Hi
    son, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.318-
    326.

    FormationoftheConst
    it
    uti
    on.—(1)Theplansbefor
    et heconventi
    on,Fi
    ske,pp.236-249;(2)
    thegreatcompromi
    se,Fi
    ske,pp.250-
    255;(3)sl
    aver
    yandt heconventi
    on,Fi
    ske,pp.256-266;
    and(4)thefr
    ameofgovernment,Fi
    ske,
    pp.275-301;
    Elson,pp.328-
    334.

    Biogr
    aphi
    calStudies.
    —Lookupt
    hehi
    stor
    yandser
    vicesoft
    hel
    eader
    sint
    heconv
    ent
    ioni
    n
    anygoodencyclopedia.

    Rat
    if
    icat
    ionoftheConst
    it
    uti
    on.
    —Har
    t,Hi
    stor
    yTol
    dbyCont
    empor
    ari
    es,
    Vol
    .II
    I,
    pp.233-
    254;
    El
    son,pp.334-
    340.

    SourceStudy.
    —Compar etheConst
    it
    uti
    onandAr t
    icl
    esofConfederat
    ionunderthefoll
    owing
    heads:(
    1)frameofgov ernment;(
    2)powersofCongress;(3)l
    i
    mitsonstates;
    and( 4)methods
    ofamendment .Ev
    erylineoftheConsti
    tut
    ionshouldbereadandre-r
    eadinthelightofthe
    hi
    stori
    calci
    rcumstancessetfort
    hinthi
    schapter.

    CHAPTERVI
    II
    THECLASHOFPOLI
    TICALPARTI
    ES

    TheMenandMeasur
    esoft
    heNewGov
    ernment

    Fri
    endsoft heConst i
    tut
    ioninPower .—I
    nt hefi
    rstCongr essthatassembl edaf tert headopt ion
    oftheConst itution,ther
    ewer eel ev enSenat or
    s,ledbyRober tMor ri
    s,thef inanci er,whohad
    beendel egat est ot henati
    onal conv ent
    ion.Several member soft heHouseofRepr esentatives,
    headedbyJamesMadi son,hadal sobeenatPhi l
    adelphiain1787.I nmaki nghi sappointment s,
    Washi ngtonst rengthenedthenewsy st
    em ofgov ernmentstillf
    urtherbyaj udi ci
    oussel ectionof
    offi
    cials.HechoseasSecr etaryoft heTreasury,AlexanderHami l
    ton,whohadbeent hemost
    zealousf oritssuccess; Gener alKnox, headoft heWarDepar t
    ment ,andEdmundRandol ph, t
    he
    Attorney-Gener al,
    wer eli
    kewiseconspi cuousf r
    iendsoft heexper iment .Ever ymemberoft he
    federal j
    udiciarywhom Washi ngt onappoi nt
    ed,from theChiefJust ice,JohnJay , downtot he
    j
    ust i
    cesoft hedi stri
    ctcourts,hadf avor
    edt heratifi
    cati
    onoft heConst itution; andamaj or i
    tyof
    them hadser v edasmember soft henat i
    onalconv enti
    onthatf r
    amedt hedocumentoroft he
    stat
    erati
    fyi
    ngconv
    ent
    ions.Onl
    yonemanofi
    nfl
    uencei
    nthenewgov
    ernment
    ,Thomas
    Jeff
    erson,t
    he
    Secr
    etaryofSt
    ate,
    wasreckonedasadoubterint hehouseoft hef
    ait
    hful
    .Hehadexpressed
    opi
    nionsbothf
    orandagainstt
    heConsti
    tut
    ion;buthehadbeenoutoft hecount
    ryact
    ingasthe
    mini
    steratPar
    iswhent
    heConst i
    tut
    ionwasdraftedandr at
    if
    ied.

    AnOpposi ti
    ont oConci liate.—Thei naugur ationofWashi ngtonami dtheplaudit
    sofhi s
    countrymendidnotsetatr estall thepol it
    icalturmoi
    l whichhadbeenar ousedbyt heangr y
    contestoverrati
    ficat i
    on." Thei nterestingnat ureofthequest i
    on,"wr oteJohnMar shall
    ,"t
    he
    equali
    tyofthepar t
    ies, theani mat i
    onpr oducedi nevi
    tabl
    ybyar dentdebat ehadanecessar y
    tendencytoembi tt
    ert hedi spositionsoft hev anqui
    shedandt ofixmor edeeplyi nmany
    bosomst heirprejudicesagai nstapl anofgov ernmentinoppositiont owhi challthei
    rpassi ons
    wereenlist
    ed."Thel eader sgat heredar oundWashi ngtonwer ewel l awar
    eoft heexci t
    edst ate
    [
    1]
    ofthecountry.TheysawRhodeI slandandNor thCaroli
    nast i
    l
    lout sideoftheunion. They
    knewbywhatsmal l mar ginst heConst ituti
    onhadbeenappr ovedi nt hegreatstatesof
    Massachuset t
    s, Virginia, andNewYor k.Theywer eequallyawaret hatamaj or
    it
    yoft hest ate
    conventi
    ons, i
    ny iel
    di ngr eluctantappr ov altotheConst i
    tuti
    on,haddr awnanumberof
    amendment sf orimmedi at esubmi ssiont ot hestat
    es.

    TheFi rstAmendment s—aBi llofRi ghts.—Tomeett heopposi tion, Madi sonpr oposed, andt he
    fi
    rstCongr essadopt ed, aser i
    esofamendment stot heConst itution.Tenoft hem wer esoon
    rati
    fiedandbecamei n1791apar tofthel awoft hel and.Theseamendment spr ovided, among
    othert hi
    ngs, thatCongr esscoul dmakenol awr espect i
    ngt heest ablishmentofr eligion,
    abridgingthef r
    eedom ofspeechoroft hepr essort her i
    ghtoft hepeopl epeaceabl yt o
    assembl eandpet iti
    ont hegov ernmentf orar edressofgr ievances.Theyal soguar ant eed
    i
    ndict mentbygr andj ur yandt rialbyj uryf orallpersonschar gedbyf eder alofficerswi thser ious
    cri
    mes.Tor eassur et hosewhost i
    llf
    ear edt hatlocal r
    ightsmi ghtbei nvadedbyt hef eder al
    gover nment ,thet enthamendmentexpr esslypr ovidedt hatt hepower snotdel egat edt ot he
    UnitedSt atesbyt heConst i
    t ut
    ion, norpr ohibitedbyi ttothest ates, arer eservedt ot hest at
    es
    respect i
    velyort ot hepeopl e.Sev eny ear slater,theel event hamendmentwaswr it
    teni nt he
    samespi ri
    tast hef i
    rstten, aft
    eraheat eddebat eov ert heact ionoft heSupr emeCour tin
    permi tti
    ngaci tizent obr ingasui tagainst" thesov ereignst ate"ofGeor gia.Thenew
    amendmentwasdesi gnedt opr otectstat esagai nstt hef ederal judiciarybyf or biddingi ttohear
    anycasei nwhi chast atewassuedbyaci t
    izen.

    Fundingt heNat i
    onal Debt .
    —Paperdecl arati
    onsofr ights, howev er,paidnobi ll
    s.Tot hi
    st ask
    Hamiltont urnedallhi ssplendidgeni us.Atthev eryout setheaddr essedhi msel ftothepr oblem
    ofthehugepubl icdebt ,dail
    ymount i
    ngast heunpai dinter estaccumul ated.InaRepor ton
    Publi
    cCr editunderdat eofJanuar y9,1790, oneoft hef i
    rstandgr eatestofAmer i
    canst ate
    papers,hel aidbeforeCongr esst heoutli
    nesofhi spl an.Hepr oposedt hatt hefeder al
    governmentshoul dcal li
    nal ltheoldbonds, cert
    if
    icatesofi ndebt edness, andot herpr omi sest o
    paywhi chhadbeeni ssuedbyt heCongr esssi ncethebegi nni ngoft heRev oluti
    on.These
    nati
    onal obligati
    ons, heurged, shouldbeputi ntooneconsol idateddebtr esti
    ngont hecr editof
    theUni t
    edSt ates;tot heholder softheol dpapershoul dbei ssuednewbondsdr awingi nterest
    atfi
    xedr ates.Thispr ocesswascal l
    ed" fundingthedebt ."Suchapr ov i
    sionf orthesuppor tof
    publi
    ccr edit,Hamiltoninsisted, wouldsat i
    sfycreditors,rest orelandedpr opertytoi t
    sf ormer
    val
    ue, andf urni
    shnewr esour cest oagricult
    ur eandcommer cei nthef or
    m ofcr editandcapi tal
    .

    Assumpt i
    onandFundi ngofSt ateDebt s.
    —Hami l
    tont henturnedt otheobl i
    gationsincurr
    edby
    thesev eralstat
    esinsuppor toftheRev ol
    ution.Thesedebt shepr oposedt oaddt ot henati
    onal
    debt.Theywer etobe"assumed"byt heUni t
    edSt atesgov ernmentandpl acedont hesame
    securef oundationasthecont i
    nentaldebt.Thismeasur ehedef endednotmer el
    yongr ounds
    ofnationalhonor .I
    twould, asheforesaw, giv
    est rengthtot henewnat ionalgov er
    nmentby
    makingal lpubliccredi
    tors,menofsubst ancei ntheirseveral communit i
    es,looktot hefeder
    al,
    rat
    hert hant hestat
    egov ernment,forthesat i
    sfactionofthei rcl
    aims.
    FundingatFaceVal
    ue.
    —Onthequestionofthet
    ermsofconsoli
    dati
    on,assumption,
    and
    fundi
    ng,Hamilt
    onhadafi
    rm conv
    ict
    ion.Thatmi
    ll
    ionsofdol
    l
    ars'wort
    hoft heconti
    nent
    aland
    stat
    ebondshad
    passedoutoft hehandsoft hosewhohador i
    ginal l
    ysubscr ibedtheirfundst ot hesuppor toft he
    gov er
    nmentorhadsol dsuppl i
    esf ortheRev olutionaryar mywaswel lknown.I twasal soamat ter
    ofcommonknowl edget hatav erylar
    gepar toft hesebondshadbeenboughtbyspecul at orsat
    rui
    nousf igures—t en,twenty,andt hirt
    ycent sont hedol lar.Accordingl
    y ,
    ithadbeensuggest ed,even
    i
    nv eryr espect ablequar t
    ers,thatadi scr i
    mi nationshoul dbemadebet weenor i
    gi nalholder sand
    speculat i
    v epur chasers.Somewhohel dthisopi nionur gedt hatthespecul atorswhohadpai d
    nomi nal sumsf ortheirbondsshoul dber ei
    mbur sedf ort heiroutl
    ay sandt heor iginalhol der spai d
    thedifference; otherssaidt hatt hegov ernmentshoul d" scalethedebt "byr edeemi ng,notatf ull
    valuebutataf igurereasonabl yabov et hemar ketpr ice.Agai nsttheproposi t
    ionHami ltonsethi s
    facelikef li
    nt.Hemai ntai
    nedt hatthegov er nmentwashonest l
    yboundt oredeem ev erybondati t
    s
    facev alue, al
    thought hedi f
    ficultyofsecur i
    ngr ev enuemadenecessar yalowerr ateofi nt erestona
    partoft hebondsandt hedef erri
    ngofi nterestonanot herpar t.

    FundingandAssumpt i
    onCarri
    ed.—Ther ewasl it
    tledi ffi
    cult
    yi nsecur ingtheappr ovalofbot h
    housesofCongr essforthefundingoft henational debtatf ullv al
    ue.Thebi llfortheassumpt i
    on
    ofstatedebt s,however,br
    oughtt heshar pestdivisionofopi nions.Tot heSout hernmember sof
    Congr essassumpt ionwasagr ossv iolati
    onofst at es' r
    ight
    s, withoutanywar rantint he
    Const i
    tuti
    onanddev i
    sedintheinter estofNor thernspecul ator swho, antici
    pat i
    ngassumpt i
    on
    andf unding,hadboughtupatl owpr icest heSout her nbondsandot herpr omi sest opay .New
    England,ont heotherhand,wasst rongl yinfavorofassumpt i
    on; severalrepresent at
    ivesf r
    om
    thatsectionwer erashenought ot hreat enadissol utionoft heuni oni fthebillwasdef eated.To
    thi
    sdi sputewasaddedanequal lybi tterquarrelov ert helocationoft henat ional capi
    tal,then
    tempor ari
    lyatNewYor kCi
    ty.

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Fi
    rstUni
    tedSt
    atesBankatPhi
    l
    adel
    phi
    a

    Adeadl ock, accompani edbyt hemostsur l


    yfeeli
    ngsonbot hsides, t
    hreatenedthev eryexistenceof
    theyounggov er
    nment .Washi ngt onandHami l
    tonwer ethoroughlyalarmed.Hear ingofthe
    extr
    emi tytowhi cht hecont esthadbeencar ri
    edandact ingont heappeal fr
    om t heSecretaryoft he
    Treasury,Jef fer
    soni nt
    ervenedatt hispoint
    .Byski l
    l
    fulmanagementatagooddi nnerhebr oughtt he
    opposingl eaderst ogether;andt husoncemor e,asonmanyot heroccasions, peacewaspur chased
    andtheuni onsav edbycompr omi se.Thebargainthisti
    meconsi stedofanexchangeofv otesf or
    assumpt ioni nreturnforvot esfort hecapit
    al.EnoughSout hernmember svotedf orassumpt ionto
    passthebi ll,andamaj ori
    tywasmust eredinfavorofbuildi
    ngthecapi talonthebanksoft he
    Pot
    omac,
    aft
    erl
    ocat
    ingi
    tforat
    en-
    yearper
    iodat
    Phi
    l
    adel
    phi
    atosat
    isf
    yPennsy
    lvani
    amember
    s.

    TheUni tedSt at esBank. —Encour agedbyt hesuccessofhi sf undingandassumpt i


    onmeasur es,
    Hami ltonl ai
    dbef oreCongr essapr oj
    ectf oragr eatUni t
    edSt at
    esBank.Hepr oposedt hatapr i
    vate
    corpor at i
    onbechar teredbyCongr ess, authori
    z edt oraiseacapi talstockof$10, 000,000(three-
    fourthsi nnewsi xpercentf eder albondsandone- fourthinspeci e)andempower edt oissuepaper
    currencyunderpr opersaf eguar ds.Manyadv ant ages, Hami ltoncont ended, woul daccruet othe
    gover nmentf rom t hisinst it
    ution.Thepr i
    ceoft hegov ernmentbondswoul dbei ncreased,thus
    enhanci ngpubl iccr edit.Anat i
    onal currencywoul dbecr eatedofuni formv al
    uef rom oneendoft he
    l
    andt ot heot her .Thebr anchesoft hebanki nv ariouscitieswoul dmakeeasyt heexchangeof
    fundssov it
    al tocommer cialtransact ionsonanat i
    onalscal e.Final
    ly,throught hei ssueofbank
    notes, themoneycapi tal availablef oragr i
    cultur eandi ndust rywouldbei ncreased, thusstimulati
    ng
    businessent er prise.Jef fersonhot lyattackedt hebankont hegr oundt hatCongr esshadnopower
    what ev erundert heConst i
    tuti
    ont ochar t
    ersuchapr iv
    atecor porati
    on.Hami lt
    ondef endeditwith
    greatcogency .Washi ngt on,af t
    erwei ghingall opinions,deci dedi nfavoroft hepr oposal .I
    n1791
    thebi l
    l establishingt hef irstUni tedSt atesBankf oraper iodoft went yy earsbecameal aw.

    ThePr otect i
    v eTar if
    f.—At hirdpar tofHami l
    ton'
    spr ogram wast hepr ot ectionofAmer i
    can
    i
    ndust ries.Thef irstrev enueactof1789, thoughdesi gnedpr imar il
    ytobr i
    ngmoneyi ntot he
    empt yt reasur y,decl aredi nf avoroft hepr i
    nciple.Thef oll
    owi ngy earWashi ngt onreferredtothe
    subjecti nhi saddr esst oCongr ess.Ther euponHami lt
    onwasi nst r
    uctedt opr epare
    recommendat ionsf orl egislati
    veact i
    on.Ther esul t,afteradel ayofmor ethanay ear ,
    washi s
    Repor tonManuf actures, anotherst atepaperwor thy ,i
    ncl osenessofr easoni ngandkeenness
    ofunder standi ng,ofapl acebesi dehi sreportonpubl i
    ccr edit.Hami l
    tonbasedhi sar gumenton
    thebr oadestnat i
    onal gr ounds: thepr otectivetariffwoul d, byencour agi ngt hebuildingof
    factories, createahomemar ketfort hepr oduceoff armsandpl ant ations; bymaki ngt heUnit
    ed
    Statesi ndependentofot hercount r
    iesintimesofpeace, itwoul ddoubl ei t
    ssecur ityint i
    meof
    war; bymaki nguseoft hel aborofwomenandchi l
    dr en,itwoul dt urnt ot hepr oduct i
    onofgoods
    personsot herwisei dleoronl ypar tl
    yempl oyed;byi ncr easingt het radebet weent heNor thand
    Sout hitwoul dst rengthent hel i
    nksofuni onandaddt opol it
    icaltiest hoseofcommer ceand
    i
    ntercour se.Ther evenuemeasur eof1792bor et hei mpr essoft hesear gument s.

    TheRi
    seofPol
    i
    tical
    Par
    ti
    es

    Dissensionsov erHami lt
    on'
    sMeasur es.
    —Hami lt
    on'splans,t
    ouchingdeeplyast heydidthe
    resourcesofi ndi
    v i
    dualsandtheinter
    estsofthestates,awakenedalarm andopposi t
    ion.
    Fundingatf acev al
    ue,saidhi
    scr i
    ti
    cs,wasagov ernmentf av
    ortospeculators;t
    heassumpt i
    on
    ofstatedebt swasadeepdesi gntounderminethest ategover
    nment s;Congresshadno
    constit
    utionalpowert ocreat
    eabank; thelawcreati
    ngt hebankmer elyal
    lowedapr i
    vate
    corporati
    ont omakepapermoneyandl enditatahighr at
    eofinterest
    ;andthet ari
    ffwasatax
    onlandandl aborforthebenefitofmanufactur
    ers.

    Hami lt
    on'sreplyt ot hisbillofindictmentwassi mpleandst raightfor
    ward.Somer ascally
    speculatorshadpr of i
    tedf r
    om t hef undingoft hedebtatf acev al
    ue,butthatwasonl yan
    i
    ncidentint her estorationofpubl i
    ccr edit.Inv i
    ewoft hejealousiesofthestatesi twasagood
    thi
    ngt oreducet heirpower sandpr etensions.TheConst i
    tut
    ionwasnott obei nterpreted
    narrowlybutint hefull l
    ightofnat ional needs.Thebankwoul denl ar
    getheamountofcapi talso
    sorelyneededt ost ar tupAmer i
    cani ndust ri
    es, giv
    ingmar ketst ofarmersandpl anters.The
    tar
    iffbycreatingahomemar ketandi ncreasingoppor t
    uniti
    esf oremploymentwoul dbenef it
    bothlandandl abor .Outofsuchwi sepol ici
    esf ir
    ml ypursuedbyt hegovernment ,heconcl uded,
    wereboundt ocomest rengthandpr osper i
    tyforthenewgov ernmentathome, creditandpower
    abroad.Thisv iewWashi ngtonf ull
    yi ndorsed, addi ngthewei ghtofhi sgr
    eatnamet othe
    i
    nher
    entmer
    it
    soft
    hemeasur
    esadopt
    edunderhi
    sadmi
    nist
    rat
    ion.

    TheSharpnessoft
    hePar
    ti
    sanConf
    li
    ct.
    —Asar
    esul
    toft
    hecl
    ashofopi
    nion,
    thepeopl
    eoft
    he
    count
    ry
    graduallydividedintot wopar ti
    es: Federali
    stsandAnt i-Federalists,t
    hef ormerl edbyHami lt
    on,
    thelatterbyJef ferson.Thest rengt hoftheFeder al
    istslayint heci ti
    es—Bost on,Pr ovidence,
    Har t
    ford,NewYor k, Phi
    ladelphia,Charleston—amongt hemanuf acturing,fi
    nanci al,and
    commer ci
    al groupsoft hepopul at
    ionwhower eeagert oextendt heirbusinessoper ations.The
    strengthoft heAnt i-
    Feder al
    ist
    sl aymai nlyamongt hedebt -
    bur denedf ar
    mer swhof earedthe
    growt hofwhatt heycal l
    ed" amoneypower "andplanter sinall secti
    onswhof ear edthe
    domi nanceofcommer cialandmanuf acturi
    nginterests.Thef ar mingandpl antingSout h,
    outsideoft hef ewt owns, fi
    nall
    ypr esentedanal mostsol i
    dfrontagai nstassumpt i
    on, t
    hebank,
    andt hetari
    f f
    .Theconf li
    ctbetweent hepar t
    iesgrewst eadilyinbi tt
    erness, despitet he
    concili
    atoryandengagi ngmanneri nwhichHami l
    tonpr esentedhi scausei nhi sst atepapers
    anddespi tet heconst anteffortsofWashi ngtontosof t
    ent heasper i
    tyoft hecont estants.

    TheLeader shi
    pandDoct rinesofJef ferson.—Thepar tydisputehadnotgonef arbeforethe
    opponentsoft headmi ni
    st rati
    onbegant olookt oJef fer
    sonast heirleader.SomeofHami lt
    on'
    s
    measur eshehadappr ov ed, decl
    ar i
    ngaf t
    erwar dthathedi dnotatthet i
    meunder standtheir
    si
    gnifi
    cance.Ot her
    s, particularl
    yt hebank, hefiercelyassailed.Moret hanonce,heand
    Hami l
    ton,shakingviolentlywi thanger ,
    attackedeachot heratcabinetmeet i
    ngs,andnot hi
    ng
    shortofthegrav eanddi gni fi
    edpl easofWashi ngtonpr eventedanear lyandopenbr eak
    betweent hem.In1794i tf i
    nallycame.Jef fersonr esignedasSecr etaryofStateandr eti
    redto
    hi
    shomei nVirgini
    at oassume, throughcor r
    espondenceandnegot i
    ation,t
    heleadershipofthe
    steadi
    lygrowingpar tyofopposi tion.

    Shyandmodesti nmanner ,hal


    tingi nspeech, disli
    kingt
    het urmoi
    lofpubli
    cdebat e,anddeepl y
    i
    nterestedi nsci enceandphi l
    osophy ,Jeffersonwasnotv erywellf
    it
    tedforthestrenuousl ifeof
    polit
    icalcont est.Nev er
    theless,hewasanambi tiousandshr ewdnegoti
    ator.Hewasal soby
    honestopi nionandmat uredconv i
    cti
    ont heexactopposi t
    eofHami l
    ton.Thelatt
    erbeliev edina
    strong,active,"high-t
    oned"gov er nment ,vigorouslycompel l
    i
    nginalli
    tsbranches.Jeffersonl ooked
    uponsuchgov er nmentasdanger oustot heliberti
    esofciti
    zensandopenlyav owedhi sf ai
    thinthe
    desirabi
    lit
    yofoccasi onal popularupr i
    sings.Hami l
    tondistr
    ustedt
    hepeopl e."
    Yourpeopl eisa
    greatbeast ,
    "hei sreportedtohav esaid.Jef f
    ersonpr of
    essedhisfait
    hinthepeopl ewi than
    abandont hatwasconsi deredr ecklessinhi stime.

    Oneconomi cmat t
    ers, t
    heopi nionsoft het wol eader swer eal sohopel esslyatv ariance.
    Hami lton, whilecher ishingagr i
    culture, desir edtoseeAmer i
    caagr eatcommer cialand
    i
    ndust rialnat i
    on.Jef fersonwasequal lysetagai nstt hiscour sef orhi scount ry.Hef earedt he
    accumul ationofr ichesandt hegr owt hofal argeur banwor kingcl ass.Themobsofgr eatciti
    es,
    hesai d, aresor esont hebodypol it
    ic; arti
    sansar eusual lythedanger ousel ementt hatmake
    revolutions; wor kshopsshoul dbekepti nEur opeandwi t
    ht hem t hear tisanswi tht heir
    i
    nsidiousmor alsandmanner s.Theonl ysubst antial foundat ionf orar epubl ic,Jef ferson
    beli
    ev edt obeagr i
    culture.Thespi ri
    tofi ndependencecoul dbekeptal i
    v eonl ybyf reef armers,
    owni ngt hel andt heyt i
    ll
    edandl ookingt othesuni nheav enandt hel aboroft heirhandsf or
    theirsust enance.Tr usti
    ngashedi di nt hei nnat egoodnessofhumannat urewhennour i
    shed
    onaf reesoi l,Jeffersonadv ocat edt hosemeasur escal culatedt of avoragr icultur eandt o
    enlarget her ightsofper sonsr at hert hant hepower sofgov ernment .Thushebecamet he
    champi onoft heindiv i
    dual againstt hei nt
    er ferenceoft hegov er
    nment , andanar dentadv ocate
    offreedom oft hepr ess, f
    reedom ofspeech, andf reedom ofsci entifi
    ci nquiry.Itwas,
    accor dingly,nomer ef actiousspi r
    itthatdr ov ehimi ntoopposi ti
    ont oHami l
    ton.

    TheWhi skyRebell
    ion.—Thepoli
    ti
    calagit
    ati
    onoft heAnti-
    Feder al
    istswasaccompani edbyan
    armedr evol
    tagai
    nstt hegover
    nmentin1794.Theoccasi onf orthisuprisi
    ngwasanot herof
    Hami l
    ton'
    smeasur es,alawlayi
    nganex ci
    setaxondi sti
    l
    ledspi ri
    ts,fort
    hepur poseofi ncreasing
    therevenueneededt opaytheint
    erestonthefundeddebt .Itsohappenedt hataveryconsi derable
    partofthewhiskymanuf act
    uredinthecountr
    ywasmadebyt hef ar
    mer s,
    especiall
    yont hefronti
    er,
    i
    nt hei
    rownst i
    ll
    s.Thenewr evenuelawmeantt hatfederal offi
    cerswoul dnowcomei ntothe
    homesofthepeople,measurethei
    rli
    quor,andtakethetaxoutoft
    hei
    rpockets.Al
    lthebi
    tt
    erness
    whi
    chfarmersfel
    tagainstt
    hef i
    scalmeasuresofthegov er
    nmentwasredoubl
    ed.I
    nt hewester
    n
    di
    str
    ict
    sofPennsylvani
    a,Vi
    rgini
    a,andNorthCaroli
    na,t
    hey
    refusedtopayt hetax.I
    nPennsy lvania,someoft hem sackedandbur nedt hehousesoft he
    taxcollect
    ors,astheRev ol
    uti
    oniststhirt
    yy ear
    sbef orehadmobbedt heagent sofKi ng
    Geor gesentovertosellstamps.Theywer einaf airwaytonulli
    fyt
    hel awi nwholedi str
    ict
    s
    whenWashi ngtoncall
    edoutthet roopst osuppress" t
    heWhi skyRebelli
    on."Thenthe
    mov ementcol l
    apsed;butitl
    eftbehindadeep- seat edresent
    mentwhi chf l
    aredupi nt he
    electi
    onofsev eral
    obdurateAnti-Federali
    stCongr essmenf r
    om thedisaffectedregions.

    For
    eignI
    nfl
    uencesandDomest
    icPol
    i
    tics

    TheFr enchRev ol
    ut i
    on.
    —Int hisexcitingper i
    od, whenal lAmer i
    cawasdi str
    actedbypar t
    isan
    disput es,ast or m brokeinEur ope—t heepoch- makingFr enchRev ol ution—whi chnotonlyshook
    thet hr onesoft heOl dWorldbutst i
    rr
    edt oi t
    sdept hst hey oungr epubl i
    coft heNewWor ld.The
    fi
    rstscenei nthisdr amaticaffairoccur redi nt hespringof1789, af ewday safterWashington
    wasi naugur ated.Theki ngofFr ance, LouisXVI ,dr
    iveni ntobankr upt cybyext ravaganceand
    cost l
    ywar s,wasf orcedtoresor ttohi speopl ef orfinanci alhelp.Accor dingl
    yhecal l
    ed,forthe
    fi
    rstt imei nmor et hanonehundr edfif t
    yy ears, ameet ingoft henat ional parl
    i
    ament ,t
    he
    "Estat esGener al,
    "composedofr epresent ativesoft he" threeest at es" —theclergy,nobi
    li
    ty,and
    commoner s.Act i
    ngunderpower full
    eader s,thecommoner s,or" thirdest ate,
    "sweptasidet he
    clergyandnobi lit
    yandr esolvedt hemsel vesi nt oanat ional assembl y.Thisstirr
    edthecount ry
    toitsdept hs.

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Loui
    sXVIi
    ntheHandsoft
    heMob

    Greatevent sfol
    lowedi nswi ftsuccession.OnJuly14, 1789, theBastil
    le,anol droyalpri
    son,
    symbol oftheking'sabsol uti
    sm, wasstormedbyaPar iscr owdanddest royed.Ont henightof
    August4, thefeudal pri
    vi
    legesoft henobil
    it
    ywer eabolishedbyt henat ional assembl yami d
    greatexci
    tement .Af ewday slatercamet hefamousDecl arati
    onoft heRi ghtsofMan,
    procl
    aimingt hesov erei
    gntyoft hepeopl eandtheprivil
    egesofci t
    izens.Int heaut umnof1791,
    LouisXVIwasf orcedt oacceptanewconst i
    tut
    ionforFr ancev esti
    ngt hel egislat
    ivepoweri na
    popularassembl y.Litt
    ledisorderaccompani edthesest artli
    ngchanges.Toal lappearancesa
    peacefulrevolut
    ionhadst r
    ippedt heFrenchkingofhi sroy alprer
    ogat i
    vesandbasedt he
    governmentofhi scount ryont heconsentoft hegov erned.

    AmericanInf
    luencei
    nFr ance.
    —Inunder
    taki
    ngthei
    rgr
    eatpoli
    ti
    calr
    evol
    ttheFrenchhadbeen
    encouragedbytheoutcomeoft heAmeri
    canRevol
    uti
    on.Off
    icer
    sandsoldi
    ers,whohadserv
    ed
    i
    nthe
    Amer i
    canwar ,
    report
    edtotheirFrenchcountrymenmar veloustal
    es.Att hef r
    ugal t
    abl eof
    GeneralWashington,i
    ncouncilwiththeunpretent
    iousFrankli
    n,oratconf erencesov erthe
    str
    ategyofwar ,
    Frenchnoblemenofanci entli
    neagelear
    nedt orespectbot ht hetal
    ent sandthe
    si
    mpl echaract
    eroftheleader
    si nthegreatrepubl
    icancommonweal thbey ondt heseas.
    Travel
    ers,whohadgonet oseet heexperimentinrepubl
    icanism wit
    ht heirowney es, carr
    ied
    homet othekingandr ul
    i
    ngclassst ori
    esofanast oundi
    ngsy st
    em ofpopul argov ernment .

    Ont heotherhandthedal l
    iancewi t
    hAmer icandemocr acywasr egar dedbyFrench
    conservati
    vesasplayingwi t
    hf ir
    e."Whenwet hinkofthefalsei
    deasofgov er
    nmentand
    phil
    anthropy,
    "wroteoneofLaf ayet
    te'
    saides, "whichtheseyouthsacqui redinAmer i
    caand
    propagatedinFrancewi t
    hsomuchent husiasm andsuchdepl orabl esuccess—forthismania
    ofimitat
    ionpower f
    ull
    yaidedt heRev ol
    uti
    on, thoughitwasnott hesol ecauseofit
    —wear e
    boundt oconfessthatitwouldhav ebeenbet ter,bothforthemselv esandf orus,i
    fthese
    youngphi l
    osophersinred-heeledshoeshadst ayedathomei nat tendanceont hecour t
    ."

    Earl
    yAmer icanOpi nionoft heFr enchRev olution.—Socl osewer ethetiesbet weent hetwonat ions
    thatitisnotsur pr
    isingt of i
    ndev eryst epint hef ir
    ststagesoftheFr enchRev olutiongreetedwi th
    applausei ntheUni tedSt ates."Li
    ber tywillhav eanot herfeat
    herinhercap, "exul tantlywrotea
    Bostonedi tor."Innopar toft hegl obe,"sober l
    ywr ot
    eJohnMar shall
    ,"wast hisr evoluti
    onhai l
    ed
    withmor ej oyt haninAmer i
    ca..
    ..Butonesent imentex isted.
    "Themai nkeyt otheBast i
    ll
    e,sentt o
    Washi ngtonasamement o,
    wasaccept edas" at okenoft hev ictorygai nedbyl i
    bert
    y."ThomasPai nesaw i nt hegr eat
    event" thef irstripef ruitsofAmer i
    canpr inciplest r
    ansplantedi ntoEur ope. "Feder alist
    sand
    Anti-
    Feder alistsregar dedt henew const itutionofFr anceasanot hervindi cat i
    onofAmer ican
    i
    deal s.

    TheRei gnofTer r
    or.
    —Whil
    eprofusecongratulationswer ebeingexchanged, rumorsbegant o
    comet hatallwasnotwell
    inFrance.Manynobl emen, enragedatt helossofthei
    rspecial
    pri
    vil
    eges, f
    ledint
    oGermanyandpl ot
    tedaninv asionofFr ancet oov er
    throwthenewsy stem of
    government .Loui
    sXVIent
    eredintonegoti
    ationswi t
    hhisbr othermonar chsonthecontinentto
    securetheirhelpint
    hesameent er
    pri
    se,andhef inal
    lybetrayedt otheFrenchpeoplehi
    st rue
    senti
    ment sbyat t
    empti
    ngtoescapefrom hi
    ski ngdom, onlytobecapt uredandtakenbackt o
    Pari
    si ndisgrace.

    Anewphaseoft her ev oluti


    onnowopened.Thewor kingpeopl e, excl udedf rom al l shar ei nthe
    governmentbyt hef irstFr enchconst i
    tuti
    on, becamer est l
    ess,especi allyinPar is.Assembl i
    ngon
    theChampsdeMar s, agr eatopenf i
    eld,theysi gnedapet it
    ioncal l
    ingf oranot herconst i
    t uti
    on
    givi
    ngt hem thesuf frage.Whent oldtodisper se,theyr ef usedandwer ef ireduponbyt henat i
    onal
    guard.This"massacr e,"asi twascal l
    ed,enr agedt hepopul ace.Ar adi cal party, knownas
    "Jacobins,
    "thenspr angup, taki
    ngitsnamef rom aJacobi nmonast eryi nwhi chi thel di tssessi ons.
    Inalit
    tlewhileitbecamet hemast eroft hepopul arconv enti
    onconv okedi nSept ember ,1792.The
    monar chywasi mmedi at elyaboli
    shedandar epubl icest abli
    shed.OnJanuar y21, 1793, Louiswas
    senttot hescaffold.Tot hewaronAust ria,alreadyr agi ng, wasaddedawaronEngl and.Thencame
    theReignofTer r
    or, dur ingwhi chradicalsinpossessi onoft heconv ent ionexecut edi nl ar ge
    number scount er-r
    ev olut i
    onistsandt hosesuspect edofsy mpat hywi tht hemonar chy .Theyshot
    downpeasant swhor osei ni nsur
    recti
    onagai nstthei rr uleandest ablishedar el entlessdi ctatorshi
    p.
    Civi
    lwarf ol
    lowed.Ter ri
    bleat roci
    ti
    eswer ecommi ttedonbot hsidesi nt henameofl ibert y,andi n
    thenameofmonar chy .ToAmer i
    cansofconser vativet emperi tnowseemedt hatt heRev oluti
    on,
    soauspi ci
    ouslybegun, haddegener atedintoanar chyandmer ebl oodt hirstyst rif
    e.

    Bur
    keSummonst heWorl
    dt oWaronFrance.
    —InEngland,EdmundBurkel
    edthefightagainstt
    he
    newFrenchpr
    incipl
    eswhichhefear
    edmightspreadtoallEurope.I sRef
    nhi l
    ect
    ionsont heFrench
    Revol
    uti
    on,wr
    itt
    enin1790,heat
    tackedwitht
    err
    iblewrat
    ht hewholepr
    ogr
    am ofpopular
    government
    ;hecall
    edforwar ,
    rel
    entl
    esswar,upontheFrenchasmonster
    sandoutlaws;he
    demandedthattheybereducedtoorderbytherest
    orat
    ionoftheki
    ngtoful
    lpowerunderthe
    prot
    ecti
    onofthearmsofEur opeannati
    ons.
    Paine'sDef enseoft heFr enchRev olution.—Tocount eractt hecampai gnofhat eagainstt he
    French, ThomasPai ner epliedt oBurkei nanot herofhisf amoust racts,TheRi ghtsofMan,
    whichwasgi v ent otheAmer icanpubl icinanedi t
    ioncont ainingal et
    terofappr oval from
    Jefferson.Bur ke, saidPai ne, hadbeenmour ningaboutt hegl or
    iesoft heFrenchmonar chyand
    ari
    stocr acybuthadf orgot t
    ent hestarv i
    ngpeasant sandt heoppr essedpeopl e;hadweptov er
    thepl umageandnegl ectedt hedy i
    ngbi r
    d.Bur kehaddeni edt herightoftheFr enchpeopl eto
    chooset heirowngov ernors,blandlyfor getti
    ngthatt heEngl i
    shgov ernmenti nwhi chhesaw
    fi
    nal perfectioni tselfrest edont worev olut
    ions.Hehadboast edthatt hekingofEngl andheld
    hiscrowni ncont emptoft hedemocr aticsocieties.Paineanswer ed:"IfIaskamani nAmer i
    ca
    i
    fhewant saki ng, her etortsandasksmei fItakehi mf orani diot.
    "Tot hechar get hatthe
    doctrinesoft her ightsofmanwer e"newf angled,"Painer epl
    iedthatthequest ionwasnot
    whet hert heywer eneworol dbutwhet hertheywer eri
    ghtorwr ong.Ast otheFr enchdi sorder
    s
    anddi ffi
    culties, hebadet hewor ldwai ttoseewhatwoul dbebr oughtf orthinduet ime.

    TheEf f ectoftheFr enchRev ol


    ut i
    ononAmer i
    canPol i
    tics.—Thecour seoft heFr enchRev olution
    andt hecont r
    ov ersiesaccompany i
    ngi t,exercisedapr of oundi nf
    luenceont hef or
    mat ionoft he
    fi
    rstpol it
    icalpar ti
    esi nAmer i
    ca.Thef ollower sofHami lton,nowpr oudoft hename" Feder al
    ists,
    "
    drewbacki nfri
    ghtast heyhear doft hecr ueldeedscommi t
    teddur ingt heRei gnofTer ror.They
    turnedsav agelyupont herevolutionistsandt heirfriendsi nAmer i
    ca, denounci ngas" Jacobin"
    everybodywhodi dnotcondemnl oudl yenought hepr oceedi ngsoft heFr enchRepubl ic.A
    Massachuset t
    spr eacherr oundlyassai l
    ed" theat heistical,anarchical ,andinot herrespect s
    i
    mmor alprinci
    pl esoft heFrenchRepubl icans";het henpr oceededwi thequal passiont oattack
    Jeffersonandt heAnt i-
    Federal
    ists, whom hechar gedwi t
    hspr eadingf alseFrenchpr opagandaand
    betrayingAmer ica." Theedi tor
    s, patrons, andabet torsoft hesevehi clesofsl ander,"heexcl aimed,
    "oughtt obeconsi der edandt r
    eat edasenemi est ot hei rcountry.
    ...Of
    alltr
    ait orstheyar et hemostaggr av atedl ycriminal ;ofal lvil
    lai
    ns, theyar ethemost
    i
    nf amousanddet est able.
    "

    TheAnt i
    -Federali
    sts,asamat teroff act, weregener allyfavorabl
    et ot heRev olut
    ionalthough
    theydepl oredmanyoft heev ent sassoci atedwi t
    hit.Paine'spamphl et,i
    ndorsedbyJef ferson,
    waswi delyread.Democr at i
    csoci eti
    es, afterthef ashionofFr enchpol i
    ti
    calclubs,arosei nt he
    cit
    ies;thecoal i
    ti
    onofEur opeanmonar chsagai nstFrancewasdenouncedasacoal it
    ion
    againstt heveryprinciplesofr epubli
    cani sm; andt heexecut i
    onofLoui sXVIwasopenl y
    celebratedatabanqueti nPhi ladelphia.Har ml esstitl
    es, suchas" Sir,
    ""theHonor able,"and
    "HisExcel l
    ency,"weredecr iedasar i
    stocr ati
    candsomeoft hemor eexci t
    edinsistedon
    adoptingt heFrencht itl
    e, "Cit
    izen,"speaki ng,forexampl e,of"Cit
    izenJudge"and" Ci
    tizen
    Toastmast er
    ."Pamphl et sindef enseoft heFr enchst reamedf r
    om t hepr ess,whilesubsi dized
    newspaper skeptthepr opagandai nf ul
    l swing.

    TheEuropeanWarDi sturbsAmer i
    canCommer ce.—Thisbat t
    leofwi t
    s,orrathercontestin
    calumny,mighthavegoneoni ndefi
    nit
    elyi
    nAmer icawithoutproducinganyser i
    ousr esult
    s,
    haditnotbeenf ort
    hewarbet weenEnglandandFr ance,thenraging.TheEngl i
    sh,having
    commandoft heseas,clai
    medt heri
    ghttosei
    zeAmer i
    canpr oduceboundf orFrenchpor ts
    andtoconfiscateAmericanshi psengagedincarryi
    ngFr enchgoods.Addingf ueltoaf ir
    e
    alr
    eadyhotenough, t
    heybegant osearchAmericanshipsandt ocarryof
    fBriti
    sh-bornsailor
    s
    foundonboar dAmer i
    canv essels.

    TheFr enchAppeal forHelp.


    —Atthesamet imet heFr enchRepubl i
    cturnedtotheUni tedStates
    foraidinitswaronEngl andandsentoverasi tsdi plomaticrepresentat
    ive"Cit
    izen"Genêt ,
    an
    ardentsuppor terofthenewor der
    .Onhisar r
    ival atChar l
    eston,hewasgr eet
    edwi thfervorby
    theAnt i
    -Federali
    sts.Ashemadehi swayNor t
    h, hewaswi nedanddi nedandgi venpopul ar
    ovati
    onst hatturnedhi shead.Hethoughtthewhol ecount rywasr eadytojointheFrench
    Republicinitscont estwit
    hEngland.Genêttheref oreattemptedt ouset heAmer icanportsas
    t
    hebaseofoper
    ati
    onsf
    orFrenchpr
    ivat
    eer
    spreyi
    ngonBrit
    ishmerchantshi
    ps;andhei
    nsi
    sted
    t
    hatt
    heUnit
    edStat
    eswasinhonorboundtohel
    pFranceundert
    hetreatyof1778.
    ThePr oclamationofNeutral
    it
    yandt heJayTr eaty
    .—Unmov edbyt herisi
    ngtideofpopul ar
    sympat hyforFrance,Washingtontookaf ir
    m course.Her eceivedGenêtcoldly.Thedemand
    thattheUnitedStatesaidFranceundert heoldtr
    eatyofal l
    ianceheanswer edbypr ocl
    aimi
    ng
    theneut r
    ali
    tyofAmer i
    caandwar ningAmer i
    cancit
    izensagai nsthost
    ileact
    st owar dei
    ther
    FranceorEngl and.WhenGenêtcont inuedtoholdmeet ings,issuemani f
    estoes,andst i
    rupthe
    peopleagainstEngland,Washingtonaskedt heFrenchgov ernmentt orecal
    l hi
    m.Thi sacthe
    foll
    owedupbysendi ngtheChiefJustice,JohnJay,onapaci fi
    cmissiontoEngl and.

    Theresultwast hecelebratedJayt reatyof1794.Byi tstermsGr eatBr i


    tainagreedt owithdr
    aw
    hertroopsf r
    om thewest ernfort
    swher etheyhadbeensi ncethewarf ori ndependenceandt o
    grantcert
    ainslightt
    radeconcessi ons.Thechi efsourcesofbi tt
    erness—t hef ai
    lureoftheBrit
    ish
    toreturnslavescarr
    iedof fduri
    ngtheRev ol
    uti
    on,thesei zureofAmer icanshi ps,andthe
    i
    mpr essmentofsai l
    ors—wer enott ouched, muchtot hedi st
    ressofev erybodyi nAmer i
    ca,
    i
    ncludingloyalFederal
    ists.Nevert
    hel ess,Washington,dreadinganar medconf li
    ctwithEngland,
    urgedtheSenat etoratif
    yt hetr
    eaty.Thewei ghtofhisi nfl
    uencecar r
    iedt heday .

    Att his,thehostil
    ityoft heAnti-Feder alistsknewnobounds.Jef f
    ersondeclaredtheJayt r
    eaty
    "ani nfamousactwhi chisreallynot hingmor ethananalli
    ancebet weenEnglandandt heAnglo
    -menoft hi
    scount ry,againstthel egislatureandt hepeopl
    eoft heUni t
    edStates."Hami lt
    on,
    defendi ngitwi t
    hhi susual cour age,wasst onedbyamobi nNewYor kanddr ivenfrom the
    platform wi thbl
    oodst r
    eami ngf rom hi sf ace.Jaywasburnedi neffi
    gy.EvenWashi ngtonwas
    notspar ed.TheHouseofRepr esent ati
    v eswasopenl yhosti
    le.Todisplayit
    sf eel
    ings,i
    tcalled
    upont hePr esi
    dentf orthepaper srelativet othetreat
    ynegotiat
    ions,onlyt
    obemor ehighly
    i
    ncensedbyhi sflatrefusal t
    opr esentt hem, onthegroundthatt heHousedidnotshar einthe
    treaty-makingpower .

    Washingt
    onRet i
    resfrom Pol
    it
    ics.—Suchangr ycontest
    sconfir
    medt hePresi
    dentinhisslowly
    matur
    ingdeterminati
    ontoreti
    reatt heendofhi ssecondter
    mi noff
    ice.Hedidnotbelievethat
    athi
    rdter
    m wasunconst it
    uti
    onal orimproper;but
    ,wornoutbyhislongandar duouslaborsin
    warandinpeaceandwoundedbyhar shattacksfrom for
    merfri
    ends,helongedforthequietof
    hi
    sbeauti
    fulestateatMountVer non.

    InSept ember ,1796, ont heev eoft hepr esi


    dent ial elect
    ion, Washi ngt onissuedhi sFar ewell
    Addr ess, anotherst atepapert obet reasuredandr eadbygener ationsofAmer icanst ocome.
    Inthisaddr esshedi rectedt heat tenti
    onoft hepeopl etot hreesubj ectsofl astinginterest.He
    warnedt hem agai nstsect ional j
    ealousies.Her emonst rat
    edagai nstt hespi ri
    tofpar t
    isanship,
    sayingt hati ngov ernment" oft hepopul archar act er,ingov ernmentpur elyelective,i
    tisaspi ri
    t
    nott obeencour aged. "Hel ikewi secautionedt hepeopl eagai nst"t heinsidiouswi l
    esoff orei
    gn
    i
    nf l
    uence, "say i
    ng: "Eur opehasasetofpr imar yinter estswhi cht oushav enoneorav er y
    remot er elati
    on.Henceshemustbeengagedi nf requentcont rover si
    es, thecausesofwhi ch
    areessent iall
    yforeignt oourconcer ns.Hence, ther efor
    e,itwoul dbeunwi seinust oimpl i
    cate
    ourselv es, byarti
    ficialties,int heor dinaryv ici
    ssitudesofherpol i
    ticsort heor dinary
    combi nat ionsandcol l
    isionsofherf ri
    endshi psorenmi ti
    es...
    .Whyf oregot headv antagesofso
    pecul i
    ara
    sit
    uat i
    on? ...I
    tisourt ruepol icyt ost eerclearofper manental lianceswi thanypor ti
    onof
    thef oreignwor l
    d..
    ..Taki ngcar eal way stokeepour selv
    es, bysui tableest ablishment s, ona
    respect abledef ensi vepost ur e, wemaysaf elytrustt otempor aryal li
    ancesf or
    extraordinar yemer genci es."

    TheCampai gnof1796—AdamsEl ect


    ed.
    —Onhear ingoft
    her et
    ir
    ementofWashington,theAnt
    i-
    Federal
    ist
    scastoffall
    rest
    raint
    s.InhonorofFranceandinopposit
    iontowhattheywer e
    pleasedtocal
    l t
    hemonarchicalt
    endenciesoftheFeder
    ali
    sts,t
    heyboldl
    yassumedt hename
    "Republi
    can"
    ;theter
    m" Democrat,
    "thenappli
    edonlytoobscureanddespisedr
    adicals,
    hadnot
    comeintogeneraluse.Theysel
    ect
    edJeff
    ersonast
    hei
    rcandidat
    eforPresi
    dentagai
    nstJohn
    Adams,theFederali
    stnominee,
    andcar
    ri
    edonsuchaspir
    itedcampaignthatt
    heycamewi t
    hin
    fourv
    otesofelecti
    nghim.
    Thesuccessf ulcandidat e,
    Adams, wasnotfittedbyt r
    ainingoropinionforconcil
    iat
    inga
    determinedopposi t
    ion.Hewasar eservedandst udi
    ousman.Hewasnei theragoodspeaker
    noraski ll
    fulnegot i
    ator.Inoneofhisbookshehaddecl aredhimselfinfavorof"government
    byanar istocracyoft alentsandwealth"
    —anof fensewhicht heRepublicansneverforgave.
    WhileJohnMar shallfoundhi m"asensi
    ble,plain,candi
    d, good-
    temper edman,"Jefferson
    couldseei nhi m nothingbuta" monocrat"and" Anglo-man."Haditnotbeenf ortheconduct
    oftheFr enchgov er
    nment ,Adamswouldhar dlyhav eenjoyedamoment 'sgenui
    nepopul ari
    ty
    duringhisadmi ni
    stration.

    TheQuar relwithFr ance.—TheFrenchDi rector


    y, theexecut ivedepartmentest abl
    ishedunder
    theconst ituti
    onof1795, managed, howev er,t
    ost irtheangerofRepubl i
    cansandFeder ali
    sts
    ali
    ke.I tr egar dedt heJayt r
    eatyasar ebuket oFr anceandaf l
    agrantv i
    olati
    onofobl i
    gat i
    ons
    solemnl yr egisteredint hetr
    eatyof1778.Accor dinglyitr efusedtor eceivetheAmer ican
    minist er, treatedhi minahumi li
    ati
    ngway ,andfinal l
    ytoldhi mt ol
    eav ethecount r
    y.Ov erlooki
    ng
    thi
    saf fronti nhisanxi etytomaintainpeace, Adamsdi spat chedtoFr anceacommi ssionof
    emi nentmenwi t
    hi nstr
    ucti
    onstor eachanunder standingwi t
    htheFr enchRepubl i
    c.Ont hei
    r
    arr
    iv al,theywer echagr inedtofi
    nd, i
    nst eadofadecentr ecept i
    on,ani ndir
    ectdemandf oran
    apologyr espect i
    ngt hepastconductoft heAmer i
    cangov ernment,apay menti ncash, andan
    annual tribut east hepriceofconti
    nuedf riendship.Whent henewsoft hi
    saf f
    airr
    eached
    Presi dentAdams, hepr omptl
    ylai
    di tbef oreCongr ess,ref erri
    ngtotheFr enchmenwhohad
    madet hedemandsas" Mr.X,Mr.Y, andMr .Z."

    Thisinsult,coupledwi t
    ht hefactt hatFrenchpr i
    vateer
    s, l
    iketheBr i
    tish, werepr eyingupon
    Amer i
    cancommer ce,enragedev ent heRepubl i
    canswhohadbeenl oudesti nt hepr ofessi
    onof
    thei
    rFr enchsy mpathies.Theyf or
    gott hei
    rwr athovertheJayt reat
    yandj oinedwi tht he
    Federalist
    si nshouting:"Mi l
    li
    onsf ordefense,notacentf ort
    ribute!"Prepar ati
    onsf orwarwere
    madeonev eryhand.Washi ngtonwasoncemor ecall
    edf rom MountVer nontot akehi sold
    posit
    ionatt heheadoft hear my .Indeed,fi
    ghtingactuallybeganupont hehi ghseasandwent
    onwit houtaf ormal decl
    ar ati
    onofwarunt il
    they ear1800.Byt hattimet heDi rector yhadbeen
    overt
    hr own.At reatywasr eadil
    ymadewi thNapol eon,theFirstConsul , whowasbegi nninghi
    s
    remarkabl ecareeraschi efoft heFr enchRepubl i
    c,soont obet urnedi ntoanempi re.

    Ali
    enandSedit
    ionLaws.—Flushedwit
    hsuccess,
    theFederali
    stsdet
    ermi
    ned,i
    fpossible,
    toput
    anendtoradi
    calFrenchinf
    luencei
    nAmericaandtosi
    lenceRepubli
    canopposit
    ion.They
    ther
    efor
    epassedtwodr ast
    iclawsi
    nthesummerof1798: theAli
    enandSedit
    ionActs.

    Thef i
    rstofthesemeasur esempower edthePr esi
    denttoexpelfrom thecount
    ryort
    o
    i
    mpr i
    son anyalien whom her egarded as" danger
    ous"or" had r
    easonablegr
    oundst
    o
    suspect"of"
    anytreasonabl
    eorsecretmachinati
    onsagainstt
    hegovernment."

    Thesecondoft hemeasur es,t


    heSediti
    onAct ,penalizednotonl ythosewhoat tempt edt ostir
    upunl awf ulcombi nationsagainstthegov ernmentbutal soev eryonewhowr ot
    e, uttered,or
    publ ished" anyfalse, scandalous,andmal i
    ci ouswr i
    ting...againstthegov ernmentoft he
    Uni tedSt atesorei therHouseofCongr ess, orthePr esidentoft heUnitedSt ates,wi thintentto
    def amesai dgov ernment. .
    .ortobringthem orei theroft hem intocontemptordi srepute."This
    measur ewashur r
    iedt hroughCongr essinspi teoftheopposi ti
    onandt hecl earpr ov i
    sioninthe
    Const it
    utionthatCongr essshal l
    makenol awabr i
    dgingt hefreedom ofspeechoroft hepr ess.
    Ev enmanyFeder alistsfear edtheconsequencesoft heact i
    on.Hami l
    tonwasal armedwhenhe
    readt hebi l
    l,
    exclaimi ng:"Letusnotestablishat yr
    anny .Energyi saverydifferentt hingfrom
    violence. "JohnMar shalltoldhisfri
    endsinVi r
    giniathat,hadhebeeni nCongr ess, hewoul d
    hav eopposedt het wobi ll
    sbecausehet houghtt hem "useless"and" calculatedt ocr eate
    unnecessar ydiscont entsandj ealousi
    es."
    TheAli
    enlawwasnotenfor
    ced;
    butitgavegreatoff
    ensetotheIr
    ishandFrenchwhoseact
    ivi
    ti
    es
    agai
    nsttheAmer
    icangov
    ernment'
    spoli
    cyrespecti
    ngGreatBri
    tai
    nputthem i
    ndangerofpr
    ison.
    TheSediti
    onl
    aw,
    ontheot herhand, wasv igorouslyapplied.SeveraleditorsofRepublicannewspaper ssoon
    foundt hemsel v
    esi njailorbr okenbyr uinousfinesfort hei
    rcausti
    ccr i
    tici
    smsoft heFeder al
    ist
    Presidentandhi spol i
    cies.By standersatpolit
    icalmeet ings,whout t
    eredsent iment swhi ch,
    thoughungener ousandsev ere,seem harmlessenoughnow, werehurriedbef oreFeder ali
    st
    j
    udgesandpr ompt l
    yfinedandi mpr i
    soned.Althought hepr osecuti
    onswer enotnumer ous, t
    hey
    arousedakeenr esentment .TheRepubl i
    canswer econv i
    ncedthattheirpoli
    ti
    cal opponents,
    havingsaddledupont hecount r
    yHami lton'
    sfiscalsystem andt heBrit
    ishtreaty, werebenton
    sil
    encingallcensur e.Themeasur estherefor
    ehadexact l
    ytheoppositeeffectf rom thatwhi ch
    thei
    raut hor
    si ntended.Inst eadofhel pi
    ngt heFeder al
    istparty,t
    heymadecr it
    icism ofitmor e
    bit
    terthanev er.

    TheKent uckyandVi rgi


    niaResol uti
    ons. —Jeffersonwasqui cktot akeadv antageoft he
    discont ent.Hedr aft
    edasetofr esol utionsdeclaringtheSedi ti
    onl awnul landv oid,asv i
    olati
    ng
    thef ederal Consti
    tuti
    on.Hi sresolutionswer epassedbyt heKent uckyl egislaturelatein1798,
    signedbyt hegov ernor,andtransmi ttedt otheot herst atesfort hei rconsi deration.Though
    receivingunf avorablerepli
    esf r
    om anumberofNor thernst ates,Kent uckyt hef oll
    owi ngyear
    reaffir
    medi tspositi
    onanddecl aredt hatthenul l
    ifi
    cationofal lunconst itutional actsof
    Congr esswast her i
    ghtfulremedyt obeusedbyt hest at esinther edressofgr ievances.Itthus
    defiedt hef eder
    al governmentandannouncedadoct ri
    nehost i
    let onat ional i
    tyandf r
    aughtwi th
    terr
    iblemeani ngforthef utur
    e.Int henei ghbori
    ngst at eofVi rginia, Madi sonl edamov ement
    againstt heAl i
    enandSedi ti
    onlaws.Hei nducedt helegi slat
    uret opassr esolutionscondemni ng
    theact sasunconst it
    utionalandcal lingupont heot herst at
    est ot akepr opermeanst opreserve
    theirri
    ght sandt her i
    ghtsoft hepeopl e.

    TheRepubl icanTr i
    umphi n1800. —Thust hewaywaspr eparedf ort
    heelectionof1800.The
    Republ i
    cansl ef
    tnost oneunturnedintheiref f
    ortst
    opl aceont heFederal
    istcandidate,
    PresidentAdams, al
    ltheodium oftheAl i
    enandSedi t
    ionl aws,inadditi
    ont oresponsi
    bili
    tyf or
    appr ovi
    ngHami l
    ton'
    smeasur esandpol icies.TheFeder ali
    sts,divi
    dedincounci l
    sandcol di n
    theiraffecti
    onf orAdams, madeapoorcampai gn.Theyt riedt
    odi scr
    edittheiropponentswi th
    epithetsof" Jacobins"and" Anarchi
    sts"—termswhi chhadbeenweakenedbyexcessi v euse.
    Whent hev otewascount ed,i
    twasf oundt hatAdamshadbeendef eated;whilethe
    Republ i
    canshadcar riedtheentireSouthandNewYor kal soandsecur edeightofthef i
    fteen
    electoralvotescastbyPennsy lvani
    a."Ourbel ovedAdamswi l
    lnowcl osehisbr i
    ghtcareer,"
    l
    ament edaFeder ali
    stnewspaper ."
    Sonsoff acti
    on,demagoguesandhi ghpr i
    estsofanar chy,
    nowy ouhav ecauset otr
    iumph!"

    AQuar r
    el bet
    weena
    Federal
    istandaRepubl
    i
    can
    i
    nt heHouseof
    Representati
    ves
    Anol
    dcar
    toon
    AQuar
    rel
    bet
    weenaFeder
    ali
    standaRepubl
    i
    cani
    ntheHouseofRepr
    esent
    ati
    ves

    Jefferson'sel ection, howev er,wasst i


    lluncer t
    ain.Byacur i
    ouspr ovi
    sioni ntheConst i
    tution,
    presidential el
    ect orswer erequiredt ovot ef ort
    woper sonswi thoutindicati
    ngwhi choff i
    ceeach
    wast of i
    ll
    , theoner eceiv i
    ngt hehi ghestnumberofv otest obePr esidentandt hecandi date
    standingnextt obeVi cePr esident.Itsohappenedt hatAar onBur r
    ,theRepubl i
    cancandi date
    forVicePr esi dent ,hadr eceivedt hesamenumberofv otesasJef f
    erson; asneit
    herhada
    major i
    tytheel ectionwast hrowni nt
    ot heHouseofRepr esentati
    ves,wher etheFeder al
    istshel d
    thebal anceofpower .Althoughi twaswel l knownt hatBur rwasnotev enacandi datef or
    President, hisf r
    iendsandmanyFeder alistsbegani ntrigui
    ngf orhiselectiontothathighof f
    ice.
    Hadi tnotbeenf ort hev igorousact ionofHami l
    tonthepr izemi ghthavebeensnat chedoutof
    Jeff
    erson'
    shands.Notunt
    ilt
    het
    hir
    ty-
    sixt
    hbal
    l
    otonFebr
    uar
    y17,
    1801,
    wast
    hegr
    eati
    ssue
    [
    2]
    deci
    dedinhisfavor
    .
    Ref
    erences

    J.
    S.Basset
    t,TheFeder
    ali
    stSy
    stem (
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .

    C.
    A.Bear
    d,Economi
    cOr
    igi
    nsofJef
    fer
    soni
    anDemocr
    acy
    .

    Al
    H.Lodge, exanderHami
    l
    ton.

    J.
    T.Mor ThomasJef
    se, fer
    son.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Whower
    ethel
    eader
    sint
    hef
    ir
    stadmi
    nist
    rat
    ionundert
    heConst
    it
    uti
    on?

    2.
    Whatst
    epwast
    akent
    oappeaset
    heopposi
    ti
    on?

    3.
    Enumer
    ateHami
    l
    ton'
    sgr
    eatmeasur
    esandexpl
    aineachi
    ndet
    ail
    .

    4.
    Showt
    heconnect
    ionbet
    weent
    hepar
    tsofHami
    l
    ton'
    ssy
    stem.

    5.
    Cont
    rastt
    hegener
    alpol
    i
    tical
    viewsofHami
    l
    tonandJef
    fer
    son.

    6.
    Whatwer
    ethei
    mpor
    tantr
    esul
    tsoft
    he"
    peacef
    ul"Fr
    enchRev
    olut
    ion(
    1789-
    92)
    ?

    7.
    Expl
    aint
    hei
    nter
    act
    ionofopi
    nionbet
    weenFr
    anceandt
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    8.
    Howdi
    dthe"
    Rei
    gnofTer
    ror
    "changeAmer
    icanopi
    nion?

    9.
    Whatwast
    heBur
    ke-
    Pai
    necont
    rov
    ersy
    ?

    10.ShowhowthewarinEur
    opeaf
    fect
    edAmer
    icancommer
    ceandi
    nvol
    vedAmer
    icawi
    th
    EnglandandFr
    ance.

    11.
    Whatwer
    eAmer
    icanpol
    i
    cieswi
    thr
    egar
    dtoeachoft
    hosecount
    ri
    es?

    12.
    Whatwast
    heout
    comeoft
    heAl
    i
    enandSedi
    ti
    onAct
    s?

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    Earl
    yFeder
    alLegi
    slat
    ion.
    —Coman,Indust
    ri
    alHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.133-
    156;
    Elson,
    Hist
    oryoft
    heUnit
    edSt at
    es,
    pp.341-348.

    Hami
    l
    ton'
    sRepor
    tonPubl
    i
    cCr
    edi
    t.
    —Macdonal
    d,Document
    arySour
    ceBook,
    pp.233-
    243.

    TheFrenchRevolut
    ion.
    —RobinsonandBear
    d,Dev
    elopmentofModer
    nEur
    ope,
    Vol
    .I,
    pp.
    224-
    282;Elson,
    pp.351-354.

    TheBurke-
    Pai
    neCont
    rov
    ersy.
    —Makeananal
    ysi
    sofBur sRef
    ke' lect
    ionsont
    heFr
    ench
    Revol
    uti
    onandPai sRi
    ne' ght
    sofMan.

    TheAli
    enandSedi
    ti
    onAct
    s.—Macdonal
    d,Document
    arySour
    ceBook,
    pp.259-
    267;
    Elson,
    pp.367-
    375.
    Kent
    uckyandVi
    rgi
    niaResol
    uti
    ons.
    —Macdonal
    d,pp.267-
    278.

    Sour
    ceSt
    udi
    es.
    —Mat
    eri
    alsi
    nHar
    t,Amer
    icanHi
    stor
    yTol
    dbyCont
    empor
    ari
    es,
    Vol
    .II
    I,
    pp.255-
    343.

    Bi
    ogr
    aphi
    cal
    Studi
    es.
    —Al
    exanderHami
    l
    ton,
    JohnAdams,
    ThomasJef
    fer
    son,
    andAl
    ber
    tGal
    l
    ati
    n.

    TheTwel
    fthAmendment
    .—Cont
    rastt
    heprov
    isi
    oni
    ntheor
    igi
    nal
    Const
    it
    uti
    onwi
    tht
    he
    ter
    msoft .SeeAppendi
    heAmendment x
    .

    CHAPTERI
    X
    THEJEFFERSONI
    ANREPUBLI
    CANSI
    NPOWER

    Republ
    i
    canPr
    inci
    plesandPol
    i
    cies

    Opposi ti
    ont oStr ongCent ralGov ernment .—Cher ishingespeciall
    ytheagr i
    cultural inter est,as
    Jef fersonsai d,theRepubl i
    canswer ei nthebegi nningprov i
    ncial
    intheirconcer nandout look.
    Thei rat tachmentt oAmer icawas, certainl
    y ,asst rongast hatofHami lt
    on;butt heyr egar ded
    thest ate, r
    athert hant henat i
    onal gov ernment ,ast hepropercenterofpowerandaf fect i
    on.
    Indeed, alargepar toft herankandf i
    lehadbeenamongt heopponent soft heConst itutionin
    theday sofi tsadopt ion.Jef f
    ersonhadent er t
    aineddoubt sabouti tandMonr oe, dest inedt obe
    thef ifthPr esident ,hadbeenoneoft hebi tterfoesofr atif
    icati
    on.Thef ormerwentsof arint he
    direct i
    onofl ocal autonomyt hatheexal tedt hest ateabov ethenat i
    onintheKent ucky
    resol utionsof1798, declaringtheConst itutiont obeamer ecompactandt hest at escompet ent
    toint er pretandnul l
    if
    yf ederallaw.Thi swaspr ov i
    ncial
    ism withav engeance." I
    tisj ealousy ,not
    conf idence, whichpr escribesl i
    mi t
    edconst i
    tuti
    ons, "wroteJeffer
    sonf ortheKent ucky
    l
    egi slat ure.Jealousyoft henat ional government ,notconf i
    denceini t
    —t hi
    sist hei deal that
    reflect edt heprov i
    ncialandagr iculturalinterest.

    Republi
    canSi mpl i
    cit
    y.—Ev eryactoft heJef fersonianpartydur ingitsear l
    yday sofpowerwasi n
    accordwi t
    ht hei dealsofgov ernmentwhi chi tprofessed.Ithadopposedal lpompandcer emony ,
    cal
    culatedt ogivewei ghtanddi gnit
    yt othechi efex ecuti
    veoft henat i
    on,assy mbolsofmonar chy
    andhighpr erogat i
    ve.Appr opri
    at el
    y,t
    her efore,Jefferson'
    si naugur at
    iononMar ch4, 1801,thefirst
    atthenewcapi talatWashi ngt
    on, wasmar kedbyext remesi mpl i
    city.Inkeepingwitht hi
    sprocedur e
    hequitthepr actice,followedbyWashi ngt
    onandAdams, ofr eadingpr esi
    dent i
    aladdressesto
    Congressi njointassembl yandadopt edini t
    sst eadt heplanofsendi nghismessagesi nwr i
    ti
    ng—a
    custom thatwascont inuedunbr okenunt i
    l 1913whenPr esi dentWi l
    sonr eturnedtotheexampl eset
    bythefirstchiefmagi strat
    e.

    Republi
    canMeasur es.—TheRepubl i
    canshadcompl ainedofagr eatnat i
    onal debtast he
    sourceofadanger ous"moneypower ,"givi
    ngst rengthtot hefederal gov ernment ;
    accor dingl
    y
    theybegant opayitoffasrapi
    dlyaspossi ble.Theyhadhel dcommer cei nlowest eem and
    l
    ookeduponal argenavyasamer edev i
    cetopr otectit;consequent l
    yt heyr educedt henumber
    ofwarships.Theyhadobj ect
    edt oexcisetaxes,par t
    icular
    lyonwhi sky ;theset heyqui ckl
    y
    aboli
    shed,totheintensesati
    sfacti
    onoft hef ar
    mer s.Theyhadpr otestedagai nstt
    heheav y
    costofthefederalgovernment;theyreducedexpensesbydi scharginghundr edsofmenf rom
    t
    hear
    myandabol
    i
    shi
    ngmanyof
    fi
    ces.

    Theyhadsavagel
    ycr
    it
    ici
    zedt
    heSedi
    ti
    onl
    awandJef
    fer
    sonr
    efusedt
    oenf
    orcei
    t.Theyhad
    beendeepl
    y
    offendedbyt heassaul tonf reedom ofspeechandpr essandt heypr ompt l
    yimpeached
    Samuel Chase, aj usticeoft heSupr emeCour t,whohadbeenespeci al
    lysev erei
    nhi sat tacks
    uponof fender sundert heSedi t
    ionAct .Thei rfail
    ur etoconv ictJust i
    ceChasebyanar r
    ow
    mar ginwasduet onol ackofzeal ont heirpar tbutt ot heFeder aliststrengthintheSenat e
    wher ethet ri
    alwashel d.Theyhadr egar dedt heappoi ntmentofal argenumberoff ederal
    j
    udgesdur ingthel asthour sofAdams' admi nistrationasanat temptt oint r
    enchFeder al
    istsin
    thejudiciaryandt oenl arget hespher eoft henat i
    onal government .Accor di
    ngly,
    theyatonce
    repealedt heactcr eatingt henewj udgeshi ps, thusdepr ivi
    ngt he" midnightappoi ntees"oft hei
    r
    posts.Theyhadconsi der edt hefeder aloffices, ci
    v i
    l andmi li
    tary ,assour cesofgr eatst r
    ength
    totheFeder al
    istsandJef fer
    son, t
    houghcommi tt
    edt othepr i
    nci plethatof fi
    cesshoul dbe
    opent oal landdi stributedaccor di
    ngt omer it
    ,wascar efult
    of il
    l mostoft hevacanci esast hey
    occur r
    edwi t
    ht r
    ust edRepubl icans.Tohi scr edit,howev er,i
    tmustbesai dt hathedi dnotmake
    whol esaleremov al st ofindroom f orpar tywor ker s.

    TheRepubl i
    canst hushewedt ot helineoft heirgeneralpoli
    cyofr estri
    ctingt hewei ght
    , di
    gnit
    y,
    andactiv
    ityoft henat i
    onal gov ernment .Yettherewer enoRepubl i
    cans, ast heFeder al
    ists
    assert
    ed,prepar edtour geser iousmodi fi
    cati
    onsi ntheConst itution."Iftherebeanyamongus
    whowi shtodi ssolv
    et hisuni onort ochangei tsrepubli
    canf orm, "wr oteJef fersoni nhisfir
    st
    i
    naugural,"
    letthem st andundi sturbedasmonument soft hesaf etywi thwhi cher rorofopini
    on
    maybet oleratedwher er easoni sleftfreetocombati t.
    "Af t
    err eciti
    ngt hef ortunat e
    cir
    cumstancesofcl i
    mat e,soi l
    ,andi solati
    onwhi chmadet hef utureofAmer icasof ull
    of
    promise,Jeffersonconcl uded: "Awi seandf r
    ugal gover
    nmentwhi chshal l
    rest rainmenf r
    om
    i
    njuri
    ngoneanot her,shallleavet hem ot herwisefreetoregulatet heirownpur sui t
    sofi ndust
    ry
    andimprov ementandshal lnottakef rom themout hoflabourt hebr eadithasear ned.Thisis
    thesum ofgoodgov er nment ;andt hisisnecessar ytocloset heci r
    cleofourf elici
    t i
    es.
    "

    I
    nal lthi
    st heRepubl icanshadnotr eckonedwi thdest i
    ny .I
    naf ewshor tyear
    st hatlayaheadit
    wast heirf atetodoublet het err
    it
    oryoft hecountry
    , maki nginevi
    tableacontinentalnati
    on;to
    gi
    v etheConst it
    uti
    onagener ousinterpretati
    onthatshockedmanyaFeder ali
    st;towagewaron
    behalfofAmer i
    cancommer ce;toreëst abli
    shthehat edUni tedStatesBank;toenactahi gh
    protecti
    v et ar
    if
    f;toseet heirFederalistopponent sinthei rt
    urndiscredi
    tedasnul li
    fi
    ersand
    provincial
    s; toannouncehi ghnat i
    onal doctri
    nesinf oreignaf f
    air
    s;andt obeholdthe
    Const i
    tutionexaltedanddef endedagai nstthepretensionsofst atesbyasonofol dVirgi
    nia,
    JohnMar shal l
    ,ChiefJusticeoft heSupr emeCour toft heUni t
    edSt at
    es.

    TheRepubl
    i
    cansandt
    heGr
    eatWest

    ExpansionandLandHunger .—Thef i
    rstoft hegr eatmeasur eswhichdr ovetheRepubl i
    cansout
    upont hisnewnat i
    onal cour se—t hepur chaseoft heLoui sianater
    ri
    tor y—wast heproductof
    cir
    cumst ancesr athert hanoft hei rdeliberatechoosi ng.I twasnott hel ackofl andforhis
    cherishedf armersthatl edJef f ersont oaddsuchani mmensedomai nt otheorigi
    nal
    possessi onsoft heUni tedSt ates.I nt heNor thwestt erri
    tory,nowembr acingOhi o,I
    ndiana,
    Il
    li
    nois,Mi chi
    gan, Wisconsi n,andapor tionofMi nnesot a,settl
    ement swer emai nlyconfi
    nedto
    thenor t
    hbankoft heOhi oRi ver .Tot hesout h, i
    nKent uckyandTennessee, wheretherewere
    mor ethanonehundr edt housandwhi tepeopl ewhohadpushedov ert hemount ai
    nsfrom
    Vir
    giniaandt heCarolinas, t
    her ewer est i
    llwider eachesofunt i
    ll
    edsoi l.TheAl abamaand
    Mississippi r
    egionswer evastI ndi anf ront i
    ersoft hest ateofGeor gia,unset tl
    edandal most
    unexplored.Ev entot hewi ldesti maginat i
    ont hereseemedt obeterritoryenought osat i
    sfyt
    he
    l
    andhungeroft heAmer icanpeopl eforacent urytocome.

    TheSi
    gni
    fi
    canceoftheMi ssi
    ssi
    ppiRiver.
    —Atal
    lev
    ent stheEast,
    thenthecenterofpower,
    sawno
    goodr
    easonforexpansi
    on.Theplantersoft
    heCarol
    inas,themanufactur
    ersofPennsyl
    vani
    a,t
    he
    i
    mport
    ersofNewYor k,t
    heshipbui
    ldersofNewEngland,looki
    ngtotheseaboardandtoEuropefor
    trade,
    refi
    nement s,
    andsometi
    mesthei
    rideasofgover
    nment
    ,weresl
    owtoappreciat
    etheplaceof
    theWesti nnati
    onaleconomy
    .Thebett
    ereducatedt
    heEast
    erner
    swere,
    thel
    ess,itseems,
    they
    compr ehendedthe
    dest
    inyoft
    henati
    on.SonsofFeder
    ali
    stfat
    her
    satWill
    iamsCollege,
    aft
    eral
    ongdebat
    e
    deci
    dedbyavoteoffi
    ft
    eentoonethatthepur
    chaseofLoui
    sianawasundesi
    rabl
    e.

    Ont heot herhand, t


    hepi oneer sofKent ucky ,Ohio,andTennessee, unl
    earnedinbooks, saw
    withtheirowney esther esourcesoft hewi lderness.Manyoft hem hadbeenacr osst he
    Mississippi andhadbehel dt herichlandsawai tingtheplowoft hewhiteman.Downt hegr eat
    ri
    vertheyf loatedtheirwheat ,corn,andbacont oocean-goingshipsboundf orthepor tsoft he
    seaboar dorf orEurope.Thel andj ourneysov erthemount ainbarri
    erswithbulkyfarm pr oduce,
    theyknewf rom experience,wer ealmosti mpossi bl
    e,andcost l
    yatbest.Nail
    s, bol
    tsofcl oth,
    tea,andcof f
    eecouldgoorcomet hatway ,butnotcor nandbacon.Af r
    eeout l
    ettot heseaby
    theMi ssissippiwasasessent ialtothepi oneer softheKent uckyregi
    onast hehar borof
    Bostont ot hemer chantpr i
    ncesoft hatmet ropolis.

    Loui si
    anaunderSpani shRule.—Fort hisreasont heywat chedwi t
    hdeepsolici
    tudet hefor tunes
    oftheSpani shki ngtowhom, atthecl oseoft heSev enYear s' War,hadf
    all
    ent heLoui siana
    terri
    toryst
    retchingf r
    om NewOr leanst otheRockyMount ains.Whi l
    ehecont r
    olledt hemout h
    oftheMi ssissi
    ppi therewaslittl
    et ofear,forhehadnei thert hear mynorthenav ynecessar yto
    resistanyinvasionofAmer icant rade.Mor eov er,Washingtonhadbeenabl e,byt heexer ciseof
    greattact,t
    osecur ef r
    om Spai nin1795at r
    adingpr i
    vi
    leget hroughNewOr l
    eanswhi ch
    satisfi
    edthepr esentrequi
    rement soft hefrontier
    smenev eni fitdi
    dnotall
    ayt heirfearsf orthe
    future.Sothingsst oodwhenaswi ftsuccessionofev ent salteredthewholesituation.

    LouisianaTr ansferredtoFrance.—InJuly,1802,aroyalorderfr
    om Spaini nstr
    uct edtheoffi
    cialsat
    NewOr leanst oclosethepor tt
    oAmer i
    canproduce.Aboutt hesamet i
    meadi st
    ur bi
    ngr umor,long
    current,wasconf i
    rmed—Napol eonhadcoer cedSpai ni
    ntor et
    urni
    ngLoui sianatoFr ancebyasecr et
    treatysignedi n1800."Thescaler softheAlpsandconquer orsofVenice"nowl ookedacr osst he
    seaf ornewscenesofadv enture.TheWestwasabl azewithexcit
    ement .Acal lforwarr anthrough
    thef r
    ont i
    er;expedit
    ionswer eorganizedtopreventthelandingoftheFrench; andpet it
    ionsfor
    i
    nst antactionf l
    oodedinuponJef fer
    son.

    Jef f
    er sonSeest heDanger .—Jef f
    erson, t
    hef ri
    endofFr anceandswor nenemyofEngl and,
    compel l
    edtochoosei nt hei nterestofAmer i
    ca,nev erwi nced." Thecessi onofLoui si
    anaandt he
    FloridasbySpai nt oFr ance, "hewr ot et oLi v
    ingston, t
    heAmer icanmi ni
    st eri
    nPar is, "
    wor kssorely
    ont heUni t
    edSt ates.Itcompl etel
    yr ev ersesall t
    hepol it
    ical relati
    onsoft heUni t
    edSt atesandwi l
    l
    form anewepochi nourpol iticalcour se. .
    ..Thereisont hegl obeonesi nglespot ,t hepossessorof
    whi chi sournat ur alandhabi tual
    enemy .I
    tisNewOr l
    eanst hr
    oughwhi cht hepr oduceoft hree-eighthsofourt er r
    itor ymustpass
    tomar ket..
    ..France, placingher selfint hatdoor ,assumest ousanat ti
    tudeofdef iance.Spai n
    mi ghthav e
    retainedi tquietlyf oryear s.Herpaci ficdi spositi
    ons, herf eeblest atewoul di
    nducehert o
    i
    ncr easeourf aci l
    iti
    est here....Notsocani teverbei nthehandsofFr ance...
    .Thedayt hatFrance
    takespossessi onof
    NewOr l
    eansf ixest hesent encewhi chi stor estrainherf oreverwi t
    hinherl owwat ermar k..
    ..It
    seal st he
    unionoft het wonat ionswhoi nconj unct i
    oncanmai nt
    ainex clusivepossessi onoft heocean.
    From t hatmomentwemustmar r
    your selvestot heBr i
    tishf leetandnat ion..
    ..Thisi snotast ateof
    thingsweseekor
    desi re.Itisonewhi cht hismeasur e, i
    fadopt edbyFr ance, forcesonusasnecessar i
    lyasany
    othercausebyt helawsofnat ur ebr ingsoni tsnecessar yef fect."

    Louisi
    anaPurchased.
    —Acti
    ngont hi
    sbelief,
    butapparentl
    yseeingonlytheMissi
    ssippi
    out l
    etat
    stake,
    Jeff
    ersonsenthisf
    ri
    end,JamesMonr oe,t
    oFrancewiththepowert obuyNewOr leansand
    WestFlori
    da.BeforeMonr
    oearri
    ved,theregularmini
    ster
    ,Liv
    ingston,hadal
    readyconvi
    nced
    Napoleonthati
    twouldbewellt
    osellterr
    itor
    ywhichmi ghtbewr est
    edf r
    om hi
    m atanymomentby
    theBri
    ti
    shseapower ,especiall
    yasthewar, temporaril
    ystoppedbyt hepeaceofAmi ens,wasonce
    moreraginginEurope.Wi seashewasi nhisday ,Li
    vingstonhadatf i
    rstnothoughtofbuyingthe
    wholeLouisi
    anacount r
    y.Hewassi mplydaz edwhenNapol eonof f
    eredtosellt
    heentir
    edomai n
    andgetri
    doft hebusi nessaltoget
    her.Thoughst aggeredbyt heproposal,
    heandMonr oedeci
    ded
    toaccept
    .OnApr i
    l30, t
    heysignedthetreatyofcession, agreei
    ngtopay$11,250,000insixpercent
    bondsandt odischargecertaindebtsdueFr enchciti
    zens, makinginall
    appr
    oximatel
    yfi
    fteenmil
    l
    ions.Spai
    npr
    otest
    ed,Napol
    eon'
    sbr
    otherf
    umed,
    French
    newspaper
    sobjected;
    butthedeedwasdone.

    Jeff
    ersonandHi sConst i
    tuti
    onalScr
    uples.—Whent henewsoft hisext r
    aordinar
    yev entreached
    theUnitedSt at
    es,thepeopl ewerefi
    ll
    edwi t
    hast oni
    shment ,andnoonewasmor esur pri
    sed
    thanJeffersonhimself.Hehadt houghtofbuy ingNewOr l
    eansandWestFl ori
    daforasmal l
    sum,andnowav astdomai nhadbeendumpedi ntothelapoft henat i
    on.Hewaspuzz l
    ed.On
    l
    ookingi nt
    ot heConstit
    utionhefoundnotal ineauthorizi
    ngt hepur chaseofmor eterrit
    oryand
    sohedr aftedanamendmentdecl ari
    ng" Loui
    siana,ascededbyFr ance,—apar toftheUni t
    ed
    Stat
    es."Hehadbel aboredtheFederali
    stsforpili
    ngupabi gnat ionaldebtandhecoul dhardly
    endurethet houghtofissuingmor ebondshimsel f.

    Inthemi dstofhi sdoubt scamet henewst hatNapol eonmi ghtwi t


    hdr awf r
    om thebar gain.
    Thoroughlyal armedbyt hat,Jeff
    ersonpressedt heSenat eforar atif
    icati
    onoft hetreaty.He
    sti
    llclungtohi sori
    ginal i
    deat hattheConstitut
    iondidnotwar r
    antt hepur chase;buthel amely
    concluded: "
    Ifourfriendsshal lt
    hinkdiff
    erently
    ,Ishall certai
    nlyacqui escewi t
    hsatisfaction;
    confidentthatthegoodsenseofourcount rywillcorrecttheev i
    lofconst ructionwheni tshall
    producei l
    leffects.
    "Thust hestanchadv ocateof" st
    ri
    cti nterpr
    etation"cutloosef r
    om hi sown
    doctrineandi ntr
    ustedt heconst r
    uctionoftheConst ituti
    ont o"thegoodsense"ofhi s
    count ry
    men.

    TheTr eatyRat if
    ied.—Thisunusual transaction,sof avorablet ot heWest ,
    arousedt hei reofthe
    seaboar dFeder ali
    sts.Somedenouncedi tasunconst it
    utional,easi l
    yforget ti
    ngHami l
    ton'smast erl
    y
    defenseoft hebank, al
    sonotment ionedi nt heConst i
    tuti
    on.Ot her sur gedt hat,i
    f" t
    hehowl i
    ng
    wilderness"ev ershouldbeset tl
    ed, i
    twoul dt urnagainsttheEast ,form newcommer cial
    connect i
    ons, andescapef r
    om feder alcontrol.Stil
    lotherspr otest edt hatthepur chasewoul dlead
    i
    nev it
    ablyt othedomi nanceofa" hotchpot chofwi l
    dmenf r
    om t heFarWest ."Feder ali
    sts,who
    thought" thebroadbackofAmer ica"coul dreadi l
    ybearHami lton'sconsol i
    dat eddebt ,nowwenti nt
    o
    agoniesov erabondi ssueofl essthanone- sixt
    hoft hatamount .Buti nv ain.Jeffer son'spartywi t
    h
    ahi ghhandcar r
    iedtheday .TheSenat e,afterhearingtheFeder al i
    stpr otest,rati
    fiedt hetreaty.I
    n
    December ,1803, t
    heFr enchflagwashaul eddownf r
    om t heol dgov ernmentbui ldingsi nNew
    Orleansandt heSt ar
    sandSt r
    ipeswer ehoi stedasasi gnt hatthel andofCor onado, DeSot o,
    Mar quette,andLaSal l
    ehadpassedf orevert otheUni t
    edSt ates.
    TheUni
    tedSt
    atesi
    n1805

    Byasi nglestr
    oke,theor i
    ginalt
    erri
    tor
    yoft heUnitedStat
    eswasmor ethandoubled.Whi l
    et he
    boundariesofthepur chasewer euncertai
    n,iti
    ssafetosayt hattheLouisi
    anaterrit
    oryincluded
    whati snowAr kansas,Mi ssour
    i,I
    owa,Oklahoma, Kansas,Nebraska,SouthDakot a,andlarge
    porti
    onsofLoui si
    ana, Minnesota,Nort
    hDakot a,Color
    ado,Mont ana,andWy oming.Thef arml ands
    thatthefri
    endsof" alit
    tl
    eAmer ica"ontheseacoastdeclaredahopel esswilder
    nesswer e,wit
    hina
    hundredy ear
    s,full
    yoccupi edandv al
    uedatnear l
    ysevenbill
    i
    ondol lars—al
    mostfivehundr edtimes
    thepricepaidtoNapol eon.

    Wester
    nExpl orat
    ions.—Hav i
    ngt akent hef at
    efulstep, Jeffersonwi selybegant omaket hemost
    ofit
    .Hepr eparedf ortheopeni ngoft henewcount rybysendi ngt heLewi sandCl ar
    kexpedi t
    ion
    toexpl
    orei t
    ,discov eri
    tsr esources,andl ayoutanov erl
    andr outet hrought heMi ssouriVall
    ey
    andacrosst heGr eatDi v
    idet othePaci f
    ic.Thestor yoft hismi ghtyexpl oi
    t,whichbegani nthe
    spri
    ngof1804andendedi ntheaut umnof1806, wassetdownwi t
    hski ll
    andpai nsinthe
    j
    ournalofLewi sandCl ark;whenpubl i
    shedev eninashor tfor m, i
    tinv i
    tedt hefor
    war d-l
    ooking
    menoft heEastt ot aket houghtaboutt hewest ernempi re.Att hesamet imeZebul onPike,ina
    seri
    esofjour neys,exploredt hesour cesoft heMi ssissippi Riverandpenet rat
    edtheSpani sh
    ter
    ri
    tor
    iesoft hef arSout hwest.Thusscout sandpi oneer scont i
    nuedt hewor kofdiplomats.

    TheRepubl
    i
    canWarf
    orCommer
    cial
    Independence

    TheEnglishandFr enchBl ockades.—Inaddi t


    iontobri
    ngingLoui sianatotheUnitedStates,t
    he
    reopeni
    ngoft heEur opeanWari n1803, afterashortlull
    ,renewedi nanacuteformt he
    commer cialdi
    ff
    icultiest
    hathadpl aguedt hecountryallduringtheadmi ni
    str
    ati
    onsof
    WashingtonandAdams.TheRepubl i
    canswer enowpl ungedi nt
    ot hehornet
    s'nest.Theparty
    whosear dentspir
    itshadbur nedJayi neffigy,st
    onedHami l
    tonfordefendinghistreat
    y,jeer
    ed
    Washington'sproclamationofneut r
    ali
    ty,andspokenbi tterl
    yof"timidtr
    aders,
    "couldnol onger
    takeref
    ugei ncri
    ticism.Ithadtoact .
    It
    st roublestookaser ioust urnin1806.Engl and, i
    nadet erminedef forttobringFr ancet oher
    kneesbyst arvati
    on,declaredt hecoastofEur opeblockadedf rom Br estt othemout hoft heEl be
    River.Napol eonretal
    iatedbyhi sBer l
    i
    nDecr eeofNov ember ,1806, blockadingt heBr i
    tishI sles—a
    measur eterri
    fyi
    ngtoAmer icanshi powner swhosev essel swer eliablet oseizurebyanyFr ench
    rover, t
    houghNapol eonhadnonav yt
    omakegoodhi spr oclamat ion.Gr eatBr i
    taincount er edwi tha
    sti
    llmor eirri
    tati
    ngdecr ee—t heOr dersinCounci lof1807.I tmodi f
    iedi t
    sbl ockade, butinsodoi ng
    mer elyauthorizedAmer i
    canshi psnotcar ryi
    ngmuni tionsofwart ocompl et
    ethei rvoyaget ot he
    Cont inent,onconditi
    onoft heirst oppingataBr it
    ishpor t,securingal i
    cense, andpay i
    ngat ax.This,
    respondedNapol eon,wast hehei ghtofinsolence,andhedenouncedi tasagr ossv i
    olationof
    i
    nternat i
    onal l
    aw.Het hencl osedt hecir
    cleofAmer i
    cant roublesbyi ssuinghi sMi lanDecr eeof
    December ,1807.Thisor derdecl aredthatanyshi pwhi chcompl iedwi t
    ht heBritishruleswoul dbe
    subjectt oseizureandconf iscat i
    onbyFr enchaut hori
    ties.

    TheImpr essmentofSeamen. —Thatwasnotal l.Gr eatBr itai


    n, indi reneedofmenf orhernav y ,
    adopt edthepr acticeofst oppingAmer i
    canshi ps, sear chi ngt hem, andcar r
    yingawayBr itish-born
    sail
    orsf oundonboar d.Br it
    ishsai lor
    swer esobadl ytr eat ed,socr uell
    yf loggedf ortrivi
    al causes,
    andsomeanl yfedt hattheyf ledi ncrowdst otheAmer icanmar ine.I nmanycasesi twasdi ff
    icultt
    o
    tel
    lwhet herseamenwer eEngl i
    shorAmer i
    can.Theyspoket hesamel anguage, sot hatlanguage
    wasnot est.Rov ersont hedeepandst ragglersi nt hepor tsofbot hcount r
    ies,theyfrequent l
    yhad
    nopaper stoshowt heirnativity.Mor eover,GreatBr i
    tainhel dt otheol dr ul
    e—" OnceanEngl ishman,
    alway sanEngl ishman" —adoct rinerejectedbyt heUni tedSt at esi nfav oroft heprinciplet hataman
    couldchooset henat i
    ont owhi chhewoul dgiveal l
    egi ance.Br iti
    shseacapt ains,somet i
    mesby
    mistake, andof tenenoughwi thr ecklessi ndif
    fer ence, car ri
    edawayi ntoser vitudeint heirownnav y
    genuineAmer icanci t
    izens.Thepr ocessi tself
    , ev enwhenex ecut edwi thal lt
    heci vi
    liti
    esofl aw, was
    painfulenough, foritmeantt hatAmer icanshi pswer ef or cedt o" comet o,
    "andcompel l
    edt or est
    submi ssivel
    yunderBr it
    ishgunsunt i
    l t
    hesear chi ngpar tyhadpr iedi ntor ecords,quest i
    oned
    seamen, seiz
    edandhandcuf f
    edv i
    ctims.Sai ntscoul dnothav edonet hiswor kwi t
    houtr aisingangr y
    passions, andonl ysaintscoul dhav eendur edi twi thpat ienceandf ortitude.

    Hadt heenactmentoft hescenesbeenconf i


    nedt othehighseasandknowl edgeoft hem t o
    rumor sandnewspaperst ories,Amer i
    canr esentmentmi ghtnothav ebeensoi ntense;butmany
    asear chandseizurewasmadei nsightofl and.Brit
    ishandFrenchv essel
    spatrolledthecoast s,
    fi
    ri
    ngononeanot herandchasi ngoneanot heri nAmer i
    canwat er
    swi t
    hinthethree-mileli
    mi t
    .
    When, inthesummerof1807, theAmer icanf r
    igateChesapeaker efusedtosur rendermen
    all
    egedt obedeser t
    ersfrom KingGeor ge'snav y,theBrit
    ishwarshipLeopar dopenedf i
    re,kil
    li
    ng
    thr
    eemenandwoundi ngei ghteenmor e—anactwhi chev entheBr i
    tishminist
    rycoul dhardly
    excuse.IftheFrenchwer elessf r
    equentlytheof fenders,i
    twasnotbecauseoft heirt
    ender ness
    aboutAmer i
    canri
    ghtsbutbecausesof ewoft hei
    rshipsescapedt hehawk- eyedBr it
    ishnav yto
    operateinAmer i
    canwat ers.

    TheLossesi nAmer i
    canCommer ce.—Thi shi gh-handedconductont hepar tofEur opean
    bell
    igerentswasv eryinj
    urioustoAmer icant rade.Byt heirenterprise, Amer icanshi ppershad
    becomet hefor emostcar r
    iersont heAt lanticOcean.I nadecadet heyhaddoubl edt het onnage
    ofAmer i
    canmer chantshipsundert heAmer icanf l
    ag,takingthepl aceoft heFr enchmar i
    ne
    whenBr i
    tai
    nsweptt hatfrom theseas, andsuppl yi
    ngBr it
    ainwi t
    ht hesi newsofwarf orthe
    contestwi t
    ht heNapol eonicempi re.TheAmer i
    canshippi ngengagedi nforeigntrade
    embr aced363, 110t onsin1791; 669,921t onsi n1800; andal most1, 000,
    000t onsi n1810.
    Suchwast heent erpri
    seat tackedbyt heBr i
    ti
    shandFr enchdecr ees.Amer icanshi psboundf or
    GreatBr i
    tai
    nwer eli
    abletobecapt uredbyFr enchpr iv
    at eerswhi ch, i
    nspit eoft hedi sastersof
    theNi l
    eandTr afal
    gar,rangedt heseas.Amer icanshipsdest i
    nedf ort heCont i
    nent, i
    fthey
    fai
    ledtost opatBr iti
    shpor tsandpayt r
    ibut e,wer ei
    ngr eatdangerofcapt ur ebyt hesl eepless
    Bri
    tishnav yandi tsswar m ofauxili
    aries.Amer icanseacapt ai
    nswho, infearofBr i
    tish
    vengeance,heededtheOrdersi
    nCounci
    landpai
    dthet
    axwereal
    mostcer
    taint
    ofal
    lapr
    eyt
    o
    Frenchvengeance,f
    ortheFrenchwer
    evigor
    ousi
    nexecut
    ingt
    heMil
    anDecree.
    Jeff
    er son'sPolicy.—ThePr esident'
    sdi l
    emmawasdi stressing.Botht hebel l
    i
    gerent sinEur ope
    weregui l
    tyofdepr edati
    onsonAmer i
    cancommer ce.Waronbot hoft hem wasoutoft he
    question.WaronFr ancewasi mpossi blebecauseshehadnot erri
    toryont hissideoft hewat er
    whichcoul dber eachedbyAmer i
    cant r
    oopsandhernav al f
    orceshadbeenshat teredatt he
    batt
    lesoft heNileandTr af
    algar.WaronGr eatBritai
    n,apowerwhi chJef f
    erson'sfoll
    ower s
    fear
    edanddi st
    rusted,waspossi bl
    ebutnoti nvi
    ti
    ng.Jef f
    ersonshr ankf rom it
    .Amanofpeace,
    hedislikedwar '
    sbr azencl amor ;amanofki ndlyspir
    it,
    hewasst ar
    tledatt hedeat hand
    destruct i
    onwhi chitbroughti nit
    str ain.Sofortheeighty earsJef f
    ersonst eeredanev encour se,
    suggest ingmeasur eaftermeasur ewi thav i
    ewt oav oi
    dingbl oodshed.Hesent ,iti
    st r
    ue,
    Commodor ePrebl ein1803t opuni shMedi terr
    aneanpi ratesprey i
    nguponAmer icancommer ce;
    butagr eatwarheev adedwi thpassi onateearnestness,tryi
    ngi nitsplaceev eryotherexpedi ent
    toprot ectAmer icanrights.

    TheEmbar goandNon- i
    ntercour seActs.—In1806,CongresspassedandJeffer
    sonapproveda
    non-i
    mportati
    onactclosingAmer i
    canpor tstocert
    ainproductsf
    rom Br
    it
    ishdomini
    ons—a
    measureintendedasacl ubovert heBriti
    shgov er
    nment'shead.Thi
    slaw,fai
    l
    ingini
    tspurpose,
    Jeff
    ersonproposedandCongr essadopt edinDecember ,1807,t
    heEmbargoActforbi
    ddingall
    vessel
    stoleav eAmeri
    canhar bor sforforei
    gnports.Fr
    anceandEnglandweretobebroughtto
    ter
    msbycut t
    ingof
    ftheirsupplies.

    Theresultoftheembar gowaspat hetic.EnglandandFr ancer ef


    usedt ogiveupsearchand
    sei
    zure.Amer i
    canshi powner swho, l
    ur edbyhugepr ofi
    ts, hadformerlybeenwi l
    l
    ingtotakethe
    ri
    skwer enowr estr
    ainedbyl awt otheirhomepor ts.Everysect i
    onsuffered.TheSouthand
    Westfoundt heirmarket sforcott
    on,rice,tobacco, cor
    n, andbaconcur tail
    ed.Thusthey
    l
    earnedbybi t
    terexperiencet henati
    onal signif
    icanceofcommer ce.Shipmast er
    s,shi
    p
    buil
    ders,l
    ongshoremen, andsail
    orswer et
    hr ownoutofempl oymentwhi l
    ethepricesof
    for
    eigngoodsdoubl ed.Thosewhoobey edthel awwer er uined;
    viol
    atorsofthelawsmuggl ed
    goodsintoCanadaandFl ori
    daforshipmentabr oad.

    Jeff
    erson'sfri
    endsaccept edthemedi cinewi t
    hawr yfaceastheonl yalt
    ernati
    vetosupine
    submissionoropenwar .Hisopponent s,withoutofferi
    nganysolutionoftheirown,denounced
    i
    tasacont empti
    bleplant hatbroughtnei therrel
    iefnorhonor.Besetbyt heclamorthatar ose
    onallsi
    des, Congress,i
    nt heclosingday sofJefferson'sadmini
    strati
    on,repeal
    edthe
    Embargol awandsubst itutedaNon- intercourseactf orbi
    ddi
    ngt r
    adewi thEnglandandFr ance
    whil
    epermi tt
    ingitwithothercount r
    ies—ameasur eequallyf
    util
    einst ay
    ingthedepredati
    ons
    onAmer i
    canshi pping.

    JeffersonRet i
    resi
    nFav orofMadi son.—Jef f
    erson,exhaustedbyendlesswr anglingand
    wounded, asWashingtonhadbeen, bysav agecri
    ticism,welcomedMar ch4, 1809.His
    fr
    iendsur gedhi mto"staybyt heship"andacceptat hir
    dterm.Hedeclined,sayingthat
    el
    ect i
    onforl i
    femightresultfr
    om repeat edreël
    ection.Infol
    lowingWashington'scourseand
    defendingi tonpri
    nci
    ple, hesetanexampl etoallhissuccessors,maki
    ngt he"thirdt
    erm
    doctri
    ne"apar tofAmer icanunwr i
    tt
    enl aw.

    Hisinti
    mat efri
    end, JamesMadi son,towhom het urnedov ert heburdensofhishi ghof fi
    ce
    was, l
    i
    kehi mself,amanofpeace.Madi sonhadbeenal eadersi ncetheday soft heRev oluti
    on,
    butinlegi
    slati
    vehal lsandcounci lchamber s,notont hef iel
    dofbat tl
    e.Smalli
    nst ature,
    sensit
    iveinfeeli
    ngs, studi
    ousi nhabits,hewasnomanf ort her oughandt umbleofpr acti
    cal
    poli
    ti
    cs.Hehadt akenapr omi nentanddi st
    ingui
    shedpar tint heframingandt headopt i
    onof
    theConstitut
    ion.Hehadser vedi nthefirstCongressasaf riendofHami lt
    on'smeasur es.Later
    heattachedhi mselft oJeff
    erson'sfortunesandser v edforei ghtyearsashisfir
    stcounsel or
    ,
    theSecretaryofSt ate.Theprincipl
    esoft heConst i
    tut i
    on, whi chhehadhel pedtomakeand
    i
    nterpret
    ,hewasnowasPr esidentcalledupont oapplyinoneoft hemostper plexing
    moment sinal lAmer icanhi
    story.Inkeepi ngwi t
    hhisownt raditi
    onsandf ol
    lowingi nthe
    f
    oot
    stepsofJef
    fer
    son,
    hev
    ainl
    ytr
    iedt
    osol
    vet
    hef
    orei
    gnpr
    obl
    em bynegot
    iat
    ion.

    TheTrendofEvents.
    —Whateverdi
    ff
    icul
    ti
    esMadisonhadinmakinguphi
    smi ndonwarandpeace
    weresett
    ledbyevent
    sbeyondhisowncontr
    ol.I
    nt hespr
    ingof1811,
    aBri
    ti
    shfri
    gat
    eheldupan
    Ameri
    canship
    nearthehar borofNewYor kandi mpressedaseamanal legedt obeanAmer icanci t
    izen.Burning
    wit
    hr esentment ,t
    hecapt ainoft hePresident,anAmer icanwar ship,
    act i
    ngunderor ders,poured
    severalbroadsidesintotheLi tt
    leBelt
    ,aBr it
    ishsloop,suspect edofbeingt hegui lt
    ypar t
    y.The
    Bri
    ti
    shal soencour agedtheI ndianchiefTecumseh, whowel dedt ogethertheI ndiansoft he
    NorthwestunderBr i
    ti
    shpr otecti
    onandgav esignsofr estlessnesspr esagingar evol
    t.Thissent
    anot eofalarm alongthef ronti
    erthatwasnotcheckedev enwhen, i
    nNov ember ,Tecumseh' s
    menwer ebadlybeat enatTi ppecanoebyWi ll
    i
    am Henr yHar rison.TheI ndiansst oodi ntheway
    oftheadv ancingfronti
    er,andi tseemedt ot hepioneersthat ,withoutsuppor tfrom theBr it
    ishin
    Canada, theRedMenwoul dsoonbesubdued.

    ClayandCal houn. —Whi leev entswer emov ingswi ft


    lyandr umor swer eflyingthickandf ast ,t
    he
    mast eryoft hegov ernmentpassedf rom t heuncer tainhandsofMadi sont oapar t
    yofar denty oung
    meni nCongr ess, dubbed" YoungRepubl i
    cans, "underthel eader shi
    poft womember sdest inedt o
    bemi ght yfigur esinAmer icanhi story: HenryCl ayofKent uckyandJohnC.Cal hounofSout h
    Carolina.Thef or mercont ended, inaf l
    airoff olly,
    that"themi l
    iti
    aofKent uckyal onear ecompet ent
    toplaceMont r
    eal andUpperCanadaaty ourf eet.
    "Thel atterwi t
    hal ighthear tspokeofconquer ing
    Canadai naf ourweeks' campai gn." Itmustnotbei nferred,"saysChanni ng, "
    thatinadv ocat i
    ng
    conquest ,t
    heWest erner swer eact uatedmer elybydesi ref orland;t
    heywel comedwarbecause
    theythoughti twoul dbet heeasi estwayt oabat eIndiant roubles.Thesav ageswer esuppor tedby
    thefur -
    tradingi nterest sthatcent redatQuebecandLondon. ..
    .TheSout hernersont heirpar twished
    forFloridaandt heyt houghtt hattheconquestofCanada
    wouldobv i
    at esomeNor thernopposi ti
    ont ot hisacqui siti
    onofsl av et erri
    tory."Whi l
    eCl ayand
    Calhoun, spokesmenoft heWestandSout h,wer enotunmi ndf ulofwhatNapol eonhaddonet o
    Amer icancommer ce, t
    heyknewt hatt heirfollowersst il
    l remember edwi thdeepgr atitudet he
    aidoft heFr enchi nt hewarf orindependenceandt hatt heember soft heol dhat redf orGeor ge
    II
    I,st
    illont het hrone, couldber eadi lyblowni ntof l
    ame.

    Madi sonAccept sWarasI nevitable.—Theconductoft heBr i


    ti
    shmi nisterswi thwhom Madi son
    hadt odeal didlit
    tl
    et oencour agehi mi nadheringtothepol i
    cyof" wat chf ulwai t
    ing."Oneof
    them, ahighTor y,
    believ edthatal lAmer i
    canswer ealike" exceptthataf ewar elessknav esthan
    others"andhi smet hodswer ecol or edbyhisbel i
    ef.Ont her ecalloft hismi nistert heBri
    tish
    gover nmentsel ectedanot hernol esshi ghandmi ghtyinhi spr i
    nciplesandopi nions.So
    Madisonbecamet horoughl ydiscour agedaboutt heout comeofpaci ficmeasur es.Whent he
    pressurefrom Congr essuponhi m becamet ooheav y,hegav eway ,signi ngonJune18, 1812,
    thedecl ar
    ationofwaronGr eatBr itain.Inprocl
    aiminghost i
    li
    ties,theadmi nistrationsetforth
    thecauseswhi chj usti
    fiedt hedecl ar ati
    on;namely ,
    theBr iti
    shhadbeenencour agi ngtheIndians
    toattackAmer icancitizensont hef ront
    ier
    ;theyhadr uinedAmer i
    cant radebybl ockades; t
    hey
    hadinsul t
    edt heAmer icanf lagbyst oppingandsear chingourshi ps; theyhadi ll
    egal l
    yseized
    Amer icansai l
    orsanddr ivent hem i ntotheBr i
    ti
    shnav y.

    TheCour seoft heWar .


    —Thewarl astedf ornear l
    ythreey earswithoutbri
    ngingv ictor ytoeither
    si
    de.Thesur renderofDet r
    oitbyGener alHulltotheBr iti
    shandt hefail
    ureoft heAmer i
    can
    i
    nvasionofCanadawer eoff
    setbyPer r
    y'svi
    ctoryonLakeEr ieandadeci siveblow
    administer
    edt oBr i
    tishdesignsf orani nvasionofNewYor kbywayofPl att
    sbur gh.Thet ri
    umph
    ofJacksonatNewOr l
    eanshel pedt oat oneforthehumi l
    iati
    onsuf f
    eredinthebur ningoft he
    Capit
    ol bytheBr i
    ti
    sh.Thest i
    rr
    ingdeedsoft heConst it
    ution,theUnit
    edSt at
    es, andt heAr gus
    ontheseas, theher oicdeathofLawr enceandt hevictoriesofahundr edprivateersf urnished
    consolati
    onfort hosewhosuf feredf rom theironblockadef inall
    yestabl
    ishedbyt heBr i
    ti
    sh
    governmentwheni tcamet oappr eciatethegr avi
    tyoft hesituati
    on.Whilemenl ov et heannals
    ofthesea, t
    heywi llturntother unningbat tl
    es,thenar r
    owescapes, andther ecklessdar i
    ngof
    Americansailorsint hatnavalcont estwi thGreatBritai
    n.

    Al
    lthi
    swasexci
    ti
    ngbuti
    twasinconcl
    usive.I
    nfact
    ,neverwasagovernmentlessprepar
    edthan
    wasthatoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    atesi
    n1812.Ithadneit
    herthedisci
    pli
    nedt
    roops,
    theshipsofwar,
    nor
    thesuppl
    iesrequi
    redbythemagnitudeofthemil
    it
    arytask.I
    twasfor
    tunethatf
    avor
    edthe
    Americancause.GreatBr
    it
    ain,
    harassed,
    worn,andfi
    nancial
    lyembar
    rassedbynear
    lyt
    wenty
    year
    soff i
    ghti
    nginEurope,wasin
    nomoodt ogatherherforcesforati
    tani
    ceff
    ortinAmer i
    caevenaft
    erNapoleonwas
    overthrownandsenti nt
    oexil
    eatElbainthespri
    ngof1814.Warcloudsstil
    lhungont he
    Europeanhor i
    zonandt heconfl
    ictt
    emporari
    l
    yhalteddidagainbr
    eakout.Toberidof
    Amer icananxi
    eti
    esandf reeforEur
    opeaneventual
    it
    ies,Engl
    andwasreadytosett
    lewi t
    hthe
    UnitedStates,
    especiall
    yasthatcouldbedonewithoutconcedi
    nganythi
    ngorsurrenderi
    ng
    anycl ai
    ms.

    TheTr eatyofPeace. —Bot hcount ri


    eswer eintruthsickofawart hatof ferednei t
    herglorynorprofi
    t.
    Hav i
    ngindul gedint heusual di
    plomat icski rmishing,theysentrepr esentativestoGhentt odiscuss
    termsofpeace.Af t
    erl ongnegot iat
    ionsanagr eementwasr eachedonChr i
    stmasev e,1814,afew
    daysbef oreJackson' sv i
    ctoryatNewOr leans.Whent hetreatyreachedAmer icathepeoplewer e
    surpri
    sedt of i
    ndt hatitsai dnothingaboutt heseizureofAmer i
    cansai l
    or s,thedestructi
    onof
    Amer i
    cant rade,thesear chingofAmer icanshi ps, orthesuppor tofIndiansont hefronti
    er.
    Nev er
    theless,wear etold, thepeople"passedf r
    om gl oom toglory"whent henewsofpeacear r
    ived.
    Thebel l
    swer erung; school swerecl osed; flagswer edisplayed;andmanyar ousingtoastwas
    drunkint avernandpr ivatehome.Ther ejoicingcoul dconti
    nue.Wi thNapol eondef i
    nit
    elybeatenat
    Wat er
    looi nJune, 1815, GreatBri
    tai
    nhadnoneedt oimpresssai l
    ors,sear chships,andconf i
    scate
    Amer i
    cangoodsboundt ot heContinent .Oncemor etheterri
    bleseapowersanki nt
    ot he
    backgroundandt heoceanwasagai nwhi t
    ewi ththesai l
    sofmer chantmen.

    TheRepubl
    i
    cansNat
    ional
    i
    zed

    TheFeder alistsDi scredi ted.—Byast r


    anget urnoff ort une'swheel ,t
    hepar tyofHami lt
    on,
    Washi ngt on, Adams, thepar tyoft hegr andnat ion, becamet hepar t
    yofpr ov i
    nciali
    sm and
    nulli
    ficat ion.NewEngl and, fi
    ndi ngi tsshippingi nt erest scrippl edintheEur opeanconf li
    ctand
    thenpenal izedbyembar goes, opposedt hedecl arationofwaronGr eatBr itain,whichmeantt he
    compl et
    ionoft her uinal readybegun.I nthecour seoft hest r
    uggl e,
    theFeder al
    istl
    eader scame
    perilousl yneart ot r
    easoni nthei reffortst ohampert hegov ernmentoft heUni t
    edSt ates;andi n
    theirdesper at i
    ont heyf ellbackupont hedoct rineofnul li
    fi
    cat ionsor ecent l
    ycondemnedby
    them wheni tcamef rom Kent ucky .TheSenat eofMassachuset t
    s,whi l
    et hewarwasi n
    progr ess, resol vedt hati twaswaged" withoutj ust i
    fi
    abl ecause, "andr efusedt oapprov emili
    tary
    andnav al pr ojectsnotconnect edwi th" t
    hedef enseofourseacoastandsoi l."ABost on
    newspaperdecl aredt hatt heuni onwasnot hingbutat reatyamongsov ereignst at
    es, that
    statescoul ddeci def ort hemsel vest hequest ionofobey i
    ngf ederall
    aw, andt hatarmed
    resist anceundert hebannerofast atewoul dnotber ebel l
    ionort reason.Thegener al assembl y
    ofConnect icutr emi ndedt headmi nistrati
    onatWashi ngt ont hat"thest ateofConnect icutisa
    free, sov erei gn, andi ndependentst ate."Gouv er neurMor ri
    s, amemberoft heconv entionwhich
    haddr af
    tedt heConst itution,suggest edt hehol dingofanot herconf erencet oconsiderwhet her
    theNor t
    her nst atesshoul dr emai nint heuni on.

    NewEngl
    andJumpingi
    nto
    t
    heHandsofGeor
    geIII
    Fr
    om anol
    dcar
    toon
    NewEngl
    andJumpi
    ngi
    ntot
    heHandsofGeor
    geI
    II

    InOctober,1814, aconv entionofdel egatesf r


    om Connecticut,Massachusetts,RhodeI sland,
    andcer t
    aincount iesofNewHampshi reandVer montwashel datHartfor
    d,ont hecall of
    Massachuset ts.Thecounsel softheext remistswer erej
    ectedbuttheconv enti
    onsol emnl y
    wentonr ecordt ot heeffectthatactsofCongr essinviol
    ationoftheConstituti
    onar ev oid;t
    hat
    i
    ncasesofdel iberate,dangerous,andpal pableinf
    ract
    ionst hest
    ateisdutyboundt oi nterpose
    i
    tsauthorit
    yfort hepr otecti
    onofi tsciti
    zens; andthatwhenemer genciesoccurt hestat esmust
    betheirownj udgesandexecut etheirowndeci si
    ons.ThusNewEngl andanswer edthe
    chal
    lengeofCal hounandCl ay.Fortunatelyit
    sact i
    onswer enotasrashasi tswor ds.The
    Hartf
    ordconventi
    onmerelyproposedcer
    tai
    namendmentstotheConst
    it
    uti
    onandadj
    ourned.
    Atthecloseofthewar,i
    tsproposal
    svani
    shedhar
    mlessl
    y;butt
    hemenwhomadet hem were
    hopelessl
    ydi
    scredi
    ted.
    TheSecondUni t
    edSt atesBank. —Indr i
    vingt heFeder ali
    ststowar dsnulli
    fi
    cat ionandwagi nga
    nationalwarthemsel v
    es, theRepubl i
    cansl ostal lt
    heiroldtaintofpr ovi
    ncialism.Mor eover,
    in
    turningtomeasur esofr econstr
    uct i
    oncal ledfor t
    hbyt hewar ,theyresortedt othenat i
    onal
    dev i
    cesoftheFeder al
    ists.In1816, theychar teredforaper iodoft wentyy ear sasecondUni t
    ed
    StatesBank—t heinsti
    tutionwhichJef fersonandMadi sononcehadcondemnedasunsound
    andunconst i
    tuti
    onal.TheConst ituti
    onr emai nedunchanged; ti
    mesandci rcumstanceshad
    changed.Calhoundi smissedt hev exedquest i
    onofconst i
    tuti
    onal i
    tywithascantr ef
    erenceto
    ananci entdi
    spute,whileMadi sonsetasi dehi sscruplesandsi gnedt hebill.

    ThePr ot ectiv
    eTar i
    ffof1816. —TheRepubl icanssuppl ement edt heBankbyanot herFeder ali
    st
    measur e—ahi ghpr otecti
    vet ariff.Clayv i
    ewedi tast hebegi nningofhi s"Amer i
    cansy stem"of
    protection.Cal houndef endedi tonnat ional pr i
    nciples.Fort hissuddenr eversal ofpolicythey oung
    Republ icanswer etauntedbysomeoft heirol derpar t
    ycol l
    eagueswi t
    hbet rayingt he" agr
    icultural
    i
    nterest "thatJef fer
    sonhadf ost ered;butCal hounr efusedt olistentotheircr it
    icisms." Whent he
    seasar eopen, "hesai d,"
    thepr oduceoft heSout hmaypourany wher eintot hemar ketsoft heOl d
    Wor l
    d....Whatar etheef f
    ectsofawarwi tha
    maritimepower —wi thEngland?Ourcommer ceanni hil
    ated. .
    .ouragr i
    culturecutof ffrom its
    accust omedmar kets,thesur plusoft hef armerper ishesonhi shands...
    .Ther ecentwarf ellwi t
    h
    peculiarpr essureon
    thegrower sofcot t
    onandt obaccoandt heot hergr eatst aplesoft hecount ry;andt hesamest ate
    ofthingswi l
    lrecuri ntheev entofanot herwarunl esspr ev entedbyt hef oresightoft hisbody ..
    ..
    Whenour
    manuf act uresar egrownt oacer tai
    nper fection, ast heysoonwi l
    lbeundert hef osteringcar eof
    thegov ernment ,weshal lnol ongerexper i
    encet heseev il
    s."Wi ththeRepubl i
    cansnat i
    onalized, the
    Federal i
    stpar t
    y ,asanor ganiz ati
    on, disappear edaf teracr ushingdef eatint hepr esidenti
    al
    campai gnof1816.

    Monr oeandt heFl ori


    daPur chase. —Tot hev ictorinthatpolit
    icalcontest,JamesMonr oeof
    Virginia,felltwot asksofnat ionalimpor tance, addingt othepresti
    geoft hewhol ecount r
    yand
    deepeni ngt hesenseofpat r i
    ot i
    sm thatweanedmenawayf r
    om mer eallegiancetost ates.The
    fi
    rstoft hesewast hepur chaseofFl ori
    daf rom Spai n.Theacqui si
    ti
    onofLoui si
    analett he
    Mi ssissippi fl
    ow" unv exedtot hesea" ;butitleftallthestateseastoft herivercutofffrom the
    Gul f
    , aff
    or dingt hem gr oundf ordiscont entakint othatwhi chhadmov edt hepioneersof
    Kent uckyt oact i
    onagener ationear li
    er.Theuncer taintyastotheboundar i
    esofLoui sianagave
    theUni t
    edSt atesacl aimtoWestFl or i
    da,set t
    ingonf ootamov ementf oroccupat i
    on.The
    Floridaswampswer eabasi sf orI
    ndi anmar auder swhoper i
    odical
    lyswepti ntothefront i
    er
    set t
    lement s,andhi di
    ngpl acesf orrunawaysl aves.Thust hesanct i
    onofi nternat
    ionallawwas
    givent opuni ti
    veexpedi ti
    onsi ntoali
    ent erri
    tory.

    Thepi oneerleadersstoodwai t
    ingfort hesignal.I
    tcame.Pr esidentMonr oe,ontheoccasion
    ofanI ndianoutbreak,orderedGeneral Jacksont oseizetheoffenders,i
    nt heFlor
    idas,i
    f
    necessar y.Thehigh-
    spirit
    edwar r
    ior,taki
    ngt hisasahi ntt
    hathewast ooccupyt hecoveted
    region,repli
    edthat,i
    fpossessionwast heobj ectoftheinvasi
    on, hecouldoccupyt heFl
    oridas
    withinsixtydays.Withoutwaiti
    ngf orananswert othislet
    ter,
    hel aunchedhisexpediti
    on,and
    i
    nt hespr i
    ngof1818wasmast eroft heSpani shking'sdomaint othesout h.

    Therewasnot hingforthekingt odobuttomaket hebestoftheinevitablebycedingthe


    Flor
    idastotheUni t
    edSt at
    esinr et
    urnforfiv
    emi l
    l
    iondoll
    arstobepai dt oAmericanciti
    zens
    havi
    ngcl ai
    msagai nstSpain.OnWashi ngton'sbirt
    hday,
    1819, t
    hetreatywassi gned.Itceded
    theFlori
    dastotheUni t
    edSt atesanddefinedt heboundarybetweenMexi coandtheUni t
    ed
    Stat
    esbydr awingal i
    nef r
    om t hemouthoft heSabineRiveri
    nanor thwest er
    lydir
    ecti
    ont othe
    Pacifi
    c.Onthi
    soccasi onev enMonr oe,f
    ormeropponentoft heConst ituti
    on,f
    orgottoinquir
    e
    whethernewt
    erri
    tor
    ycouldbeconsti
    tut
    ionall
    yacqui
    redandi
    ncorporat
    edintot
    heAmerican
    uni
    on.TheRepubli
    cansseemedfarawayf r
    om thedaysof"
    str
    ictconst
    ruct
    ion.
    "AndJef
    ferson
    sti
    l
    lli
    ved!

    TheMonroeDoct
    ri
    ne.
    —Ev
    enmor
    eef
    fect
    ivei
    nfashi
    oni
    ngt
    henat
    ional
    ideawasMonr
    oe'
    s
    enunci
    ati
    onof
    thef
    amousdoct ri
    nethatbearshi
    sname.Theoccasi onwasanot herEuropeancri
    sis.Dur
    ing
    theNapol
    eonicupheavalandtheyearsofdi ssolut
    iont hatensued,theSpanishcol
    oniesin
    Ameri
    ca,fol
    lowingtheexamplesetbytheirEngl i
    shnei ghborsin1776,declaredt
    heir
    i
    ndependence.Unabletoconquert
    hem alone, thekingofSpai nturnedforhelptothefri
    endl
    y
    powersofEuropethatl
    ookeduponr evol
    utionandr epubli
    cswi t
    hundisguisedhorr
    or .

    TheHolyAl l
    iance.—Hef oundt hem preparedtov iewhiscasewithsy mpathy.Threeoft hem,
    Austr
    ia,Prussia,andRussi a,undertheleadershipoftheCzar,
    AlexanderI ,i
    ntheaut umnof
    1815,hadent eredint
    oaHol yAlli
    ancet osustainbyrecipr
    ocalserv
    icetheaut ocraticpr
    incipl
    e
    i
    ngov ernment .Alt
    hought heef f
    usiv
    e, al
    mostmaudl i
    n,l
    anguageoft hetreatydidnotexpr ess
    thei
    rpurposeexpl i
    cit
    ly,
    theAl li
    ancewasl aterregardedasamer euni onofmonar chstopr ev
    ent
    theri
    seandgr owthofpopul argovernment .

    TheAmer icanpeopl et houghtt hei


    rwor stfear sconf i
    rmedwhen, i
    n1822, aconf erenceof
    delegatesf rom Russia, Aust ri
    a, Pr
    ussi a,andFr ancemetatVer onatoconsi der,amongot her
    thi
    ngs, r
    ev oluti
    onst hathadj ustbrokenouti nSpai nandI taly.Thespi ri
    toftheconf erenceis
    refl
    ectedi nthefirstarticleoft heagr eementr eachedbyt hedel egates: "
    Thehi ghcont r
    acti
    ng
    power s,beingconv i
    ncedt hatthesy stem ofr epresentat i
    vegov ernmenti sequallyincompat ible
    withthemonar chical principl
    eandt hemaxi m oft hesov ereigntyoft hepeopl ewiththediv i
    ne
    ri
    ght ,
    mut uallyengagei nthemostsol emnmannert ouseal lthei
    reffortstoputanendt ot he
    system ofr epresentativegov ernmenti nwhat ev ercount ryitmayexi sti nEuropeandt oprev ent
    i
    tsbei ngintroducedi nt hosecount ri
    eswher ei tisnoty etknown. "TheCzar ,whoi nci
    dentally
    covetedt hewestcoastofNor t
    hAmer i
    ca,pr oposedt osendanar myt oaidthekingofSpai nin
    histroublesathome, thuspr epar i
    ngt hewayf orinterventioni nSpani shAmer ica.Itwas
    mat eri
    alweaknessnotwantofspi r
    it,thatprev entedt hegr anduni onofmonar chsf r
    om maki ng
    openwaronpopul argov er nment .

    ThePosi ti
    onofEngl and.—Unf ortunately, too,fortheHol yAl l
    iance,Englandr efusedt o
    coöperate.Englishmer chantshadbui ltupal argetradewi t
    ht heindependentLat in-Amer i
    can
    coloni
    esandt heypr otestedagai nstther estorati
    onofSpani shsov ereignty,whichmeanta
    renewalofSpai n'sformert rademonopol y.Mor eover,diviner ightdoctrineshadbeenl aidtorest
    i
    nEngl andandt herepr esentati
    v epri
    nci plet horoughlyest abli
    shed.Al r
    eadyt herewer esignsof
    thecomi ngdemocr aticfloodwhi chwassoont ocarryt hef ir
    str ef
    orm bi l
    lof1832, extending
    thesuffr
    age, andsweepont oev engr eat erachievement s.Br it
    ishstatesmen, therefore,hadto
    becaut i
    ous.Insuchci rcumst ances,inst eadofcoöper at ingwi ththeaut ocratsofRussi a,
    Austri
    a,andPr ussia, t
    heyt urnedt othemi nist
    eroft heUni tedSt at
    esi nLondon.TheBr i
    ti
    sh
    pri
    memi ni
    ster,Canni ng,proposedt hatt het wocount riesj oini ndeclari
    ngt hei
    runwi ll
    ingnessto
    seetheSpani shcol oniest r
    ansf err
    edt oanyot herpower .

    Jefferson'
    sAdv i
    ce.
    —Thepr oposalwasr eject
    ed;butPresi
    dentMonr oetookupthesuggest i
    on
    wi t
    hMadi sonandJeffersonaswel laswithhisSecret
    aryofState,JohnQuincyAdams.They
    favoredtheplan.Jef
    fersonsaid:"
    Onenat i
    on,mostofall
    ,coulddistur
    businthispursui
    t[of
    freedom] ;
    shenowof ferstolead,
    aid,andaccompanyusi ni
    t.Byaccedingtoherproposit
    ionwe
    detachherf r
    om thebands, bri
    nghermi ghtywei
    ghtint
    ot hescal
    eoff reegover
    nmentand
    emanci pateaconti
    nentatonest r
    oke...
    .Wi t
    hheron
    oursi deweneednotf earthewhol ewor l
    d.Withherthenweshoul dmostsedulously
    cher i
    shacor di
    alfri
    endship."

    Monroe'sStat
    ementoftheDoctri
    ne.—Act i
    ngontheadv iceoftrustedfri
    ends,Pr
    esidentMonroe
    embodiedinhismessagetoCongr ess,onDecember2, 1823,ast atementofpri
    nciplesnowfamous
    thr
    oughoutthewor l
    dastheMonr oeDoctri
    ne.Totheaut ocrat
    sofEur opeheannouncedt hathe
    wouldregar
    d" anyatt
    emptontheirparttoext
    endtheirsy st
    em toanypor ti
    onofthishemisphereas
    dangeroustoourpeaceandsafety.
    "Whi l
    ehedidnotpr oposetoi nter
    fer
    ewi t
    hexisti
    ngcoloni
    es
    dependentonEuropeanpowers,herangedhimselfsquar el
    yont hesideofthosethathaddeclared
    thei
    rindependence.AnyattemptbyaEur
    opeanpowert
    ooppressthem orcontr
    olt
    hei
    rdest
    inyin
    anymannerhechar act
    eri
    zedas"amanif
    est
    ati
    onofanunf
    ri
    endlydisposi
    ti
    ontowar
    dtheUnited
    Stat
    es."Referr
    inginanotherpar
    tofhi
    s
    messaget oar ecentclai
    m whi chtheCzarhadmadet othePaci f
    iccoast,PresidentMonr oe
    war nedt heOl dWor ldthat"theAmer i
    canconti
    nents,
    byt hefreeandi ndependentcondition
    whi cht heyhav eassumedandmai ntai
    ned,
    arehenceforthnott obeconsi deredassubject sf
    or
    futur ecolonizat i
    onbyanyEur opeanpowers."Theeff
    ectoft hisdeclarati
    onwasi mmediateand
    prof ound.Menwhosepol it
    icalhori
    zonhadbeenl i
    mitedtoacommuni tyorstatewereledt o
    consi dert heirnationasagr eatpoweramongt hesovereignt
    iesoftheear th,taki
    ngit
    spar tin
    shapi ngt heirinternati
    onalrelati
    ons.

    TheMi ssour iCompr omi se. —Respect i


    ngoneot heri mpor tantmeasur eoft hi sper i
    od, t
    he
    Republ icansal sot ookabr oadv iewoft hei robligat ionsundert heConst itution; namel y
    , theMi ssouri
    Compr omi se.Itist rue, t
    heyi nsistedont headmi ssionofMi ssour i
    asasl av est ate,balanced
    againstt hef r
    eest ateofMai ne;butatt hesamet imet heyassent edt othepr ohibiti
    onofsl averyin
    theLoui sianat erritorynor thoft hel i
    ne36°30' .Dur i
    ngt hedebat eont hesubj ectanext remev iew
    hadbeenpr esent ed, t
    ot heef f
    ectt hatCongr esshadnoconst it
    uti
    onal war rantf orabol i
    shing
    slaveryi nt het err
    itor i
    es.Thepr ecedentoft heNor thwestOr dinance, r
    atifi
    edbyCongr essi n1789,
    seemedaconcl usi veanswerf r
    om pr acticet othi scont ention; butMonr oesubmi t
    tedthei ssuet o
    hiscabi net ,whi chi ncludedCal hounofSout hCar olina,Crawf ordofGeor gia, andWi r
    tofVi rginia,al
    l
    presumabl yadher entst otheJef fersonianpr incipleofst ri
    ctconst ructi
    on.Her eceivedi nreplya
    unani mousv erdictt otheef fectthatCongr essdi dhav et hepowert opr ohibitsl averyint he
    terri
    tori
    esgov ernedbyi t
    .Act i
    ngont hi
    sadv iceheappr oved, onMar ch6, 1820, thebil
    lest ablishi
    ng
    freedom nor thoft hecompr omi sel i
    ne.Thi sgener ousi nterpretati
    onoft hepower sofCongr ess
    stoodf ornear lyfor tyy ears,unt i
    lrepudiat edbyt heSupr emeCour tint heDr edScot tcase.

    TheNat
    ional
    Deci
    sionsofChi
    efJust
    iceMar
    shal
    l

    JohnMar shal l,
    theNat ionalist.
    —TheRepubl icansint helowerr angesofst atepoliti
    cs,whodi d
    notcat cht hegr andnat i
    onal st
    yleoft hei
    rleader schar gedwi thr esponsibil
    it
    iesint henat i
    onal
    fi
    eld,wer eassi stedi nthei reducat ionbyaFeder al
    istfr
    om theOl dDomi nion, JohnMar shal
    l,
    who, asChi efJust i
    ceoft heSupr emeCour toft heUni t
    edSt atesf rom 1801t o1835, l
    ostno
    occasiont oexal ttheConst itut
    ionabov et hecl aimsoft hepr ovinces.Nodi f
    ferencesofopi nion
    astohi spol i
    ti
    cal viewshav eev erledev enhi swar mestopponent stodenyhi ssuper babili
    ti
    es
    orhissi ncer edev otiont othenat ional i
    dea.Al lwi l
    lli
    kewiseagr eet hatfortalents,nativ
    eand
    acquired, hewasanor namentt ot hehumbl edemocr acythatbr oughthi mf orth.Hiswhol e
    careerwasAmer ican.Bor nont hef ronti
    erofVi rginia,r
    earedi nal ogcabi n,grantedonl ythe
    barestr udiment sofeducat i
    on, i
    nur edtohar dshi pandr oughl i
    fe, herosebymast erl
    yef f
    ortsto
    thehighestj udi
    ci alhonorAmer i
    cacanbest ow.

    JohnMar
    shal
    l

    Onhimt hebit
    terexperi
    enceoftheRevol
    uti
    onandoflat
    erdaysmadeal ast
    ingimpressi
    on.He
    wasno" summerpat ri
    ot.
    "Hehadbeenasoldieri
    ntheRevol
    utionaryarmy.Hehadsuf f
    eredwith
    WashingtonatValleyFor
    ge.Hehadseenhiscomradesinarmsst arvi
    ngandfreezi
    ngbecausethe
    Cont
    inentalCongresshadneit
    herthepowernort
    heincl
    inat
    iontof or
    cethestatest
    odot hei
    rful
    l
    duty
    .Tohi mtheArti
    clesofConfederati
    onwer et
    hesy
    mbol off
    uti
    l
    ity
    .Int
    othestr
    uggl
    efort
    he
    for
    mationoftheConst i
    tut
    ionandit
    sr at
    ifi
    cat
    ioni
    nVir
    gini
    ahehadthrownhimsel
    fwit
    htheardorof
    asoldi
    er.Lat
    er,asamemberofCongr ess,
    ar epresentat i
    v et oFrance,andSecretaryofState,hehadai dedt heFeder ali
    stsinestabl
    i
    shing
    thenewgov ernment .Whenatl engththeywer edrivenfrom poweri ntheexecut iveand
    l
    egi slati
    vebr anchesoft hegovernment ,hewaschosenf ortheirlaststr
    onghol d,theSupreme
    Cour t.Byhi storicironyheadmi nist
    eredt heoathofof fi
    cetohisbi tt
    erestenemy ,Thomas
    Jef f
    er son;and, longaf t
    ertheauthoroft heDeclarationofIndependencehadr et
    ir
    edtoprivate
    l
    ife,thest ernChi efJusti
    cecont i
    nuedt oannouncet heol dFederali
    stprincipl
    esf r
    om the
    Supr emeBench.

    Mar bur yv s.Madi son—AnActofCongr essAnnul led.—Hehadbeeni nhishi ghof f


    iceonl yt woy ears
    whenhel aiddownf orthef irsttimei nt henameoft heent i
    reCour tthedoct rinet hatt hej udges
    havet hepowert odeclareanactofCongr essnul landv oi
    dwheni nt hei
    ropi nioni tviolat est he
    Const itution.Thi spowerwasnotex pressl yconf erredont heCour t.Thoughmanyabl emenhel d
    thatthej udicialbranchoft hegov ernmentenj oyedi t,thepr incipl
    ewasnotposi tivel
    yest abl i
    shed
    unti
    l 1803whent hecaseofMar buryv s.Madi sonwasdeci ded.Inrenderingt heopi ni onoft he
    Cour t,Mar shall
    ci t
    ednopr ecedent s.Hesoughtnof oundat i
    onsf orhisargumenti nanci enthi story.
    Her est edi tont hegener al nat ureoft heAmer icansy stem.TheConst i
    tuti
    on, ranhi sr easoni ng, i
    s
    thesupr emel awoft heland; itlimitsandbi ndsal lwhoacti nt henameoft heUni tedSt at es; i
    tli
    mits
    thepower sofCongr essanddef i
    nest her i
    ght sofci tizens.IfCongr esscani gnor eitslimi t ati
    ons
    andt respassupont heright sofci ti
    zens, Mar shal largued, thent heConst i
    tutiondi sappear sand
    Congr essi ssupr eme.Si nce, howev er,theConst itutioni ssupr emeandsuper iortoCongr ess, i
    tis
    thedut yofj udges, undert hei roathofof f
    ice, t
    osust ainitagai nstmeasur eswhi chv iolatei t.
    Theref ore, from thenat ureoft heAmer i
    canconst it
    ut i
    onal sy st
    em thecour tsmustdecl ar enul land
    voidal lact swhi char enotaut hori
    zed." Alawr epugnantt ot heConst i
    tuti
    on,"hecl osed, "isv oidand
    thecour tsaswel lasot herdepar tment sar eboundbyt hatinst r
    ument .
    "From t hatdayt ot histhe
    practiceoff ederal andst atecour t
    si npassi ngupont heconst it
    uti
    onalit
    yofl awshasr emai ned
    unshaken.

    Thisdoct rinewasr eceivedbyJef fer


    sonandmanyofhi sfollower swi thconsternation.Ifthei dea
    wassound, heexcl
    ai med, "t
    heni ndeedi sourConst i
    tuti
    onacompl etefelodese[ l
    egally,asui cide]
    .
    For,intendingtoest abli
    sht hreedepar tments, coördinat
    eandi ndependentt hattheymi ghtcheck
    andbal anceoneanot her,ithasgi ven,accordingt othisopinion,tooneoft hem al onether ightt o
    prescriber ul
    esforthegov ernmentoft heother s,andtothatone, t
    oo, whichisunel ectedbyand
    i
    ndependentoft henat ion...
    .The
    Const i
    tution,onthi
    shy pothesis,isamer ethingofwaxi nthehandsoft hejudiciarywhi chtheymay
    twistandshapei ntoanyf or mt heyplease.Itshoul dber emember ed, asanaxi om ofet ernal truthin
    polit
    ics,thatwhat ev erpoweri nanygov ernmenti si ndependent ,i
    sabsol uteal so...
    .A j udi ci
    ary
    i
    ndependentofaki ngor
    execut ivealoneisagoodt hing; butindependenceoft hewi lloft henationisasol ecism, at
    l
    easti nar epubl
    icangov ernment .
    "ButMar shall wasmi ghtyandhi sv i
    ewpr evail
    ed, though
    from timet oti
    meot hermen, cli
    ngingt oJef ferson'sopinion, l
    ikewi seopposedt heexer ciseby
    theCour tsofthehi ghpowerofpassi ngupont heconst it
    ut i
    onalityofact sofCongr ess.

    ActsofSt at
    eLegi slat
    uresDeclaredUnconst itut i
    onal.—HadMar shallstoppedwi thannul li
    ngan
    actofCongr ess,hewoul dhav ehear dlesscr i
    t i
    cism f r
    om Republi
    canquar t
    ers;but,wi t
    ht he
    samef i
    rmness, hesetasi deactsofst atel egislaturesaswel l
    ,whenev er,i
    nhisopi nion, t
    hey
    viol
    atedthef ederalConsti
    tuti
    on.In1810, i
    nt hecaseofFl etchervs.Peck, heannul l
    edanactof
    theGeorgialegislat
    ure,inf
    ormingt hest atethati twasnotsov er
    eign,but"apar tofal arge
    empire,.
    ..amemberoft heAmer icanuni on;andt hatunionhasaconst it
    ution..
    .whi chi mposes
    l
    imitstothel egi
    slatur
    esoft hesev eral states."Int hecaseofMcCul ochv
    l s.Mar yl
    and, decided
    i
    n1819, hedecl aredvoidanactoft heMar yl
    andl egisl
    atur
    edesignedt opar al
    yzet hebr anches
    oftheUnitedSt atesBankest abl
    ishedi nt hatst ate.Inthesamey ear,inthest i
    l
    lmor e
    memor ableDar tmouthCol l
    egecase, heannul ledanactoft heNewHampshi relegislature
    whichinf
    r i
    ngedupont hecharterrecei vedbyt hecol legefr
    om KingGeor gelongbef ore.That
    chart
    er,hedecl
    ared,wasacont ractbet
    weenthest at
    eandt hecol
    lege,whi
    cht helegi
    slature
    underthefeder
    alConsti
    t uti
    oncouldnoti
    mpair.Twoy earslat
    erhesti
    rr
    edthewr athofVi rginia
    bysummoni nghertothebaroft heSupremeCour ttoanswerinacasei nwhichthevalidityof
    oneofherlawswasi nvolvedandt henj
    ust
    if
    iedhisactioninapowerfulopi
    nionrenderedi nt he
    caseofCohensv s.Vi
    rginia.
    Allthesedeci sionsarousedthelegislat
    uresoft hest ates.Theypassedsheav esofr esolut
    ions
    protestingandcondemni ng;butMar shal
    l neverturnedandnev erstayed.TheConst i
    tuti
    onof
    theUni tedSt ates,hefai
    rl
    ythunderedatt hem, i
    st hesupr emel awoft hel and;theSupr eme
    Cour tisthepr opertri
    bunaltopassf i
    nall
    yupont hev ali
    dit
    yoft helawsoft hest ates;and"t
    hose
    sov ereignt
    ies,"farfr
    om possessingtherightofr eviewandnul l
    if
    icat
    ion, areirr
    ev ocablybound
    byt hedecisionsoft hatCourt.Thiswasst rongmedi ci
    nef ortheauthor soft heKent uckyand
    VirginiaResol uti
    onsandf ort
    hemember soft heHar tf
    ordconv enti
    on; buttheyhadt otakeit.

    TheDoct ri
    neofI mpl i
    edPower s.—Whi ler estrai
    ni ngCongr essi nt heMar burycaseandt hest at
    e
    l
    egislaturesi nascor eofcases, Mar shal lalsolai dt hej udi cialfoundat ionforabr oadandl i
    beral
    viewoft heConst i
    tuti
    onasopposedt onar r
    owandst rictconst ruct ion.I nMcCul lochv s.
    Mar yl
    and, heconst ruedgener ousl yt hewor ds" necessar yandpr oper "insuchawayast o
    conferuponCongr essawi der angeof" impl i
    edpower s"i naddi tiont ot heirexpresspower s.
    Thatcasei nvol
    ved, amongot hert hings, thequest i
    onwhet hertheactest abli
    shingt hesecond
    UnitedSt atesBankwasaut horizedbyt heConst itut i
    on.Mar shall answer edintheaf fi
    rmat ive.
    Congr ess,ranhisr easoning,hasl argepower sov ertaxat i
    onandt hecur rency;abanki sof
    appropr i
    ateusei nt heexerciseoft heseenumer at edpower s;andt her efore,t
    houghnot
    absolutelynecessar y,abanki sent ir
    elypr operandconst itut i
    onal ."Wi t
    hr espectt othemeans
    bywhi cht hepower sthattheConst i
    tutionconf er sar et obecar r
    iedi ntoexecut ion,"hesai d,
    Congr essmustbeal l
    owedt hedi scretionwhi ch" wi llenabl et hatbodyt oper f
    ormt hehigh
    duti
    esassi gnedt oit,
    inthemannermostbenef icial t
    ot hepeopl e. "Inshor t,t
    heConst i
    tutionof
    theUni t
    edSt at
    esi snotast raitjacketbutaf lexibl einst rumentv est ingi nCongr esst hepower s
    necessar yt omeetnat ionalprobl emsast heyar i
    se.I ndel iveringt hisopi nionMar shall
    used
    l
    anguageal mostidenticalwiththatempl oy edbyLi ncol nwhen, standi ngont hebat t
    lefieldofa
    warwagedt opreser vethenat i
    on, hesai dt hat"agov ernmentoft hepeopl e,byt hepeopl e,for
    thepeopl eshal lnotper i
    shfrom t heear th."

    Summar
    yoft
    heUni
    onandNat
    ional
    Pol
    i
    tics

    Duringt hestrenuousper i
    odbet weentheestablishmentofAmer icanindependenceandt he
    adventofJacksoni andemocr acythegreatAmer i
    canexper i
    mentwasundert hedi r
    ectionofthe
    menwhohadl aunchedi t.AllthePr esi
    dentsinthatper i
    od,exceptJohnQui ncyAdams, had
    takenpar ti
    ntheRev ol
    ution.JamesMadi son,thechi efauthoroft heConsti
    tution,l
    i
    vedunt il
    1836.Thi sage,therefore,wast he" ageofthefathers."I
    tsawt het hreat
    enedr uinofthecount r
    y
    undert heAr ti
    clesofConf ederation,t
    heformationoft heConst i
    tution,t
    heriseofpoliti
    cal
    parties,thegrowt hoft heWest ,thesecondwarwi t
    hEngl and,andt heapparenttri
    umphoft he
    national spi
    ri
    tov ersect i
    onalism.

    Thenewr epubl i
    chadhar dl
    ybeenst artedin1783bef orei t
    st roubl
    esbegan.Thegov ernment
    couldnotr aisemoneyt opayi t
    sdebt sorr unni
    ngexpenses; itcouldnotprotectAmer i
    can
    commer ceandmanuf acturesagainstEuropeancompet iti
    on; i
    tcouldnotstopt hecontinual
    i
    ssuesofpapermoneybyt hest at
    es;itcouldnotinter
    v enet oputdowndomest icupr
    isingsthat
    threatenedt heexistenceoft hestategov ernments.Withoutmoney ,withoutanar my,without
    courtsofl aw, t
    heuni onundert heArti
    clesofConf ederationwasdr i
    fti
    ngintodissolut
    ion.
    Pat r
    iots,
    whohadr i
    skedt heirl
    ivesforindependence,begant ot al
    kofmonar chyagain.
    Washi ngton, Hamilt
    on, andMadi soninsistedthatanewconst it
    uti
    onalonecoul dsaveAmer i
    ca
    from disaster.

    Bydi ntofmuchl aborthef r


    iendsofanewf orm ofgovernmenti nducedtheCongr esstocal
    l a
    nati
    onal conventi
    ont otakeintoaccountthestateofAmer i
    ca.InMay ,1787,itassembledat
    Phil
    adel phi
    aandf ormont hsitdebatedandwrangledov erplansforaconstitut
    ion.Thesmal l
    statesclamoredf orequalrightsintheuni
    on.Thelargestatesv owedthattheywoul dnever
    grantit.Aspiri
    tofconcili
    ati
    on, fai
    rplay
    ,andcompr omisesav edtheconventionfrom br
    eaking
    up.Inaddi
    ti
    on,t
    herewerejealousi
    esbetweenthepl
    anti
    ngstatesandthecommercial
    stat
    es.
    Here,t
    oo,compromiseshadtobewor kedout.Someofthedelegat
    esfearedt
    hegrowthof
    democracyandotherscher
    ishedit
    .Thesefacti
    onsal
    sohadt obeplacat
    ed.
    Atlastaplanofgov ernmentwasdraft
    ed—theConsti
    tuti
    onoft
    heUnitedStat
    es—and
    submitt
    edt othestatesforappr
    oval
    .Onlyaft
    eralongandacri
    moniousdebatedidenough
    stat
    esratif
    ytheinstrumenttoputi
    tint
    oeffect
    .OnApr i
    l30,
    1789,
    Geor geWashingt
    onwas
    i
    nauguratedfi
    rstPresident.

    Thenewgov er
    nmentpr oceededt ofundt heolddebtoft henat i
    on,assumet hedebtsofthe
    stat
    es, f
    oundanat i
    onalbank,layheav ytaxestopayt hebi l
    ls,andenactlawspr ot
    ecti
    ng
    Amer i
    cani ndustr
    yandcommer ce.Hami l
    tonledt heway , buthehadnotgonef arbefor
    ehe
    encounteredopposi t
    ion.Hefoundaf ormidableant agonisti nJeff
    erson.Int
    imet wopolit
    ical
    part
    iesappear edfullar
    medupont hescene: t
    heFeder al
    istsandt heRepubli
    cans.Forten
    yearstheyf i
    ll
    edthecount r
    ywithpol i
    ti
    cal debate.In1800t heFederali
    stswereut t
    erl
    y
    vanquishedbyt heRepubl i
    canswi thJeffersonint helead.

    Bytheirproclamationsoff ai
    tht heRepublicansf
    avoredthest atesratherthanthenewnat i
    onal
    government ,buti
    npr acticetheyaddedimmensel ytot hepresti
    geandpoweroft henation.
    Theypur chasedLoui si
    anaf r
    om Fr ance,
    theywagedawarf orcommer ci
    alindependence
    againstEngland,theycr eat
    edasecondUni t
    edStat
    esBank, t
    heyenact edthepr ot
    ecti
    vet ar
    if
    fof
    1816, t
    heydecl ar
    edt hatCongr esshadpowert oabolishslaverynorthoftheMi ssouri
    Compr omi seli
    ne,andt heyspreadt heshieldoft
    heMonr oeDoct r
    inebetweent heWest ern
    Hemi sphereandEur ope.

    Stil
    lAmer i
    cawasapar tofEuropeanci vi
    li
    zat
    ion.Currentsofopinionf l
    owedt oandf roacr
    oss
    theAtlanti
    c.Fri
    endsofpopul argov ernmenti
    nEur opel ookedtoAmer i
    caasthegr eatexemplar
    oftheiri
    deals.EventsinEuroper eacteduponthoughti ntheUnitedSt at
    es.TheFr ench
    Revoluti
    onexertedapr ofoundinfluenceonthecour seofpol i
    ti
    cal debat
    e.Whi l
    eitwasi nthe
    stageofmer ereform all
    Amer icansf av
    oredit
    .Whent hekingwasexecut edandar adical
    democr acysetup,Amer icanopinionwasdi v
    ided.WhenFr ancefellunderthemi l
    i
    tarydomi ni
    on
    ofNapol eonandpr eyeduponAmer icancommer ce,theUni t
    edSt atesmader eadyforwar.

    TheconductofEnglandl i
    kewiseaffectedAmer icanaff
    airs.I
    n1793warbr okeoutbetween
    EnglandandFranceandr agedwi t
    honlyasl ightint
    ermissionunti
    l1815.EnglandandFr ance
    bothravagedAmer i
    cancommer ce,butEnglandwast hemor eseri
    ousoffenderbecauseshe
    hadcommandoft heseas.ThoughJef f er
    sonandMadi sonst roveforpeace,thecountr
    ywas
    sweptintowarbythev ehemenceoft he" YoungRepublicans,"headedbyCl ayandCalhoun.

    Whent hearmedconf l
    ictwasclosed, oneindiplomacyopened.Theaut ocr
    aticpower sofEurope
    thr
    eatenedtoint
    erveneonbehal fofSpai ninherattempttorecoverpossessionofherLat i
    n-
    Amer i
    cancoloni
    es.Theirchall
    enget oAmer icabroughtfor
    ththeMonr oeDoct r
    ine.Thepower sof
    Europewerewar nednottoi nt
    erfer
    ewi ththeindependenceortherepubli
    canpol i
    ciesofthi
    s
    hemisphereortoattemptanynewcol onizati
    oninit.I
    tseemedt hatnati
    onal
    ism wast ohav ea
    peacefult
    ri
    umphov ersectionali
    sm.

    Ref
    erences

    Hi
    H.Adams, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    1800-
    1817(
    9vol
    s.)
    .

    K. Ri
    C.Babcock, seofAmer
    icanNat
    ional
    i
    ty(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .

    E.Channi TheJef
    ng, fer
    soni
    anSy
    stem (
    SameSer
    ies)
    .

    D.
    C.Gi
    l JamesMonr
    man, oe.
    W.Reddaway
    ,TheMonr
    oeDoct
    ri
    ne.

    T.Roosev
    elt
    ,Nav
    alWarof1812.
    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Whatwast
    hel
    eadi
    ngf
    eat
    ureofJef
    fer
    son'
    spol
    i
    tical
    theor
    y?

    2.
    Enumer
    atet
    hechi
    efmeasur
    esofhi
    sadmi
    nist
    rat
    ion.

    3.
    Wer
    etheJef
    fer
    soni
    ansabl
    etoappl
    ythei
    rtheor
    ies?Gi
    vet
    her
    easons.

    4.
    Expl
    aint
    hei
    mpor
    tanceoft
    heMi
    ssi
    ssi
    ppi
    Riv
    ert
    oWest
    ernf
    armer
    s.

    5.
    Showhowev
    ent
    sinEur
    opef
    orcedt
    heLoui
    sianaPur
    chase.

    6.
    Stat
    etheconst
    it
    uti
    onal
    quest
    ioni
    nvol
    vedi
    ntheLoui
    sianaPur
    chase.

    7.
    ShowhowAmer
    icant
    radewasaf
    fect
    edbyt
    heEur
    opeanwar
    .

    8.
    Compar
    ethepol
    i
    ciesofJef
    fer
    sonandMadi
    son.

    9.
    Whydi
    dtheUni
    tedSt
    atesbecomei
    nvol
    vedwi
    thEngl
    andr
    athert
    hanwi
    thFr
    ance?

    10.
    Cont
    rastt
    hecausesoft
    heWarof1812wi
    tht
    her
    esul
    ts.

    11.
    Giv
    etheeconomi
    creasonsf
    ort
    heat
    ti
    tudeofNewEngl
    and.

    12.
    Giv
    efi
    ve"
    nat
    ional
    i
    st"measur
    esoft
    heRepubl
    i
    cans.Di
    scusseachi
    ndet
    ail
    .

    13.
    Sket
    cht
    hecar
    eerofJohnMar
    shal
    l
    .

    14.
    Discusst
    hecaseofMar yv
    bur s.Madi
    son.

    15.
    SummarizeMarshal
    l
    'sv
    iewson:
    (a)st
    ates'
    right
    s; b)al
    and( i
    ber
    ali
    nter
    pret
    ati
    onoft
    he
    Const
    it
    ution.

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    TheLouisianaPur chase.—TextofTreat
    yinMacdonald,DocumentarySourceBook,pp.279-
    282.Sourcemat erialsinHart
    ,Ameri
    canHi st
    oryTol
    dbyCont emporari
    es,Vol.I
    II
    ,pp.363-
    384.Narrati
    ve,
    Henr yAdams, Hi
    stor
    yoftheUnitedSt
    ates,Vol.I
    I,
    pp.25-115;El
    son,Hist
    ory
    oftheUnitedStates, pp.383-
    388.

    TheEmbargoandNon-I
    nter
    cour
    seAct
    s.—Macdonal
    d,pp.282-
    288;
    Adams,
    Vol
    .IV,
    pp.152-
    177;
    Elson,
    pp.394-
    405.

    Congr
    essandt
    heWarof1812.
    —Adams,
    Vol
    .VI
    ,pp.113-
    198;
    Elson,
    pp.408-
    450.

    Pr
    oposal
    soft
    heHar
    tfor
    dConv
    ent
    ion.
    —Macdonal
    d,pp.293-
    302.

    Manuf
    act
    uresandt
    heTar
    if
    fof1816. I
    —Coman,ndust
    ri
    alHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.184
    -
    194.

    TheSecondUni
    tedSt
    atesBank.
    —Macdonal
    d,pp.302-
    306.

    Eff
    ectofEur
    opeanWaronAmer
    icanTr
    ade.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,Economi
    cHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.
    240-
    250.
    TheMonr
    oeMessage.
    —Macdonal
    d,pp.318-
    320.

    LewisandCl
    arkExpedi
    ti
    on.
    —R.G.Thwai
    t RockyMount
    es, ainExplor
    ati
    ons,
    pp.92-
    187.
    Schafer
    ,AHi
    stor
    yofthePacif
    icNort
    hwest(
    rev
    .ed.
    ),pp.29-61.

    PARTI
    V.THEWESTANDJACKSONI
    AN
    DEMOCRACY

    CHAPTERX
    THEFARMERSBEYONDTHEAPPALACHI
    ANS

    Thenat ionali
    sm ofHami ltonwasundemocr atic.Thedemocr acyofJef fersonwas, inthe
    beginni ng,provincial
    .Thehi stor i
    cmi ssionofuni t
    ingnat ionalism anddemocr acywasi nthe
    cour seoft imegi vent onewl eader sfrom ar egi onbey ondt hemount ains,peopledbymenand
    womenf r
    om allsect i
    onsandf reefrom t hosest atet r
    aditionswhi chr anbackt otheear l
    ydaysof
    coloni zat i
    on.Thev oiceoft hedemocr aticnat ionalism nour i
    shedi ntheWestwashear dwhen
    ClayofKent uckyadv ocatedhi sAmer i
    cansy stem ofpr otect i
    onfori ndust r
    ies;whenJacksonof
    Tennesseecondemnednul l
    ifi
    cat ioninar ingingpr oclamat i
    ont hathast akenitsplaceamongt he
    greatAmer i
    canst atepaper s; andwhenLi ncol nofI ll
    inois,inaf atefulhour ,cal
    ledupona
    bewi lder edpeopl et omeett hesupr emet estwhet herthiswasanat i
    ondest i
    nedtosur vi
    veorto
    perish.Andi twillber emember edthatLi ncol n'
    spar t
    ychosef ori
    tsbannert hatearli
    er
    device—Republ i
    can—whi chJef fersonhadmadeasi gnofpower .The" r
    ailspli
    tter
    "from Il
    li
    noi
    s
    unitedt henat i
    onal i
    sm ofHami ltonwi ththedemocr acyofJef fer
    son, andhi sappeal wascl ot
    hed
    i
    nt hesi mpl elanguageoft hepeopl e, noti nthesonor ousr hetori
    cwhi chWebst erlearnedinthe
    school s.

    Pr
    epar
    ati
    onf
    orWest
    ernSet
    tl
    ement

    TheWestandt heAmer i
    canRev ol ution.—Theexcessi veattent iondevotedbyhi stori
    anst othe
    militaryoperati
    onsal ongt hecoasthasobscur edtherôlepl ay edbythef r
    ont i
    eri ntheAmer i
    can
    Rev oluti
    on.Theact i
    onofGr eatBr i
    taininclosingwest ernlandt oeasyset t
    lementi n1763was
    mor et hanani ncidentinpr ecipitatingt hewarf ori
    ndependence.Amer i
    cansont hefronti
    erdi dnot
    forgeti t
    ;whenI ndianswer eempl oy edbyEngl andtodef endt hatland,zealfort hepat r
    iotcauseset
    theint er
    iorafl
    ame.I twast hemember softhewest ernvanguar d,l
    ikeDaniel Boone, JohnSev ier
    ,
    andGeor geRoger sClark,whof irstunder st
    oodt hev al
    ueoft hef ar-
    awaycount ryundert hegunsof
    theEngl ishforts,wheret heRedMenst i
    l
    lwiel
    dedt het omahawkandt hescal pingkni fe.I
    twast hey
    whogav etheEastnor estunt iltheirv i
    sionwasseenbyt hel eadersont heseaboar dwhodi rected
    thecour seofnat ional poli
    cy .Itwasoneoft heirnumber ,aseasonedI ndianf ighter,GeorgeRoger s
    Clark, whowi t
    hai dfrom Vi rginiasei zedKaskaski aandVi ncennesandsecur edt hewhol e
    Nor
    thwestt
    otheuni
    onwhi
    l
    ethef
    ateofWashi
    ngt
    on'
    sar
    mywasst
    il
    l
    hangi
    ngi
    nthebal
    ance.

    West ernPr obl


    emsatt heEndoft heRev ol
    ution.—Thet reatyofpeace, signedwi thGr eatBr i
    taini n
    1783, broughtt hedef ini
    tecessi onoft hecov etedt errit
    orywestt ot heMi ssissippi River
    , butitlef t
    unsol vedmanypr oblems.I nt hefirstplace,tri
    besofr esent fulIndiansi nt heOhi or egion, even
    thoughBr it
    ishsuppor twaswi thdrawnatl ast,hadt ober eckonedwi th;andi twasnotunt il
    af t
    ert he
    establishmentoft hef ederalConst it
    uti
    ont hatawel l-
    equi ppedar mycoul dbepr ov i
    dedt oguar antee
    peaceont hebor der .Int hesecondpl ace,Br i
    ti
    shgar r
    isonsst il
    loccupi edf ortsonLakeEr i
    ependi ng
    theexecut i
    onoft het ermsoft hetreatyof1783—t ermswhi chwer enotf ulf
    ill
    edunt i
    lafterthe
    rati
    ficati
    onoft heJayt reatytwel veyearslater.Int het hi
    rdpl ace, Vir
    ginia, Connect i
    cut,and
    Massachuset tshadconf li
    cti
    ngcl aimst ot helandi nt heNor thwestbasedonol dEngl i
    shchar ters
    andI ndiantreaties.I twasonl yaf terabi tt
    ercont estt hatthest atesr eachedanagr eementt o
    transfertheirri
    ght stot hegov ernmentoft heUni tedSt ates, Virgi
    niaexecut ingherdeedofcessi on
    onMar ch1, 1784.I nthef ourthplace, t
    itl
    est olandsboughtbyi ndividual sremai neduncer t
    aini nthe
    absenceofof ficial mapsandr ecords.Tomeett hi slastsi t
    uat i
    on, Congr essi nst
    itutedasy stemat i
    c
    surveyoft heOhi ocount ry,l
    ayingitouti ntotownshi ps, sect i
    onsof640acr eseach, andquar ter
    sections.Inev eryt ownshi ponesect ionofl andwassetasi def orthesuppor tofpubl icschool s.

    TheNor t
    hwestOrdi
    nance.—Thefinalpr
    obl
    em whichhadt obesol vedbeforesettl
    ementona
    l
    argescalecouldbebegunwast hatofgover
    ningtheterr
    itor
    y.Pioneerswhol ookedwith
    hungryeyesonthefert
    il
    eval
    leyoftheOhiocouldhardlyrest
    rai
    nt hei
    rimpatience.Sol
    dier
    sof
    theRevoluti
    on,
    whohadbeenpai df ort
    hei
    rservi
    cesinlandwarrantsenti
    tli
    ngt hem t
    omake
    entr
    iesi
    nt heWest,cal
    l
    edforacti
    on.

    Congr essansweredbypassi ngin1787t hefamousNor thwestOr dinanceprovidi


    ngf or
    tempor ar
    yterr
    it
    orialgover nmenttobef oll
    owedbyt hecreationofapopul arassembl yas
    soonast hereweref i
    v ethousandf r
    eemal esinanydistri
    ct.Ev ent
    ualadmissiontotheuni on
    onanequal f
    ooti
    ngwi t
    ht heorigi
    nalstateswaspromi sedtot henewt err
    it
    ories.Rel
    igious
    freedom wasguar anteed.Thesaf eguardsoftri
    albyjury,r
    egul arj
    udici
    alprocedure,
    and

    habeascor
    puswereestabl
    ished,i
    norderthatthemethodsofciv
    ili
    zedli
    femightt
    aket he
    pl
    aceoftherough-
    and-
    readyjust
    iceofl
    ynchl aw.Duri
    ngthecourseofthedebat
    eont he
    Ordi
    nance,
    Congressaddedthesixt
    harti
    cleforbi
    ddingsl
    aver
    yandi nvol
    unt
    aryserv
    itude.

    ThisChar teroftheNort
    hwest,sowel lpl
    annedbyt heCongr essundertheArti
    clesof
    Confeder ati
    on,wasconti
    nuedinforcebyt hefirstCongressundert heConstit
    utioni
    n1789.The
    fol
    lowi ngyearit
    sessenti
    alprovi
    sions,exceptthebanonsl avery,wer
    eappliedtotheterr
    it
    ory
    southoft heOhio,cededbyNor t
    hCar oli
    nat othenat i
    onalgov er
    nment,andin1798t othe
    Mississippiter
    ri
    tory
    ,onceheldbyGeor gia.Thusi twassettledforall
    timethat"thenew
    col
    oni eswer enottobeexploi
    tedforthebenef itoftheparentstates(anymor ethanfort
    he
    benefitofEngland)butweretobeaut onomousand

    coördi
    nat
    ecommonweal t
    hs."Thisout
    come, bi
    tt
    erl
    yopposedbysomeEast
    ernleader
    swho
    fear
    edthetr
    iumphofWesternstatesovertheseaboard,
    complet
    edthel
    egalst
    epsnecessar
    y
    bywayofprepar
    ati
    onforthefloodofsett
    lers.

    TheLandCompani es,Speculat
    ors,andWest ernLandTenure.—Asi ntheor i
    ginal settl
    ementof
    Amer i
    ca, sointheopeni ngoftheWest ,greatcompani esandsi nglepr opri
    etorsofl argegrantsear
    ly
    fi
    gured.In1787t heOhioLandCompany , aNewEngl andconcern, acquiredami l
    li
    onandahal f
    acresont heOhi oandbeganoper at
    ionsbypl antingthetownofMar i
    etta.Apr ofessionall
    and
    speculator,J.C.Symmes, securedami l
    lionacr eslowerdownwher ethecityofCi ncinnatiwas
    founded.Ot herindi
    vidualsboughtupsol dier
    s' cl
    aimsandsoacqui redenor moushol dingsfor
    speculati
    v epurposes.Indeed,t
    herewassuchar usht omakef ortunesqui cklythrought herisei
    n
    l
    andv aluest hatWashingtonwasmov edt ocr youtagainstt
    he" ragef orspecul ati
    ngi nand
    for
    estall
    i
    ngofl
    andont heNorthWestoftheOhio,
    "prot
    est
    ingthat"
    scarceav
    aluabl
    espotwi
    thi
    n
    anytoler
    abl
    edi
    stanceofiti
    sleftwi
    thoutacl
    aimant.
    "Hetheref
    oreurged
    Congresstofixareasonabl
    epri
    ceforthel
    and,not"
    tooexor
    bit
    antandbur
    densomef
    orr
    eal
    occupier
    s,buthi
    ghenought odi
    scouragemonopoli
    zer
    s."

    Congr ess,howev er,wasnotpr eparedtouset hepubl icdomai nfort hesolepur poseof


    developingabodyofsmal lfreeholdersintheWest .Itsti
    lll
    ookedupont hesal eofpubl iclands
    asani mpor tantsour ceofr evenuewi t
    hwhi chtopayof fthepubl icdebt;consequent lyit
    thoughtmor eofi nstantincomet hanoful t
    imater esul ts.I
    tplacednol i
    mitont heamountwhi ch
    couldbeboughtwheni tfi
    xedt hepr i
    ceat$2anacr ei n1796, andi tencouragedt he
    professionallandoper atorbymaki ngt hefir
    stinst allmentonl ytwent ycentsanacr ei nadditi
    on
    tothesmal l
    regi strat
    ionandsur veyfee.Onsucht er msaspecul atorwi t
    haf ewt housand
    doll
    arscoul dgetpossessi onofanenor mouspl otofl and.I
    fhewasf ort
    unatei ndisposingofi t
    ,
    hecoul dmeett hei nstall
    ment s,whichwer espreadov eraper i
    odoff ouryears,andmakea
    handsomepr of
    itf orhimsel f.Ev enwhent hecredi tori nstal
    lmentf eaturewasabol i
    shedi n1821
    andt hepriceoft helandl ower edt oacashpr i
    ceof$1. 75anacr e, t
    heoppor tunit
    yf orlarge
    speculativepurchasescont inuedt oat t
    ractcapital tolandv entures.

    TheDev elopmentoft heSmal lFreehold.—Thecheapnessofl andandt hescar ci


    tyoflabor,
    never
    theless,madei mpossi blethet r
    iumphoft hehugeest atewi thitssemi -
    servil
    etenantr
    y.
    Forabout$45amancoul dgetaf ar
    m of160acr esont hei nstall
    mentpl an;anotherpaymentof
    $80wasduei nfortydays;butaf our-
    y earterm wasallowedf orthedi schargeoft hebalance.
    Withacapi taloffrom twot ot hreehundr eddollarsaf amilycoul dembar konal andv entur
    e.Ifi
    t
    hadgoodcr ops, i
    tcouldmeett hedef erredpayment s.Itwas, howev er,ahardbat tl
    eatbest.
    Manyamanf or f
    eitedhislandt hroughf ail
    uretopayt hef i
    nal install
    ment ;yetintheend,inspite
    ofall
    thehandi caps,thesmal lfreeholdofaf ewhundr edacr esatmostbecamet hetypi
    calunit
    ofWesternagr i
    cultur
    e,excepti nt heplantingstatesoft heGul f.Event helandsoft hegreat
    companieswer egener al
    lybr okenupandsol dinsmal ll
    ots.

    Thet endencyt owar dmoder at


    ehol dings,sof avoredbyWest erncondit i
    ons,wasalsopr omoted
    byacl auseint heNor t
    hwestOrdinancedecl ar i
    ngt hatthel andofanyper sondy i
    ng
    i
    ntestate—thati s,withoutanywil
    l disposingofi t
    —shoul dbedi videdequal l
    yamonghi s
    descendants.Hi ldrethsaysofthi
    spr ovi
    sion: "
    Itestablishedt heimpor tantrepubl
    icanpr i
    nci
    ple,
    nottheni nt
    roducedi ntoallthestates,oft heequal di
    stri
    but i
    onofl andedaswel l
    asper sonal
    property.
    "Allthesef orcescombinedmadet hewidedi sper sionofweal th,intheearlydaysof
    thenineteenthcent ury,anAmer i
    canchar acteri
    sti
    c, inmar kedcont rastwi t
    htheEur opean
    system offami lyprestigeandvastest atesbasedont helawofpr imogeni tur
    e.

    TheWest
    ernMi
    grat
    ionandNewSt
    ates

    ThePeopl e.—Wi thgov ernmentestabl i


    shed,feder alarmsv i
    ct oriousov ertheIndians, andt he
    l
    andssur vey edforsal e,thewaywaspr eparedf orthei mmi gr ant s.Theycamewi thar ush.
    YoungNewEngl ander s, wear
    yoft il
    lingthest onysoi lofthei rnat ivestates,pouredt hr oughNew
    YorkandPennsy lv
    ania, someset tl
    ingont henor ther nbankoft heOhi obutmostoft hem i nthe
    Lakeregion.Sonsanddaught ersofGer manf armer sinPennsy lvaniaandmanyar edempt ioner
    whohaddi schargedhi sbondofser vit
    udepr essedouti ntoOhi o, Kentucky ,
    Tennessee, or
    beyond.From t heexhaust edfiel
    dsandt heclayhi ll
    soft heSout hernst atescamepi oneer sof
    Engli
    shandScot ch-Ir
    ishdescent ,t
    hel att
    eringr eatnumber s.Indeedonehi stori
    anofhi gh
    authori
    tyhasv enturedt osayt hat"therapidexpansi onoft heUni t
    edSt atesfrom acoastst ri
    p
    toacont i
    nent alareai slargel
    yaScot ch-I
    ri
    shachi ev ement ."Whi l
    enat iveAmer i
    cansofmi xed
    stocksledt hewayi ntot heWest ,
    itwasnotl ongbef oreimmi grant sdirectfrom Eur ope, under
    thesti
    mul usofcompanyent erpri
    se, begantof il
    terintot henewset t
    lement sinincreasi ng
    number s.

    Thet
    ypesofpeopl
    ewer
    easv
    ari
    ousast
    henat
    ionst
    heyr
    epr
    esent
    ed.Ti
    mot
    hyFl
    i
    nt,
    whopubl
    i
    shed
    hisent
    ertai
    ningRecol
    lect
    ionsin1826,f
    oundtheWestast
    rangemixt
    ureofal
    lsor
    tsandcondi
    ti
    ons
    ofpeople.Someofthem, herel
    ates,
    hadbeenhunt
    ersi
    ntheupperworl
    doftheMissi
    ssi
    ppi
    ,above
    thefal
    l
    sofSt .
    Ant hony.Somehadbeenst ill
    fart
    hernort
    h, i
    nCanada.St i
    llother shadwander edfrom the
    Sout h—theGulfofMexi co,theRedRiver,andtheSpani shcount ry.Fr
    enchboat menand
    trappers,Spani
    shtradersfrom theSouthwest ,Vir
    gini
    apl anterswi ththei
    rdrovesofsl aves
    mi ngledwithEngl
    ish,German, andScotch-Ir
    ishfarmers.Hunt ers,for
    estrangers,
    rest l
    ess
    bor dermen,andsquatters,
    likethefoamingcomber sofanadv ancingti
    de,wentfir
    st .Then
    followedthefarmers,mast ersoftheaxandpl ow, wit
    ht heirwi veswhoshar edever yburden
    andhar dshipandintr
    oducedsomeoft hef eaturesofcivili
    zedl if
    e.Thehunt er
    sandr anger
    s
    passedont onewscenes; thehomemaker sbui l
    tforallti
    me.

    TheNumberofI mmi grants.—Therewer enoof fici


    alst ati
    onsont hef rontiert
    orecordthe
    numberofi mmi grantswhoent eredtheWestdur i
    ngt hedecadesf ollowi ngtheAmer i
    can
    Rev ol
    uti
    on.Buttravelersofthet i
    mer ecordt hatev eryr oadwas" cr owded"wi t
    hpioneersand
    theirf
    amili
    es,thei
    rwagonsandcat tl
    e;andt hatt heywer esel
    dom outoft hesoundofthe
    snappingwhipoft het eamsterurgingf orwardhi shor sesort hecr ackoft hehunter
    'sri
    fl
    eashe
    broughtdownhi sev eningmeal ."
    Duringt helatterhalfof1787, "say sComan, "morethannine
    hundredboatsf l
    oateddownt heOhi ocar r
    yingei ghteent housandmen, women, andchil
    dren,
    andt wel
    vethousandhor ses,sheep,andcat tle,andsi xhundr edandf ift
    ywagons. "Otherli
    nes
    oftravelwerealsocr owdedandwi t
    ht hepassi ngy ear sthefl
    oodi ngt ideofhomeseeker srose
    higherandhigher.

    TheWest ernRout es. —Fourmainr outesl edintot


    hecount r
    ybeyondtheAppal achians.The
    Geneseer oad, begi nningatAlbany,ranal mostduewestt othepresentsi
    teofBuf f
    aloonLake
    Erie,t
    hroughal evel countr
    y.I
    nt hedr yseason, wagonsl adenwithgoodscouldeasi lypass
    alongitintonor thernOhi o.Asecondr oute,thr
    oughPi t
    tsburgh,
    wasf edbyt hreeeast ern
    branches, onest artingatPhil
    adelphia, oneatBalti
    mor e,andanotheratAlexandria.At hi
    rd
    mai nroutewoundt hroughthemount ainsf r
    om AlexandriatoBoonesboroinKent uckyandt hen
    west wardacr osst heOhi otoSt.Louis.Af ourt
    h,t
    hemostf amousoft hem all
    ,passedt hrough
    theCumber landGapandbybr anchesext endedintotheCumber landvall
    eyandt heKent ucky
    count r
    y.

    Ofthesefourli
    nesoft ravel
    ,thePit
    tsburghrouteof feredthemostadv antages.Pioneers,no
    matterfr
    om whatsect iontheycame, whenoncet heywer eont heheadwat ersoftheOhioand
    i
    npossessi onofaflatboat,coul
    dfindaquickandeasypassagei ntoallpartsoftheWestand
    Southwest.Whethertheywant edtoset t
    lei
    nOhi o, Kentucky,orwest er
    nTennesseet hey
    coul
    df i
    ndtheirwaydownt hedri
    fti
    ngf l
    oodtot heirdestinati
    onoratl easttosomespotneari t
    .
    Manypeopl efrom t
    heSout haswel lastheNor thernandMi ddl
    est ateschoset hisroute;
    soit
    cameaboutt hatthesonsanddaught ersofVirgini
    aandt heCarolinasmi ngledwiththoseof
    NewYor k,Pennsylv
    ania,andNewEngl andintheset tl
    ementoft heNor t
    hwestt erri
    tor
    y.

    TheMet hodsofTr avelintotheWest .


    —Manyst oriesgi v ingexactdescr ipti
    onsofmet hodsoft ravel
    i
    ntotheWesti nt heear lydayshav ebeenpr eser ved.Thecount r
    ywashar dlyopenedbef orev i
    sitors
    fr
    om theOl dWor ldandf rom theEast ernstates, i
    mpel ledbycur i
    osit
    y ,madet heirwayt ot hev ery
    fr
    onti
    erofci vil
    izationandwr otebookst oinform oramuset hepubl i
    c.Oneoft hem, Gi l
    ber tIml ay,an
    Engli
    sht r
    av el
    er,hasgi venusanaccountoft hePi ttsbur ghr outeashef oundi tin1791." I
    faman. .
    ."
    hewr i
    tes,"hasaf ami l
    yorgoodsofanysor ttor emov e, hisbestway , t
    hen, woul dbet opur chasea
    waggonandt eam ofhor sestocar ryhisproper tyt oRedst oneOl dFor tortoPi tt
    sbur gh, accor ding
    ashemaycomef rom theNor ther
    norSout hernst at es.Agoodwaggonwi llcost ,atPhi ladel phia,
    about£10. ..andt hehor sesabout£12each; theywoul dcostsomet hingmor ebot hatBal timor e
    andAlexandr i
    a.Thewaggonmaybecov er
    edwi thcanv ass, andifitisthechoi ceoft hepeopl e, t
    hey
    maysleepi nitofni ghtswi t
    ht hegreat estsafety.Buti ft heydisl
    ikethat, t
    herear ei nnsof
    accommodat iont hewhol edistanceont hedifferentr oads. ..
    .The
    provi
    sionsIwoul dpur chasei nt hesamemanner[ thati s, fr
    om thefarmer sal ongt her oad]; andby
    havi
    ngt woort hreecampket tl
    esandst oppingev eryev eningwhent heweat heri sf i
    neupont he
    bri
    nkofsomer ivuletandbyki ndli
    ngaf i
    retheymaysoondr esstheirownf ood. .
    ..Thismannerof
    j
    ourneyi
    ngissofar
    fr
    om beingdi
    sagreeablethati
    nafi
    neseasonitisext
    remel
    ypleasant
    ."Theimmigr
    antonceat
    Pit
    tsbur
    ghorWheel ingcouldt
    henbuyafl
    atboatofasizer
    equir
    edforhisgoodsandstock,
    and
    dri
    ftdownthecurrentto
    hi
    sjour
    ney
    'send.

    RoadsandTr
    ail
    sint
    otheWest
    ernTer
    ri
    tor
    y

    TheAdmi ssi
    onofKentuckyandTennessee. —Whent heeighteenthcent
    urydrewt oaclose,
    Kentuckyhadapopulati
    onlargerthanDelaware,
    RhodeI sland,orNewHampshi re.
    Tennesseeclaimed60,
    000inhabitant
    s.I
    n1792Kent uckyt ookherplaceasast atebesi
    deher
    nonetookindlypar
    ent,
    Virgi
    nia.TheEasternFederal
    i
    stsresentedherintr
    usion;buttheytook
    someconsolationi
    ntheadmi ssi
    onofVer montbecauset hebalanceofEasternpowerwas
    sti
    l
    lretai
    ned.

    Asiftoassertthei
    rindependenceofoldhomesandconser v
    ativei
    deasthemakersof
    Kentucky'
    sfir
    stconstit
    utionsweptasi
    dethelandedquali
    fi
    cat i
    ononthesuff
    rageandgavethe
    votetoallf
    reewhitemal es.Foury
    earslat
    er,
    Kentucky'
    sneighbortothesouth,
    Tennessee,
    fol
    lowedthissteptowardawi derdemocracy.Af
    terencounteri
    ngfi
    erceopposi
    ti
    onfrom t
    he
    Federal
    ist
    s,Tennesseewasaccept edasthesixt
    eenthstate.

    Ohio.—Thedooroft heunionhadhar dl
    yopenedf orTennesseewhenanot herappeal was
    madet oCongress,thisti
    mef rom thepi oneersinOhi o.Thel i
    tt
    lepost sf
    oundedatMar ietta
    andCi nci
    nnatihadgr ownintof lour
    ishingcent er
    soft rade.Thestream ofimmi grants,f
    lowi ng
    downt heriver
    ,addeddai l
    yt otheirnumber sandt hegr owingsett
    lement sal
    laroundpour ed
    produceintotheirmar ket
    st obeexchangedf or"storegoods."AftertheIndi
    answer edisposed
    ofin1794andt helastBrit
    ishsol di
    erleftthef r
    ontierfort
    sunderthet ermsoft heJayt r
    eat yof
    1795,tinysett
    lement soffamiliesappear edonLakeEr i
    einthe"West ernReserve,"aregion
    thathadbeenr etai
    nedbyConnect i
    cutwhenshesur renderedherot herri
    ghtsi
    nt heNor thwest.

    Att hecl oseoft hecent ury,Ohio, cl


    aimingapopul ationofmor ethan50, 000, grewdi scont ented
    withi tsterrit
    orial status.Indeed, twoy ear sbefor et heenact mentoft heNor thwestOr dinance,
    squat tersi nthatr egionhadbeeni nvi
    tedbyoneJohnEmer sont oholdaconv entionaf t
    ert he
    fashionoft hemenofHar tford,Wi ndsor ,andWet hersfi
    eldinol dConnect i
    cutanddr aftaf rameof
    gov ernmentf ort hemsel ves.Thist ruesonofNewEngl anddecl aredthatmen" hav eanundoubt ed
    ri
    ghtt opassi ntoev eryv acantcount r
    yandt heret of ormt heirconstit
    utionandt hatfrom t he
    conf eder ati
    onoft hewhol eUni tedSt atesCongr essi snotempower edt oforbidt hem. "Thisgr and
    conv ent i
    onwasnev erhel dbecauset heheav yhandoft hegov ernmentf ellupont heleader s;but
    thespi r i
    tofJohnEmer sondi dnotper i
    sh.I nNov ember ,1802, aconv entionchosenbyv oters,
    assembl edundert heaut hor i
    tyofCongr essatChi ll
    icothe,drewupaconst ituti
    on.I twenti ntof orce
    afterapopul arr atifi
    cation.Ther olloftheconv entionbor esuchnamesasAbbot ,Baldwi n,Cutler,
    Hunt ingt on,Putnam, andSar gent ,andt hel i
    stofcount iesf r
    om whi cht heycamei ncl
    udedAdams,
    Fairfield,Hami l
    ton, Jefferson, Trumbul l
    , andWashi ngton,showi ngt hatthenewAmer icai nthe
    Westwaspeopl edandl edbyt heol dstock.I n1803Ohi owasadmi ttedt otheuni on.
    IndianaandI ll
    inois.—Asi nthenei ghboringstate,thefront
    ierinIndianaadv ancednor thwar d
    from theOhi o,mai nlyundert heleadership,howev er,
    ofset t
    lersfrom theSout h—rest
    less
    Kent ucki
    anshopi ngforbet terl
    ucki nanewercount ryandpi oneersfrom thef arfr
    ontiersof
    VirginiaandNor thCar ol
    ina.Assoonasat i
    erofcount iesswi ngi
    ngupwar dli
    ket hehor nsofthe
    moonagai nstOhi oont heeastandi nt heWabashVal l
    eyont hewestwasf air
    lysettl
    ed, a
    clamorwentupf orst atehood.Undert heaut horit
    yofanactofCongr essin1816t heIndi ani
    ans
    draftedaconst i
    tuti
    onandi nauguratedt hei
    rgov ernmentatCor y
    don." Themaj ori
    tyoft he
    member soft heconv enti
    on,"wear etoldbyal ocalhi
    stori
    an, "werefronti
    erfarmerswhohada
    gener ali
    deaofwhatt heywant edandhadsenseenought ol ettheirmor eerudit
    ecolleagues
    puti ti
    ntoshape. "

    Twoy earslater,thepioneersofIl
    li
    nois,
    alsosett
    ledupwar dfr
    om theOhi o,l
    ikeIndiana,elect
    ed
    thei
    rdelegatestodr aftaconstit
    uti
    on.Leadershi
    pintheconv ent
    ion,quit
    epr operly,wastaken
    byamanbor ni nNewYor kandrearedinTennessee;andt heconsti
    tut
    ionasf inall
    ydrafted
    "wasinitsprincipalprovi
    sionsacopyoft hethenexi
    stingconsti
    tuti
    onsofKent ucky,Ohio,and
    I
    ndiana..
    ..Manyoft hearti
    clesareexactcopi
    esinwor dingalt
    houghdifferentl
    yar r
    angedand
    numbered."

    Loui si
    ana, Mississippi,andAl abama. —Acr osst heMi ssissippi t
    ot hef arsout h,clearingandpl anti
    ng
    hadgoneonwi thmuchbust l
    eandent er prise.Thecot tonandsugarl andsofLoui siana, openedby
    FrenchandSpani shsettl
    ers,wer ewi denedi nev er ydi r
    ect i
    onbypl ant erswi t
    ht heirar miesofsl aves
    from theol derst ates.NewOr leans, agoodmar ketandacent erofcul turenotdespi sedev enbyt he
    pioneer ,grewapace.I n1810t hepopul ationofl owerLoui sianawasov er75,000.Thet i
    mehad
    come, saidthel eadersoft hepeopl e, t
    of ulf i
    l
    lthepr omi semadet oFr ancei nthet reatyofcessi on;
    namel y, t
    ogr antt otheinhabitant soft het erri
    tor ystat ehoodandt her ightsofAmer i
    canci t
    izens.
    Feder ali
    stsf r
    om NewEngl andst i
    l
    l havingav oicei nCongr ess,ifsomewhatweaker ,sti
    llprotested
    i
    nt onesofhor ror ."
    Iam compel ledt odecl areitasmydel i
    ber ateopi nion,"pronouncedJosi ah
    Qui ncyintheHouseofRepr esent atives, "thatift hisbi ll[
    toadmi tLoui siana]passes, thebondsof
    thisUni onar evirtuall
    ydissolved. ..thatasi twi l
    l bet her ightofal l,soi twi l
    lbet hedut yofsome
    [states]topr eparedef i
    nitel
    yforasepar ation;ami cabl yiftheycan, violentlyiftheymust ...
    .Itisa
    deat hblowt otheConst i
    tuti
    on.I tmayaf terwardsl i
    nger ; butl i
    ngering, i
    t sfat
    ewi ll
    ,at
    nov erydistantper i
    od,beconsummat ed. "Feder alist sf r
    om NewYor klikethosef rom New
    Engl andhadt hei rdoubtsaboutt hewi sdom ofadmi ttingWest er nst ates;butt hepar tyof
    Jef fer
    sonandMadi son, havingt henecessar ymaj ority,gr antedt hecov etedst atehoodt o
    Loui si
    anai n1812.

    When, afewy ear


    slater,
    Mi ssi
    ssippi andAlabamaknockedatt hedoor softheunion,the
    Federalistshadsolit
    tleinfl
    uence, onaccountoft heirconductdur i
    ngt hesecondwarwi th
    England, t
    hatspokesmenf rom theSout hwestmetaki ndli
    err ecepti
    onatWashi ngton.
    Mississippi,i
    n1817,andAl abama, i
    n1819, tooktheirplacesamongt heUnitedStatesof
    Amer ica.Bothofthem, whilegrantingwhi t
    emanhoodsuf f
    r age,gavet hei
    rconsti
    tuti
    onsthe
    toneoft heoldEastbypr ovi
    dinglandedqual if
    icat
    ionsf orthegov ernorandmember softhe
    l
    egislature.

    Mi ssouri.
    —Fartot henorthintheLouisianapur chase,anewcommonweal thwasr isingt o
    power .Itwaspeopl edbyi mmigrantswhocamedownt heOhi oinf l
    eetsofboat sorcr ossed
    theMi ssissi
    ppifrom KentuckyandTennessee.Thr if
    tyGer mansf rom Pennsy l
    vania,har dy
    farmer sfrom Vi
    rginiareadytowor kwiththeirownhands, f
    reemenseeki ngfreemen' shomes,
    planterswi t
    htheirslav
    esmov i
    ngonf rom wor n-outfi
    eldsont heseaboar d,camet oget herin
    thewi deningsettl
    ement softheMi ssouricount ry.Peopl esfrom theNor thandSout hflowed
    together,smallfarmersandbi gplantersmi nglinginonecommuni ty.Whent heirnumber shad
    reachedsi xtyt
    housandormor e,theyprecipitatedacont estov ertheiradmissiontot heuni on,
    "r
    inginganalar
    m belli
    nthenight
    ,"asJeff
    ersonphrasedi t
    .Thefavori
    teexpedi
    entof
    compr omisewithsl
    averywasbroughtfor
    thinCongr essoncemor e.Maineconsequentl
    ywas
    broughtintot
    heunionwi t
    houtsl
    averyandMi ssour
    iwithslav
    ery.Atthesamet i
    met her
    ewas
    drawnwest wardthr
    ought her
    estoftheLouisianat
    errit
    oryali
    neseparati
    ngservit
    udefrom
    sl
    av ery
    .
    TheSpi
    ri
    toft
    heFr
    ont
    ier

    LandTenur eandLi berty.


    —Ov eranimmensewest er nareat heredev elopedanunbr okensy st
    em
    offreeholdf arms.I ntheGul fst at
    esandt hel owerMi ssissippiVal l
    ey,itistrue,thepl anterwith
    hismanysl avesev enl edint hepioneermov ement ;butthroughl argesect ionsofTennessee
    andKent ucky ,aswel l
    asupperGeor gi
    aandAl abama, andal lthroughoutt heNor thwestt erri
    tor
    y
    thesmal lfarmerr eignedsupr eme.Int hi
    simmensedomi ni
    ont her espr angupaci vil
    i
    zation
    withoutcast eorcl ass—abodyofpeopl eal
    l hav i
    ngaboutt hesameamountoft hiswor l
    d's
    goodsandder i
    vingt heirli
    veli
    hoodf rom onesour ce: t
    hel aboroft heirownhandsont hesoi l
    .
    TheNor thwestt erritoryaloneal mostequal edi nar eaalltheor iginal t
    hirteenstat escombi ned,
    exceptGeor gi
    a,andi t
    ssy stem ofagr i
    cult
    ural economywasunbr okenbypl antationsand
    feudalestates."Int hesubdi visionofthesoi landt hegr eatequal i
    tyofcondi ti
    on,"asWebst er
    saidonmor et hanoneoccasi on,"l
    aythet r
    uebasi s,mostcer t
    ai nly,ofpopul argov ernment .
    "
    Therewast heundoubt edsour ceofJacksoni andemocr acy .

    ALogCabi
    n—Li
    ncol
    n'
    sBi
    rt
    hpl
    ace

    TheChar acteristi
    csoft heWest ernPeopl e.—Tr av el
    ersint ot heNor t
    hwestdur i
    ngt heear l
    y
    yearsoft heni neteent hcentur ywer eagr eedt hatt hepeopl eoft hatregi onwer eal most
    unifor
    ml ymar kedbyt hechar act eri
    st icscommont oani ndependenty eomanr y.Acl ose
    observert husr ecor dedhisimpr essi ons: "Aspi r
    itofadv ent urousenterpr ise,awi l
    li
    ngnesst o
    got hr
    oughanyhar dshiptoaccompl ishanobj ect .
    ..
    .
    Independenceoft houghtandact i
    on.Theyhav ef elttheinfluenceoft hesepr incipl
    esf rom thei
    r
    chil
    dhood.Menwhocanendur eany thing; thathav eli
    vedal mostwi t
    houtr est r
    aint,freeasthe
    mount ai
    nai rorast hedeerandt hebuf f al
    ooft heirforests, andwhoknowt heyar eAmer i
    cansall.
    ..
    .
    Anappar entr oughness
    whichsomewoul ddeem r udenessofmanner .
    ...Wher et her eisperfectequal it
    yi na
    neighborhoodof
    peoplewhoknowl i
    ttl
    eabouteachot her'spr ev i
    oushi stor yorancest rybutwher eeachi slord
    ofthesoi lhecul t
    ivates.Wher eal ogcabi nisal lthatthebestoff ami l
    iescanexpectt ohav efor
    yearsandofcour secanpossessf ewoft heext er naldecor ati
    onswhi chhav esomuch
    i
    nf l
    uencei ncr eatingadi versityofr anki nsoci ety.Theseci rcumst anceshav elaidt he
    foundationf ort hatequalityofi ntercour se, si
    mpl i
    cityofmanner s,wantofdef erence, wantof
    reserve,greatr eadinesstomakeacquai nt ances, fr
    eedom ofspeech, indi spositiont obrook
    realorimagi nar yinsultswhi chonewi tnessesamongpeopl eoftheWest .
    "
    Thisequal
    i
    ty,thi
    sindependence,thi
    srudenesssooft
    endescri
    bedbythet
    ravel
    erasmar ki
    nga
    newcountry,
    wer eall
    accentuatedbythecharact
    eroftheset
    tl
    erst
    hemsel
    ves.Tracesofthe
    fi
    erce,
    unsociabl
    e,
    eagle-eyed, hard-
    drinki nghunterremai ned.Theset tl
    erswhof oll
    owedt hehunt erwer e,with
    someexcept i
    ons,sol di er
    softheRev olutionaryar my,far
    mer softhe" middlingor der ,
    "and
    mechani csf rom thet owns,—English,Scot ch-I
    ri
    sh, Germans,—poorinpossessi onsandt hrown
    upont hel aboroft heirownhandsf orsuppor t.Sonsanddaught ersfrom wel l
    -to-doEast ern
    homessomet i
    mesbr oughtsof t
    ermanner s;buttheequalit
    yofl i
    feandt helev eli
    ngf or
    ceof
    l
    abori nfor estandf ieldsoonmadet hem onei nspiri
    twiththeirstr
    ugglingnei ghbor s.Eventhe
    preachersandt eacher s,whocamewhent hecabi nswereraisedint heclearingsandr ude
    churchesandschool houseswer ebui lt
    ,preachedser monsandt aughtlessonst hatsav oredof
    thefrontier,asanyonemayknowwhor eadsPet erCartwri
    ght'sAMuscul arChr ist
    ianor
    Eggleston'sTheHoosi erSchool
    mast er.

    TheWestandt
    heEastMeet

    TheEastAl armed. —Apeopl esoi ndependentast heWest ernersandsoat tachedt olocal self-
    governmentgav etheconser v ati
    veEastmanyar udeshock, sett i
    nggent lemeni npowder ed
    wigsandkneebr eechesagogwi t
    hthei deat hatterri
    blet hingsmi ghthappeni nt heMi ssissippi
    Vall
    ey .Notwi thoutgoodgr oundsdi dWashi ngt onfearthat" at ouchofaf eatherwoul dt urn"the
    West ernset t
    lersawayf r
    om t heseaboar dt ot heSpani ards; andser iouslydi dheur get heEast
    nottonegl ectt hem, lestt heybe" drawni nt ot hear msof ,orbedependentuponf oreigner s."
    Takingadv ant ageoft her estl
    essspi ri
    tint heSout hwest ,Aar onBur r,havingdi sgr acedhi msel f
    bykill
    ingAl exanderHami ltoninaduel ,l
    aidwi ldplans,ifnott obr ingaboutasecessi oni nt hat
    regi
    on, atl
    eastt obui l
    dast ateofsomeki ndoutoft heSpani shdomi ni
    onsadj oiningLoui siana.
    Fri
    ght enedatsuchent er
    pr i
    sesandf eari
    ngt hedomi nanceoft heWest ,theFeder alists,wi t
    ha
    fewconspi cuousexcept ions, opposedequal i
    tybet weent hesect ions.Hadt heirnar rowv i
    ews
    prevailed,theWest ,withitsnewdemocr acy ,woul dhav ebeenhel dinper petual tutelaget ot he
    seaboar dorper hapsbeendr i
    v enint
    oi ndependenceast het hirteencol onieshadbeennotl ong
    before.

    Easter nFriendsoft heWest .


    —For tunatelyf orthenat ion, therewer emanyEast er nleaders,
    particularl
    yfrom t heSout h, whounder st
    oodt heWest ,appr ovedi tsspirit,
    andsoughtt obr i
    ng
    thet wosect ionst ogetherbycommonbonds.Washi ngt onkeptal iveandkeent hezeal f
    or
    West ernadvancementwhi chheacqui r
    edi nhi syout hasasur v eyor.Henev ergr ewt ir
    edof
    urginguponhi sEast ernf ri
    endst hei mpor tanceoft hel andsbey ondt hemount ains.Hepr essed
    upont hegov ernorofVi r
    giniaapr ojectforawagonr oadconnect i
    ngt heseaboar dwi t
    htheOhi o
    count ryandwasact iveinamov ementt oi mpr ovet henav igationoft hePot omac.He
    advocat edst rengtheningt het i
    esofcommer ce."Smoot ht heroads, "hesai d,"andmakeeasy
    thewayf orthem, andt henseewhatani nfluxofar ticleswi l
    lbepour eduponus; howamazi ngl
    y
    ourexpor t
    swi llbeincr easedbyt hem; andhowampl yweshal l becompensat edf oranytrouble
    andexpensewemayencount ertoef f
    ectit."Jefferson, t
    oo, wasi nterestedi nev eryphaseof
    West erndevelopment —thesur veyofl ands, t
    heexpl or ationofwat erway s,theopeni ngoft rade,
    andev enthedi scov eryoft hebonesofpr ehistor
    icani mal s.Rober tFulton,thei nv entoroft he
    steamboat ,wasanot hermanofv isionwhof ormanyy earspr esseduponhi scount ryment he
    necessi tyofuni t
    ingEastandWestbyacanal whi chwoul dcementt heuni on, raiset hevalueof
    thepubl i
    clands, andext endt hepr inci
    plesofconf eder ateandr epubl i
    cangov er nment .

    TheDi ffi
    cult
    iesofEar l
    yTranspor tati
    on.—Meansofcommuni cati
    onplayedani mportantparti
    nthe
    strategyofallthosewhosoughtt obringtogethertheseaboardandt hefr ont
    ier.Theproduceof
    theWest —wheat,corn,bacon, hemp, catt
    le,andtobacco—wasbul kyandt hecostofov erl
    and
    transportati
    onwaspr ohibiti
    ve.Int heEasternmar ket,
    "acowandhercal fwer egi venforabushel
    ofsal t
    ,whileasuitof'stor
    ecl othes'costasmuchasaf arm."Insuchcircumst ances,the
    i
    nhabi tantsoftheMississippiVal l
    eywer eforcedtoshiptheirproduceov eralongr outebywayof
    NewOr leansandt opayhighf reightratesforeverythi
    ngthatwasbr oughtacr ossthemount ai
    ns.
    Scowsoffrom f
    ivetof
    if
    tytonswerebuil
    tatt
    hetownsalongther i
    versandpil
    oteddownt he
    str
    eam totheCr
    escentCi
    ty.I
    nafewcasessmal l
    ocean-goi
    ngv essel
    swer ebui
    lttotr
    ansport
    goodstotheWestIndi
    esortotheEaster
    ncoasttowns.Sal
    t,i
    ron,guns,powder,andt
    heabsolut
    e
    essent
    ial
    swhichthepi
    oneershadtobuymainlyi
    nEasternmar ket
    swerecarri
    ed
    ov
    ernar
    rowwagont
    rai
    l
    sthatwer
    eal
    mosti
    mpassabl
    eint
    her
    ainyseason.

    TheNat ional Road. —Tof ar-


    sightedmen, l
    ikeAl bertGall
    atin,"t
    hef atherofi nternal
    i
    mpr ovement s,"thesol utionofthispr oblem wast heconst ructi
    onofr oadsandcanal s.Earlyi
    n
    Jeffer
    son' sadmi ni
    stration,Congr essdedi catedapar tofthepr oceedsf r
    om t hesal eofl andsto
    buil
    dinghi ghway sf rom t heheadwat er soft henavigablewat ersempt y i
    ngi ntotheAt lanticto
    theOhioRi v
    erandbey ondi ntotheNor thwestt er
    ri
    tory.I
    n1806, aftermanymi sgivings, i
    t
    authori
    zedagr eatnat i
    onal highwaybi ndingt heEastandt heWest .TheCumber landRoad, asit
    wascal led,begani nnor thwesternMar yland, woundt hroughsout her nPennsy lvania,crossed
    thenarrowneckofVi rginiaatWheel ing, andt henshotal mostst raightacr ossOhi o,Indiana,
    andI l
    l
    inois,intoMi ssour i.By1817, stagecoacheswer erunningbet weenWashi ngt onand
    Wheel i
    ng; by1833cont ractorshadcar ri
    edt hei
    rwor ktoCol umbus, Ohio,andby1852, to
    Vandalia,Il
    li
    noi s.Ov erthisbal l
    astedr oadmai l
    andpassengercoachescoul dgoathi ghspeed,
    andheav yfreightwagonspr oceedi nsaf et yatast eadypace.

    TheCumber
    landRoad
    TheCumber
    landRoad

    CanalsandSt eamboat s.—Asecondepochi nt heeconomi cuni onoft heEastandWestwas


    reachedwi ththeopeni ngoft heEr i
    eCanal in1825, off
    eri
    nganal l-waterr
    out efr
    om NewYor kCity
    totheGr eatLakesandt heMi ssissi
    ppi Vall
    ey.Pennsy l
    vania,al
    armedbyt headv antagesconf erred
    onNewYor kbyt hisent erprise,beganhersy stem ofcanal sandpor tagesfrom Phil
    adelphiat o
    Pitt
    sburgh,compl eti
    ngt hel astlinkin1834.I nt heSout h,t
    heChesapeakeandOhi oCompany ,
    charter
    edi n1825, wasbusywi thapr ojecttoconnectGeor get
    ownandCumber l
    andwhenr ai
    lways
    brokeinupont heunder takingbef oreitwashal ffini
    shed.Aboutt hesamet ime,Ohiobui l
    tacanal
    acrossthest ate,affordingwat ercommuni cationbet weenLakeEr i
    eandt heOhi oRiverthrougha
    ri
    chwheatbel t.Passenger scoul dnowt r
    avel bycanal boati nt
    otheWestwi thcompar ati
    veease
    andcomf ort,i
    fnotatar apidspeed, andt hebul kiestoffr
    eightcoul dbeeasilyhandled.Mor eover,
    theratechar gedf orcar ryi
    nggoodswascutbyt heErieCanal fr
    om $32at onperhundr edmi lesto
    $1.NewOr leanswasdest inedt oloseherpr imacyi ntheMi ssi
    ssippiVall
    ey.

    Thedi versi
    onoftraf
    fictoEast ernmar ketswasal sosti
    mul at
    edbyst eamboat swhi chappear ed
    ont heOhi oabout1810, t
    hreey earsafterFul
    tonhadmadehi sf amoustr i
    pont heHudson.I t
    tookt wentyment osailandr owaf ive-
    tonscowupt heri
    v erataspeedoff r
    om t ent otwenty
    milesaday .I
    n1825,Timot hyFlinttr
    aveledahundr edmilesadayont henewst eamerGr eci
    an
    "againstthewholewei ghtoftheMi ssissippi
    cur r
    ent.
    "Threey earslat
    ertheroundt r
    ipf r
    om
    Louisvil
    letoNewOr leanswascutt oeightday s.Heavyproducet hatoncehadt of l
    oatdownt o
    NewOr leanscoul
    dbecar r
    iedupst r
    eam andsentt ot
    heEastbywayoft hecanal systems.
    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    AnEar
    lyMi
    ssi
    ssi
    ppi
    Steamboat

    Thust hefarcountrywasbr oughtnear.Theti


    mi dnolongerhesit
    atedatt hethoughtoftheperi
    l
    ous
    j
    ourney .All
    routeswerecrowdedwi t
    hWest er
    nimmi grant
    s.Thef or
    est sfel
    lbef or
    etheaxli
    kegrai
    n
    beforethesickl
    e.Clear
    ingsscat t
    eredthroughthewoodsspr eadouti ntoagr eatmosaicoff
    arms
    str
    etchingfrom theSouthernAppalachianstoLakeMi chi
    gan.Thenat ionalcensusof1830gave
    937,000inhabit
    antstoOhi o;343,
    000t oIndi
    ana;157,
    000t oIl
    li
    nois;687,000toKent ucky
    ;and
    681,000t oTennessee.

    Di
    str
    ibut
    ionofPopul
    ati
    on,
    1830

    Wi t
    hthei ncreasei npopulati
    onandt hegrowt hofagri
    cul
    turecamepol it
    icalinf
    luence.
    Peoplewhohadoncepet i
    t i
    onedCongr essnowsentt hei
    rownr epresentat
    ives.Menwho
    hadhi thertoaccept edwit
    houtprotestsPr esidentsfr
    om theseaboar dexpressedanew
    spiri
    tofdi ssentin1824bygi v
    ingonlythreeel ect
    oralvot
    esf orJohnQuincyAdams; and
    fouryear slatertheysentasonoft hesoi lfrom Tennessee,AndrewJackson, t
    otake
    Washi ngton'schai raschi
    efexecutiveofthenat i
    on—thefir
    stofal ongli
    neofPr esident
    s
    from theMi ssissippibasi
    n.

    Ref
    erences

    W.
    G.Br TheLowerSout
    own, hinAmer
    icanHi
    stor
    y.

    B.
    A.Hi
    nsdal
    e,TheOl
    dNor
    thWest(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    A.
    B.Hul
    ber
    t,Gr
    eatAmer
    icanCanal
    sandTheCumber
    landRoad.
    T.Roosev
    elt
    ,ThomasH.Bent
    on.
    P.
    J.Tr
    eat
    ,TheNat
    ionalLandSy
    stem (
    1785-
    1820)
    .

    F.
    J.Tur
    ner
    ,Ri
    seoft
    heNewWest(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .

    J.Wi
    nsor
    ,TheWest
    war
    dMov
    ement
    .

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Howdi
    dtheWestcomet
    opl
    ayar
    ôlei
    ntheRev
    olut
    ion?

    2.
    Whatpr
    epar
    ati
    onswer
    enecessar
    ytoset
    tl
    ement
    ?

    3.
    Giv
    ethepr
    inci
    pal
    prov
    isi
    onsoft
    heNor
    thwestOr
    dinance.

    4.
    Expl
    ainhowf
    reehol
    dlandt
    enur
    ehappenedt
    opr
    edomi
    nat
    eint
    heWest
    .

    5.
    Whower
    etheear
    lyset
    tl
    ersi
    ntheWest
    ?Whatr
    out
    esdi
    dtheyt
    ake?Howdi
    dtheyt
    rav
    el?

    6.
    Expl
    aint
    heEast
    ernopposi
    ti
    ont
    otheadmi
    ssi
    onofnewWest
    ernst
    ates.Showhowi
    twas
    over
    come.

    7.
    Traceaconnect
    ionbet
    weent
    heeconomi
    csy
    stem oft
    heWestandt
    hespi
    ri
    toft
    hepeopl
    e.

    8.
    Whower
    eamongt
    heear
    lyf
    ri
    endsofWest
    erndev
    elopment
    ?

    9.
    Descr
    ibet
    hedi
    ff
    icul
    ti
    esoft
    radebet
    weent
    heEastandt
    heWest
    .

    10.
    Showhowt
    radewaspr
    omot
    ed.

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    Nort
    hwestOrdi
    nance.
    —Anal
    ysi
    softex
    tinMacdonal
    d,Document
    arySour
    ceBook.Roosev
    elt
    ,
    Winni
    ngoftheWest,Vol
    .V,
    pp.5-
    57.

    TheWestbef
    oret
    heRev
    olut
    ion.
    —Roosev
    elt
    ,Vol
    .I.

    TheWestdur
    ingt
    heRev
    olut
    ion.
    —Roosev
    elt
    ,Vol
    s.I
    IandI
    II
    .

    Tennessee.
    —Roosev
    elt
    ,Vol
    .V,
    pp.95-
    119andVol
    .VI
    ,pp.9-
    87.

    TheCumber
    landRoad.
    —A.
    B.Hul
    ber
    t,TheCumber
    landRoad.

    Earl
    yLifei
    ntheMi
    ddl
    eWest
    .—Cal
    l
    ender
    ,Economi
    cHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.617-
    633;
    636-641.

    Sl
    aver
    yint
    heSout
    hwest
    .—Cal
    l
    ender
    ,pp.641-
    652.

    Ear
    lyLandPol
    i
    cy.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,pp.668-
    680.

    West
    war
    dMov
    ementofPeopl
    es.
    —Roosev
    elt
    ,Vol
    .IV,
    pp.7-
    39.

    Li
    stsofbooksdeal
    i
    ngwiththeearl
    yhist
    oryofWest
    ernst
    atesaregi
    veni
    nHar t,
    Channing,
    andTurner
    ,Gui
    detotheStudyandReadingofAmer
    icanHi
    stor
    y(rev
    .ed.
    ),pp.62-89.
    Kent
    ucky
    .—Roosev
    elt
    ,Vol
    .IV,
    pp.176-
    263.

    CHAPTERXI
    JACKSONI
    ANDEMOCRACY

    TheNewEngl andFeder al
    ist
    s,att
    heHar t
    fordconv ent i
    on,prophesiedt hatintimet heWestwoul d
    domi natet heEast ." Att headopti
    onoft heConst it
    ut i
    on,"theysaid,"acer tai
    nbal anceofpower
    amongt heor iginal stateswasconsi der edt oexi
    st, andt herewasatt hattimeandy etisamong
    thosepar tiesast r
    ongaf f
    ini
    tybet
    weent heirgreatandgener alint
    erest s.Bytheadmi ssi
    onofthese
    [new]st atesthatbal ancehasbeenmat eri
    all
    yaffect edandunl esst hepr acti
    cebemodi fi
    edmust
    ulti
    mat elybedest roy ed.TheSout hernst ateswillf
    irstav ail
    themsel vesoft heirnewconf eder
    atesto
    governt heEast , andf i
    nallyt
    heWest er nstates,mul tipl
    iedinnumber ,andaugment edinpopulat
    ion,
    willcontrol t
    hei nterest softhewhol e."Strangelyenought hefulfi
    ll
    mentoft hispr ophecywasbeing
    preparedev eninFeder ali
    ststr
    ongholdsbyt heriseofanewur bandemocr acythatwast omake
    commoncausewi tht hefarmersbey ondt hemount ains.

    TheDemocr
    ati
    cMov
    ementi
    ntheEast

    TheAr i
    stocr
    ati
    cFeat uresoft heOldOr der.
    —TheRev oluti
    onaryfat
    hers,i
    nset t
    ingupt heirf
    ir
    st
    stateconsti
    tut
    ions,althought heyof t
    enspokeofgov ernmentasfoundedont heconsentoft he
    governed,di
    dnott hinkt hatconsistencyrequi
    redgivingthevotetoalladul
    tmal es.Ont he
    contrar
    ytheylookeduponpr opertyowner sastheonlysafe"deposit
    ary"ofpolit
    ical
    power .
    Theywentbackt ot hecol onialtr
    aditi
    ont hatr
    elat
    edt axati
    onandrepresentati
    on.This,they
    argued,wasnotonl yj ustbutasaf eguardagainstthe"excessesofdemocr acy."

    Incar ryi
    ngt heirtheor yintoexecut iontheyplacedt axpayingorpr oper t
    yqualifi
    cationsont he
    righttov ote.Br oadlyspeaki ng,thesel i
    mitat
    ionsf elli
    ntothreecl asses.Threest ates,
    Pennsy lvania( 1776) ,NewHampshi r
    e(1784),andGeor gia(1798) ,gavetheballott oallwho
    pai dtaxes,withoutr eferencetot hev al
    ueoft heirproperty.Three,Virgini
    a,Delawar e,andRhode
    Island,clungf irmlyt otheanci entpr i
    ncipl
    esthatonl yfreeholderscoul dbeintrustedwi th
    electoralri
    ght s.Stillotherst at
    es, whil
    ecloselyrestri
    cti
    ngt hesuf frage,acceptedt heowner shi
    p
    ofot herthingsaswel lasl andinf ulf
    il
    lmentoft herequirement s.InMassachuset t
    s, f
    orinstance,
    thev otewasgr antedt oall menwhohel dlandy iel
    dinganannual i
    ncomeoft hreepoundsor
    possessedot herpr opertywor thsixtypounds.

    Theelectorsthusenf r
    anchi sed,numerousast heywer e,owingt othewidedi str
    ibutionofl and,
    oftensuf
    feredf r
    om av eryoner ousdisabil
    ity.Inmanyst atest heywereablet ov oteonlyf or
    personsofweal thbecauseheav ypropertyqual i
    fi
    cati
    onswer eimposedonpubl icof fi
    cers.In
    NewHampshi re,thegov ernorhadtobewor thf i
    vehundr edpounds, one-halfinland; i
    n
    Massachuset ts,onet housandpounds, allf
    reehold;inMar yland,fi
    vethousandpounds, one
    thousandofwhi chwasf reehold;i
    nNor thCar ol
    ina,onethousandpoundsf reehol d;andi n
    SouthCar ol
    ina, t
    ent housandpoundsf reehold.Ast atesenat ori
    nMassachuset t
    shadt obet he
    ownerofaf reehol dwor tht hr
    eehundredpoundsorper sonal propert
    ywor thsixhundr ed
    pounds;i
    nNewJer sey,onet housandpounds' worthofpr operty;
    inNorthCar oli
    na, thr
    ee
    hundr
    edacresofl
    and;
    inSouthCar
    oli
    na,
    twot housandpoundsfr
    eehol
    d.Formember
    soft
    he
    l
    owerhouseofthel
    egi
    slat
    urel
    owerqual
    if
    icat
    ionswererequi
    red.
    I
    nmostoft hest at
    esthesuf f
    rageorof fi
    ceholdi
    ngorbot hwer efurtherr
    estr
    ictedbyr eli
    gious
    provi
    sions.Nosi ngl
    esectwaspower f
    ulenoughtodomi nateaf t
    ertheRev ol
    ution,but,f
    ort hemost
    part
    , Cat
    holicsandJewswer eeitherdisf
    ranchi
    sedorexcl udedfrom offi
    ce.Nor t
    hCar ol
    inaand
    GeorgiadeniedtheballottoanyonewhowasnotaPr otestant.Del
    awar ewithhelditfr
    om al lwho
    di
    dnotbel ieveintheTrini
    tyandt heinspir
    ati
    onoft heScri
    ptures.Massachuset tsandMar y land
    l
    imitedittoChristi
    ans.Vir
    gini
    aandNewYor k,advancedfortheirday ,
    madenodi scri
    minationin
    governmentonaccountofr eli
    giousopinion.

    TheDef enseoft heOl dOr der .—I tmustnotbesupposedt hatpr opertyqual i


    fi
    cat i
    onswer e
    thought lessl yimposedatt heout setorconsi deredofl itt
    leconsequencei npractice.Inthe
    begi nningt heywer ev i
    ewedasf undament al.Ast ownsgr ewi nsizeandt henumberofl andl ess
    cit
    izensi ncr eased, ther estrictionswer edef endedwi thev enmor ev igor.InMassachuset t s, the
    greatWebst eruphel dt her ightsofpr opertyi ngov ernment ,saying:"Itisent ir
    elyjustt hatpr oper t
    y
    shoul dhav ei tsduewei ghtandconsi derationi npol it
    ical ar r
    angement s.
    ...Thedi sastrous
    revolutionswhi cht hewor l
    dhaswi t
    nessed, thosepol i
    tical
    thunder st ormsandear thquakeswhi chhav eshakent hepi l
    larsofsoci etytot heirdeepest
    foundat ions, hav ebeenr evol utionsagai nstpr operty .
    "I nPennsy lvania, aleaderi nlocal affai rscried
    outagai nstapl ant or emov et het axpay i
    ngl imitat
    ionont hesuf fr
    age: "Whatdoest hedel egat e
    propose?Topl acet hev ici
    ousv agr ant,thewander ingAr abs, t
    heTar tarhor desofourl argeci ti
    eson
    thel evel witht hev irtuousandgoodman? "InVi r
    ginia, Jeff ersonhi msel fhadf i
    rstbelievedi n
    proper tyqual if
    icationsandhadf ear edwi thgenui neal armt he"mobsoft hegr eatciti
    es."I twasnear
    theendoft heei ghteent hcent ur ybef oreheaccept edt hei deaofmanhoodsuf frage.Ev ent henhe
    wasunabl et oconv incet heconst i
    tuti
    on- maker sofhi sownst ate."Itisnotani dlechi mer aoft he
    brain,"ur gedoneoft hem, "thatt hepossessi onofl andf urnishest hest rongestev idenceof
    permanent ,commoni nterestwi t h,andat tachmentt o,thecommuni ty .
    ..
    .
    Iti
    supont hi sf oundat ionIwi sht opl acet her ightofsuf fr
    age.Thi si sthebestgener al standar d
    whi chcanber esortedt of ort hepur poseofdet ermi ningwhet hert heper sonst obei nv ested
    witht her ightofsuf fragear esuchper sonsascoul dbe,consi stent lywi t
    ht hesaf etyandwel l
    -
    beingoft hecommuni ty,intrust edwi tht heexer ciseoft hatr i
    ght ."

    Attacksont heRest r
    ictedSuf frage.—Thechangi ngcircumst ancesofAmer i
    canl if
    e,howev er,
    soonchal l
    engedt her ul
    eoft hosewi thpr oper t
    y .Promi nentamongt henewf orceswer ethe
    ri
    singmer canti
    leandbusi nessi nterests.Wher et hefr
    eehol dqual i
    fi
    cationwasappl i
    ed,
    businessmenwhodi dnotownl andwer edepr iv edoft hevot eandexcl udedf r
    om of f
    ice.InNew
    York,forexample, t
    hemosti lli
    teratef armerwhohadonehundr edpounds' wor thoflandcoul d
    voteforstatesenatorandgov ernor ,whil
    et hel andlessbankerormer chantcoul dnot.Itisnot
    surpri
    sing,t
    herefore,tofindbusi nessment akingt heleadi nbreakingdownf reeholdlimitations
    ont hesuffr
    age.Thepr of
    essi onal classesal sower einterestedinremov i
    ngthebar ri
    erswhi ch
    excludedmanyoft hem from publ icaffair
    s.I twasaschool mast er
    ,ThomasDor r,
    whol edt he
    popularuprisi
    nginRhodeI sl
    andwhi chbr oughtt heexcl usi
    ver ul
    ebyf reeholderstoanend.

    Inaddi ti
    ont othebusi nessandpr ofessi onal classes, themechani csofthet ownsshowedagr owing
    host i
    li
    tytoasy stem ofgov ernmentt hatgener allybar redt hem f rom votingorhol dingof f
    ice.
    Thoughnotnumer ous,theyhadear lybegunt oex erciseani nfluenceont hecour seofpubl i
    caf fair
    s.
    Theyhadl edt her i
    otsagainstt heSt ampAct ,ov erturnedKi ngGeor ge'
    sst atue, and" cr ammed
    stampsdownt hethroatsofcol lectors."Whent hest ateconst i
    tutionswer ef ramedt heyt ookal i
    vely
    i
    nt erest,parti
    cularl
    yinNewYor kCi t
    yandPhi ladel phia.I nJune, 1776,the" mechani cksi nuni on"in
    NewYor kpr otestedagai nstput t
    ingt henewst ateconst i
    tutioni ntoeff
    ectwi thoutt heirappr oval,
    declaringt hattherighttov oteont heaccept anceorr ejecti
    onofaf undament al l
    aw" isthebi rt
    hright
    ofev erymant owhat everst atehemaybel ong. "Thought heirpet it
    ionwasr ejected, theirspirit
    remai ned.When, afewy ear slater,t
    hef ederal Const i
    tutionwasbei ngframed, themechani cs
    wat chedt hepr ocesswi t
    hdeepconcer n; t
    heyknewt hatoneofi tsmainobj ect swast opr omot e
    tradeandcommer ce,affecti
    ngdi rectlyt hei
    rdai lybr ead.Dur ingt hestruggleov errat i
    ficat
    ion, t
    hey
    passedr esoluti
    onsappr ov i
    ngi t
    spr ov i
    sionsandt heyof tenj oinedi nparadesor gani zedt ostirup
    sent
    imentfortheConst
    it
    uti
    on,eventhoughtheycouldnotvot
    eformembersofthestat
    e
    conventi
    onsandsoexpressthei
    rwil
    ldir
    ectl
    y.Aft
    ertheorgani
    zat
    ionoft
    radeuni
    onstheycol
    l
    ided
    wit
    ht he
    cour
    tsofl
    awandt
    husbecamei
    nter
    est
    edi
    ntheel
    ect
    ionofj
    udgesandl
    awmaker
    s.

    Thosewhoat tackedt heoldsystem ofclassr ulefoundast rongmor alsupportinthe


    Declar ati
    onofI ndependence.Wasi tnotsaidt hatal
    lmenar ecreat
    edequal ?Whoev err
    unsmay
    read.Wasi tnotdecl aredthatgovernmentsder i
    vethei
    rjustpowerf r
    om t heconsentoft he
    gover ned?Thatdoct ri
    newasappl iedwitheff ecttoGeorgeI I
    Iandseemedappr opriateforuse
    againstt hepr ivil
    egedcl assesofMassachuset tsorVir
    ginia."Howdot hepr i
    ncipl
    est hus
    proclaimed, "askedt henon- fr
    eeholdersofRi chmond, i
    npet it
    ioni
    ngfort heball
    ot,"accordwi t
    h
    theexi sti
    ngr egul at
    ionoft hesuffr
    age?Ar egul ati
    onwhich, i
    nsteadoft heequalit
    ynat ur
    e
    ordains, createsanodi ousdisti
    ncti
    onbet weenmember soft hesamecommuni t
    y. .
    .andv ests
    i
    naf av oredclass, notinconsiderati
    onoft heirpubli
    cservicesbutoft heirpr
    ivatepossessi ons,
    thehighestofal lpri
    vil
    eges."

    Abol i
    ti
    onofPr opertyQual i
    ficati
    ons. —Bymanymi norv i
    ctoriesratherthanbyanyspect acul
    ar
    tri
    umphsdi dtheadv ocat esofmanhoodsuf f
    ragecar r
    yt heday .Sli
    ghtgainswer emadeev en
    duringt heRevoluti
    onorshor tl
    yaf t
    erwar d.I
    nPennsy lvania,themechani cs,bytakinganacti
    ve
    partint hecontestov ertheConst it
    ut i
    onof1776, wer eablet oforcethequal i
    fi
    cati
    ondownt o
    thepay mentofasmal ltax.Ver montcamei ntot heuni oni n1792wi t
    houtanypr opert
    y
    restri
    ctions.I
    nthesamey earDelawar egav ethev otetoal lmenwhopai dtaxes.Mar yl
    and,
    reckonedoneoft hemostconser vativeofstates,embar kedont heexper i
    mentofmanhood
    suffragei n1809;andni ney earsl
    at er,Connecticut,equal l
    yconser vat
    ive,deci
    dedt hatal
    l
    taxpay erswerewor t
    hyoft heballot.

    Fivest ates,Massachuset ts,NewYor k,Virgini


    a, RhodeI sland, andNor t
    hCar oli
    na, r
    emai ned
    obdur atewhi l
    et hesechangeswer egoingonar oundt hem; finall
    yt heyhadt oyieldthemsel ves.
    Thel astst ruggleinMassachuset t
    st ookpl aceint heconst itutional conv entionof1820.Ther e
    Webst er,inthepr imeofhi smanhood, andJohnAdams, int hecl osingy ear sofhi soldage,
    ali
    kepr otestedagai nstsuchr adicalinnovat i
    onsasmanhoodsuf frage.Thei rpr otestswer e
    futi
    le.Thepr oper t
    yt estwasabol ishedandasmal ltax-pay ingqual if
    icationwassubst ituted.
    NewYor ksur render edt henexty earand, aftertryi
    ngsomemi norr estri
    ctionsf orfivey ears,
    wentcompl etelyov ert owhitemanhoodsuf fr
    agei n1826.RhodeI slandcl ungt oherf reehold
    qualificati
    ont hrought hirt
    yyearsofagi tat
    ion.ThenDor r'sRebel l
    ion, almostcul mi natingi n
    bloodshed, broughtaboutar eformi n1843whi chint r
    oducedasl ightt ax-pay i
    ngqual ifi
    cat i
    onas
    anal ternativet othef reehold.VirginiaandNor thCar olinawer estil
    l unconv i
    nced.Thef or mer
    refusedt oabandonowner shipofl andast het estf orpol it
    ical ri
    ght sunt il1850andt hel atter
    until1856.Al t
    houghr eligi
    ousdi scriminati
    onsandpr oper t
    yqual i
    ficationsf orof fi
    cehol der s
    wer esomet imesr etai
    nedaf tertheest ablishmentofmanhoodsuf fr
    age, theywer eusual ly
    abolishedal ongwi t
    ht hemonopol yofgov ernmentenj oy edbypr oper t
    yowner sandt axpay ers.

    ThomasDor
    rAr
    ousi
    ngHi
    s
    Fol
    lower
    s
    ThomasDor
    rAr
    ousi
    ngHi
    sFol
    l
    ower
    s

    Attheendoft hefirstquarteroft heni neteent hcent ury


    ,thewhi temalei ndust ri
    alwor kersandt he
    mechanicsoft heNor therncit
    ies, atleast ,
    coul dlayasidet hepet i
    ti
    onf ort hebal lotandenj oywi th
    thefreefarmerav oiceinthegov ernmentoft heircommoncount r
    y."Uni versal democr acy ,
    "sighed
    Carlyl
    e,whowaswi delyreadint heUni tedSt ates,"whateverwemayt hi nkofi thasdecl areditself
    theinevi
    tablef
    actoft heday sinwhi chwel ive;andhewhohasanychancet oi nstructorleadi n
    thesedaysmustbegi nbyadmi t
    tingt hat. .
    .Wher enogov ernmenti swant ed, savet hatoft heparish
    constabl
    e,asinAmer i
    cawi thitsboundl esssoi l,everymanbei ngablet of i
    ndwor kandr ecompense
    forhimself
    ,democr acymaysubsi st;notel sewher e."Amidt hegravemi sgivingsoft hefir
    st
    generati
    onofst at
    esmen, Amer i
    cawascommi tt
    edt othegr eatadventur e,inthepopul oust ownsof
    theEastaswel lasint heforestsandf ieldsoft heWest .
    TheNewDemocr
    acyEnt
    erst
    heAr
    ena
    Thespir
    itofthenewor dersoonhadapr onouncedef
    fectonthemachi
    ner
    yofgovernmentand
    thepr
    acticeofpol
    it
    ics.Theenfranchi
    sedelector
    swerenotlongi
    ndemandingf
    orthemsel
    ves
    alar
    gershareinadministr
    ati
    on.

    TheSpoi l
    sSy stem andRot ationinOf fice.—Fi rstofal ltheywant edof ficef ort hemsel ves,
    regar dlessoft hei rfit
    ness.Theyt herefor eext endedt hesy stem ofr ewar dingpar tywor ker swit
    h
    gov er nmentposi tions—asy stem earlyest abl i
    shedi nsev er alst ates, notabl yNewYor kand
    Pennsy lvania.Cl oselyconnect edwithi twast hepr acticeoff i
    xi ngshor ttermsf orof f
    icersand
    maki ngf r
    equentchangesi nper sonnel." Longcont i
    nuancei nof fice,"expl ainedachampi onof
    thisi deai nPennsy lvaniai n1837, "
    unfitsamanf orthedi schar geofi tsdut ies, byr enderinghim
    arbitraryandar istocratic,andt endstobeget ,firstlifeof f
    ice, andt henher editar yof f
    ice,whi ch
    l
    eadst othedest ructionoff reegov ernment ."Thesol ut i
    onof feredwast hehi stor i
    cdoct rineof
    "rotat i
    oni noffice."Att hesamet i
    met hepr incipleofpopul arel ect i
    onwasext endedt oan
    i
    ncr easi ngnumberofof ficialswhohadoncebeenappoi ntedei therbyt hegov er norort he
    l
    egi slature.Ev engeol ogists, veter
    inarians, surv ey ors,andot hert echni cal officer swer e
    decl aredel ectiveont het heor ythatthei rappoi nt ment" smackedofmonar chy ."

    Popul arEl ectionofPresident ialEl ect ors.


    —I nashor ttimet hespi r i
    tofdemocr acy ,whilepl aying
    hav ocwi tht heol dor
    deri nstat egov ernment ,
    madei tswayupwar dintot hef eder alsyst em.
    Thef r amer soft heConst it
    ution, bewi lderedbymanypr oposal sandunabl et oagr eeonany
    singlepl an, hadcommi t
    tedt hechoi ceofpr esidenti
    al electorst ot hedi scretionoft hest ate
    l
    egi slatures.Thel egi
    slatures, intur n, greedyofpower ,earlyadopt edthepr acticeofchoosi ng
    theel ector sthemselves; buttheydi dnotenj oyitlongundi sturbed.Democr acy ,thunder ingat
    theirdoor s, demandedt hatt heysur rendert hepr i
    vil
    eget ot hepeopl e.Rel uct antl
    yt heyy ielded,
    somet imesgr anti
    ngpopul arel ectionandt henwi thdr awingi t.Thedr iftwasi nevitable,andt he
    cli
    maxcamewi ththeadv entofJacksoni andemocr acy .I
    n1824, Vermont ,NewYor k,Del awar e,
    Sout hCar oli
    na,Georgia,andLoui siana, thoughsomehadexper i
    ment edwi thpopul arel ection,
    stil
    llef tt
    hechoi ceofelectorswi tht hel egislatur
    e.Ei ghty earsl aterSout hCar oli
    naal onehel d
    totheol dpr acti
    ce.Popul arelect i
    onhadbecomet hef i
    nal wor d.Thef anciful ideaofan
    elector alcollegeof"goodandwi semen, "selectedwi thoutpassi onorpar tisanshi pbyst ate
    l
    egi slaturesact ingasdeliberat i
    vebodi es, wasex plodedf oral lti
    me; theel ect i
    onoft henat ion's
    chiefmagi str
    atewascommi ttedt ot het empest uousmet hodsofdemocr acy .

    TheNomi nati
    ngConv ent ion.
    —Ast hesuf fr
    agewaswi denedandt hepopul archoi ceof
    presidenti
    alelectorsext ended, ther earoseav iol
    entprotestagainstthemet hodsusedbyt he
    polit
    icalpart
    iesi nnomi nat i
    ngcandi dates.Af t
    ertheretir
    ementofWashi ngton, boththe
    Republ i
    cansandt heFeder al
    istsf oundi tnecessarytoagr eeupont heirfavor i
    tesbefor et
    he
    electi
    on,andt heyadopt edacol onialdev i
    ce—t hepre-el
    ect i
    oncaucus.TheFeder ali
    stmember s
    ofCongr esshel daconf er enceandsel ectedtheircandidate,andtheRepubl i
    cansf oll
    owedt he
    exampl e.Inashor ttimet hepract iceofnomi nati
    ngbya" congressionalcaucus"becamea
    recognizedinstituti
    on.Theel ectionst i
    llremai nedwiththepeopl e;butthepowerofpi cki
    ng
    candidatesfort heirappr ovalpassedi ntot hehandsofasmal lbodyofSenat orsand
    Representati
    v es.

    Areact ionagainstt hi
    swasunav oidabl
    e.Tof riendsof" t
    hepl ai
    npeopl e,
    "li
    keAndr ewJackson,
    i
    twasi ntoler
    able,allt
    hemor esobecauset hecaucusnev erfavoredhim witht henomi nat
    ion.
    Mor econser vativemenal sof oundgr aveobj ect i
    onstoit.Theypoi nt
    edoutt hat ,wher easthe
    Const it
    utionintendedthePr esidentt obeani ndependentof fi
    cer,
    hehadnowf allenundert he
    control ofacaucusofcongr essmen.Thesupr emacyoft helegisl
    at i
    vebranchhadbeen
    obtainedbyanext r
    a-l
    egal poli
    ticaldevi
    ce.Tosuchobj ecti
    onswer eaddedpr act ical
    consider ati
    ons.In1824, whenper sonalriv
    alryhadt akent heplaceofpar tyconf l
    icts,
    the
    congr essionalcaucussel ectedast hecandidat e,Wil
    l
    iam H.Cr awford,ofGeor gia,amanof
    di
    stinctionbutnogr eatpopul arit
    y,passingbysuchanobv i
    ousher oasGener al Jackson.The
    fol
    lower
    softheGener
    alwer
    eenragedanddemandednot hi
    ngshortoft
    hedeat
    hof"King
    Caucus.
    "Thei
    rcl
    amorwaseffect
    ive.Undert
    hei
    rat
    tacks,
    thecaucuscametoanignomini
    ous
    end.
    Inplaceofittherearosein1831anewdev i
    ce, thenati
    onalnominat i
    ngconv enti
    on,composed
    ofdelegateselectedbypar t
    yv oter
    sf orthesolepur poseofnomi natingcandidates.Senat or
    s
    andRepr esentati
    veswer esti
    llprominentinthepar tycouncil
    s,buttheywer eswampedby
    hundredsofdel egates"fr
    eshf r
    om thepeopl e,"asJacksonwaswontt osay.I
    nfact, each
    conventi
    onwasmadeupmai nl
    yofof ficeholdersandof f
    iceseekers, andthenewi nst i
    tut
    ion
    wassoondenouncedasv i
    gorouslyasKi ngCaucushadbeen, particularl
    ybystatesmenwho
    fai
    ledtoobt ai
    nanomi nati
    on.Stil
    li
    tgr ewinst rengt
    handby1840wasf i
    rml
    yestablished.

    TheEndoft heOl dGener ation.


    —I ntheel ectionof1824, t
    her epresent ativ
    esoft he" ari
    stocr acy"
    madet heirl
    astsuccessf ulstand.Unt i
    lthent heleader shipbymenof" wealthandt alents"had
    beenundi sput ed.Ther ehadbeenf i
    vePresi dents—Washi ngton,JohnAdams, Jefferson,
    Madi son,andMonr oe—al lEasternmenbr oughtupi npr osper ousf ami li
    eswi t
    htheadv ant ages
    ofcul t
    urewhi chcomef r
    om l ei
    sureandt hepossessi onofl i
    fe'srefi
    nement s.Noneoft hem had
    everbeencompel ledt owor kwi t
    hhi shandsf oral i
    velihood.Fouroft hem hadbeen
    slaveholders.Jeffer sonwasaphi losopher ,learnedinnat uralscience, amast eroff oreign
    l
    anguages, agent lemanofdi gnit
    yandgr aceofmanner ,notwi t
    hstandi nghisstudiedsi mpl ici
    ty.
    Madi son,itwassai d,wasar med" wit
    hal lthecul tur
    eofhi scent ury."Monr oewasagr aduat eof
    Wi l
    l
    iam andMar y,agentlemanoft heol dschool .Jeffersonandhi st hreesuccessor scal l
    ed
    themsel vesRepubl i
    cansandpr ofessedagenui nefaithi nthepeopl ebutt heywerenot" ofthe
    people"themsel v
    es; t
    heywer enotsonsoft hesoi lort hewor kshop.Theywer eallmenof" t
    he
    grandol dorderofsoci et
    y "whogav efini
    shandst yl
    eev ent opopul argov ernment.

    Monr oewast helastoft hePr esidentsbelongingt otheher oicepochoft heRev olut


    ion.Hehad
    servedint hewarfori ndependence, intheCongr essundert heAr t
    iclesofConfederat i
    on,andi n
    offi
    cialcapacityaftert headoptionoft heConst itution.Inshor t
    ,hewasoft heaget hathad
    wroughtAmer i
    canindependenceandsett hegov ernmentaf loat.Withhispassing,leadershi
    p
    wentt oanewgener ation;buthissuccessor ,JohnQui ncyAdams, formedabr i
    dgebet weent he
    oldandt henewi nthathecombi nedahi ghdegr eeofcul tur
    ewi thdemocr ati
    csy mpat hies.
    Washi ngt onhaddiedi n1799,pr ecededbutaf ewmont hsbyPat r
    ickHenryandf oll
    owedi nfour
    yearsbySamuel Adams.Hami l
    tonhadbeenki lledi naduel withBur ri
    n1804.Thomas
    JeffersonandJohnAdamswer ey etal
    ivein1824butt heywer esoont opassfrom t hescene,
    reconciledatlast,fullofyearsandhonor s.Madi sonwasi ndignifi
    edr et
    ir
    ement ,destinedtolive
    l
    ongenought oprot estagainstthedoct ri
    neofnul li
    ficati
    onpr oclai
    medbySout hCar olinabefore
    deathcar ri
    edhim awayatt heripeol dageofei ght y-f
    ive.

    TheEl ectionofJohnQui ncyAdams( 1824).—Thecampai gnof1824mar kedt heendoft he"era


    ofgoodf eel
    ing"inaugur atedbyt hecollapseoft heFederali
    stpart
    yaf tertheelectionof1816.
    Ther ewer efourleadingcandi dates,JohnQui ncyAdams, AndrewJackson, Henr yCl ay,andW. H.
    Crawf ord.Ther esultoftheel ecti
    onwasadi v i
    sionoftheelect
    oralvotesintof ourpar t
    sandno
    oner eceivedamaj ori
    ty.Undert heConst it
    ution,ther
    efor
    e, t
    heselecti
    onofPr esi
    dentpassedt o
    theHouseofRepr esentat ives.Clay,
    whost oodatt hebottom ofthepol l
    ,threwhi swei ghtto
    Adamsandassur edhist riumph, mucht othechagr i
    nofJackson'sfriends.Theyt hought ,wit
    ha
    certainjusti
    ficati
    on,thati nasmuchast heher oofNewOr leanshadr eceivedthel argest
    electoralvote,theHousewasmor al
    lyboundt oacceptthepopularjudgmentandmakehi m
    President.Jacksonshookhandscor diall
    ywi thAdamsont hedayoft heinaugur ati
    on, butnever
    forgavehi mf orbeingelect ed.

    Whil
    eAdamscal l
    edhimsel faRepublicaninpolit
    icsandoftenspokeof"theruleoft hepeople,
    "he
    wasregar
    dedbyJackson' sfol
    lowersas" anarist
    ocrat.
    "Hewasnotasonoft hesoil.Nei
    therwas
    heacquai
    ntedatfi
    rsthandwi t
    ht hel
    aboroff armersandmechani cs.Hehadbeeneducat edat
    Harv
    ardandinEurope.Likehisill
    ust
    riousfather,
    JohnAdams, hewasast ernandr eserv
    edman,
    l
    it
    tl
    egiventoseeki
    ngpopul ari
    ty.Moreover,hewasf rom t
    heEastandt hefronti
    ersmenoft heWest
    regardedhi
    m asaman" bor
    nwi t
    hasil
    verspooninhi
    smout
    h."Jackson'
    ssupporter
    sespeci
    all
    y
    disl
    ikedhi
    m becausetheythoughtt
    hei
    rheroenti
    tl
    edtot
    hepr
    esidency.Thei
    rangerwasdeepened
    whenAdamsappoi ntedClaytotheoff
    iceof
    Secr
    etar
    yofStat
    e;andt
    heysetupacryt
    hatt
    her
    ehadbeena"
    deal
    "bywhi
    chCl
    ayhad
    hel
    pedtoel
    ectAdamstogetoff
    icef
    orhi
    msel
    f.

    ThoughAdamsconduct edhi sadmi ni


    strationwi thgr eatdignityandi naf inespiritofpublic
    service,hewasunabl et oov ercomet heopposi tionwhi chheencount eredonhi selectionto
    offi
    ceort owi npopularit
    yi ntheWestandSout h.Ont hecont rary,byadv ocati
    nggov er nment
    assistancei nbui l
    dingroadsandcanal sandpubl icgr ant sinai dofeducat i
    on, art
    s,and
    sciences, herancount ert othecur rentwhi chhadseti nagainstappr opr i
    ati
    onsoff eder alf
    unds
    forinternal i
    mpr ovement s.Bysi gningt heTar i
    ffBi ll
    of1828, soonknownast he"Tariffof
    Abomi nati
    ons,"hemadenewenemi eswi thoutaddi ngt ohisf ri
    endsi nNewYor k,Pennsy l
    vani
    a,
    andOhi owher ehesor elyneededt hem.Handi cappedbyt hef alsechar get hathehadbeena
    partytoa" corruptbargain"withCl ayt osecur ehi sfirstelection; attackedf orhisadv ocacyofa
    highpr otectiv
    et ari
    ff;
    char gedwi thf avori
    ngan" aristocr acyofof f
    ice-holders"inWashi ngtonon
    accountofhi sr ef
    usaltodi schargegov ernmentcl erksbyt hewhol esale,Adamswasr etir
    ed
    from theWhi t
    eHouseaf terhehadser vedf oury ears.

    Andr
    ewJackson

    TheTr i
    umphofJacksoni n1828. —Probabl ynocandidatef ort hepr esidencyev erhadsuch
    passionat epopul arsuppor tasAndr ewJacksonhadi n1828.Hewast r
    ul yamanoft hepeopl e.
    Bornofpoorpar ent sintheupl andr egi
    onofSout hCar ol
    ina, school edi npov ert
    yandadv ersit
    y,
    withoutt headv ant agesofeducat ionort herefi
    nement sofcul tivatedl eisur e,heseemedt he
    embodi mentoft hespi ri
    toft henewAmer i
    candemocr acy.Ear lyinhi sy outhhehadgonei nto
    thef r
    ont i
    erofTennesseewher ehesoonwonanameasaf ear l
    essandi ntrepidIndi
    anf i
    ght er.
    Ont hemar chandi ncamp, heendearedhi mselftohismenbyshar ingt heirhardships,sleeping
    ont hegr oundwi tht hem, andeat i
    ngpar chedcor nwhennot hingbet tercoul dbef oundf ort he
    pri
    v at
    es.Fr om local promi nencehespr angi nt
    onat i
    onal famebyhi sexpl oi
    tatt hebattl
    eofNew
    Orleans.Hi sreput ationasami l
    it
    aryher owasenhancedbyt hef eelingt hathehadbeena
    mar tyrtopol i
    ti
    cal treacher yin1824.Thef armersoftheWestandSout hcl aimedhi m ast heir
    own.Themechani csoft heEast erncit
    ies,newlyenfranchi sed, alsol ookeduponhi m ast hei r
    fri
    end.Thoughhi sv iewsont hetarif
    f,i
    nternalimprovement s, andot heri ssuesbef orethe
    count rywer eeit
    herv agueorunknown, hewasr eadi
    lyelect edPr esident .

    Ther eturnsoft heelect


    oralvotein1828revealedt hesourcesofJackson'
    spower .I
    nNew
    England, her ecei
    vedbutonebal lot
    ,fr
    om Mai ne;hehadamaj or
    it
    yoftheelect
    orsinNewYor k
    andal loft hem inPennsyl
    vania;andhecar r
    iedev erystat
    esouthofMar y
    landandbey ondthe
    Appal achians.Adamsdi dnotgetasi ngl
    eel ector
    al vot
    eintheSouthandWest .Theprophecy
    oftheHar tfordconvent
    ionhadbeenf ulf
    il
    led.
    WhenJacksont ookt heoat hofof fi
    ceonMar ch4,1829,thegov er nmentoft heUni tedStates
    enteredi ntoanewer a.Unt ilthist i
    met heinaugurati
    onofaPr esident —ev ent hatofJef ferson,
    theapost l
    eofsi mpl i
    city—hadbr oughtnor udeshocktothecour seofaf fai
    rsatt hecapital.
    Hithert
    ot heinstall
    ati
    onofaPr esi dentmeantt hatanold-
    fashionedgent leman, accompani ed
    byaf ewser vants,haddr i
    vent ot heWhi teHousei nhisowncoach, t
    akent heoat hwi t
    hqui et
    dignit
    y, appointedaf ewnewment othehigherposts,conti
    nuedi nof fi
    cet hel ongl i
    stof
    regularciv i
    lempl oyees, andbegunhi sadmi ni
    str
    ati
    onwi t
    hr espect abledecor um.Jackson
    changedal lthi
    s.Whenhewasi naugur ated,menandwomenj our neyedhundr edsofmi l
    est o
    witnesst hecer emony .Greatt hrongspr essedintotheWhi t
    eHouse, "upsett hebowl sofpunch,
    broket hegl asses,andst oodwi tht heirmuddyboot sonthesat in-cov eredchai rstoseet he
    people'sPr esident."I
    fJef ferson' si naugurati
    onwas, ashecal l
    edi t,the" greatr evoluti
    on,"
    Jackson' sinaugur ati
    onwasacat aclysm.

    TheNewDemocr
    acyatWashi
    ngt
    on

    TheSpoi lsSy stem. —Thestaidandrespectablesociet yofWashi ngtonwasdi sturbedbyt his


    i
    nf l
    uxoff armer sandf ront
    ier
    smen.Tospeakofpol i
    t i
    csbecame" badform"amongf ashionabl
    e
    women.Thecl erksandci vi
    lser
    vantsofthegov ernmentwhohadenj oyedlongandsecur e
    tenur eofof f
    icebecameal armedatt heclamorofnewmenf ortheirpositi
    ons.Doubt lessthe
    maj orpor tionoft hem hadopposedt heelectionofJacksonandl ookedwi t
    hf eeli
    ngsaki nto
    cont emptuponhi m andhisfoll
    owers.Withahunt er'
    si nst
    inct,Jacksonscent edhi sprey .
    Deter minedt ohav enonebuthisfri
    endsinof f
    ice,hemadeacl eansweep, expelli
    ngold
    empl oy eest omaker oom formen"freshfrom t hepeopl e.
    "Thiswasanewcust om.Ot her
    Presi dentshaddi schargedafewofficer
    sf orengagi ngi nopposi ti
    onpol i
    ti
    cs.Theyhadbeen
    caref ulinmaki ngappoi ntmentsnottochoosei nvet
    erat eenemi es;buttheydi scharged
    rel
    at i
    v el
    yf ewmenonaccountoft heirpol
    iticalviewsandpar ti
    sanact iv
    iti
    es.

    Bywhol esal eremov alsandt hefr


    ankselect i
    onofof f i
    cersonpar t
    ygr ounds—apr acticealr
    eady
    well i
    ntr
    enchedi nNewYor k—Jacksonest abli
    shedt he" spoil
    ssystem"atWashi ngt on.The
    famoussl ogan,"tot hev i
    ctorbel
    ongt hespoi l
    sofv ictory,
    "becamet heav owedpr incipl
    eoft he
    nationalgov er
    nment .Statesmenl i
    keCalhoundenouncedi t
    ;poetsli
    keJamesRussel lLowell
    ri
    diculedit;fai
    thful ser vantsofthegov er
    nmentsuf feredunderi t
    ;butithel dundist urbedsway
    forhalfacent uryt her eafter,
    eachsucceedi nggener ationout doi
    ng,ifpossible,itspr edecessor
    i
    nt heuseofpubl i
    cof fi
    cef orpoli
    ti
    calpurposes.I fanyoner emar kedt hattrai
    ningand
    experiencewer enecessar yqualif
    icati
    onsf orimpor tantpublicposit
    ions,hemetJackson' sown
    professionoff aith:"Thedut i
    esofanypubl i
    cof f
    icear esosi mpleoradmi tofbei ngmadeso
    simplet hatanymancani nashor tti
    mebecomemast erofthem."

    TheTar i
    ffandNull
    ifi
    cat i
    on.—Jacksonhadnotbeeni nstalledinpowerverylongbef orehewas
    compel l
    edtochoosebet weenst ates'
    rightsandnati
    onalism.Theimmedi ateoccasi onofthe
    troubl
    ewast hetari
    ff—amat teronwhi chJacksondidnothav eanyver
    ydeci dedv i
    ews.His
    mi nddidnotrunnaturall
    yt oabstruseeconomi cquesti
    ons; andowingtot hedividedopini
    onof
    thecountryitwas"goodpol i
    ti
    cs"tobev agueandambiguousi nthecontroversy.Especial
    l
    ywas
    thistr
    ue,becausethet ar
    iffissuewast hr eat
    eni
    ngtosplitthecountr
    yintopar t
    iesagain.

    TheDev elopmentoft hePolicyof"Protecti


    on."—Thewarof1812andt hecommer cialpoli
    cies
    ofEngl andwhi chfoll
    owedi thadaccent uatedtheneedf orAmer icaneconomi cindependence.
    Dur i
    ngt hatconfli
    ct,t
    heUni t
    edSt ates,cutofffr
    om Engl i
    shmanuf acturesasdur i
    ngt he
    Rev oluti
    on,buil
    tuphomei ndustri
    est omeett heunusual call
    foriron, steel
    ,cloth,andot her
    mi l
    itaryandnav alsuppl
    iesaswel last hedemandsf r
    om or di
    narymar kets.Ir
    onf oundriesand
    textil
    emi ll
    ssprangupasi nt henight;hundredsofbusi nessmeni nvest edfortunesinindust r
    ial
    enter pri
    sessoessent i
    altothemi li
    taryneedsoft hegov ernment;andt hepeopl eatlargefell
    i
    nt ot hehabitofbuyingAmer i
    can-madegoodsagai n.Ast heLondonTi mest erselyobser vedof
    t
    heAmericans,
    "thei
    rfi
    rstwarwi
    thEngl
    andmadet
    hem i
    ndependent
    ;thei
    rsecondwarmade
    t
    hem f
    ormidabl
    e."
    Inrecogniti
    onofthisstat eofaffairs,thetari
    ffof1816wasdesi gned: fi
    rst,topr ev entEngland
    from r
    uiningthese"inf
    anti ndustries"bydumpi ngtheaccumul atedst oresofy ear ssuddenl y
    uponAmer i
    canmar kets;and, secondly ,t
    oenlargeinthemanuf actur i
    ngcent erst hedemandf or
    Amer i
    canagr i
    cult
    uralproduce.I taccompl ishedthepur posesofitsf r
    amer s.I tkepti noper ati
    on
    themi l
    l
    sandf ur
    nacessor ecentlybuilt.I
    tmulti
    pli
    edt henumberofi ndust r
    ialwor ker sand
    enhancedt hedemandf ort heproduceoft hesoil
    .Itbroughtaboutanot herv er yimpor tant
    resul
    t.Itt
    urnedthecapi tal andent er
    priseofNewEngl andfrom shippingt omanuf acturi
    ng, and
    convertedherstatesmen, oncefriendsofl owtari
    ffs,i
    ntoardentadv ocat esofpr otection.

    Intheear lyy ear


    soft heni net
    eent hcentury,theYankeeshadbentt heirener giest owar dbui l
    di ng
    andoper ati
    ngshi pst ocarryproducef rom Amer icatoEuropeandmanuf act uresf rom Eur opet o
    Amer ica.Fort hisreason, t
    heyhadopposedt het ar
    iffof1816cal culatedt oi ncr easedomest ic
    product i
    onandcutdownt hecar ryi
    ngtrade.Def eatedintheireffort
    s, t
    heyaccept edt hei nev i
    table
    andt urnedt omanuf acturi
    ng.Soont heywer epower ful
    fri
    endsofpr otectionf orAmer ican
    enterprise.Ast hemoneyi nvestedandt helaborempl oyedint hefav oredi ndust riesincr eased, t
    he
    demandf orcontinuedandheav ierprotecti
    ongr ewapace.Ev enthef armer swhof urnishedr aw
    mat eri
    als, l
    ikewool ,fl
    ax,andhemp, begant oseeey etoeyewi ththemanuf acturer s.Sot het exti
    le
    i
    nterest sofNewEngl and,theironmast ersofConnect i
    cut,NewJer sey ,
    andPennsy l
    vani a, t
    hewool ,
    hemp, andf laxgrower sofOhio, Kentucky,andTennessee, andt hesugarpl ant ersofLoui siana
    developedi nt oaf or
    mi dablecombi nati
    oni nsuppor tofahighpr otect i
    vet ariff.

    ThePlant ingSt at
    esOpposet heTar i
    ff.—I nthemeantime, thecottonst atesont heseaboar d
    hadfor gottenaboutt hehav ocwr oughtdur ingtheNapol eonicwar swhent heirpr oducer otted
    becauset her ewer enoshi pst ocar r
    yitt oEurope.Theseaswer enowopen.Thear eadev oted
    tocottonhadswi ftlyexpandedasAl abama, Mi
    ssissi
    ppi ,
    andLoui sianawer eopenedup.Cot ton
    hadinf actbecome" king"andt heplanter sdependedf ortheirprosperity
    , astheyt hought,upon
    thesaleoft hei
    rstaplet oEngl ishmanuf act
    urerswhosespi nni
    ngandweav ingmi l
    lswer ethe
    wonderoft hewor ld.Manuf acturingnot hingandhav ingtobuynear lyever y
    thingexceptf arm
    produceandev enmuchoft hatf orslav es,theplant
    ersnat ural
    lywant edt opur chase
    manuf acturesi nthecheapestmar ket,England,wheret heysoldmostoft heircot ton.Thet ariff
    ,
    theycont ended, r
    aisedt hepr iceoft hegoodst heyhadt obuyandwast husi nf actat r
    ibutel aid
    onthem f ort hebenef itoftheNor thernmi l
    lowners.

    TheTar if
    fofAbomi nati
    ons.—Theywer eov er
    borne, however,in1824andagai nin1828when
    Northernmanuf actur
    ersandWest ernf armersforcedCongr esstomakeanupwar drevi
    sionof
    thetarif
    f.TheActof1828knownas" theTar i
    ffofAbomi nati
    ons,"thoughslightl
    ymodi fi
    edin
    1832, was"thestrawwhichbroket hecamel '
    sback. "Southernleadersturnedinr ageagainst
    thewhol esystem.Thelegisl
    atur
    esofVi rgini
    a,NorthCar oli
    na,SouthCar oli
    na,Geor gi
    a,and
    Alabamadenouncedi t
    ;ageneralconv entionofdel egatesheldatAugust aissuedapr ot
    estof
    defi
    anceagai nsti
    t;andSouthCarol i
    na, wearyofv erbalbattl
    es,decidedtopr eventits
    enforcement .

    Sout hCar olinaNul li


    fi
    est heTar i
    ff.
    —Thel egislatur
    eoft hatst ate,onOct ober26, 1832, passeda
    billcalli
    ngf orast ateconv entionwhi chdulyassembl edi nthef ol
    lowingmont h.Innomoodf or
    compr omi se,itadopt edthef amousOr di
    nanceofNul li
    ficati
    onaf teraf ewday s'debat e.Every
    l
    ineoft hisdocumentwascl earandf irm.Thet ari
    ff,i
    topened, giv
    es" bountiestocl assesand
    i
    ndi vi
    dual s...attheexpenseandt ot heinj
    uryandoppr essionofot herclassesandi ndivi
    duals"
    ;
    i
    ti sav i
    olati
    onoft heConst it
    ut i
    onoft heUnitedSt atesandt heref
    or enullandv oid;it
    s
    enfor cementi nSout hCar ol
    inaisunl awful
    ;ifthef ederalgov ernmentat temptst ocoer cethe
    statei ntoobey ingt helaw, "
    thepeopl eofthisst at
    ewi llthencef or
    thhol dthemsel vesabsol ved
    from al lf
    ur t
    herobl igati
    onst omai ntainorpreser v
    et heirpoliti
    calconnect i
    onwi ththepeopl eof
    theot herst atesandwi ll
    forthwithproceedt oor ganizeasepar ategov ernmentanddoal lother
    act
    sandt
    hingswhi
    chsov
    erei
    gnandi
    ndependentst
    atesmayofr
    ightdo.
    "

    Souther
    nStat
    esCondemnNul
    l
    ifi
    cat
    ion.
    —Theansweroft
    hecount
    ryt
    othi
    snot
    eofdef
    iance,
    couchedin
    thelanguageusedi ntheKent uckyr esoluti
    onsandbyt heNewEngl andFeder ali
    stsduringthe
    warof1812, wasqui ckandposi ti
    ve.Thel egislat
    uresoftheSouthernst ates,whil
    econdemni ng
    thetari
    ff,
    repudi atedthestepwhi chSout hCar oli
    nahadtaken.Geor gi
    ar esponded: "Weabhor
    thedoctri
    neofnul li
    fi
    cati
    onasnei therapeacef ul
    noraconst i
    tut
    ionalremedy .
    "Alabamaf oundit
    "unsoundi ntheoryanddanger ousinpr actice."NorthCarol
    inarepli
    edt hatitwas" revol
    uti
    onary
    i
    nchar acter,subversiveoftheConst i
    tuti
    onoft heUnit
    edSt at
    es."Mississippianswer ed:"
    Iti
    s
    disuni
    onbyf orce—itisciv
    ilwar .
    "Virgini
    aspokemor esoftl
    y,condemni ngt hetari
    ffand
    sustai
    ningt hepr i
    ncipl
    eoft heVirginiaresolutionsbutdenyingthatSout hCar oli
    nacoul dfi
    ndin
    them anysanct ionforherpr oceedings.

    JacksonFi rmlyUphol dstheUni on.—Theey esoft hecount rywer et urneduponAndr ewJackson.


    Itwasknownt hathel ookedwi thnof riendl yfeelingsuponnul li
    fication, for,ataJef ferson
    dinneri nthespr ingof1830whi l
    ethesubj ectwasi ntheai r,hehadwi thlaconi cf irmness
    announcedat oast :"Ourf ederalunion; itmustbepr eserv ed."Whent woy earslat ertheopen
    challengecamef rom Sout hCar oli
    na, her epliedt hathewoul denf orcet hel aw, say i
    ngwi thhis
    frontierdirectness: "Ifasingledr opofbl oodshal lbeshedt hereinopposi ti
    ont ot helawsoft he
    Uni t
    edSt ates, Iwillhangt hefi
    rstmanIcanl aymyhandsonengagedi nsuchconductupont he
    fir
    stt reethatIcanr each. "Hemader eadyt okeephi swor dbypr epar ingf ortheuseofmi li
    tary
    andnav alforcesi nsust ai
    ningtheaut hor ityoft hef ederal government .Theni nal ongand
    i
    mpassi onedpr oclamat i
    ont othepeopl eofSout hCar ol
    inahepoi ntedoutt henat i
    onal
    char acteroftheuni on, andannouncedhi ssol emnr esolv etopreser veitbyal l const it
    utional
    means.Nul l
    if
    icationhebr andedas" i
    ncompat i
    blewi ththeexi st
    enceoft heuni on, contradicted
    expressl ybyt helet teroft heConst i
    tution, unaut horizedbyi tsspi r
    it,inconsi stentwi t
    hev ery
    principleonwhi chi twasf ounded,anddest ructiveoft hegr eatobj ectsf orwhi chi twas
    formed. "

    ACompr omi se.—I nhi smessagest oCongr ess, howev er,Jacksonspoket helanguageof
    conciliation.Af ewday sbefor eissuinghi spr ocl amat ionhesuggest edthatpr ot ecti
    onshoul d
    bel i
    mi tedt othear t
    iclesofdomest icmanuf act ureindi spensabl etosaf etyinwart ime, and
    shor t
    lyaf terwardheaskedf ornewl egislati
    ont oai dhi mi nenf orcingthelaws.Wi thtwo
    proposi ti
    onsbef orei t,onetor emov ethechi efgr oundsf orSout hCar oli
    na'sresi stanceandt he
    othert oappl yfor cei fitwascont inued, Congr essbenti tseffor tstoav oidacr isis.OnFebr uary
    12, 1833, Henr yCl ayl aidbeforet heSenat eacompr omi set ariffbillpr
    ov i
    dingf ort hegr adual
    reduct i
    onoft hedut i
    esunt ilby1842t heywoul dr eacht helev el ofthelawwhi chCal hounhad
    suppor tedi n1816.Aboutt hesamet i
    met he" forcebi ll,
    "desi gnedt ogivethePr esidentampl e
    author i
    tyi nexecut ingt helawi nSout hCar olina, wast akenup.Af terashor tbutacr imonious
    debat e,bot hmeasur eswer epassedandsi gnedbyPr esidentJacksonont hesameday ,
    Mar ch
    2.Looki ngupont her eductionoft hetar i
    ffasacompl etev i
    ndi cationofherpol icyandan
    undoubt edv i
    ctory ,Sout hCar oli
    nar escindedheror di nanceandenact edanot hernul l
    ify
    ingt he
    forcebi ll
    .

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Dani
    elWebst
    er

    TheWebst
    er-
    Hay
    neDebat
    e.—Wher
    etheact
    ual
    vict
    oryl
    ayi
    nthi
    squar
    rel
    ,l
    ongt
    hesubj
    ectofhi
    gh
    di
    sput
    e,
    neednotconcer nust o-day.Per hapst hechi efr esultofthewhol eaffairwasacl ar
    if
    icati
    onof
    theissuebet weent heNor t
    handt heSout h—adef ini
    testatementoft hepr i
    nciplesforwhi ch
    menonbot hsideswer ey earsaf t
    er war dt ol aydownt hei
    rlives.Onbehal fofnat i
    onali
    sm anda
    perpetualuni on,t
    hestanchol dDemocr atf rom Tennesseehad, i
    nhispr oclamat i
    onon
    null
    ifi
    cati
    on, spokenal anguaget hatadmi ttedofonl yonemeani ng.Onbehal fofnul l
    ifi
    cation,
    SenatorHay ne,ofSouthCar olina,aski l
    ledl awy erandcour tlyorator
    ,hadi nagr eatspeech
    deli
    veredint heSenat einJanuar y,1830, setf or thclearl
    yandcogent l
    yt hedoctrinethatthe
    unionisacompactamongsov ereignst atesf rom whi cht hepar t
    iesmayl awf ul
    lywithdraw.It
    wast hisaddr essthatcalledintot hear enaDani el Webster,Senatorfrom Massachuset ts, who,
    spreadingt hemant leofobl i
    vionov ertheHar tfordconv ention,deli
    veredar eplytoHay net hat
    hasbeenr eckonedamongt hepower ful orationsofal lt
    ime—apl eaforthesupr emacyoft he
    Constitut
    ionandt henationalchar act eroft heuni on.

    The Waron t he Unit


    ed Stat
    es Bank.
    —Ifeventsforced t
    he i
    ssue ofnati
    onal
    i
    sm and
    nul
    l
    ifi
    cati
    onuponJackson,t hesamecoul dnotbesai dofhisattackonthebank.That
    i
    nsti
    tut
    ion,oncedenouncedbyever
    ytrueJef
    fer
    soni
    an,hadbeen

    reëst
    ablishedi n1816undert headmi nistrat
    ionofJef ferson'
    sdisci
    ple,JamesMadi son.I
    thadnot
    beeninoper ationv er
    ylong,howev er,
    bef oreitarousedbi tt
    eropposi
    tion,especial
    lyintheSouth
    andtheWest .Itsnotesdroveoutofci rculati
    ont hepapercur r
    encyofunsoundbankschar teredby
    thestates,tothegr eatangeroflocalfi
    nanci ers.Itwasaccusedoff av or
    it
    ism inmaki ngl
    oans,of
    conferr
    ingspeci alpri
    vil
    egesuponpol it
    iciansinr etur
    nf orthei
    rsupportatWashi ngton.Toall
    Jackson'sfollowersitwas" aninsi
    diousmoneypower .
    "Oneoft hem openl ydenounceditasan
    i
    nstit
    uti
    ondesi gned"tostrengt
    hent hear m ofweal thandcount er
    poisethei nf
    luenceofextended
    suffr
    agei nthedi sposi
    ti
    onofpubl i
    caf fai
    rs."

    Thissenti
    mentPr esi
    dentJacksonf ul
    lyshared.Inhisfir
    stmessaget oCongr essheassail
    ed
    thebankinv i
    gor ouslanguage.Hedecl aredthatit
    sconst i
    tuti
    onali
    tywasi ndoubtandal l
    eged
    thati
    thadf ai
    ledt oestabl
    ishasoundanduni f
    orm curr
    ency .I
    fsuchani nsti
    tuti
    onwas
    necessary,hecont i
    nued,itshoul
    dbeapubl icbank,ownedandmanagedbyt hegov er
    nment,
    notaprivateconcer nendowedwi thspeci al
    privi
    l
    egesbyi t.Inhissecondandt hi
    rdmessages,
    Jacksoncamebackt othesubject,l
    eav i
    ngthedecision,howev er,
    to"anenlightenedpeople
    andtheirrepresentati
    ves.
    "

    Mov edbyt hisfrankhostili


    tyandanxi ousforthef uture,t
    hebankappl iedtoCongr essfora
    renewal ofi t schart
    erin1832, f
    ouryear sbeforetheexpi rat
    ionofitsli
    fe.Clay,wit
    hhisey eupon
    thepr esidencyandani ssuef orthecampai gn,war mlysuppor t
    edt heapplicati
    on.Congress,
    deeplyi mpr essedbyhi sleadership,passedthebi ll
    gr ant
    ingthenewchar ter,
    andsenttheopen
    defi
    ancet oJackson.Hi sr esponsewasani nstantv eto.Thebat t
    lewasonandi tragedwi t
    hfury
    unti
    l t
    hecl oseofhi ssecondadmi ni
    strati
    on,endingi nthedestructi
    onoft hebank, adi
    sordered
    currency ,andanat ionalpanic.

    Inhisv etomessage, Jacksonattackedthebankasunconst i


    tuti
    onalandevenhint
    edat
    corruption.Herefusedtoassentt otheproposit
    ionthattheSupr emeCourthadsettl
    edthe
    questionofconst i
    tuti
    onali
    tybythedecisionintheMcCul lochcase."Eachpubli
    coff
    icer
    ,"he
    argued, "whotakesanoat htosuppor tt
    heConst i
    tut
    ion,swear sthathewil
    lsuppor
    titashe
    underst andsi
    t,notasitisunderstoodbyot her
    s."

    Notsatisf
    iedwithhisv etoandhisdeclar
    ati
    onagainstthebank, JacksonorderedtheSecret
    aryof
    theTreasuryt
    owi thdrawt hegov er
    nmentdeposi
    tswhi chformedal argepartoftheinst
    it
    uti
    on's
    funds.Thi
    sactionhef ollowedupbyanopenchar get hatt
    hebankhadusedmoneyshamef ull
    yto
    securetheret
    urnofi t
    ssuppor terstoCongr
    ess.TheSenat e,st
    ungbyt hischarge,sol
    emnly
    resol
    vedthatJacksonhad" assumeduponhi mselfauthor
    ityandpowernotconf erredbythe
    Constit
    uti
    onandl aws, butinderogati
    onofboth.
    "
    Theef f
    ect
    soft hedestr
    ucti
    onofthebankwerewidespread.Whenitschart
    erexpir
    edin1836,
    bankingwasoncemor ecommi tt
    edtothecont
    r ol
    ofthestates.Thestat
    elegi
    slat
    ures,undera
    deci
    sionrenderedbytheSupremeCourtaf
    terthedeathofMar shal
    l,
    begantocharterbanksunder
    stat
    eowner shi
    pandcont r
    ol,wi
    th
    ful
    lpowertoissuepapermoney —thisinspi teoftheprovisi
    onintheConst i
    tuti
    onthatst ates
    shall
    notissuebill
    sofcr editormakeany thingbutgoldandsi l
    vercoinlegaltenderinthe
    paymentofdebt s.Oncemor ethecount rywasf l
    oodedbypapercur rencyofuncertainv al
    ue.
    Tomakemat ter
    swor se, Jacksonadopt edt hepracti
    ceofdeposi t
    inghugeamount sof
    governmentfundsi nthesebanks, notforget ti
    ngtorenderfavorstothoseinstit
    uti
    onswhi ch
    support
    edhimi npol i
    tics—" petbanks,"ast heywer estyl
    edatthetime.In1837, part
    iall
    y ,t
    hough
    bynomeansent ir
    ely,asar esul
    toftheabol i
    tionofthebank,thecount r
    ywaspl ungedi ntoone
    ofthemostdisast r
    ouspani cswhichi teverexper i
    enced.

    I
    nt ernalImprovement sChecked. —Thebankhadpr esentedt oJacksonav erycl ear
    problem—oneofdest r
    uction.Otherquesti
    onswer enotsosi mpl e,particularlyt hesubjectof
    feder al
    appropriati
    onsinai dofroadsandot heri nternalimprovement s.Jef fer sonhadst rongly
    favoredgov ernmentassi stanceinsuchmat ters,buthi sadmi nistrat
    ionwasf oll
    owedbya
    reaction.BothMadi sonandMonr oev et
    oedact sofCongr essappr opriatingpubl icfundsfor
    publicroads,adv anci
    ngast hei
    rreasonthear gumentt hattheConst i
    tutionaut hor i
    zednosuch
    l
    aws.Jackson, puzzledbyt heclamoronbot hsi des, foll
    owedt heirexampl ewi t
    houtmaki ng
    theconst it
    uti
    onal barabsolute.Congress,het hought ,mightlawf ull
    ybui ldhi ghway sofa
    nat i
    onalandmi li
    taryvalue,buthestronglydepr ecatedat t
    acksbyl ocal interest sont hefederal
    treasury.

    TheTr
    iumphoft
    heExecut
    iveBr
    anch.
    —Jackson'
    s

    reëlect i
    oni n1832ser v edt oconf i
    rm hisopi niont hathewast hechosenl eaderoft hepeopl e,freed
    andi nst ruct edt or i
    der oughshodov erCongr essandev ent hecour t
    s.NoPr esi dentbef oreorsi nce
    everent ertainedi nt i
    mesofpeacesuchl oftynot ionsofexecut i
    vepr erogati
    v e.Theent irebodyof
    feder al empl oyeeshet ransformedi ntoobedi entser vantsofhi swishes, asignoranodf r
    om hi m
    maki ngandundoi ngt hef ortunesoft hehumbl eandt hemi ght y
    .Hisl awfulcabi netofadv iser s,
    fi
    ll
    ingal loft hehi ghpost sint hegov ernment ,het reat edwi thscantcour t
    esy ,preferri
    ngr athert o
    secur ehi scounsel andadv i
    cef r
    om anunof fici
    al bodyoff r
    iendsanddependent swho, owi ngt o
    theirsecr etmet hodsandbackst air
    sar rangement s,becameknownas" t
    heki tchencabi net ."Under
    theleader shi pofasi l
    ent ,astute,andr esourcef ulpol iti
    cian,AmosKendal l
    ,thisi nf
    ormal gat hering
    ofthef aithful bot hgav eandcar ri
    edoutdecr eesandor ders,communi cati
    ngt hePr esident '
    s
    l
    ight estwi shorst rictestcommandt ot heut t
    ermostpar toft hecount ry.Resol utel
    yandi nt hef ace
    ofbi tteropposi t
    ionJacksonhadr emov edt hedeposi tsfrom theUnit edStatesBank.Whent he
    Senat epr otest edagai nstt hi
    sar bitr
    aryconduct ,hedi dnotr estuntili
    twasf orcedt oex punget he
    resol utionofcondemnat i
    on; inti
    meoneofhi sl ieut enant swithhisownhandswasabl et ot eart he
    censur efrom t her ecor ds.WhenChi efJusticeMar shal li
    ssuedadecr eeagai nstGeor giawhi chdi d
    notsui thim, Jackson, accordingt otraditi
    on, bl
    ur tedoutt hatMar shallcouldgoaheadandenf orce
    hisownor der s.Tot heendhepur suedhi swillf
    ul way ,fi
    nall
    yev enchoosi nghi sownsuccessor .

    TheRi
    seoft
    heWhi
    gs

    Jackson'sMeasur esAr ouseOpposi t


    ion.—Measur essodeci ded, pol
    iciessor adical,andconductso
    high-
    handedcoul dnotf ai
    ltoarouseagai nstJacksonadeepandexasper at edopposi ti
    on.Thet r ut
    h
    i
    st heconductofhi sent ir
    eadmi nistr
    ationpr ofoundlydisturbedt hebusi nessandf i
    nancesoft he
    country.Itwasaccompani edbycondi t
    ionssi milartothosewhi chexi stedundert heAr ticl
    esof
    Confeder at
    ion.Apapercur r
    ency,almostasunst ableandirrit
    atingast hewor thlessnot esof
    revol
    utionaryday s,floodedt hecountr y,hinderi
    ngt heeasyt ransacti
    onofbusi ness.Theuseof
    federalfundsfori nternalimprovement s, sov i
    taltotheexchangeofcommodi ti
    eswhi chi sthev ery
    l
    ifeofindust r
    y,wasbl ockedbyexecut i
    vev et
    oes.TheSupr emeCour t
    , which, underMar shall
    ,had
    heldrefractor
    yst atest otheirobli
    gationsundert heConst i
    tution,wasf louted; states'ri
    ghtsjudges,
    deli
    beratelyselectedbyJacksonf orthebench, begant osapandunder mi net herulingsofMar shal l
    .
    Thepr otecti
    vet ar
    iff,underwhi chthet extilei
    ndust r
    yofNewEngl and,thei ronmi l
    lsofPennsy lvania,
    andt
    hewool
    ,fl
    ax,
    andhempfarmsoftheWesthadfl
    ouri
    shed,
    hadr ecei
    vedasev
    erebl
    owi
    nthe
    compr
    omi
    seof1833whichpr
    omisedasteadyr
    educt
    ionofdut
    ies.To
    capthecli
    max,Jackson'
    spar t
    y,casti
    ngasidetheoldandreputabl
    enameofRepubli
    can,
    boldl
    ychosef
    oritsti
    tletheter
    m" Democrat,"t
    hrowingdownthegauntlett
    oev
    ery
    conserv
    ati
    vewhodoubt edtheomni sci
    enceofthepeople.Al
    lthesethi
    ngswor
    kedtogethert
    o
    evokeanopposit
    ionthatwasshar panddetermined.

    AnOldCar
    toonRidi
    culi
    ng
    Cl
    ay'
    sTari
    ffandInt
    ernal
    I
    mprovementProgr
    am
    AnOl
    dCar
    toonRi
    dicul
    i
    ngCl
    ay'
    sTar
    if
    fandI
    nter
    nal
    Impr
    ovementPr
    ogr
    am

    Clayandt heNat i
    onal Republicans.—Int hi
    sopposi tionmov ement, l
    eadershi
    pf ell
    toHenr yClay
    ,
    asonofKent ucky,r
    at herthant oDani elWebst erofMassachuset ts.LikeJackson, Claywas
    borni nahomehaunt edbypov erty.Leftfatherl
    essear lyandt hrownuponhi sownr esour ces,
    hewentf rom Virgi
    niai nt
    oKent uckywher ebysheerf orceofi nt
    ell
    ecther osetoemi nencei n
    thepr ofessionoflaw.Wi t
    houtt hemar t
    ialgif
    tsort hemar t
    ialspir
    itofJackson, heslippedmor e
    easilyintot hesoci
    al habitsoftheEastatt hesamet i
    met hather etainedhisholdont he
    affectionsoft heboisterousWest .Farmer sofOhi o,Indiana,andKent uckylovedhi m; fi
    nancier
    s
    ofNewYor kandPhi ladelphiatrustedhim.Hewast husal eaderwel lfi
    tt
    edtogat hert heforces
    ofopposi tionintounionagai nstJackson.

    AroundCl ay '
    sst andardassembl edamot l
    eycol lecti
    on, representi
    ngev eryspeci esofpoli
    tical
    opinion, unitedbyonet i
    eonl y—hat r
    edf or"OldHi ckor y."Null
    ifi
    ersandl essst renuous
    advocat esofst ates' r
    ightswer ey okedwi thnat i
    onalistsofWebst er'sschool ;ardent
    protectionistswer eboundt ogetherwi thequallyar dentf reetraders,al
    lfraternizinginone
    grandconf usionofi deasundert hetitl
    eof" National Republ i
    cans."Thust heanci entand
    honor ablet erm selectedbyJef fersonandhi spar ty,
    nowabandonedbyJacksoni anDemocr acy,
    wasadr oitl
    yadopt edt ocov erthesuppor t
    ersofCl ay.Thepl atform ofthepar ty,howev er,
    embr acedal ltheol dFeder ali
    stpr i
    nciples:protectionf orAmer icanindustry ;
    internal
    i
    mpr ov ement s;respectf ortheSupr emeCour t
    ; r
    esistancet oexecut ivetyranny ;and
    denunci ationoft hespoi l
    ssy stem.ThoughJacksonwaseasi lyv i
    ctori
    ousi n1832, thepopular
    votecastf orCl ayshoul dhav egi venhim somedoubt saboutt hef ai
    thof" thewhol epeople"in
    thewi sdom ofhi s" r
    eign."

    VanBur enandthePanicof1837. —Not hingcouldshaketheGener al


    '
    ssuper bconfi
    dence.At
    theendofhi ssecondter
    m hei nsi
    stedonsel ecti
    nghisownsuccessor ;atanat i
    onal
    convention,
    chosenbypar tyvoter
    s,butpackedwi thhisoff
    iceholdersandfriends,
    he
    nominatedMar ti
    nVanBur enofNewYor k.Oncemor ehepr ovedhisstrengthbycarry
    ingthe
    countryfortheDemocrats.Withaf i
    nef l
    ouri
    sh,heattendedtheinaugurati
    onofVanBur enand
    thenreti
    red,amidtheapplauseandt earsofhisdevotees,t
    ot heHermitage,hishomein
    Tennessee.

    Fort unatelyforhi m, Jacksonescapedt heodium ofadi sastrouspani cwhi chst ruckthecount ry


    wi t
    ht erri
    blef orcei nthef ol
    lowingsummer .Amongt hecont ributorycausesoft hiscrisis,nodoubt ,
    wer et hedest ructionoft hebankandt heissuanceoft he" speci eci rcul
    ar"of1836whi chr equi
    red
    thepur chasersofpubl iclandstopayf orthem incoi n,i
    nsteadoft hepapernot esofst atebanks.
    What everthedomi nati
    ngcause, theruinwaswi despread.Bankaf terbankwentunder ;boom
    townsi ntheWestcol lapsed;Easternmi l
    lsshutdown; andwor kingpeopl eint hei ndust ri
    alcenters,
    starv i
    ngf rom unempl oyment ,beggedf orrel
    ief
    .VanBur enbr av edt hestor m, offer i
    ngnomeasur e
    ofr eform orassi stancet othedistr
    actedpeopl e.Hedi dseeksecur ityf
    orgov ernmentf undsby
    suggest i
    ngt her emov al ofdepositsfr
    om pr i
    vatebanksandt heest abli
    shmentofani ndependent
    treasur ysy st
    em, withgov ernmentdeposi tar
    iesforpubl icfunds, insev eralleadi ngci t
    ies.Thispl an
    wasf inall
    yaccept edbyCongr essin1840.
    HadVanBur enbeenacapt i
    vat
    ingfi
    gurehemi ghthav
    eliv
    eddownthediscredi
    tofthepani
    c
    unj
    ust
    lyl
    aidathisdoor;buthewasf arfr
    om beingafavor
    it
    ewit
    hthepopulace.Thoughamanof
    manytal
    ents,heowedhi sposi
    tiont
    ot hequi
    etandadeptmanagementofJacksonr at
    hert
    hant
    o
    hi
    sownpersonal qual
    i
    ties.
    Themenoft hefr
    onti
    erdidnotcareforhi
    m.Theysuspectedt
    hatheatefr
    om "gol
    dplat
    e"and
    theycouldnotfor
    giv
    ehi mforbeinganastutepol
    it
    ici
    anfr
    om NewYork.St
    il
    ltheDemocrat
    icpar
    ty,
    remember i
    ngJackson'swishes,
    renominatedhi
    m unani
    mouslyi
    n1840andsawhi m godownto
    utterdef
    eat.

    TheWhi gsandGener alHar ri


    son. —Byt histi
    me, theNat i
    onal Republ i
    cans,nowknownas
    Whi gs—at i
    tl
    etakenf rom t hepar t
    yofopposi ti
    ont ot heCr owni nEngl and,hadl ear nedmany
    l
    essons.Taki ngal eafoutoft heDemocr at
    icbook, theynomi nat ed, notClayofKent ucky,well
    knownf orhisv i
    ewsont hebank, thet ari
    ff,andint ernal i
    mpr ov ement s,butami l
    itaryher o,
    Gener al Wi l
    li
    am Henr yHar ri
    son, amanofuncer tainpol i
    ti
    cal opinions.Har ri
    son, asonofa
    Virginiasi gneroft heDecl arationofI ndependence, spr angi ntopubl i
    cv i
    ewbywi nningabat tle
    mor ef amoust hani mpor t
    ant, "
    Tippecanoe" —abr ushwi ththeI ndiansi nIndiana.Headdedt o
    hislaur elsbyr ender i
    ngpr aisewor t hyser vi
    cesdur i
    ngt hewarof1812.Whenday sofpeace
    returnedhewasr ewar dedbyagr at efulpeoplewi thaseati nCongr ess.Thenher etiredtoquiet
    l
    ifeinal it
    tlev i
    l
    lagenearCi ncinnat i.LikeJacksonhewashel dt obeasonoft heSout handt he
    West .Li keJacksonhewasami l
    itaryher o,alesserl ight,butst i
    l
    l alight.Li
    keOl dHi ckoryhe
    rodei ntoof ficeonat i
    deofpopul arf eeli
    ngagai nstanEast ernmanaccusedofbei ng
    somet hingofanar i
    stocrat.Hi sper sonal popularitywassuf fi
    cient .TheWhi gswhonomi nat
    ed
    him shr ewdl yrefusedt oadoptapl atform ordecl aret heirbeliefinany t
    hing.Whensome
    Democr atasser t
    edt hatHar risonwasabackwoodsmanwhosesol ewant swer eaj ugofhar d
    ciderandal ogcabi n,theWhi gst reatedt heremar knotasani nsultbutaspr oofposi ti
    vethat
    Har r
    isondeser vedt hev otesofJacksonmen.Thej ugandt hecabi ntheyproudl yt ransformed
    i
    nt osy mbol softhecampai gn, andwonf orthei
    rchi ef tai
    n234el ectoralvotes, whi l
    eVanBur en
    gotonl ysi xty.

    Harri
    sonandTy l
    er.
    —TheHeroofTi ppecanoewasnotlongtoenjoythefrui
    tsofhisvi
    ctor
    y .The
    hungryhordeofWhi goff
    iceseekersdescendeduponhimlikewolvesupont hef
    old.I
    fhewent
    outtheyway l
    aidhim;i
    fhestayedindoors,hewasbesi
    eged; notev
    enhisbedchamberwas
    spared.Hewasnonet oostrongatbestandhet ookadeepcol donthedayofhisinaugurati
    on.
    Betweendr i
    vi
    ngoutDemocr atsandappeasingWhigs,
    hef ellmort
    all
    yil
    l
    .Beforetheendofa
    mont hhelaydeadatthecapitol
    .

    Har r
    ison'ssuccessor, JohnTy ler,theVi cePresident,whom t heWhi gshadnomi natedt ocat ch
    votesinVi r
    gini
    a, wasmor eofaDemocr atthanany thi
    ngel se,thoughhewasnotpar t
    isanenough
    topleaseany body .TheWhi gsr ailedathi m becausehewoul dnotappr ovet hefoundi ngof
    anotherUni t
    edSt atesBank.TheDemocr at
    sst ormedathi mf orref using,unt i
    lneart heendofhi s
    term, t
    osanct i
    ont heannexat ionofTexas, whi chhaddecl aredi t
    si ndependenceofMexi coi n
    1836.Hi sentir
    eadmi nistr
    at i
    on, mar kedbyunseeml ywrangling, pr oducedonl yt womeasur esof
    i
    mpor t
    ance.TheWhi gs, fl
    ushedbyv ict
    ory,wit
    ht heaidofaf ewpr otectioni
    stDemocr ats, enacted,
    i
    n1842, anewt ari
    ffl
    awdest r
    oy i
    ngt hecompr omi sewhichhadbr oughtaboutt het rucebet ween
    theNor thandt heSout h, i
    nt heday sofnul l
    ifi
    cation.Thedistingui shedl eaderoft heWhi gs, Dani
    el
    Webst er,asSecr etar
    yofSt at e, i
    nnegot i
    ati
    onwi thLordAshbur tonr epresent i
    ngGr eatBr it
    ain,
    settl
    edt helong-standingdi sput ebet weenthet wocount r
    iesov ert heMai neboundar y.Ay earaft
    er
    closingthischapt eri
    nAmer i
    candi plomacy ,Webst erwit
    hdr ewt opr ivat
    el i
    fe,leav i
    ngt hePr esi
    dent
    toendur ealonet hebuf fet
    sofpol iticalfort
    une.

    Tot heend,theWhigsr egardedTylerasat rai


    tortothei
    rcause; butthej udgmentofhi stor
    yi s
    thatitwasacaseoft hebi terbi
    tt
    en.Theyhadnomi natedhi mf ort hevicepr esidencyasaman
    ofviewsaccept abl
    etoSout hernDemocr atsinordertocat chthei rvot
    es, li
    ttl
    er eckoningwi t
    h
    thechancesofhi sbecomi ngPresident.Tyl
    erhadnotdecei vedt hem and, thoroughlysour ed,
    helef tt
    heWhi t
    eHousei n1845nott oappearinpubliclif
    eagai nunt il
    theday sofsecessi on,
    whenheespousedt heSout hernconfederacy.JacksonianDemocr acy,withnewl eadershi
    p,
    servinganewcause—sl avery—wasreturnedtopowerunderJamesK.Pol k,afriendoft he
    Gener alf
    rom Tennessee.Af ewgrainsofsandwer etorunt hrought hehourgl assbef orethe
    Whigpart
    ywast
    obebr
    okenandscat
    ter
    edast
    heFeder
    ali
    stshadbeenmor
    ethanagener
    ati
    on
    bef
    ore.

    TheI
    nter
    act
    ionofAmer
    icanandEur
    opeanOpi
    nion
    Democr acyi nEngl andandFr ance.—Dur i
    ngt heper i
    odofJacksoni anDemocr acy,asi nall
    epochsoff erment ,ther ewasacl oser elati
    onbet weent hethoughtoft heNewWor ldandt he
    Old.I nEngl and,thesuccessesoft heAmer icanexper imentwer eusedasar gument sinfavorof
    over throwi ngt hear i
    st ocracywhi chGeor geI I
    Ihadmani pulatedwi thsuchef fectagai nst
    Amer icahal facent urybef ore.IntheUni tedStates,ont heot herhand, conser vati
    vesl i
    ke
    Chancel lorKent ,thest outopponentofmanhoodsuf fragei nNewYor k,cit
    edt heri
    ot softhe
    Bri
    t i
    shwor kingclassesasawar ni
    ngagai nstadmi tt
    ingt hesamecl assest oashar einthe
    gov ernmentoft heUni tedSt ates.Alongwi t
    ht heagitationofopi ni
    onwentepoch- maki ng
    event s.In1832, they earofJackson' ssecondt ri
    umph, theBr i
    tishPar li
    amentpassedi tsfi
    rst
    reform bi ll
    , whichconf erredt heballot—notonwor ki
    ngmenasy et—butonmi l
    l owner sand
    shopkeeper swhom t hel andlordsregar dedwi thgenui nehor ror.Thei nit
    ialstepwast hust aken
    i
    nbr eakingdownt hepr i
    vil
    egesoft hel andedar ist
    ocr acyandt herichmer chant sofEngl and.

    Aboutt hesamet imeapopul arrevoluti


    onoccur r
    edi nFr ance.TheBour bonf amily, restoredt o
    thethroneofFr ancebyt healli
    edpower saf t
    ertheirv i
    ctoryov erNapoleoni n1815, had
    embar keduponapol i
    cyofar bit
    rarygov ernment .Touset hef amili
    arphrase, t
    heyhadl earned
    nothingandf or
    got t
    ennot hi
    ng.Char lesX, whocamet ot het hronei n1824, settowor kwi thzeal
    toundot heresult
    soft heFr enchRev ol
    ution,t
    ost ifl
    ethepr ess, r
    estri
    ctthesuf fr
    age, and
    restoretheclergyandt henobi li
    tytot heirancientrights.Hi spol i
    cyencount eredequal lyzealous
    opposi t
    ionandi n1830hewasov erthrown.Thepopul arpar t
    y ,undertheleadershipofLaf ayett
    e,
    establi
    shed, notar epubli
    cassomeoft heradicalshadhoped, buta"li
    beral"middl e-class
    monar chyunderLoui sPhili
    ppe.Thi ssecondFr enchRev oluti
    onmadeapr ofoundi mpr ession
    onAmer icans,conv i
    nci
    ngt hem thatt hewhol ewor ldwasmov i
    ngtowarddemocr acy .The
    may or,aldermen, andciti
    zensofNewYor kCityjoinedi nagr eatparadet ocelebrat et hef al
    lof
    theBour bons.Mi ngledwi t
    hcheer sf orthenewor derinFr ancewer ehur r
    ahsf or"thepeopl e'
    s
    own, Andr ewJackson, theHer oofNewOr l
    eansandPr esidentoft heUnitedSt ates!"

    EuropeanInteresti
    nAmer ica.—Totheolderandmoreset t
    ledEuropeans, thedemocrati
    c
    experi
    menti nAmer icawasei t
    heramenaceorani nspir
    ati
    on.Conser vati
    v esvi
    eweditwith
    anxiet
    y;l
    iberal
    swi thopti
    mism.Far-si
    ghtedleader
    scouldseet hatthetideofdemocr acywas
    ri
    singall
    ov erthewor l
    dandcoul dnotbestayed.Nat
    urall
    ythecount r
    yt hathadadvanced
    furt
    hestalongt henewcour sewastheplaceinwhichtofindargument sf orandagai
    nst
    proposal
    st hatEuropeshoul dmakeexperimentsofthesamechar acter.

    DeTocquev i
    lle'sDemocr acyi nAmer i
    ca.—Inaddi tiont ot hecasual travelert her ebegant ov i
    sitthe
    UnitedSt atest het hought fulobser verbentonf indi ngoutwhatmannerofnat i
    ont hiswasspr i
    nging
    upi nthewi lder ness.Thosewhol ookedwi thsy mpat hyupont hegr owi ngpopul arforcesofEngl and
    andFr ancef oundi nt heUni t
    edSt at es,inspi teofmanybl emi shesanddef ects, aguar ant eef orthe
    futureoft hepeopl e'
    sr uleintheOl dWor ld.Oneoft hese, AlexisdeTocquev i
    lle,aFr enchl i
    ber alof
    mildlydemocr ati
    csy mpat hies,madeaj our neyt ot hiscount ryi n1831; hedescr ibedi nav ery
    remar kablev olume, Democr acyi nAmer i
    ca, thegr andexper imentashesawi t.Ont hewhol ehe
    wasconv inced.Af t
    erexami ningwi thacr it
    ical eyet helif
    eandl aboroft heAmer i
    canpeopl e,aswel l
    ast heconst itutionsoft hest atesandt henat ion, hecamet ot heconcl usi ont hatdemocr acywi thall
    i
    tsf aultswasbot hinevitableandsuccessf ul.Sl av eryhet houghtwasapai nf ul contrastt ot heot her
    featuresofAmer i
    canl i
    fe,andhef or esawwhatpr ov edt obet hei r
    repressibl econf l
    ictov eri t
    .He
    believedthatt hr oughbl underingt hepeopl ewer edest inedt ol ear nthehi ghestofal larts, self-
    gov er
    nmentonagr andscal e.Theabsenceofal ei surecl ass, dev otedt onocal li
    ngorpr of ession,
    mer elyenjoy i
    ngt herefinement sofl ifeandaddi ngt oitsgr aces—t hef l
    awi nAmer icancul turethat
    gav edeepdi stresst omanyaEur opeanl eader —deTocquev il
    let houghtanecessar yv ir
    tuei nthe
    republic."Amongstademocr aticpeopl ewher et her eisnoher edi t
    aryweal th,ev erymanwor kst o
    earnal ivi
    ng, orhaswor ked,ori sbor nofpar ent swhohav ewor ked.Anot ionofl abori sther efore
    present edtot hemi ndonev erysideast henecessar y,natural, andhonestcondi ti
    onofhuman
    exist
    ence.
    "Itwast
    hisnot
    ionofagov
    ernmenti
    nthehandsofpeopl
    ewhol
    abor
    edt
    hatst
    ruckt
    he
    French
    publ
    i
    cistast
    hemostsi
    gni
    fi
    cantf
    acti
    nthemoder
    nwor
    ld.

    HarrietMar tineau'sVi sittoAmer i


    ca.—Thi sphaseofAmer icanl i
    feal sopr of oundlyimpressedt he
    bril
    l
    iantEngl i
    shwr i
    ter,Har r
    ietMar t
    ineau.Shesawal l partsoft hecount r
    y,thehomesoft herich
    andt hel ogcabi nsoft hef r
    ontier;
    shet raveledinst agecoaches, canal boat s,andonhor seback;and
    visi
    tedsessi onsofCongr essandauct i
    onsatsl av emar kets.Shet r
    iedt ov iewt hecount ry
    i
    mpar tial
    lyandt het hingt hatleftt
    hedeepestmar konhermi ndwast hesol i
    darityofthepeopl ei
    n
    onegr eatpol i
    ti
    cal body ."Howev ervariousmaybet het ri
    besofi nhabi t
    antsi nthosest ates,
    what ev erpartoft hewor ldmayhav ebeent heirbi r
    thpl ace,orthatoft heirf athers,howev erbr
    oken
    maybet heirlanguage, howev erservil
    eornobl et heirempl oyment s, howev erexal t
    edordespi sed
    theirst at
    e,allaredecl ar edtobeboundt ogetherbyequal polit
    ical obligations...
    .Inthatself-
    gover ningcount r
    yal l
    ar ehel dtohav eanequal interesti nthepr i
    nci ples
    ofitsi nstit
    ut i
    onsandt obeboundi nequal dutyt owat cht heirwor kings."Mi ssMar t
    ineau
    wasal soi mpr essedwi ththepassi onofAmer icansf orlandowner shipandcont rastedthe
    UnitedSt atesf avorabl ywi thEnglandwher et het i
    llersoft hesoi lwer eei thert enantsor
    l
    abor er sforwages.

    Adv erseCr i
    tici
    sm. —Bynomeansal lobser v ersandwr iterswer econv i
    ncedt hatAmer i
    cawasa
    success.Thef ast idioust r
    av eler,Mrs.Tr ollope, whot houghtt heEngl i
    shsy stem ofchur chand
    statewasi deal , sawi nt heUni tedStatesonl yroughnessandi gnorance.Shel ament edthe" total
    anduni v
    er sal wantofmanner sbothinmal esandf emal es,
    "addi ngt hatwhi l
    e" theyappeart ohav e
    clearheadsandact i
    veintellects,
    "therewas" nochar m, nogr acei nt heirconv ersation."Shef ound
    every wher eal ackofr everencef orkings, lear ning,andr ank.Ot hercr it
    icswer eev enmor esav age.
    Theedi t
    oroft heFor eignQuar ter
    lypet ulant l
    yexcl aimedt hatt heUni tedSt ateswas" abr i
    gand
    conf ederation."Char lesDi ckensdecl ar edt hecount ryt obe" somai medandl ame, sof ullofsor es
    andul cerst hatherbestf r
    iendst urnf r
    om t hel oathsomecr eat urei ndi sgust .
    "Sy dneySmi th,editor
    oftheEdi nbur ghRev i
    ew, wasnev ertiredoft ryinghiscaust i
    cwi tatt heex penseofAmer ica."Thei r
    Frankl i
    nsandWashi ngtonsandal ltheot hersagesandher oesoft heirr evolutionwer ebor nand
    bredsubj ect soft heki ngofEngl and,"heobser v edin1820." Dur i
    ngt het hirt
    yorf ortyyear soft heir
    i
    ndependencet heyhav edoneabsol utel ynot hingf ort hesci ences, fort hear ts, f
    orliterature,orev en
    forthest at esmanl ikestudi esofpol i
    ticsorpol i
    ticaleconomy ..
    ..Inthef ourquar tersof
    thegl obewhor eadsanAmer i
    canbook?Orgoest oanAmer i
    canpl ay ?Orl ooksatanAmer ican
    pictureorst atue? "Toputashar pst ingi nt ohi stauntheadded,f orget ti
    ngbywhoseaut hor it
    y
    slaver ywasi nt r
    oducedandf ostered:" Underwhi choft heol dt yranni calgov ernment sof
    Europei sev erysi xthmanasl avewhom hi sf ell
    owcr eaturesmaybuyandsel l
    ?"

    SomeAmer icans,whileresentingthehast yandof tensuper f


    ici
    alj udgment sofEur opean
    writ
    ers,wi
    ncedundert hei
    rsatireandt ookthoughtaboutcert
    ainpar t
    icularsintheindi
    ctments
    broughtagai
    nstt hem.Themassoft hepeople,howev er
    ,bentont hegr eatexper
    iment,gave
    l
    itt
    le heed to car pi
    ng cri
    ti
    cs who saw t he flaws and nott he achi evements ofour
    country
    —crit
    icswhower einf actlessinter
    estedinAmer icathani npr eventi
    ngther i
    seand
    growthofdemocr acyinEurope.

    Ref
    erences

    J.
    S.Basset
    t,Li
    feofAndr
    ewJackson.

    J.
    W.Bur TheMi
    gess, ddl
    ePer
    iod.

    Dani
    H.Lodge, elWebst
    er.

    W.Macdonal
    d,Jacksoni
    anDemocr
    acy(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .
    Ost
    rogor
    ski
    ,Democr
    acyandt
    heOr
    gani
    zat
    ionofPol
    i
    ticalPar
    ti
    es,
    Vol
    .II
    .

    C. TheJacksoni
    H.Peck, anEpoch.
    C.Schur
    z,Henr
    yCl
    ay.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Bywhatdev
    iceswasdemocr
    acyl
    i
    mit
    edi
    nthef
    ir
    stday
    sofourRepubl
    i
    c?

    2.
    Onwhatgr
    oundswer
    ethel
    i
    mit
    ati
    onsdef
    ended?At
    tacked?

    3.
    Out
    li
    net
    her
    iseofpol
    i
    tical
    democr
    acyi
    ntheUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    4.
    Descr
    ibet
    hreei
    mpor
    tantchangesi
    nourpol
    i
    tical
    syst
    em.

    5.
    Cont
    rastt
    hePr
    esi
    dent
    soft
    heol
    dandt
    henewgener
    ati
    ons.

    6.
    Accountf
    ort
    heunpopul
    ari
    tyofJohnAdams'
    admi
    nist
    rat
    ion.

    7.
    Whathadbeent
    hecar
    eerofAndr
    ewJacksonbef
    ore1829?

    8.
    Sket
    cht
    hehi
    stor
    yoft
    hepr
    otect
    ivet
    ari
    ffandexpl
    aint
    het
    heor
    yunder
    lyi
    ngi
    t.

    9.
    Expl
    aint
    hegr
    owt
    hofSout
    her
    nopposi
    ti
    ont
    othet
    ari
    ff
    .

    10.
    Rel
    atet
    hel
    eadi
    ngev
    ent
    sconnect
    edwi
    thnul
    l
    ifi
    cat
    ioni
    nSout
    hCar
    oli
    na.

    11.
    Stat
    eJackson'
    svi
    ewsandt
    ell
    theout
    comeoft
    hecont
    rov
    ersy
    .

    12.
    WhywasJacksonopposedt
    othebank?Howdi
    dhef
    inal
    l
    ydest
    royi
    t?

    13.
    TheWhi
    gscompl
    ainedofJackson'
    s"execut
    ivet
    yranny
    ."Whatdi
    dtheymean?

    14.
    Giv
    esomeoft
    hel
    eadi
    ngev
    ent
    sinCl
    ay'
    scar
    eer
    .

    15.
    Howdoy
    ouaccountf
    ort
    het
    ri
    umphofHar
    ri
    soni
    n1840?

    16.
    WhywasEuropeespeci
    all
    yint
    erestedi
    nAmer
    icaatt
    hisper
    iod?Whower
    esomeoft
    he
    Eur
    opeanwr
    it
    ersonAmer i
    canaff
    airs?

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    Jackson'
    sCr
    it
    ici
    smsoft
    heBank.
    —Macdonal
    d,Document
    arySour
    ceBook,
    pp.320-
    329.

    Fi
    nancial
    Aspect
    softheBankControv
    ersy.
    —Dewey,Fi
    nanci
    alHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    Sect
    ions86-
    87;El
    son,Hi
    stor
    yoftheUnit
    edStat
    es,
    pp.492-496.

    Jackson'
    sVi
    ewoft
    heUni
    on.
    —Seehi
    spr
    ocl
    amat
    iononnul
    l
    ifi
    cat
    ioni
    nMacdonal
    d,pp.333-
    340.

    Null
    i
    ficati
    on.
    —McMast
    erHi
    , st
    oryoft
    hePeopl
    eoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    Vol
    .VI
    ,pp.153-
    182;
    El
    son, pp.
    487-
    492.

    TheWebster-
    HayneDebate.
    —Anal
    yzet
    hear
    guments.Ext
    ensi
    veextr
    actsar
    egiveni
    n
    Macdonal
    d'sl
    argert
    hree-
    vol
    umewor Sel
    k, ectDocumentsofUni
    tedStat
    esHist
    ory,
    1776-
    1761,
    pp.239-
    260.
    TheChar
    act
    erofJackson'
    sAdmini
    str
    ati
    on.
    —Woodr
    owWi
    l Hi
    son, st
    oryoft
    heAmer
    icanPeopl
    e,Vol
    .
    I
    V,pp.1-
    87;El
    son,pp.498-
    501.

    ThePeopl
    ein1830.
    —From contemporar
    ywr
    it
    ingsi
    nHar
    t,Amer
    icanHi
    stor
    yTol
    dby
    Cont
    emporar
    ies,
    Vol.I
    II
    ,pp.509-530.

    Bi
    ographi
    calSt
    udi
    es.—AndrewJackson,
    J.Q.Adams,
    Henr
    yCl
    ay,
    Dani
    elWebst
    er,
    J.C.
    Cal
    houn,andW.H.Harr
    ison.

    CHAPTERXI
    I
    THEMI
    DDLEBORDERANDTHEGREATWEST

    "Weshal lnotsendanemi gr antbeyondt heMi ssissi


    ppi i
    nahundr edy ears,
    "exclai
    med
    Livi
    ngst on,thepri
    ncipalauthoroft heLouisianapur chase.Whenhemadet hisastounding
    declaration,hedoubtlesshadbef or
    ehi smi nd'
    sey ethegr eatst
    retchesofunoccupi edl ands
    betweent heAppalachiansandt heMi ssi
    ssippi.Healsohadbef or ehi
    mt hehistor
    yoft he
    Englishcol oni
    es,whichtoldhi m ofthet wocent uri
    esrequiredtosettl
    et heseaboar dregion.To
    practicalmen, hi
    sprophecydi dnotseem f arwr ong;butbeforethelapseofhal fthatti
    met her
    e
    appear edbey ondtheMi ssissippiatierofnewst at
    es,reachingfrom theGul fofMexicot othe
    souther nboundaryofMi nnesot a,andanewcommonweal thonthePaci ficOceanwher e
    Amer icanemi grant
    shadr aisedtheBearf l
    agofCal i
    forni
    a.

    TheAdv
    anceoft
    heMi
    ddl
    eBor
    der

    Mi ssour i
    .—Whent hemi ddl eoft heni neteent hcent uryhadbeenr eached, t
    heMi ssissi
    ppi Riv er,
    whi chDani elBoone, thei ntrepidhunt er, hadcr osseddur i
    ngWashi ngton'sadmi nistr
    ation" t
    o
    escapef rom ci vi
    lizat
    ion"i nKent ucky,hadbecomet hewat erwayf orav astempi re.Thecent er
    ofpopul ationoft heUni tedSt ateshadpassedt ot heOhi oVal ley.Missour i,
    wi thitswide
    reachesofr i
    chl ands, l
    ow- lyi
    ng, level,andf erti
    l
    e, wel ladapt edt ohempr aisi
    ng, haddr awnt oi ts
    bor derst housandsofpl ant ersf rom theol dSout hernst ates—f rom Vi r
    giniaandt heCar olinas
    aswel lasf rom Kent uckyandTennessee.Whent hegr eatcompr omi seof1820- 21admi tted
    hert otheuni on, wearing" ever yjewel ofsov ereignt y
    ,"asaf lori
    dor atorannounced, migrator y
    slav eowner swer eassur edt hatt hei
    rpr opertywoul dbesaf einMi ssour i.Alongt hewest ern
    shor eoft heMi ssissi
    ppi andonbot hbanksoft heMi ssour i t
    ot heuttermostl i
    mi tsofthest ate,
    plant at
    ionst il
    ledbybondmenspr eadouti nbroadexpanses.I nthenei ghbor hoodofJef ferson
    Cityt hesl avesnumber edmor et hanaf ourthoft hepopul ation.

    Intothisstr
    eam ofmi grationf rom theplantingSout hf l
    owedanot hercurr
    entofl and-t
    il
    li
    ng
    farmer s;
    somef rom Kent ucky, Tennessee, andMi ssissippi,driv enoutbyt heonr ushoft he
    plantersbuyingandconsol i
    dat i
    ngsmal lfarmsi ntov astest ates; andst i
    l
    lmor ef r
    om theEast
    andt heOldWor l
    d.Tot henor thwestov eragai nstIowaandt ot hesout hwestagai nstArkansas,
    thesey eomenl aidoutfar mst obet il
    l
    edbyt heirownl abor.I nthoser egi
    onst henumberof
    slavesseldom roseabov ef i
    v eorsixpercentoft hepopul ation.Theol dFrenchpost ,St.Louis,
    enrichedbyt hefurtradeoft heFarWestandt hest eamboatt raf f
    icoftheriver,grewintoa
    thri
    v i
    ngcommer cialci
    ty, i
    ncludi ngamongi tssevent y-fi
    vet housandi nhabitantsin1850near ly
    fortythousandf orei
    gner s,Ger mani mmi grantsf r
    om Pennsy l
    vani aandEur opebei ngthel ar
    gest
    si
    ngl
    eel
    ement
    .
    Arkansas. —BelowMi ssour il
    aytheterrit
    oryofAr kansas, whichhadl ongbeent hepar adiseof
    theswar thyhunt erandt her estl
    essf r
    ontiersmanf l
    eeingf r
    om t headv ancingbor dersoff ar
    m
    andt own.I nsearchoft hel if
    e,wildandf ree,wher ether i
    flesuppl i
    edt hegameandaf ewacr es
    ofgr oundt hecornandpot at
    oes,theyhadf il
    teredintothet er r
    it
    oryinanunendi ngdr i
    ft,
    "squatti
    ng"ont hel and.Wi thoutsomuchasaski ngthel eaveofanygov ernment ,t
    er r
    it
    orial
    or
    national,
    theycl aimedast heirownt hesoi lonwhi chtheyf irstplantedtheirfeet.Likethe
    Cher okeeIndians, whom t heyhadasnei ghbor s,whosev er
    ycust omsanddr essthey
    somet imesadopt ed,thesquat ter
    sspentt heirdaysint hemi dstofroughpl enty,besetbychi ll
    s,
    fevers,andt heill
    soft hef l
    esh,butformanyy earsunv exedbypol it
    icaltroublesort he
    restri
    cti
    onsofci vi
    li
    zedlife.

    Unfortunat el
    yforthem, howev er
    ,thefert
    ilevall
    eysoftheMi ssissippiandAr kansaswer ewel
    l
    adaptedt ot heculti
    v at
    ionofcot tonandt obaccoandt heirsyl
    vanpeacewassoonbr okenbyan
    i
    nvasionofpl ant
    ers.Thenewcomer s,withtheirser
    vil
    ewor kers,spreadupwar dinthevall
    ey
    towardMi ssouriandal ongt hesouthernbor derwest
    war dtotheRedRi ver.Intimetheslaves
    i
    nt hetierofcount iesagai nstLouisi
    anar angedfrom t
    hirtytosev entypercentoft he
    population.Thismar kedt hedoom oft hesmal lf
    armer,sweptAr kansasi ntothemai ncurr
    ent
    ofplantingpol i
    ti
    cs, andl edtoapower fullobbyatWashi ngtoninf avorofadmi ssi
    ont othe
    union,aboongr antedi n1836.

    Mi chigan. —I naccor dancewi t hawel l


    -establishedcust om, afreest atewasadmi tt
    edt othe
    uniont obal anceasl avest at e.In1833, t
    hepeopl eofMi chigan,at er r
    itorytent imest hesi zeof
    Connect icut ,announcedt hatt het imehadcomef orthem t oenjoyt hepr i
    v i
    l
    egesofa
    commonweal th.Allalongt hesout hernbor dert helandhadbeenoccupi edl argel ybypi oneers
    from NewEngl and, whobui ltpr i
    mf ar
    mhousesandadopt edthet own- meet ingpl anofsel f-
    gov ernmentaf terthef ashionoft heol dhome.Thef amouspostofDet roitwasgr owingi ntoa
    fl
    our ishingci t
    yast heboat spl y i
    ngont heGr eatLakescar ri
    edt r
    av elers,settlers, andf rei
    ght
    throught henar rows.Inal l,accor dingt othecensus, t
    her ewer emor et hanni net ythousand
    i
    nhabi tantsi nt heterri
    tory;soi twasnotwi thoutwar rantt hattheycl amor edf orst atehood.
    Congr ess, busyasev erwi thpol i
    tics,delayed; andt hei nhabitantsofMi chigan, unabl eto
    restraint hei rimpatience, calledaconv enti
    on, drewupaconst it
    ution, andst ar t
    edal ively
    quar rel withOhi oovert hesout hernboundar y .ThehandofCongr esswasnowf orced.
    Obj ectionswer emadet ot henewconst i
    tutionont hegr oundt hati tgav ethebal lottoal lfree
    whi temal es, i
    ncludingal i
    ensnoty etnaturalized; butthepr otestswer eov erbor nei nal ong
    debat e.Theboundar ywasf i
    xed, andMi chigan, thoughshor nofsomeoft hel andshecl aimed,
    camei ntot heuni onin1837.

    Wisconsin.—Acr ossLakeMi chigant othewestl ayt het err


    itoryofWi sconsi n,whichshar edwi th
    Michiganthei nterest i
    nghi storyoft heNor thwest , runningbacki ntot heher oicday swhen
    Frenchhunt ersandmi ssi onar i
    eswer epl anningaFr enchempi refort hegr eatmonar ch,Loui s
    XIV.Itwil
    lnotbef orgot t
    ent hattheFr enchr anger soft hewoods, thebl ack-robedpr iests,
    preparedforsacr i
    fice, event odeath,thet r
    apper soft heFr enchagenci es,
    andt heFrench
    explorer
    s—Mar quet te, Joliet,andMenar d—wer et hef i
    rstwhi t
    ement opaddl etheirfrailbar ks
    throughthenor ther nwat er s.Theyf i
    rstblazedt hei rtrailsi
    ntot hebl ackf orestsandl eftt races
    oftheirworkint henamesofpor t
    agesandl i
    ttl
    ev ill
    ages.I twasf rom t hesef oreststhatRed
    Meni nfullwarpai ntj our ney edf artofightundert hef leur-
    de-l
    isofFr ancewhent hesol diersof
    KingLouismadet hei rlastst andatQuebecandMont realagainstt hei mper ialarmsofBr itain.I
    t
    washer ethatt heBr itishf lagwaspl antedi n1761andt hatthegr eatPont i
    acconspi racywas
    formedt woy earsl atert oov ert
    hr owBr it
    ishdomi nion.

    When,agenerat
    ionaft
    erward,
    theSt ar
    sandSt r
    ipessupplant
    edtheUnionJack,
    theFrenchwer
    e
    sti
    ll
    almostt
    heonlywhitemenint heregion.Theywer esoonjoi
    nedbyhustl
    ingYankeefur
    tr
    aderswhodidbatt
    leroyal
    againstBrit
    ishinter
    loper
    s.Thet r
    aderscutt
    hei
    rwayt hr
    oughfor
    est
    t
    rail
    sandl ai
    douttherout
    esthroughlakeandstr
    eam andov erport
    agesf ortheset
    tl
    ersandthei
    r
    f
    ami l
    iesfr
    om thestat
    es"backEast."I
    twastheforestr
    angerwhodi scoveredthewaterpower
    l
    aterusedt ot
    urnthebusymill
    sgrindi
    ngthegrai
    nf r
    om thespreadi
    ngf ar
    ml ands.I
    nthewakeof
    t
    hef urhunter
    s,f
    orestmen,andfarmerscame
    minersfrom Kentucky,Tennessee,andMissour
    icr
    owdingint
    oexploitt
    heleadoresofthe
    northwest,someoft hem bri
    ngingslav
    estoworkthei
    rclai
    ms.Haditnotbeenforthegoldfev
    er
    of1849t hatdrewthewi el
    dersofpickandshovelt
    otheFarWest,
    Wi sconsi
    nwouldearlyhave
    takenhighr ankamongt heminingregi
    onsofthecount
    ry.

    From af avorablepointofv antageonLakeMi chigan,thevill


    ageofMi lwaukee,acenterfor
    l
    umberandgr aintransportandapl aceofent r
    yf orEasterngoods, grewintoathri
    vingcity.I
    t
    claimedt wentyt housandinhabitants,whenin1848Congr essadmi ttedWisconsintotheuni on.
    AlreadytheGer mans,Iri
    sh,andScandi navi
    anshadf oundt hei
    rwayi ntotheter
    rit
    ory.They
    j
    oi nedAmer icansf r
    om theol derstatesincl
    earingforests,buil
    dingroads,tr
    ansformingtrail
    s
    i
    nt ohighway s,erecti
    ngmi ll
    s,andconnect i
    ngst reamswi thcanalstomakeanet workofr outes
    forthetraffi
    ct hatpouredt oandf r
    om t heGreatLakes.

    IowaandMi nnesota.—Tot hesout hwestofWi sconsinbey ondtheMi ssi ssippi,wher ethet all
    grassoft hepr airi
    eswav edl ikethesea, farmer sfrom NewEngl and, NewYor k, andOhi ohad
    prepar edIowaf orstatehood.At ideofimmi gr
    at i
    ont hatmi ghthav eflowedi ntoMi ssouriwent
    nor t
    hwar d;forfreemen, unaccust omedt oslaveryandsl avemar kets,pr eferredt heopen
    count ryabov ethecompr omi seli
    ne.Wi thincredibleswi ftness,theyspr eadf ar mswest ward
    from theMi ssissippi
    .Wi thYankeei ngenuitytheytur nedt otradingont her i
    ver ,buil
    dingbef ore
    1836t hreepr osperouscent ersoft r
    affi
    c:Dubuque, Dav enport,andBur l
    ington.Tr uetotheirold
    tradit
    ions,theyf oundedcol legesandacademi esthatr eligi
    onandl ear ningmi ghtbecher ished
    ont hef r
    ontierasi nthest atesfrom whi chtheycame.Pr eparedf orself-gov ernment ,theIowans
    l
    ai dsieget othedoorofCongr essandwer eadmi t
    tedt ot heunioni n1846.

    Abov eIowa, ont heMi ssissi


    ppi,l
    ayt heterr
    itoryofMi nnesota—t hehomeoft heDakot as,the
    Oji
    bway s,andt heSioux.LikeMi chiganandWi sconsin,i
    thadbeenexpl or
    edear l
    ybyt heFr ench
    scouts,andt hef ir
    stwhi tesettl
    ementwast hel i
    tt
    leFrenchv i
    llageofMendot a.Tot hepeopl eof
    theUnitedSt ates,ther esourcesoft hecount r
    ywer efir
    strevealedbyt hehi storicjourneyof
    ZebulonPi kein1805andbyAmer i
    canf urtraderswhower equi cktot akeadv antageoft he
    opportunitytopl ytheirartsofhuntingandbar t
    eringinfreshf i
    elds.In1839anAmer i
    can
    sett
    lementwaspl antedatMar i
    naont heSt .Croix,t
    heout postofadv ancingci v
    ili
    zati
    on.Wi thin
    twentyy ears,theterri
    tory,boastingapopul ati
    onof150, 000, askedf oradmi ssiont otheuni on.
    In1858t hepl eawasgr antedandMi nnesotashowedhergr at i
    tudethr eey ear slaterbybeing
    fi
    rstamongt hest atest ooff
    ert r
    oopst oLincolnint hehourofper i
    l.

    Ont
    othePaci
    fi
    c—Texasandt
    heMexi
    canWar

    TheUni formityoftheMi ddleWest .


    —Ther ewasacer tainmonot onyaboutpi oneeringinthe
    Northwestandont hemi ddlebor der.Ast hel ongst retchesofl andwer eclearedorpr eparedfor
    theplow, theywer elaidoutl i
    kechecker boar dsi nt osquar esofforty,ei
    ghty,onehundr edsixty,
    ormor eacr es,eacht heseatofahomest ead.Ther ewasast riki
    nguni f
    ormityalsoaboutt he
    endlesssuccessi onoff erti
    lefiel
    dsspr eadingf arandwi deundert hehotsummersun.No
    majest i
    cmount ai
    nsr eli
    ev edt hesweepoft hepr air
    ie.Fewmonument sofot herracesand
    anti
    qui t
    ywer etheret oawakencur i
    osit
    yaboutt her egi on.Nosonor ousbel l
    si noldmi ssi
    ons
    rangoutt het i
    meofday .Thechaf feri
    ngRedManbar ter i
    ngbl anketsandf ursforpowderand
    whiskyhadpassedf artheron.Thepopul ationwasmadeupofpl ainfarmersandt heirfamili
    es
    engagedi nsev ereandunbr okenl abor,choppi ngdownt rees,drai
    ningfever-breedi
    ngswamps,
    breakingnewgr ound, andpl ant i
    ngf r
    om y eart oy eart hesamer otat
    ionofcr ops.Near l
    yallt
    he
    settl
    erswer eofnat iveAmer icanst ockintowhosef rugal andi ndustr
    iousliv
    est helaterIr
    ishand
    Germani mmi grant
    sf itt
    ed, ont hewhol e,wi thlittl
    ef riction.Ev entheDut chov enfellbefor
    et he
    cast-
    ir
    oncooki
    ngst
    ove.Happinessandsorr
    ow,despai
    randhopewer
    ether
    e,butal
    l
    encompassedbyt
    heheavytedium ofpr
    osai
    csameness.
    Sant
    aBar
    bar
    aMi
    ssi
    on

    ACont rasti nt heFarWestandSout hwest .


    —AsGeor geRoger sClar kandDani elBoonehad
    sti
    rr
    edt hesnugAmer icansoft heseaboar dtoseekt heirf ortunesbey ondtheAppal achians, so
    nowKi tCar son, JamesBowi e,Sam Houst on,Dav yCr ocket t,andJohnC.Fr émontwer et olead
    thewayi ntoanewl and, onl yapar tofwhi chwasundert heAmer icanf l
    ag.Theset ti
    ngf orthis
    newscenei nt hewest war dmov ementwast hrownouti nawi desweepf r
    om t heheadwat ersof
    theMi ssissippi tot hebanksoft heRi oGr ande; f
    rom t hev all
    eysoft heSabineandRedr iverst o
    Montanaandt hePaci ficsl ope.Incompar isonwi t
    ht hemi ddlebor der ,t
    hisregionpresented
    suchst ar tl
    i
    ngdi versiti
    est hatonl yt heey eoff ait
    hcoul df oreseet heuni fyi
    ngpowerof
    nati
    onal ism bi ndingi tscommuni ti
    eswi ththeol dersect ionsoft hecount r
    y.Whatcont rasts
    i
    ndeed!Thebl uegr assr egionofKent uckyort her i
    ch, blacksoi lofI l
    li
    nois—thepai nt
    eddeser t
    ,
    thehomeoft hesagebr ushandt hecoy ot
    e!Thel evel prai ri
    esofI owa—t hemi ghtyRockies
    shoulder ingt hemsel veshi ghagai nstt hehor i
    zon!Thel ongbl eakwi nter
    sof
    Wisconsi n—Cal i
    for niaofendl esssummer !Thel ogchur chesofI ndi anaorIll
    inois—thequai nt
    missionsofSanAnt oni o,Tucson, andSant aBar bara!Thel it
    tlestat eofDelawar e—theempi re
    ofTexas, onehundr edandt went yt imesi tsarea!Andscat t
    eredaboutt hrought heSouthwest
    weresi gnsofananci entci vil
    izati
    on—f ragment soff our -
    andf ive-
    st orydwellings,r
    uineddams,
    aqueduct s,andbr okencanal s,whi cht oldofoncepr osper ouspeopl eswho, byartandsci ence,
    hadconquer edt hear idityoft hedeser tandl i
    ftedt hemsel vesint hescal eofcul t
    ureabov et he
    savagesoft hepl ain.

    Theset tl
    ersofthisv astempi rewer et obeasdi verseint heirori
    ginsandhabi tsast hoseoft he
    coloniesont hecoasthadbeen.Amer icansofEngl ish,Ir
    ish,andScot ch-
    Ir
    ishdescentcameas
    usual from theEast ernst ates.Tot hem wer eaddedt hemi gratoryGer mansaswel l.Nowf or
    thef ir
    sttimecamet hrongsofScandi nav ians.Somewer et omaket heirhomesonqui etf arms
    ast hebor deradv ancedagai nsttheset tingsun.Ot her swer et obeI ndianscout s,t
    rapper s, fur
    hunt ers,miners,cowboy s,Texaspl ant ers, keepersofl onelypost sont heplai
    nandt hedeser t,
    stagedr i
    vers,pi
    lotsofwagont rains,ponyr i
    ders,fr
    ui tgrower s,"
    lumberj acks,"andsmel ter
    wor kers.Onecommonbonduni tedt hem—apassi onf orthesel f
    -gov ernmentaccor dedt o
    states.Assoonasaf ewt housandset tlerscamet oget herinasi nglet er
    ri
    tory,ther
    ear osea
    mi ghtyshoutf oraposi ti
    onbesi det hest aidcommonweal t
    hsoft heEastandt heSout h.
    Statehoodmeantt ot hepi oneerssel f-
    gov ernment ,dignity,andther ighttodisposeofl and,
    mi nerals,andt i
    mberi nt heirownway .Int hequestf orthislocalaut onomyt herear osemanya
    wor dycont estinCongr ess,eachoft hepol it
    icalpar ti
    eslendingahel pinghandi ntheadmi ssion
    ofast atewheni tgav epr omi seofaddi ngnewcongr essmenoft he" ri
    ghtpoliti
    calpersuasi on,"
    touset hecur r
    entphr ase.

    SouthernPlanter
    sandTexas. —Whi lethef
    armersoft heNor thfoundthebroadacresofthe
    Westernprairi
    esstretchi
    ngonbef orethem appar
    entlyinendl essexpanse,
    itwasfardi
    ffer
    entwith
    theSouthernplanters.Everacti
    vei nthei
    rsearchfornewf ieldsastheyexhaust
    edt hev
    irgi
    nsoilof
    theolderst
    ates,ther est
    lesssubjectsofKingCottonqui cklyreachedthefr
    onti
    erofLouisi
    ana.
    Theretheypaused;
    butonlyforamoment.Thefer
    ti
    lel
    andofTexasj
    ustacr
    osstheboundar
    ylur
    ed
    them onandtheMexicanrepubl
    ict
    owhichitbel
    ongedext
    endedtot
    hem amorethangener
    ous
    welcome.Lit
    tl
    ereal
    izi
    ngtheperi
    lsl
    urki
    ngina
    "peacefulpenetrati
    on,"theaut horit
    iesatMexi coCityopenedwidethedoor sandmadel ar
    ge
    grantsoflandt oAmer i
    cancont ractor s,
    whoagr eedtobringanumberoff amili
    esi nt
    oTexas.
    Theomni presentYankee, i
    nt heper sonofMosesAust inofConnecti
    cut,heari
    ngoft hi
    sgood
    newsi ntheSout hwest ,obtainedagr antin1820tosettl
    et hr
    eehundredAmer i
    cansnear
    Bexar—acommi ssi
    onf i
    nallycar r
    iedoutt othelett
    erbyhissonandcel ebrat
    edi nthename
    giventothepr esentcapi t
    al ofthest ateofTexas.Wi t
    hinadecadesomet wentythousand
    Amer i
    canshadcr ossedt hebor der.

    Mexi coCl osest heDoor .


    —Thegov ernmentofMexi co, unaccustomedt osuchent erpr
    iseand
    thoroughl yfri
    ghtenedbyi tsext ent,drewbacki ndismay .Itsfearswer ei ncreasedasquar r
    els
    brokeoutbet weent heAmer icansandt henat i
    vesinTexas.Feargr ewi ntoconst ernati
    onwhen
    effortswer emadebyPr esidentJacksont obuyt het erri
    toryfortheUni tedSt ates.Mex i
    cothen
    soughtt ocloset hefl
    oodgat es.I tstoppedal lAmer i
    cancol onizationschemes, canceledmanyof
    thelandgr ants,putat arif
    fonf armingi mplement s,andabol i
    shedsl avery.Thesebar r
    ierswere
    rai
    sedt oolate.Acal lforhel prant hrought hewest ernbor deroft heUni tedSt ates.Thesent i
    nels
    ofthef ront i
    eranswer ed.Dav yCrocket t,t
    henot edf r
    ont i
    ersman, bearhunt er,andbackwoods
    polit
    ician;JamesBowi e, t
    hedext erouswi elderoft hekni f
    et hattot hi
    sdaybear shisname; and
    Sam Houst on, warri
    orandpi oneer ,rushedt otheaidoft heircount rymeni nTex as.Unacquainted
    witht henicetiesofdipl omacy ,i
    mpat i
    entatt heformal i
    ti
    esofi nternati
    onal l
    aw, theysoonmadei t
    knownt hatinspi teofMexi cansov er ei
    gntytheywoul dbet heirownmast ers.

    TheI ndependenceofTexasDecl ared.—Number i


    ngonl yaboutone- fourthoft hepopul ati
    oni n
    Texas, theyr aisedthest andar dofrevol tin1836andsummonedaconv ention.Followinginthe
    foot stepsoft heirancestors, t
    heyissuedadecl arationofi ndependencesi gnedmai nlyby
    Amer icansf r
    om t heslavest ates.Anticipatingt hatt hegov ernmentofMexi cowoul dnotqui etly
    acceptt hei rwordofdef ianceasf i
    nal,theydi spatchedaf orcetor epel "
    thei nvadi
    ngar my,"as
    Gener alHoust oncalledthet roopsadv ancingundert hecommandofSant aAna, theMexi can
    presi dent .Apor ti
    onoft heTexansol dier stookt heirstandi ntheAl amo, anol dSpani shmi ssion
    i
    nt hecot tonwoodt reesint het ownofSanAnt oni o.Insteadofobey i
    ngt heor dertobl owupt he
    mi ssionandr eti
    re,theyheldt heirgroundunt i
    ltheywer ecompl etelysurroundedandcutof f
    from al lhel p.Refusingtosur r
    ender ,
    theyf oughtt ot hebi t
    terend,thel astmanf al
    lingav icti
    m
    tot heswor d.Vengeancewasswi f
    t.Wi thint hreemont hsGener al Houst onov erwhel medSant a
    Anaatt heSanJaci nto,taki
    nghi m pri
    sonerofwarandput ti
    nganendt oallhopesf orthe
    restor ationofMexi cansov ereigntyov erTexas.

    TheLoneSt arRepubl ic,withHoust onatthehead, t


    hensoughtadmi ssiontot heUni t
    edSt ates.
    Thisseemedatf ir
    staneasymat ter
    .Al
    l t
    hatwasr equir
    edt obr i
    ngi taboutappear edtobeat reaty
    annexingTexast ot heunion.Mor eover,PresidentJackson, atthehei ghtofhispopul arit
    y, hada
    warmr egardf orGener alHoustonand, wit
    hhi susual sympat hyforr oughandr eadyway sofdoi ng
    thi
    ngs, appr
    ov edthet r
    ansact i
    on.ThroughanAmer i
    canr epresentativeinMexi co, Jacksonhad
    l
    ongandanxi ouslylabored,bymeansnonet oonice, t
    owr ingfrom t heMexi canr epubl i
    ct he
    cessionofthecov etedt err
    itor
    y.Whent heTex anstookmat t
    ersintot heirownhands, hewas
    mor ethanpleased; buthecoul dnotmar shal theapprovaloft wo-thirdsoftheSenat orsr equired
    forat r
    eatyofannexat ion.Cautiousaswel lasi mpetuous,Jacksondi dnotpr esst heissue; he
    wentoutofof fi
    cein1837wi thTexasuncer tainastoherf uture.

    Nor t
    her nOppositi
    ont oAnnexati
    on.—Allthr
    ought heNorththeopposi t
    iontoannexat i
    onwascl ear
    andst rong.Anti
    -sl
    averyagit
    atorscouldhardlyf
    indwor dssav ageenoughtoex presstheirfeel
    ings.
    "Texas,"excl
    aimedChanni nginal et
    tertoClay,
    "isbutthef i
    rstst
    epofaggr ession.Itr
    usti ndeed
    thatPr ovi
    dencewi l
    lbeatbackandhumbl eourcupidi
    tyandambi ti
    on.Inowaskwhet herasa
    peopl ewear epreparedtoseizeonanei ghbori
    ngt er
    ri
    tor
    yf ortheendofext endingslavery?Iask
    whet herasapeopl ewecanst andf ort
    hinthesightofGod, inthesightofnations,andadoptt his
    atrociouspoli
    cy?Soonerper i
    sh!Soonerbeournamebl ottedoutfrom therecor dofnations!"
    Will
    iam Ll
    oydGarri
    soncall
    edf ort
    hesecessionoftheNort
    hernst at
    esifTexaswasbroughti
    ntot
    he
    unionwithsl
    avery
    .JohnQui ncyAdamswar nedhiscount
    ryment hattheyweret
    readi
    nginthepat
    h
    oftheimperi
    ali
    sm thathadbroughtt
    henationsofanti
    quit
    ytojudgmentanddest r
    uct
    ion.Henr
    y
    Clay,t
    heWhigcandi dat
    eforPresi
    dent
    ,taki
    ngintoaccountchanging
    publi
    csent
    iment,bl
    ewhotandcol d,l
    osingthestat
    eofNewYorkandtheel
    ecti
    onof1844by
    giv
    ingaquali
    fi
    edapprovalofannexat
    ion.Inthesamecampai
    gn,theDemocr
    atsbol
    dly
    demandedthe"Reannexat
    ionofTexas,"basedonclai
    mswhichtheUnit
    edSt
    atesoncehad
    toSpani
    shterr
    it
    orybeyondtheSabineRi v
    er.

    Annexat ion.—Thepol i
    ti
    cianswer edi sposedt owal kv erywar i
    ly.VanBur en,athear topposedt o
    slav eryext ension, refusedtopr esst hei ssueofannexat i
    on.Ty l
    er ,apro-slaveryDemocr atf r
    om
    Virginia, byast rangef l
    ingoff ort
    unecar r
    iedintoof ficeasanomi nalWhi g,kepthismi ndf i
    rmly
    fi
    xedont heideaofr eëlecti
    onandl ett het r
    oublesomemat terrestunt iltheendofhi s
    admi nistrati
    onwasi nsight.Het henl istenedwi thf av ortot hev oiceoft heSout h.Calhoun
    statedwhatseemedt obeaconv incingar gument :Al l goodAmer i
    canshav etheirheartsseton
    theConst it
    ution; theadmi ssionofTexasi sabsolut elyessent ial t
    ot hepr eservati
    onoft heuni on;
    i
    twi llgiveabal anceofpowert otheSout hasagai nstt heNor thgr owingwi thincredibl
    e
    swi ftnessi nweal thandpopul ati
    on.Ty l
    er,impressedbyt hepl ea, appointedCal hount othe
    officeofSecr etaryofSt atein1844, aut hori
    zinghimt onegot i
    atet hetr eatyofannexat i
    on—a
    commi ssionatonceexecut ed.Thi sschemewasbl ockedi ntheSenat ewher ethenecessar y
    two- thirdsv otecoul dnotbesecur ed.Bal kedbutnotdef eated, theadv ocatesofannexat i
    on
    drewupaj ointr esoluti
    onwhi chr equi r
    edonl yamaj orityv oteinbot hhouses, andi nFebr uar
    yof
    thenexty ear,justbef oreTy l
    ergav ewayt oPolk,theypushedi tt hroughCongr ess.SoTexas,
    ami dt hegr oansofBost onandt hehur rahsofChar lest on,foldedupherf l
    agandcamei ntothe
    union.

    Texasandt
    heTer
    ri
    tor
    yinDi
    sput
    e

    TheMexi canWar .
    —Theinevit
    ablewarwi t
    hMexi co,for
    etol
    dbyt heaboli
    ti
    onistsandfearedby
    HenryClay ,
    ensued,t
    heostensibl
    ecausebei ngadisputeovertheboundariesofthenewst at
    e.
    TheTexanscl ai
    medal lt
    helandsdownt ot heRioGrande.TheMexicansplacedt heborderof
    Texasatt heNuecesRiverandalinedrawnt henceinanorther
    lydir
    ecti
    on.Pr esi
    dentPolk,
    accept
    ingt heTexanviewofthecontroversy,or
    deredGeneralZacharyTayl
    ort omov ebeyondthe
    Nuecesi
    ndef
    enseofAmer
    ican
    sover
    eignt
    y.Thi
    sactofpower,deemedbyt
    heMexi
    cansani
    nvasi
    onoft
    hei
    rter
    ri
    tor
    y,was
    fol
    l
    owedbyanat tackonourt
    roops.

    PresidentPol k,notdispleasedwi t
    htheturnofev ents,announcedt hatAmer i
    canbloodhad
    been" spill
    edonAmer i
    cansoi l"andthatwarexisted" bytheactofMexi co. "Congress, i
    naburst
    ofpat ri
    oticfervor,
    brushedasi detheprotestsofthosewhodepl oredt heconductoft he
    governmentaswant onaggr essiononaweakernat i
    onandgr antedmoneyandsuppl iesto
    prosecut ethewar .Thef ewWhi gsintheHouseofRepr esentati
    ves, whor efusedtov otein
    favoroft akingupar ms, accept edtheinevit
    abl
    ewi thsuchgoodgr aceast heycouldcommand.
    Allthrought heSout handt heWestt hewarwaspopul ar
    .NewEngl andgr umbl ed,butgav el
    oyal
    ,
    i
    fnotent husiasti
    c,suppor ttoaconf li
    ctpreci
    pit
    atedbypol i
    ciesnotofi tsownchoosi ng.Onlya
    handf uloffirm obj
    ectorshel dout .JamesRussell Lowel l
    ,i
    nhi sBiglowPaper s,fl
    ungscor nand
    sarcasm t othebi t
    terend.

    TheOut comeoft heWar .


    —Thef oregoneconclusionwassoonr eached.Gener al Taylormight
    havedel i
    veredthef at
    althr
    ustfrom nort
    her nMexicoifpol
    i
    ticshadnoti nt
    ervened.Pol k,
    anxi
    oust oav oidraisi
    ngupanot hermili
    taryherofort
    heWhi gstonomi nateforPr esident
    ,
    deci
    dedt odi vi
    det hehonorsbysendingGener alScottt
    ostrikeablowatt hecapi tal
    ,Mexico
    Cit
    y.Thedeedwasdonewi thspeedandpompandt woheroeswer el i
    ftedintopresidenti
    al
    possi
    bilit
    ies.I
    nt heFarWestat hirdcandidatewasmade, JohnC.Fr émont ,
    who, in
    coöperationwithCommodor esSloatandSt ocktonandGener al
    Kear ney ,
    plantedt heStars
    andStripesont hePaci f
    icsl
    ope.

    InFebruar
    y,1848,
    theMexi canscamet ot erms,cedingtot hevict
    orCali
    forni
    a,Ar
    izona,NewMexico,
    andmor e—adomaingr eaterinextentt
    hant hecombi nedar easofFr
    anceandGer many .Asasalv
    e
    tothewound, t
    hevanquishedr ecei
    vedfi
    fteenmi l
    l
    iondol lar
    sincashandt hecancell
    ati
    onofmany
    clai
    msheldbyAmer icanciti
    zens.Fiveyearslat
    er,throught henegot
    iat
    ionsofJamesGadsden, a
    furt
    hercessi
    onoflandsalongt hesouthernborderofAr izonaandNewMex i
    cowassecur edon
    paymentoftenmill
    iondollars.

    GeneralTaylorElectedPresident.—Thei nkwashar dlydryupont het reatyt hatcl osedt hewar


    before"r
    oughandr eady"Gener alTay l
    or,aslaveownerf r
    om Loui siana,"aWhi g,"ashesai d,
    "butnotanul t
    raWhi g,"wasputf orwar dastheWhi gcandidatef orPr esident .Hehi mselfhad
    notvotedfory earsandhewasf air
    lyinnocentinmatterspolit
    ical.Thet ariff,thecur rency,and
    i
    nternali
    mpr ovement s,wit
    hamagni fi
    centgestureher ef
    err
    edt ot hepeopl e'sr epresentati
    ves
    i
    nCongr ess,offeri
    ngt oenforcet helawsasmade, i
    felected.Clay '
    sf ol
    lower smour ned.Polk
    stormedbutcoul dnotwi nev enar enomi nati
    onatthehandsoft heDemocr ats.Soi tcame
    aboutthattheher oofBuenaVi sta,celebr
    atedforhislaconicorder ,"
    Give' em al it
    tl
    emor e
    grape,CaptainBragg,"becamePr esidentoftheUnitedStates.

    ThePaci
    fi
    cCoastandUt
    ah

    Oregon.—Cl oselyassociatedinthepopul armi ndwi t


    ht hecont estabouttheaffair
    sofTexas
    wasadi sputewi thGreatBrit
    ainoverthepossessi onoft erri
    tor
    yinOr egon.I
    nt heirpresident
    ial
    campai gnof1844, theDemocr atshadcoupl edwi tht heslogan,"TheReannexat i
    onofTexas, "
    twoot hercries,"TheReoccupat i
    onofOr egon, "and" Fif
    ty-f
    ourFor t
    yorFight.
    "Thel asttwo
    sloganswer ef oundedonAmer i
    candiscoveriesandexpl orati
    onsintheFarNor t
    hwest .Their
    appearancei npol it
    icsshowedt hatthedistantOr egoncount r
    y,l
    argerinareathanNewEngl and,
    NewYor k,andPennsy l
    vaniacombi ned,wasatl astreceiv i
    ngf r
    om thenationtheat tenti
    on
    whichi t
    simpor t
    ancewar ranted.

    JointOccupati
    onandSet
    tl
    ement.
    —BothEngl
    andandtheUni
    tedSt at
    eshadlongl
    aidcl
    aimto
    Oregonandi n1818t
    heyhadagr
    eedtooccupyt
    heter
    rit
    oryj
    oint
    ly—acontr
    actwhi
    chwasr enewed
    tenyearslat
    erforanindefinit
    eper iod.Underthisplan,ci
    ti
    zensofbot
    hcountri
    eswerefr
    eetohunt
    andsettl
    eany wherei
    nt her egion.Thev anguardofBr i
    ti
    shfurtr
    ader
    sandCanadianpri
    estswas
    enlar
    gedbymanynewr ecruits,withAmer i
    cansnotf arbehi
    ndthem.JohnJacobAstor
    ,the
    resour
    cefulNewYor kmer chant ,sentouttrappers
    andhunt
    erswhoestabl
    ishedatradi
    ngpostatAstor
    iai
    n1811.Sometwentyyear
    slater
    ,
    Ameri
    canmissi
    onari
    es—amongt hem twoveryr
    emarkabl
    emen,JasonLeeandMar cus
    Whit
    man—werepreachi
    ngt hegospelt
    otheIndi
    ans.

    Throughnewsf rom thefurt rader sandmi ssionaries,East


    ernfarmersheardoft hef erti
    lelands
    awaiti
    ngt hei
    rplowsont hePaci f i
    csl ope;t
    hosewi ththepioneeri
    ngspiri
    tmader eadyt otake
    possessi onoft henewcount ry
    .In1839abandwentar oundbyCapeHor n.Foury earslatera
    greatexpedi t
    ionwentov erland.Thewayoncebr oken, ot
    hersfoll
    owedr api
    dly.Assoonasaf ew
    settl
    ement swer ewellestabl i
    shed, thepioneershel damassmeet ingandagr eeduponapl an
    ofgov ernment ."We,thepeopl eofOr egonterri
    tory,"r
    unsthepr eambletotheircompact ,"f
    or
    thepur posesofmut ualprot ecti
    onandt osecur epeaceandpr osperi
    tyamongour selves,agree
    toadoptt hefoll
    owinglawsandr egulati
    onsunt il
    sucht imeast heUnitedStatesofAmer ica
    extendt heirj
    urisdi
    ctionov erus. "Thussel f-
    gov ernmentmadei t
    swayacr osst heRocky
    Mount ains.

    TheOregonCountr
    yand
    theDi
    sputedBoundar
    y
    TheOr
    egonCount
    ryand
    t
    heDi
    sput
    edBoundary

    TheBoundar yDisputewithEnglandAdjusted.—Bythi
    stimei twasev i
    dentthattheboundar i
    es
    ofOr egonmustbef i
    xed.Hav i
    ngmadet hequesti
    onani ssueinhiscampaign, Pol
    k,afterhi
    s
    electi
    onin1844,presseditupont heattent
    ionofthecountry
    .Inhisinauguraladdressandhi s
    fi
    rstmessaget oCongressher eit
    eratedtheclai
    m oftheDemocr ati
    cplatf
    ormt hat"ourtit
    leto
    thewhol eter
    ri
    toryofOregonisclearandunquest i
    onabl
    e."Thispret
    ensionGr eatBrit
    ainfi
    rmly
    rejected,
    leav
    ingthePresidentachoicebetweenwarandcompr omi se.

    Polk,alreadyhav i
    ngt hecontestwi t
    hMexi coonhi shands, soughtandobt ainedacompr omi se.
    TheBr it
    ishgov ernment ,movedbyahi ntfrom t heAmer icanmi ni
    ster,offeredaset tl
    ement
    whichwoul df i
    xt heboundar yatt hef ort
    y-ninthpar all
    elinsteadof" f
    ift
    y -
    fourf or t
    y,"andgiv eit
    Vancouv erIsl
    and.Pol kspeedi lychoset hiswayoutoft hedi lemma.I nsteadofmaki ngt he
    decisionhi msel f
    , however,anddr awingupat reat y,
    het urnedt ot heSenat ef or" counsel."As
    prearrangedwi thpar t
    yleaders, t
    headv i
    cewasf avorablet ot heplan.Thet reaty,dulydrawni n
    1846, wasr atif
    iedbyt heSenat eaf t
    eranacr imoni ousdebat e."Oh!mount aint hatwasdel i
    vered
    ofamouse, "exclaimedSenat orBent on,"
    thynameshal l bef ift
    y-f
    ourf ort
    y !
    "Thi r
    teeny earslater,
    thesout hernpar toft heterri
    torywasadmi ttedt otheuni onast hestateofOr egon, l
    eavingt he
    northernandeast ernsecti
    onsi nt hestatusofat err
    itor
    y .

    Calif
    orni
    a.—Wi t
    ht hegr owthoft henorthwest er
    nempi re,dedicatedbynaturetof
    reedom, t
    he
    planti
    nginter
    estsmi ghthav ebeencont ent,hadfortunenotwr estedfrom t
    hem t
    hefaircountr
    yof
    Calif
    orni
    a.Upont hishuget erri
    torytheyhadsett hei
    rhear ts.Themi ldcli
    mateandfert
    il
    esoil
    seemedwel l
    suitedt oslaveryandt hepl antersexpect edt oextendtheirswaytotheenti
    redomain.
    Calif
    orni
    awasast ateofmor ethan155, 000squar emi l
    es—aboutsev ent
    ytimesthesi
    zeoft he
    stateofDelaware.I tcouldreadilybediv idedintofiv
    eorsi xlargestates,
    ift
    hatbecamenecessary
    topreser
    v etheSout her
    nbal anceofpower .

    EarlyAmericanRelati
    onswi thCali
    fornia.—Timeandt i
    de, i
    tseems, wer
    enotont hesideofthe
    planter
    s.AlreadyAmericansofaf ardifferenttypewer einvadi
    ngt hePacif
    icslope.Longbef orePol
    k
    everdreamedofCal if
    ornia,t
    heYankeewi t
    hhi scargoofnot i
    onshadbeenar oundtheHor n.Dari
    ng
    skippershadsailedoutofNewEngl andhar borswi thav ar
    iet
    yofgoods, benttheircoursearound
    SouthAmer icatoCalif
    ornia,ontoChinaandar oundthewor l
    d, t
    radi
    ngast heywentandl eaving
    pots,pans,woolencloth,guns,boots,shoes, saltfi
    sh,navalstores,
    andrum intheirwake."Home
    f
    rom Cal
    if
    orny!"rangt
    hecryi
    nmanyaNewEngl andpor
    tasagoodcapt
    ainl
    etgohi
    sanchoronhi
    s
    r
    etur
    nfrom thelongtr
    adi
    ngvoyagei
    nthePaci
    fi
    c.
    TheOv
    erl
    andTr
    ail
    s
    TheOv
    erl
    andTr
    ail
    s

    TheOv er
    landTr ail
    s.—Nott obeout donebyt hemar inersofthedeep, west ernscout ssear chedfor
    overl
    androutest othePaci fic.ZebulonPi ke, explorerandpat hfi
    nder ,byhi sexpedi ti
    oni ntot he
    SouthwestduringJef ferson'sadmi nist
    ration, haddi scoveredther esourcesofNewSpai nandhad
    shownhiscount r
    ymenhoweasyi twast or eachSant aFéf rom theupperwat ersoft heAr kansas
    River
    .Notlongaf terward, t
    raderslaidopent heroute,maki ngFrankl i
    n,Mi ssouri,andl aterFor t
    Leavenworththest art
    ingpoi nt.Alongt het rail
    ,oncesur veyed,pour edcar av ansheav il
    yguar dedby
    armedmenagai nstmar audingIndians.Sandst ormsof tenwipedoutal lsignsoft her out e;hunger
    andthir
    stdidmanyabandofwagoner stodeat h; butthelureoft hegameandt hepr ofitsatt heend
    keptthebusinesst hri
    ving.Hugest ocksofcot tons,glass,hardwar e,andammuni t
    ionwer edr awn
    almostacrossthecont i
    nentt obeexchangedatSant aFéf orfur
    s, Indianbl ankets,sil
    v er,andmul es;
    andmanyaf ortunewasmadeoutoft het raffi
    c.

    Ameri
    cansi nCal
    if
    orni
    a.—Whyst opatSant aFé?Thequest i
    ondi dnotl ongr emainunanswer ed.In
    1829,EwingYoungbrokethepathtoLosAngel es.Thirt
    eeny ear
    sl aterFrémontmadet hefir
    stof
    hi
    scelebrat
    edexpedit
    ionsacrossplai
    n, desert
    ,andmount ain,arousi ngtheinterestoftheentir
    e
    count
    ryintheFarWest.Inthewakeoft hepat hfi
    nderswentadv ent urers,sett
    ler
    s, andarti
    sans.By
    1847,morethanone-f
    ift
    hoftheinhabitantsinthelitt
    lepostoftwot housandonSanFr anci
    scoBay
    werefrom t
    heUnit
    edSt at
    es.TheMexi canWar ,
    therefor
    e,wasnott hebegi nningbutt heendofthe
    Ameri
    canconquestofCal i
    for
    nia—aconquesti niti
    atedbyAmer i
    canswhowentt ot i
    l
    lthesoil
    ,to
    tr
    ade,ortofol
    lowsomemechani calpursuit.

    TheDiscov er
    yofGol d.—Asiftocli
    nchtheholdonCal ifor
    niaalreadysecuredbyt hefri
    endsof
    fr
    eesoi l
    ,ther
    ecamei n1848t hesuddendiscoveryofgoldatSut ter
    'sMil
    l i
    nt heSacramento
    Vall
    ey.Whent hisexciti
    ngnewsr eachedtheEast,ami ghtyrushbegant oCal if
    orni
    a,overt
    he
    tr
    ail
    s,acrosstheIsthmusofPanama, andaroundCapeHor n.Bef or
    et woy earshadpassed,i
    t
    i
    sest i
    mat edthatahundr edthousandpeople,i
    nsearchoff ortunes,hadarrivedin
    Cali
    forni
    a—mechani cs,teachers,
    doctor
    s,lawyers,f
    armers,mi ners,andlaborersfr
    om thefour
    corner
    soft heearth.

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    SanFr
    anci
    scoi
    n1849

    Calif
    orniaaFr eeSt at e.
    —Wi ththisi
    ncreasei npopulati
    ont herenat urall
    yresult
    edt heusual demand
    foradmi ssiont otheuni on.Insteadofwaitingf oraut
    hor i
    tyfrom Washi ngt
    on,theCal i
    forniansheld
    aconv entionin1849andf ramedt heirconstit
    ut i
    on.Withimpat ience, t
    hedelegatesbr ushedaside
    thepleat hat"thebal anceofpowerbet weent heNor t
    handSout h"requiredtheadmi ssionoft hei
    r
    stateasasl avecommonweal th.Withoutadi ssenti
    ngv oi
    ce, theyv otedinfavoroffreedom and
    boldlymadet heirrequestfori ncl
    usi
    onamongt heUnitedSt ates.Pr esi
    dentTay l
    or,thougha
    Southernman, adv isedCongr esstoadmi ttheappl i
    cant.Rober tToombsofGeor giavowedt oGod
    thathepref
    err
    edsecessi
    on.Henr
    yClay,
    thegr
    eatcompr
    omi
    ser
    ,camet
    other
    escueandi
    n1850
    Cali
    for
    niawasadmitt
    edasaf r
    eestat
    e.
    Utah.—Ont helongr oadt oCal i
    fornia,inthemi dstoff orbiddingandbar renwast es,ar el
    igious
    sect,t
    heMor mons, hadpl antedacol onydestinedt oast ormycar eer.Foundedi n1830under
    theleadershipofJosephSmi thofNewYor k,thesecthadsuf fer
    edf rom manycr uel buffet sof
    fort
    une.Fr om Ohi ot heyhadmi gratedintoMi ssour iwheret heywer esetuponandbeat en.
    Someoft hem wer emur deredbyi ndignantneighbor s.Har r
    iedoutofMi ssour i,theywenti nto
    Il
    li
    noisonlyt oseet hei rdi
    rectorandpr ophet,Smi th,fi
    rsti
    mpr i
    sonedbyt heaut hor i
    tiesandt hen
    shotbyamob.Hav i
    ngr ai
    sedupacl oudofenemi esonaccountofbot ht heirreligi
    ousf aithand
    thei
    rpracticeofal lowi ngamant ohav emor et hanonewi fe,theyf el
    linhear ti
    l
    ywi t
    ht he
    suggestionofanewl eader,Brigham Young, t
    hatt heygoi ntot heFarWestbey ondt hepl ainsof
    Kansas—i ntot hefor l
    orndeser twher et hewickedwoul dceasef rom troublingandt hewear y
    couldbeatr est,ast heyreadi ntheBi ble.In1847, Young, wi t
    hacompanyofpi ckedmen,
    searchedf arandwi deunt i
    lhef oundasui tabl
    espotov er
    lookingt heSaltLakeVal l
    ey .Ret urning
    toIl
    li
    nois,hegat her eduphi sf oll
    ower s,nownumber i
    ngsev eralt
    housand, andi nonemi ght y
    wagoncar avant heyal lwenttot heirdistanthav en.

    Brigham YoungandHi sEconomi cSystem. —InBr i


    gham Youngt heMor monshadal eaderof
    remar kablepowerwhogav edirectiontot heredempt i
    onoft hearidsoil,themanagementof
    proper ty,
    andt heupbuildingofi ndust r
    y.Hepr omi sedt hem tomaket hedeser tblossom ast he
    rose, andv er
    il
    yhedi dit.Hef irmlyshapedt heent er
    pr i
    seoft hecolonyal ongco- operati
    veli
    nes,
    holdingdownt hespecul atorandpr ofi
    teerwi t
    honehandandgi vingencour agementt othe
    i
    ndust r
    iouspoorwi t
    ht heot her.Wi ththeshr ewdnessbef i
    tti
    ngagoodbusi nessman, heknew
    howt odrawt heli
    nebet weenpubl i
    candpr i
    vateinterest.Landwasgi venout ri
    ghttoeach
    fami l
    y ,
    butgreatcarewasexer cisedint hedistri
    butionsot hatnoneshoul dhav egreat
    adv antageov eranother.Thepur chaseofsuppl i
    esandt hesaleofpr oducewer ecarriedon
    throughacoöper ati
    vest ore,thepr ofi
    tsofwhi chwentt ot
    hecommongood.Encount er
    ingfor
    thef i
    rsttimeinthehi storyoft heAngl o-Saxonr acet heproblem ofaridity,t
    heMor mons
    surmount edthemostper plexingobst acleswi t
    hast oundingskill
    .Theybui l
    tirr
    igati
    onwor ksby
    coöper ativel
    aborandgr antedwat erri
    ght stoallfami l
    iesonequi t
    ablet erms.

    TheGr owt hofI ndust ries.—Thoughf armingl ongr emai nedt hemaj orinterestoft hecolony,the
    Mor mons, eagert obesel f-suppor ti
    ngi nev erypossi bl
    eway ,bentt heireffortsalsoto
    manuf actur i
    ngandl at ertomi ning.Thei rmi ssionar i
    es,whohunt edint hehi ghway sandby way sof
    Europef orconv er t
    s, nev erf ail
    edt ostresst heeconomi cadv antagesoft hesect ."Wewant ,"
    proclaimedPr esidentYoungt oal ltheear th, "
    acompanyofwool enmanuf acturerstocomewi th
    machi neryandt aket hewool f
    rom t hesheepandconv ertitintot hebestcl othes.Wewanta
    companyofpot ters;weneedt hem; t
    hecl ayi sreadyandt hedi sheswant ed. .
    ..Wewantsomemen
    tost ar
    taf urnacef ort hwi t
    h; thei ron,coal,andmol dersar ewai t
    ing...
    .We
    hav eapr i
    nt i
    ngpr essandanyonewhocant akegoodpr intingandwr it
    ingpapert otheValleywi l
    l
    beabl essingt ot hemsel vesandt hechur ch. "Roadsandbr idgeswer ebui l
    t;mi l
    l
    ionswer espenti n
    exper i
    ment sinagr icul tureandmanuf acturing; missionariesatahugecostwer emai ntai
    nedi nthe
    Eastandi nEur ope; anar mywaskeptf ordef enseagai nstt heI ndians; andcol onieswer eplantedin
    theout l
    yingr egions.Ahi st ori
    anofDeser et, asthecol onywascal l
    edbyt heMor mons, est
    imat edin
    1895t hatbyt hel aboroft heirhandst hepeopl ehadpr oducednear lyhalfabi l
    li
    ondollarsinweal t
    h
    sincethecomi ngoft hev anguar d.

    PolygamyFor bi
    dden. —Thehopeoft heMor monst hattheymi ghtforeverremainundisturbedby
    outsider swassoondashedt oear th,f
    orhundr edsoffarmersandar t
    isansbelongi
    ngt oot her
    rel
    igioussect scamet osett
    leamongt hem.In1850t hecolonywassopopul ousand
    prosper ousthatitwasor ganizedintoat err
    it
    oryoftheUnitedSt atesandbr oughtundert he
    super visi
    onofthef ederalgovernment .Prot
    estsagainstpoly
    gamywer eraisedi
    nthecol ony
    andatt heseatofaut hori
    tythreethousandmi lesawayatWashi ngton.ThenewRepubl ican
    partyi n1856proclaimedi t"t
    her i
    ghtanddut yofCongr esstopr ohibi
    tintheTerri
    tori
    est hose
    twinr eli
    csofbarbar i
    sm, pol
    ygamyandsl avery."I
    nduet i
    met heMor monshadt ogiveupt hei
    r
    marr
    iagepracti
    ceswhi chwer econdemnedbyt hecommonopi ni
    onofall west
    ernci
    vi
    li
    zat
    ion;
    butt
    heykepttheirrel
    igiousfai
    t h.Monumentstothei
    rearl
    yenterpri
    seareseenintheTemple
    andtheTabernacle,t
    hei r
    ri
    gationworks,andthegreatweal
    thoft heChurch.
    Summar
    yofWest
    ernDev
    elopmentandNat
    ional
    Pol
    i
    tics

    Whi lethest atesmenoft heoldgener ationwer esol


    vingtheproblemsoftheirage,hunter
    s,
    pioneer s,andhomeseeker swer epr epar ingnewproblemsbey ondtheAlleghani
    es.TheWest
    wasr i
    singi npopul ationandweal t
    h.Bet ween1783and1829, elevenstat
    eswer eaddedt othe
    originalthirteen.Al l
    butt wower eint heWest .Twooft hem werei nt
    heLouisianater
    rit
    ory
    bey ondt heMi ssissi
    ppi.Her et
    hepr ocessofcol oni
    zati
    onwasr epeated.Hardyfr
    ontierpeople
    cutdownt hef orests,builtl
    ogcabi ns, laidoutfarms,andcutroadst hr
    ought hewil
    derness.
    Theybegananewci vil
    i
    zat i
    onjustast hei mmigrant
    st oVir
    gini
    aorMassachuset tshaddone
    twocent uriesear li
    er.

    Liket heseaboar dcoloni


    stsbeforethem, t
    heytoocher i
    shedt hespiri
    tofindependenceand
    power .Theyhadnotgonef arupont hei
    rcour sebefor
    et heyresentedthemonopol yoft he
    presidencybyt heEast .I
    n1829t heyact uall
    ysentoneoft hei
    rowncher ishedleaders,Andrew
    Jackson, t
    otheWhi teHouse.Agai nin1840, in1844,in1848, andin1860, theMississippi
    Val l
    eycoul dboastthatoneofi t
    ssonshadbeenchosenf ort
    heseatofpoweratWashi ngton.
    It
    sdemocr at
    ictemperev okedacor dialresponseinthet ownsoftheEastwher etheold
    aristocracyhadbeenputasi deandar ti
    sanshadbeengi ventheballot.

    Forthreedecadest heWestoccupi edtheinterestoft


    henation.UnderJackson'
    sleadership,i
    t
    destr
    oy edthesecondUni t
    edStatesBank.Whenhesmot enulli
    fi
    cati
    oninSouthCar ol
    ina,i
    t
    gavehim cor di
    alsupport.I
    tapprovedhispolicyofparcel
    i
    ngoutgov ernmentoff
    icesamong
    part
    ywor kers—"thespoilssyst
    em"i nall
    itsfull
    ness.Ononlyonepointdiditr
    eal
    lydissent.The
    Westhear t
    ilyfavor
    edi nt
    ernali
    mpr ovements,theappropr
    iat
    ionoffederalf
    undsforhighway s,
    canals,andrail
    way s.Jacksonhadmi sgi
    vingsont hi
    squesti
    onandawakenedshar pcrit
    ici
    sm
    byvetoingar oadimpr ovementbill
    .

    From theirpointofv ant


    ageont hefrontier,t
    hepi oneerspr essedonwest war
    d.Theypushed
    i
    ntoTexas, createdastate,declaredtheirindependence, demandedapl aceintheunion,and
    preci
    pitatedawarwi thMexi co.Theycr ossedt hetracklesspl ainanddesert,l
    ayingouttrail
    sto
    SantaFé, toOr egon,andtoCal ifor
    nia.Theywer eupont hescenewhent heMexi canWar
    broughtCal if
    orniaundertheSt arsandSt r
    ipes.Theyhadl aidoutt hei
    rfarmsintheWi ll
    amet t
    e
    Vall
    eywhent hesl ogan"Fif
    ty-FourFortyorFi ght"forcedaset tl
    ementoft heOregonboundar y.
    Cali
    forniaandOr egonwer ealreadyintheuni onwhent herear oset heGreatCivi
    l Wartest
    ing
    whethert hi
    snat ionoranynat ionsoconcei vedandsodedi catedcouldlongendur e.

    Ref
    erences

    G.
    P.Br West
    own, war
    dExpansi
    on(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .

    Economi
    K.Coman, cBegi
    nni
    ngsoft
    heFarWest(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    F.Par Cal
    kman, i
    for
    niaandt
    heOr
    egonTr
    ail
    .

    R.
    S.Ri
    pley
    ,TheWarwi
    thMexi
    co.

    W.
    C.Ri
    v TheUni
    es, tedSt
    atesandMexi
    co,
    1821-
    48(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    Quest
    ions
    1.Giv
    esomeofthespeci
    alf
    eat
    uresi
    nthehi
    stor
    yofMi
    ssour
    i,Ar
    kansas,
    Michi
    gan,
    Wisconsi
    n,
    Iowa,andMi
    nnesot
    a.
    2.
    Cont
    rastt
    hecl
    i
    mat
    eandsoi
    loft
    heMi
    ddl
    eWestandt
    heFarWest
    .

    3.
    Howdi
    dMexi
    coatf
    ir
    stencour
    ageAmer
    icani
    mmi
    grat
    ion?

    4.
    Whatpr
    oducedt
    her
    evol
    uti
    oni
    nTex
    as?Whol
    edi
    nit
    ?

    5.
    Nar
    rat
    esomeoft
    hel
    eadi
    ngev
    ent
    sint
    hest
    ruggl
    eov
    erannexat
    iont
    otheUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    6.
    Whatact
    ionbyPr
    esi
    dentPol
    kpr
    eci
    pit
    atedwar
    ?

    7.
    Giv
    ethedet
    ail
    soft
    hepeaceset
    tl
    ementwi
    thMexi
    co.

    8.
    Whati
    smeantbyt
    he"
    joi
    ntoccupat
    ion"ofOr
    egon?

    9.
    Howwast
    heOr
    egonboundar
    ydi
    sput
    efi
    nal
    l
    yset
    tl
    ed?

    10.
    Compar
    etheAmer
    ican"
    inv
    asi
    on"ofCal
    i
    for
    niawi
    tht
    hemi
    grat
    ioni
    ntoTexas.

    11.
    Expl
    ainhowCal
    i
    for
    niabecameaf
    reest
    ate.

    12.
    Descr
    ibet
    heear
    lyeconomi
    cpol
    i
    cyoft
    heMor
    mons.

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    TheIndependenceofTexas.—McMaster
    ,Hist
    oryofthePeopl
    eoftheUnit
    edStat
    es,Vol
    .VI
    ,
    pp.251-270.Woodr
    owWi l Hi
    son, st
    oryoftheAmericanPeopl
    e,Vol
    .IV,
    pp.102-
    126.

    TheAnnexat i
    onofTexas.—McMast er,Vol
    .VII
    .Thepassagesonannexati
    onarescatt
    ered
    throughthi
    svolumeandi ti
    sanexer ci
    seiningenui
    tyt
    omakeaconnect edstor
    yofthem.
    Sourcemat er
    ial
    sinHartAmer
    , i
    canHi stor
    yToldbyContemporar
    ies,
    Vol.I
    II
    ,pp.637-
    655;El
    son,
    Historyoft
    heUnitedStat
    es,pp.516-521,526-527.

    TheWarwi
    thMexi
    co.
    —El
    son,
    pp.526-
    538.

    TheOregonBoundar
    yDi
    sput
    e.—Schaf
    erHi
    , st
    oryoft
    hePaci
    fi
    cNor
    thwest(
    rev
    .ed.
    ),pp.88-
    104;
    173-185.

    TheMi gr
    ati
    ontoOr
    egon.
    —Schaf
    er,
    pp.105- Economi
    172.Coman, cBegi
    nni
    ngsoft
    heFarWest
    ,
    Vol.
    I
    I,pp.113-166.

    TheSant
    aFéTr
    ail
    . Economi
    —Coman, cBegi
    nni
    ngs,
    Vol
    .II
    ,pp.75-
    93.

    TheConquestofCal
    i
    for
    nia.
    —Coman,
    Vol
    .II
    ,pp.297-
    319.

    Gol
    dinCal
    i
    for
    nia.
    —McMast
    er,
    Vol
    .VI
    I,
    pp.585-
    614.

    TheMor
    monMi
    grat
    ion.
    —Coman,
    Vol
    .II
    ,pp.167-
    206.

    Bi
    ogr
    aphi
    cal
    Studi
    es.
    —Fr
    émont
    ,Gener
    alsScot
    tandTay
    lor
    ,Sam Houst
    on,
    andDav
    idCr
    ocket
    t.

    TheRomanceofWester
    nExpl
    orat
    ion.
    —J.
    G.Nei
    har
    dtTheSpl
    , endi
    dWay
    far
    ing.J.
    G.
    Nei
    hardt
    ,TheSongofHughGl
    ass.
    PARTV.SECTI
    ONALCONFLICTAND
    RECONSTRUCTI
    ON

    CHAPTERXI
    II
    THERI
    SEOFTHEI
    NDUSTRI
    ALSYSTEM

    I
    fJef f
    ersoncouldhav eli
    vedtoseetheSt ar
    sandSt ri
    pespl antedonthePacifi
    cCoast,the
    broadempi r
    eofTexasaddedt otheplanti
    ngst ates,andthev all
    eyoftheWill
    amettewav i
    ng
    withwheatsownbyf armersfrom NewEngl and,hewoul dhav ebeenmor ethanfort
    if
    iedinhis
    fai
    ththatthefutur
    eofAmer i
    calayinagri
    culture.Evenast anchol dFeder
    ali
    stli
    keGouverneur
    Mor r
    isorJosiahQuincywouldhav emour nf
    ul l
    yconcededbot htheprophecyandtheclaim.
    Manifestdesti
    nyneverseemedmor eclearl
    ywr it
    teninthest ars.

    Ast hef armer sfr


    om t heNorthwestandpl anter
    sf r om t
    heSout hwestpour edi nupont hef l
    oorof
    Congr ess,thepar tyofJef ferson,chr istened anew byJackson,gr ew st rongery earbyy ear.
    Opponent stherewer e,nodoubt ,disgruntledcr i
    ticsandWhi gsbyconv icti
    on;buti n1852Fr ankli
    n
    Pierce,t he Democr ati
    c candi dat ef orPr esident ,car r
    ied ev ery statei nt he union except
    Massachuset ts,
    Ver mont,Kentucky ,andTennessee.
    Thi svictory
    , atri
    umphunderor dinar yci r
    cumst ances, wasal lthemor esi gnifi
    cantint hatPierce
    waspi tt
    edagai nstaher ooft heMexi canWar ,
    Gener alScot t,whom t heWhi gs,hopingt owi nby
    rousingt hemar tialardorofthev ot ers,hadnomi nated.Onl ooki ngatt heel ectionreturns,the
    newPr esidentcal mlyassuredt hepl anter sthat" thegener al principleofr educt i
    onofdut ieswi th
    av iewt orevenuemaynowber egar dedast heset tl
    edpol i
    cyoft hecount ry."Wi t
    hequal
    conf i
    dence, hewav edasidet hoseagi t
    ator swhodev otedthemsel ves" t
    ot hesupposed
    i
    nt erestsoft herelati
    velyfewAf ricansi nt heUni tedSt ates."Likeawat chmani nt henighthe
    calledt othecount ry:"Al
    l'
    swel l."

    Thepar
    tyofHami
    l
    tonandCl
    ayl
    ayi
    nthedust
    .

    TheI
    ndust
    ri
    alRev
    olut
    ion

    Aspr i
    deof tengoet hbef oreafall
    , sosangui neexpect ati
    onissomet imesthesy mbol ofdef eat.
    Jacksondest r
    oy edt hebank.Pol ksi gnedt het ar
    if
    fbillof1846st r
    ikinganef f
    ectiveblowatt he
    princi
    pleofpr otectionf ormanuf actures.Pi ercepromisedt osil
    encet heaboliti
    onists.His
    successorwast oappr ov eadrasticst epint hedirecti
    onoff r
    eet r
    ade.Nev erthel
    essal lthese
    thingsleftuntouchedt hespr i
    ngsofpowert hatwereinduet imetomakeAmer i
    cathegr eat
    est
    i
    ndust r
    ialnationont heear th;
    namel y ,vastnat i
    onalresources,businessenterpri
    se, i
    nv enti
    ve
    genius,andt hef reelaborsuppl yofEur ope.Unseenbyt hethought l
    ess,unrecordedi nthe
    diari
    esofwi seacr es, r
    arelyment i
    onedi nthespeechesofst atesmen, ther
    ewasswi ftlyrisi
    ng
    suchat i
    deint heaf fai
    rsofAmer icaasJef fersonandHami lt
    onnev erdreamedofi ntheirlit
    tle
    phi
    l
    osophi
    es.
    TheInv entors.
    —Wat tandBoul tonexperi
    ment ingwi t
    hst eam i
    nEngl and,Whitneycombi ningwood
    andsteel int
    oacot tongin, FultonandFitchappl yi
    ngt hesteam enginet onavigation,Stevensand
    PeterCoopert ry
    ingoutt he" ironhorse"on"ir
    onhi ghway s,"Sl
    aterbuil
    dingspinni ngmi l
    lsin
    Pawtucket ,Howeat tachi
    ngt heneedletothef lyi
    ngwheel ,Morsespanni ngacont i
    nentwi ththe
    tel
    egraph, CyrusFi el
    dl i
    nkingt hemar ket
    soft henewwor l
    dwiththeol dalongt hebedoft heAt l
    ant
    ic,
    McCor mi ckbreakingt hesi ckleunderthereaper —thesemenandat housandmor ewer edestroyi
    ng
    i
    nami ght yr
    ev oluti
    onofi ndust rytheworldoft hestagecoachandt het all
    owcandl ewhi ch
    Washingt onandFr ankli
    nhadi nherit
    edli
    ttl
    echangedf rom theageofCæsar .Whi t
    neywast omake
    cott
    onki ng.Wat tandFul t
    onwer etomakesteel andst eam mast er
    soft hewor ld.Agricultur
    ewas
    tofal
    lbehi ndint heracef orsupr emacy .

    Industr
    yOut str
    ipsPlanti
    ng.—Thest oryofinv
    ent i
    on, t
    hattri
    butetothetr
    iumphofmi ndover
    mat t
    er,fasci
    natingasar omance, neednotbet reatedindetailher
    e.Theeff
    ectsofinvent
    ion
    onsocial andpol i
    ti
    call
    if
    e, mult
    it
    udinousandnev er
    -endi
    ng,formt hever
    ywarpandwoofof
    Amer i
    canpr ogressfrom thedaysofAndr ewJacksont othelatesthour
    .Nei
    therthegreatci
    vil
    confli
    ct—theclashoft wosy st
    ems—nort hepr oblemsoft hemoder nagecanbeappr oached
    withoutanunder standi
    ngoft hestri
    kingphasesofi ndustri
    ali
    sm.

    ANewEngl
    andMi
    l
    lBui
    l
    t
    i
    n1793
    ANewEngl
    andMi
    l
    lBui
    l
    tin1793

    Fi
    rstandforemostamongt hem wastheupr ushofmill
    smanagedbycapt ai
    nsofindustr
    yand
    mannedbyl abordr
    awnf r
    om far
    ms, cit
    ies,
    andf or
    eignlands.Forever
    yplanterwhoclear
    eda
    domainintheSouthwestandgatheredhisarmyofbondmenabouthi m, t
    hererosei
    nt he
    Northamagi ci
    anofst
    eam andst eelwhocol l
    ect
    edunderhisr oofanarmyoff r
    eeworkers.

    Insev enl eagueboot st hi


    snewgi antstrodeaheadoft heSout herngi ant.Between1850and
    1859, tousedol l
    arsandcent sast hemeasur eofpr ogr
    ess, thev alueofdomest ic
    manuf actur esincludingmi nesandf isheriesrosef r
    om $1,019, 106,616t o$1,900,000,000, an
    i
    ncr easeofei ght y
    -sixpercenti nteny ears.Inthi
    ssameper iodt het otalproduct i
    onofnav al
    stores, r
    ice, sugar, t
    obacco, andcot t
    on, thestaplesoft heSout h,wentonl yf r
    om $165, 000, 000,
    i
    nr oundf igures, t
    o$204, 000, 000.Att hehal f
    waypoi ntoft hecent ury ,thecapi t
    alinvestedi n
    i
    ndust ry,commer ce,andci tiesf arexceededt hev al
    ueofal l
    t hefarml andbet weent heAt lantic
    andt hePaci f
    ic;t
    hust hecour seofeconomyhadbeenr eversedi nf i
    ftyy ears.Testedbyf i
    gur es
    ofpr oduct ion, Ki
    ngCot t
    onhadshr i
    veledby1860t oapet t
    ypr i
    ncei ncompar ison,foreachy ear
    thecapt ainsofi ndust r
    yturnedoutgoodswor thnear l
    yt wentyt imesal lt
    hebal esofcot ton
    pickedonSout hernplantations.I r
    on, bootsandshoes, andleat hergoodspour ingfrom
    Nor ther nmi ll
    ssur passedinv aluetheent irecott
    onout put.

    TheAgr arianWestTur nstoI ndustry.


    —Norwast hi
    svastent erpriseconf inedtotheol dNor t
    heast
    wher e,asMadi sonhadsagel yr emar ked,commer cewasear l
    ydomi nant."Ci
    ncinnati,
    "runsan
    offi
    cialreportin1854," appear st obeagr eatcentraldepotf orr eady -
    madecl othingandi ts
    manuf acturefortheWest ernmar ketsmaybesai dtobeoneoft hegr eattradesoft hatcity.
    "
    There,wr oteanothertraveler,"Iheardt hecrackoft hecat tl
    edr i
    ver'swhi pandt hehum oft he
    fact
    or y:t
    heWestandt heEastmeet i
    ng."
    Louisv i
    l
    leandSt .Louiswer ealreadyf amousf ortheirclot
    hingt radesandt hemanuf actur
    eof
    cottonbaggi ng.Fivehundr edoft het wot housandwool enmi llsint hecount ryin1860wer ein
    theWest ernstat
    es.Oft heout putoff lourandgr i
    stmi ll
    s,whi chal mostr eachedinv aluethe
    cottoncr opof1850, theOhi oVal leyf urnishedar apidl
    ygr owi ngshar e.Theol dhomeof
    Jacksoni andemocr acy ,
    wher eFeder alistshadbeenal mostasscar ceasmonar chists,t
    urned
    sl
    owlybackward,ast
    heneedlet
    othepol
    e,towar
    dthepr
    inci
    pleofpr
    otect
    ionf
    ordomest
    ic
    i
    ndustr
    y,espousedbyHamil
    tonanddef
    endedbyClay
    .
    TheExtensionofCanal
    sandRailways.
    —Asnecessarytomechani cali
    ndustryassteeland
    st
    eam powerwast hegreatmarket
    ,spreadoverawideanddiversif
    iedar
    eaandkni ttogether
    byeffi
    cientmeansoftr
    ansport
    ati
    on.Thisserv
    icewassuppli
    edtoi ndust
    rybyt hesteamship,
    whichbeganitscar
    eerontheHudsoni n1807;byt
    hecanals,ofwhichtheErieopenedi n1825
    wasthemostnot ewort
    hy;andbytherail
    ways,whi
    chcamei ntopracti
    caloperati
    onabout1830.

    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    AnEar
    lyRai
    l
    way

    Withsurei nsti
    nctt heEasternmanuf act
    urerreachedoutf orthemar ket softheNor thwest
    ter
    rit
    orywher ef r
    eef armerswer epr oduci
    ngannual lystagger
    ingcr opsofcor n,wheat,bacon,
    andwool .Thetwogr eatcanalsy stems—t heEr i
    econnect i
    ngNewYor kCi tywit
    ht hewat er
    way s
    oftheGr eatLakesandt hePennsy lvaniachainli
    nkingPhi l
    adelphiawi t
    ht heheadwat ersoft he
    Ohio—gr aduall
    ytur nedthetideoft radef rom NewOr l
    eanstot heEast ernseaboar d.The
    rai
    lwaysf oll
    owedt hesamepat hs.By1860, NewYor khadrailconnect i
    onswi thChicagoandSt .
    Louis,oneoft her outesrunningt hrought heHudsonandMohawkv all
    ey sandal ongtheGr eat
    Lakes,theot herthroughPhi l
    adel phiaandPennsy l
    vaniaandacr ossther i
    chwheatf i
    eldsof
    Ohio,I
    ndi ana,andI ll
    i
    nois.Balti
    mor e, nottobeout donebyhert wor i
    vals,reachedoutov erthe
    mount ai
    nsf ortheWest erntradeandi n1857hadt r
    ainsrunningi nt
    oSt .Louis.

    Inrai
    lwayent er pri
    set heSout htookmor ei nt erestthanincanal s, andthef riendsoft hatsection
    camet oitsaid.Toof fsett hemagnetdr awi ngt r
    adeawayf rom t heMi ssissippiVal l
    ey ,l
    ines
    werebui ltfr
    om t heGul ftoChi cago,theI l
    linoi sCent r
    alpartoft hepr ojectbei ngamonumentt o
    thezeal andindust ryofaDemocr at,betterknowni npolit
    icst hani nbusiness, St ephenA.
    Douglas.Theswi f
    tmov ementofcot tonandt obaccot otheNor thort oseapor tswasof
    commonconcer ntopl antersandmanuf act ur ers.Accordinglylineswer ef lungdownal ongt he
    Southerncoast ,l
    inki
    ngRi chmond, Charlest on, andSav annahwi ththeNor t
    her nmar ket s.Other
    l
    inesst ruckinlandf r
    om t hecoast ,gi
    v i
    ngar ailoutl
    ettotheseaf orRaleigh, Columbi a,At l
    anta,
    Chattanooga, Nashv il
    le,andMont gomer y .Nev ert
    heless,i
    nspi t
    eoft hisent erprise,themi leage
    ofalltheSout hernst atesin1860di dnotequal t
    hatofOhi o, I
    ndiana, andI l
    linoi
    scombi ned.

    BankingandFi nance. —Outofcommer ceandmanuf acturesandt heconstruct ionandoper ationof


    rai
    lwayscamesuchanaccumul ati
    onofcapi talintheNor ther
    nst atesasmer chantsofol dnev er
    i
    magi ned.Thebanksoft hef ourindustri
    al st
    atesofMassachuset ts,Connect i
    cut,NewYor k,and
    Pennsylvani
    ai n1860hadf undsgr eaterthant hebanksi nallt
    heot herstatescombi ned.NewYor k
    Cityhadbecomet hemoneymar ketofAmer ica,t
    hecent ertowhichi ndust
    r i
    al compani es,rai
    lway
    promoters,farmer s,andplanter
    st urnedf orcapit
    altoiniti
    ateandcar ryont heiroperati
    ons.The
    banksofLoui siana,SouthCar ol
    ina,Geor gia,andVirgi
    nia,iti
    strue,hadcapi talfarinexcessoft he
    banksoft heNor thwest;butstil
    ltheywer e
    r
    elat
    ivel
    ysmal
    lcompar
    edwi
    tht
    hef
    inanci
    ali
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsoft
    heEast
    .

    TheGr owt hoftheI ndustrialPopul ati


    on.—Ar evol
    ut ionofsuchmagni tudei ni
    ndustr
    y,tr
    ansport
    ,
    andf i
    nance, overt
    urningasi tdidt heagr ari
    ancivili
    zationoft heol dNor thwestandreachingout
    tothev erybordersoft hecount ry,coul dnotfailt
    obr i
    ngi nitstrai
    nconsequencesofast r
    iki
    ng
    character.Somewer eimmedi ateandobv ious.Other srequireaf ull
    nessoft i
    menoty et
    reachedt orevealtheircompl etesi gnifi
    cance.Out standingamongt hem wast hegrowthofan
    i
    ndust r
    ialpopulati
    on, detachedf rom t heland,concent ratedinci t
    ies,and, t
    ouseJefferson's
    phrase,dependentupon" thecapr icesandcasual tiesoft rade"foral iv
    elihood.Thi
    swasa
    resul
    t,ast hegreatVi r
    ginianhadf oreseen,whichf lowedi nev i
    tablyfrom publicandpriv
    ate
    effor
    tst osti
    mul at
    ei ndustr yasagai nstagricul
    ture.

    Lowel
    l,Massachuset
    ts,i
    n
    1838,
    anEarlyIndust
    ri
    al
    Town
    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Lowel
    l
    ,Massachuset
    ts,
    in1838,
    anEar
    lyI
    ndust
    ri
    alTown

    Itwasest imat edin1860, onthebasi soft hecensusf i


    gures, thatmechani cal product iongav e
    empl oymentt o1, 100,000menand285, 000women, making, i
    ftheav eragenumberof
    dependent supont hem ber eckoned, near lysixmi l
    l
    ionpeopl eoraboutone- sixthoft he
    populationoft hecountrysust ainedf rom manuf actures."Thi s,"runst heof f
    icialrecor d,"was
    exclusiveoft henumberengagedi nthepr oduct ionofmanyoft her awmat eri
    al sandoft he
    foodf ormanuf acturer
    s; i
    nthedi st r
    ibutionoft heirproduct s, suchasmer chant s,clerks,
    draymen, mar iners,theempl oy eesofr ail
    roads, expr esses, andst eamboat s;ofcapi tali
    sts,
    vari
    ousar tist
    icandpr ofessional classes, aswel lascar pent ers,br i
    cklayers,painter s,andthe
    member sofot hermechani cal tr
    adesnotcl assedasmanuf act ures.Itissaf etoassume, t
    hen,
    thatone- t
    hirdoft hewhol epopul ationissuppor ted,di r
    ectly,ori ndirectl
    y,bymanuf acturing
    i
    ndust ry.
    "Taki ng,howev er,thenumberofper sonsdi r
    ectlysuppor tedbymanuf act ures,namel y
    aboutsi xmi l
    lions,revealstheast oundingf actt hatthewhi tel abor i
    ngpopul ation, divorcedf r
    om
    thesoi l
    ,alr
    eadyexceededt henumberofsl av esonSout hernf armsandpl antations.

    Immi gration.—Themor ecar efull


    ytherapidgrowthoft heindust r
    ialpopulationisexamined, t
    he
    moresur prisi
    ngi sthef actthatsuchani mmensebodyoff reelaborerscoul dbef ound,
    part
    icul ar
    lywheni tisrecall
    edt owhatdesper atestrait
    st hecol oniall
    eader swer eputin
    securingi mmi grants,—slavery,i
    ndenturedservit
    ude, andki dnappingbei ngt hefrui
    tsofthei
    r
    necessi ti
    es.Theanswert otheeni gmai st
    obef oundpar tl
    yi nEuropeancondi t
    ionsandpar tl
    yin
    thecheapnessoft ranspor t
    ationaftert
    heopeni ngoft heer aofst eam nav igati
    on.Shrewd
    observ ersoft hecour seofev entshadl ongforeseent hataf loodofcheapl aborwasboundt o
    comewhent hewaywasmadeeasy .Some, amongt hem Chi efJusticeEllsworth,wentsof aras
    toprophesyt hatwhi telaborwoul dinti
    mebesoabundantt hatslaverywoul ddisappearast he
    morecost lyofthet wol aborsy stems.Thepr ocessesofnat urewer eaidedbyt hepol i
    ciesof
    governmenti nEngl andandGer many .

    TheComi ngoft heIri


    sh.—Theopposi ti
    onoft heIri
    shpeopl etotheEngl ishgov ernment ,everf
    urious
    andi rr
    epressible,wasi ncreasedint hemi dforti
    esbyanal mostt otalfailureofthepot atocrop,the
    mai nsuppor toft hepeasant s.Catholicinrel
    igi
    on, t
    heyhadbeencompel ledtosuppor taPr ot
    estant
    church.Till
    ersoft hesoilbynecessi ty,t
    heywer eforcedtopayenor moust ri
    butestoabsent ee
    l
    andl ordsinEngl andwhosecl aimt otheirestatesrestedupont het it
    leofconquestand
    confiscati
    on.Int ensel
    yl oyaltotheirrace,t
    heI r
    ishwer esubjectedi nal lthingstothePar li
    amentat
    London, inwhi cht hei
    rsmal lminorityofrepresentati
    veshadl it
    tl
    ei nfluencesav ei nholdinga
    balanceofpowerbet weent het wocont endingEngl i
    shparties.Tot heconst antpolit
    icalir
    ri
    tat
    ion,
    thepot atofami neaddedphy sicaldistr
    essbey onddescr i
    ption.Incot tagesandf i
    eldsandal ongt he
    highway sthev icti
    msofst arvati
    onlaydeadbyt hehundr eds,ther el
    iefwhi chcharit
    yaf f
    ordedonl y
    bri
    ngingmi
    serymoresharpl
    ytothef
    oreground.Thosewhoweref
    ortunat
    eenoughtosecur
    e
    passagemoneysoughtescapet
    oAmer i
    ca.In1844thetot
    ali
    mmigrati
    onint
    otheUnit
    ed
    Stateswasl essthaneightythousand;i
    n1850ithadri
    senbyl eapsandboundstomorethan
    threehundredt housand.Bet
    ween1820and1860t hei
    mmi gr
    antsfr
    om theUni
    tedKi
    ngdom
    number ed2,750,000,ofwhom mor ethanone-
    halfwer
    eI r
    ish.I
    thasbeensaidwit
    hatouchof
    exaggerati
    ont hattheAmer i
    cancanalsandrai
    l
    way softhoseday swer
    ebuil
    tbythel
    aborof
    Iri
    shmen.

    TheGer manMi gration.—Topol it


    ical di
    scont entandeconomi cdi stress,suchaswas
    responsi blefort hecomi ngoft heI ri
    sh, mayl i
    kewi sebet racedt hesour ceoft heGer mani c
    mi grati
    on.Thepot atobl i
    ghtthatf elluponI relandv i
    sit edt heRhi neVal l
    eyandSout hern
    Ger manyatt hesamet imewi thr esultsaspi ti
    ful ,
    iflessext ensive.Thecal amityinfli
    ctedby
    nat urewasf ol
    lowedshor t
    lybyanot herinflictedbyt hedespot icconductofGer manki ngsand
    princes.In1848t herehadoccur redt hroughoutEur opeapopul arupr isi
    ngi nbehal fofrepublics
    anddemocr aticgov er nment .Forat imei trodeonaf ul lt
    ideofsuccess.Ki ngswer eov erthr
    own,
    orcompel ledtopr omi seconst i
    tut i
    onal gover nment ,andt yrannical minist
    ersfledf rom t hei
    r
    palaces.Thencamer eact ion.Thosewhohadchampi onedt hepopul arcausewer eimpr isoned,
    shot ,ordrivenoutoft hel and.Menofat t
    ainment sanddi stincti
    on, whosesol eof f
    ensewas
    opposi ti
    ont ot hegov er nmentofki ngsandpr inces, soughtanasy lum inAmer ica,car r
    yingwi th
    them t othel andoft hei radoptiont hespi ri
    tofl ibert
    yanddemocr acy .In1847ov erfift
    y
    thousandGer manscamet oAmer ica,thef orer unner sofami grationt hatincr
    eased, al
    most
    steadi l
    y,formanyy ear s.Ther ecor dof1860showedt hatint hepr ev i
    oust wentyy earsnear l
    ya
    mi l
    lionandahal fhadf oundhomesi ntheUni tedSt at es.Farandwi detheyscat tered,from the
    mi l
    lsandshopsoft heseacoastt ownst otheut termostf rontiersofWi sconsinandMi nnesot a.

    TheLaborofWomenandChi l
    dren.—Ift hei ndust r
    ies, canals, andr ailway soft hecountrywer e
    l
    ar gelymannedbyf oreignlabor ,sti
    lli
    mpor tantnat i
    vesour cesmustnotbeov er
    looked; above
    all,thewomenandchi l
    drenoft heNewEngl andt extil
    edi stri
    ct s.Spinningandweav i
    ng,bya
    traditionthatrunsf arbey ondt hewr it
    tenr ecor dsofmanki nd, belongedt owomen.I ndeedi t
    wast hedext eroushousewi ves,spinst ers,andboy sandgi rlst hatlaidthef oundationsoft he
    textileindustryinAmer i
    ca,foundat ionsuponwhi cht hemechani cal revolutionwasbui lt.Ast he
    wheel andl oom wer etakenoutoft hehomest othef actoriesoper atedbywat erpowerort he
    steam engi ne,t
    hewomenand, t
    ouseHami lton'sphr ase, "
    thechi l
    drenoft endery ears,
    "f ol
    lowed
    asamat t
    erofcour se."Thecot tonmanuf act urealoneempl oy ssixt housandper sonsinLowel l
    ,"
    wr oteaFr enchobser verin1836; "
    oft hisnumbernear lyfivet housandar eyoungwomenf r
    om
    sev ent eentotwent y-
    foury earsofage, t
    hedaught ersoff armer sf r
    om t hedi ff
    erentNew
    Engl andst ates."I
    twasnotunt i
    l aft
    ert hemi ddleoft hecent uryt hatf or
    ei gnlandspr ovedt obe
    thechi efsourcefrom whi chwor kerswer erecr uit
    edf ort hef actor i
    esofNewEngl and.Itwas
    thent hatt hedaught ersoft hePur it
    ans, out donebyt hecompet it
    ionoff oreignlabor,bothof
    menandwomen, leftthespi nningjennyandt heloom t oot herhands.

    TheRi seofOr gani


    zedLabor.
    —Thechangi ngcondi t
    ionsofAmer i
    canl
    if
    e,markedbyt he
    spreadingmi l
    ltownsofNewEngl and,NewYor k,
    andPennsy l
    vaniaandthegrowt hofcit
    iesl
    ike
    Buffal
    o, Cinci
    nnati
    ,Loui
    svi
    l
    le,St.Loui
    s,Detroit
    ,andChicagoint heWest,nat
    ural
    lybrought
    changes, asJeffer
    sonhadprophesied,in"mannersandmor als."Afewmechani cs,smit
    hs,
    carpenters,andmasons,widelyscatt
    eredthroughfarmingregionsandruralvi
    ll
    ages,rai
    seno
    suchpr oblemsast ensoft
    housandsofwor kerscol
    lect
    edinonecent erindai
    lyinter
    course,
    l
    earningt hepowerofcoöperationandunion.

    Evenbeforethecomi ngofst eam andmachi nery,i


    nt he"goodoldday s"ofhandi
    crafts,
    laborer
    s
    i
    nmanyt r
    ades—pr i
    nters,shoemakers,carpent ers,f
    orexampl e—hadbegunt odrawt ogetherin
    thetownsfort headvancementoft heirint
    erest sintheform ofhigherwages,shorterdays,and
    milderl
    aws.Theshoemaker sofPhi l
    adelphia,organizedin1794, conductedastri
    kein1799
    andheldtogetheruntili
    ndictedseveny earslaterforconspiracy.Duri
    ngt het
    wenti
    esand
    thi
    rti
    es,
    locallaborunionsspr angupinal l
    indust ri
    alcent
    ersandt heyledalmostimmedi atel
    yto
    ci
    tyf
    eder
    ati
    onsoft
    hesev
    eral
    craf
    ts.

    Asthethousandswhoweredependentupont
    heirdai
    lyl
    aborf
    orthei
    rli
    vel
    i
    hoodmount
    edinto
    themil
    l
    ionsandindust
    ri
    esspr
    eadacrosstheconti
    nent,
    thel
    ocal
    unionsofcr
    aft
    smengrew
    i
    ntonati
    onalcraf
    t
    organizationsboundt ogetherbyt henewspaper s,thet el
    egraph, andtherail
    way s.Befor
    e1860
    therewer esev eralsuchnat ionaltradeunions,includingthepl umber s,pri
    nter
    s,mul espinners,
    i
    ronmol ders, andst onecut ters.Al
    l overt
    heNor thlaborleader sarose—menunknownt o
    generalhi storybutf orcefulandr esourcefulcharact erswhof orgedl i
    nksbindingscatter
    edand
    i
    ndividual wor kersi ntoacommonbr ot
    herhood.Anat temptwasev enmadei n1834t ofederate
    allt
    hecr af t
    si ntoaper manentnat ionalorgani
    zat i
    on; butitperishedwi t
    hinthreey ear
    sthrough
    l
    ackofsuppor t
    .Hal facent uryhadt oelapsebef oret heAmer icanFeder ati
    onofLaborwast o
    accompl isht hist ask.

    Allthemani festati
    onsoft hemoder nlabormov ementhadappear ed, ingerm atl east ,
    byt he
    ti
    met hemi d-centurywasr eached:unions,l
    aborl eaders,st
    ri
    kes, alaborpr ess,al aborpol i
    tical
    progr am, andal aborpol i
    tical part
    y.Ineverygreatci t
    yindustri
    aldisputeswer eacommon
    occur rence.Thepaper srecor dedaboutfourhundr edi ntwoy ear
    s, 1853-54,local affair
    sbut
    forecast i
    ngeconomi cst ruggl esinalargerfi
    eld.Thel aborpressseemst ohav ebegunwi tht he
    foundi ngoft heMechani cs' FreePressinPhiladelphiain1828andt heestablishmentoft he
    NewYor kWor kingman'sAdv ocateshortl
    yafterwar d.Thesesemi -poli
    ticalpaperswer einlat er
    yearsf oll
    owedbyr egulart radepaper sdesignedt owel dtogetherandadv ancet hei nterestsof
    particularcrafts.Edit
    edbyabl eleaders,t
    hesel i
    tt
    lesheet swithli
    mi tedcirculati
    onwi el
    dedan
    enor mousi nf l
    uenceint her anksofthewor kers.

    LaborandPoli
    ti
    cs.—Asforthepolit
    icalprogram oflabor,
    themainplankswerecl
    earand
    speci
    fic:t
    heabol
    iti
    onofimprisonmentf ordebt,manhoodsuf f
    rageinstat
    eswhereproper
    ty
    quali
    fi
    cati
    onssti
    l
    l pr
    evai
    led,
    freeanduni versaleducati
    on,l
    awspr ot
    ecti
    ngthesaf
    etyand
    heal
    thofworkersinmill
    sandf act
    ories,aboli
    ti
    onofl ot
    ter
    ies,
    repealofl
    awsrequi
    ri
    ngmi l
    it
    ia
    servi
    ce,andf
    reelandintheWest .

    Int
    othel aborpaper sandpl atf
    or mst her esomet imescr eptanoteofhost il
    i
    tytothemast ersof
    i
    ndust r
    y,asignofbi tternessthatexci tedlit
    tl
    eal arm whilecheaplandi ntheWestwasopent o
    thediscontented.ThePhi l
    adelphiawor kmen, i
    nissuingacal lf
    oral ocalconventi
    on,invi
    ted"al
    l
    thoseofourf ell
    owci tizenswhol ivebyt hei
    rownl aborandnoneot her."InNewcastlecounty,
    Delaware, t
    heassoci ationofwor kingpeopl ecompl ainedin1830:"Thepoorhav enol aws;the
    l
    awsar emadebyt her ichandofcour sef ortherich."Hereandthereanext remistwenttot he
    l
    engthofadv ocati
    nganequal divisionofweal t
    hamongal lt
    hepeopl e—thecrudestkindof
    communi sm.

    Agitationoft hischaracterpr oducedi nlaborci rclespr of ounddi st rustofbot hWhi gsand


    Democr atswhot al
    kedpr incipallyaboutt ariffsandbanks; itresul tedi nattempt st of ound
    i
    ndependentl aborpar t
    ies.I nPhi ladel phia, Albany ,NewYor kCi ty, andNewEngl and, l
    abor
    candidat eswer eputupf orelect i
    onsi nt heear l
    yt hirt
    iesandi naf ewcaseswer ev ictoriousatt he
    poll
    s." Thebal anceofpowerhasatl engt hgoti ntot hehandsoft hewor ki
    ngpeopl e, wher eit
    proper l
    ybelongs, "tr
    iumphant l
    yex claimedt heMechani cs' FreePr essofPhi ladelphi ai n1829.But
    thetriumphwasi ll
    usory.Dissensi onsappear edint hel aborr anks.Theol dpar t
    yl eader s,
    parti
    cul arl
    yofTammanyHal l
    ,theDemocr aticpar tyorgani zationi nNewYor kCity, offered
    concessi onst olaborinr eturnforv otes.Newspaper sunspar ingl ydenounced" tradeuni on
    poli
    ticians"as" demagogues, ""lev el
    ler s,
    "and" r
    ag, tag,andbobt ail";andsomeoft hem, deeming
    l
    aborunr estthesourf ruitofmanhoodsuf frage, suggest eddi sf ranchi sementasar emedy .Under
    theinfluenceofconcessi onsandat tackst hepol iti
    cal fev erqui ckl ydiedaway ,andt heendoft he
    decadel ef
    tnor emnantoft helaborpol i
    tical parti
    es.Laborl eader st urnedt oat askwhi chseemed
    mor esubst ant i
    alandpr actical
    , thatofor gani zi
    ngwor ki ngmeni nt ocraftuni onsf ort hedef ini
    te
    purposeofr aisi
    ngwagesandr educi nghour s.

    TheI
    ndust
    ri
    alRev
    olut
    ionandNat
    ional
    Pol
    i
    tics
    SouthernPlansforUnionwi ththeWest.—ItwaslongthedesignofSout her
    nstat
    esmenlike
    Calhountohol dtheWestandt heSouthtoget
    herinonepolit
    icalpar
    ty.Thetheor
    yonwhi cht hey
    basedtheirhopewassi mpl e.Bothsecti
    onswereagricul
    tur
    al—theproducersofrawmaterialsand
    thebuyersofmanuf acturedgoods.Thepl ant
    erswereheavypurchasersofWesternbacon, pork,
    mules,andgr ai
    n.TheMi ssi
    ssippi
    Riverandi t
    str
    ibutari
    esformedt henatur
    alchannelforthetransport
    ati
    onofheav yproduce
    southwar dtotheplantat
    ionsandoutwardt oEurope.Therefore,r
    anthei
    rpolit
    icalr
    easoning,
    theinterest
    softhet wosect i
    onswereone.Bystandingt ogetheri
    nfavoroflowt ar
    if
    fs,t
    hey
    couldbuyt hei
    rmanuf act
    ur escheapl
    yinEuropeandpayf orthem i
    ncotton,t
    obacco,andgr ai
    n.
    Theuni onofthetwosect ionsunderJackson'
    smanagementseemedper f
    ect.

    TheEastFor msTi eswi t


    ht heWest .—East er nleader swer enotbl indtot heambi ti
    onsof
    Souther nstatesmen.Ont hecontrary ,t
    heyal sor ecogni zedt hei mpor tanceoff ormingst rong
    ti
    eswi ththeagr ari
    anWestanddr awi ngthepr oduceoft heOhi oVal l
    eyt oPhi l
    adelphiaandNew
    York.Thecanal sandr ai
    lwayswer et hephy sicalsignsoft hiseconomi cunion,andt heresult
    s,
    commer cialandpolit
    ical,weresoonev ident .Byt hemi ddl eoft hecent ur
    y,Southerneconomi st
    s
    notedt hechange, oneoft hem, DeBow, l
    ament ingt hat"thegr eatci t
    iesoft heNor thhav e
    severallypenetrat
    edt heinteri
    orwi t
    har tif
    icial l
    inesunt ilt
    heyhav etakenf rom theopenand
    untaxedcur rentoftheMi ssissi
    ppi thecommer cepr oducedoni tsbor ders.
    "Tot hi
    swr i
    teritwas
    anast oundingt hi
    ngtobehol d"thenumberofst eamer sthatnowdescendt heupper
    MississippiRiver,l
    oadedt otheguar dswi t
    hpr oduce, asf arast hemout hoft heIl
    l
    inoisRi ver
    andt hent ur
    nupt hatst r
    eam wi t
    ht heircargoest obeshi ppedt oNewYor kv i
    aChicago.The
    Il
    l
    inoiscanal hasnotonl ysweptt hewhol epr oduceal ongt helineoft heI l
    li
    noisRivertot heEast,
    butitisdrawi ngthepr oductsoftheupperMi ssissippithrought hesamechannel ;thus
    deprivi
    ngNewOr l
    eansandSt .Louisofar ichpor ti
    onoft hei rf
    or mert rade."

    I
    ft oanyshi pper st hebroadcur r
    entoft hegr eatr iversweepi ngdownt oNewOr leansof feredeasi er
    meansofphy sical communi cati
    ont otheseat hant hecanal sandr ai
    lway s,thedi fferencecouldbe
    over comebyt hecr editwhi chEast ernbanker swer eabl etoext endt othegr ainandpr oducebuy er
    s,
    i
    nt hef ir
    stinst ance, andt hrought hem tot hef armer sont hesoi l.Theacut eSout hernobser verjust
    quot ed,DeBow, admi t
    tedwi thev i
    dentr egret,in1852, that" l
    astaut umn, ther ichr egionsofOhi o,
    I
    ndi ana,andI llinoiswer ef l
    oodedwi ththelocal banknot esoft heEast ernSt ates, advancedbyt he
    NewYor khousesonpr oducet obeshi ppedbywayoft hecanal si nthespr ing...
    .Thesemoney ed
    facili
    ti
    esenabl et hepacker , mi l
    ler,and
    specul atort ohol dont ot hei rproduceunt iltheopeni ngofnav igationi nthespr i
    ngandt heyar e
    nol ongerobl iged, asf ormer l
    y ,t
    ohur ryof fthei rshi pment sdur i
    ngt hewi nt erbyt hewayofNew
    Orleansi nor dert or eali
    zef undsbydr aftsont hei rshi pment s.Thebanki ngf aci l
    it
    iesatt heEast
    aredoi ngasmucht odrawt r
    adef r
    om usast hecanal sandr ail
    way swhi chEast erncapi talis
    const ructi
    ng. "Thuscanal s, railways,andf i
    nanci al cr editwer eswi ftlyforgingbondsofuni on
    betweent heol dhomeofJacksoni anDemocr acyi nt heWestandt heol derhomeofFeder al i
    sm
    i
    nt heEast .Thenat ionali
    sm t owhi chWebst erpai del oquentt ri
    but ebecamemor eandmor e
    real withthepassi ngoft ime.Thesel f-sufficiencyoft hepi oneerwasbr okendownashebegan
    towat chthepr oducemar ket sofNewYor kandPhi ladel phiawher et hepr icesofcor nandhogs
    fi
    xedhi sear ningsf orthey ear.

    TheWestandManuf actures.—Inadditiont othecommer cialbondsbet weent heEastandt he


    Westt herewasgr owi ngupacommoni nterestinmanuf actures.Asskill
    edwhi telabor
    i
    ncreasedi ntheOhi oVal ley,t
    heindust ri
    esspr ingingupint henewci ti
    esmadeWest ernl
    if
    e
    morel i
    ket hatofthei ndustri
    alEastthanl ikethatoft heplantingSouth.Mor eov er
    , theWestern
    stat
    espr oducedsomei mpor t
    antr awmat eri
    alsf orAmericanf act
    ori
    es,whi chcal ledf or
    prot
    ect i
    onagai nstforeigncompet iti
    on, notably,wool,hemp, andflax.Ast heSout hhadl i
    ttl
    eor
    noforeigncompet i
    tionincot t
    onandt obacco, theEastcoul dnotof f
    erprot ectionf orherraw
    material
    sinexchangef orprotect
    ionfori ndustries.WiththeWest ,howev er,itbecamepossi bl
    e
    toestabli
    shr ecipr
    oci t
    yint ar
    if
    fs;thatis,forexampl e,
    totradeahi ghrateonwool f orahighrate
    ontextil
    esori ron.

    TheSouthDependentont
    heNorth.
    —Whil
    eEastandWestwer edr
    awingtoget
    her,t
    hedisti
    ncti
    ons
    betweenNor
    thandSouthwerebecomi
    ngmoremar ked;t
    helat
    ter
    ,havi
    ngfewindustr
    iesand
    produci
    ngl
    it
    tl
    esaverawmateri
    als,
    wasbei
    ngforcedint
    otheposi
    tionofadependentsect
    ion.Asa
    resul
    toftheprotect
    ivet
    ari
    ff,Southernpl
    anter
    swerecompel
    ledtotur
    nmoreandmoretoNorther
    n
    mill
    sforthei
    rcloth,
    shoes,hats,hoes,pl
    ows,andmachi
    ner
    y.Nearl
    yallt
    hegoodswhi
    chthey
    boughtinEuropeinexchange
    fortheirproducecameov erseastoNor thernport
    s,whencetr ansshipmentswer emadebyr ail
    andwat ertoSouther
    npoi ntsofdi st
    ri
    bution.Thei
    rri
    ce,cott
    on, andtobacco,inasf arast hey
    wer enotcar ri
    edtoEuropei nBrit
    ishbottoms, weretr
    ansportedbyNor ther
    nmast ers.Inthese
    way s,alargepartofthefinancialoperati
    onsconnectedwi t
    ht hesal eofSout her
    npr oduceand
    thepurchaseofgoodsi nexchangepassedi ntothehandsofNor t
    hernmer chantsandbanker s
    who, naturall
    y,madepr of
    itsfrom thei
    rtransacti
    ons.Fi
    nall
    y,Sout hernplanterswhowant edt o
    buymor elandandmor eslavesoncr edi
    tbor r
    owedheav i
    lyi
    nt heNor t
    hwher ehuge
    accumul at
    ionsmadet heratesofi nt
    erestlowerthanthesmal lerbanksoft heSout hcoul d
    afford.

    TheSout hReckonst heCostofEconomi cDependence. —AsSout herndependenceuponNor thern


    capital becamemor eandmor emar ked,Southernleadersbegant ochaf eatwhatt heyr egardedas
    restraintslaidupont heirenterpri
    se.Inawor d,theycamet olookupont heplanterasat ribut
    e-
    bear ertot hemanuf acturerandf i
    nancier."TheSout h,
    "expostulatedDeBow, "
    standsi nt heatti
    tude
    offeedi ng. .
    .av astpopulationof[Nor t
    hern]mer chants,
    shipowner s,capit
    ali
    sts,andot her swho,
    withoutcl aimsonherpr ogeny ,dri
    nkupt helif
    ebl oodofhertrade. .
    ..Wheregoest hev alueofour
    l
    aborbutt ot hosewho, t
    aking
    advant ageofourf ol
    ly,shipforus, buyforus,selltous,and,afterturni
    ngourowncapi t
    al to
    theirpr ofi
    tableaccount, r
    eturnladenwi t
    hourmoneyt oenj
    oyt heireasil
    yearnedopul ence
    athome. "

    Sout her
    nst ati
    sticians, notsat i
    sfi
    edwi thgener al
    iti
    es, att
    empt edtofigureouthowgr eatwas
    thistri
    buteindol larsandcent s.Theyest imat edthatt heplanter
    sannual lylenttoNor ther
    n
    mer chantst hefullv alueoft hei
    rexpor ts,ahundr edmi l
    l
    ionsormor e, "
    tobeusedi nthe
    mani pulati
    onoff or eigni mports."Theycal culat
    edt hatnol essthanf ort
    ymi ll
    ionsalltoldhad
    beenpai dt oshipowner sinprofi
    ts.Theyr eckonedt hat ,i
    ftheSouthwer etowor kupherown
    cotton,shewoul dr ealizefrom sev ent
    yt oonehundr edmi l
    l
    ionsay earthatot her
    wisewent
    Nor t
    h.Finally,t
    ocapt heclimax ,theyregrettedthatplant er
    sspentsomef i
    fteenmi l
    l
    ionsay ear
    pleasure-seekingi nt healluri
    ngci ti
    esandsummerr esortsoftheNor th.

    Souther nOppositiont oNor thernPol i


    cies.—Proceedingfrom thesepr emises, Southernl eaders
    drewt helogicalconclusiont hattheent i
    reprogram ofeconomi cmeasur esdemandedi nt he
    Nor t
    hwaswi thoutexcept ionadv erset oSoutherninterestsand,byasi mi l
    archainofr easoning,
    i
    njurioust ot
    hecor nandwheatpr oducer softheWest .Cheapl aboraf f
    ordedbyf ree
    i
    mmi grati
    on,apr otectiv
    et arif
    fraisingpr i
    cesofmanuf acturesforthet i
    ll
    eroft hesoi l
    ,shi p
    subsidiesincreasingthet onnageofcar ry
    ingtradeinNor t
    hernhands, i
    nternalimprovement s
    forgi
    ngneweconomi cbondsbet weent heEastandt heWest ,anational bankingsy stem gi v
    ing
    stri
    ctnat i
    onalcont roloverthecur rencyasasaf eguardagainstpaperi nfl
    ation—allthese
    dev i
    ceswer eregar dedint heSout hascont r
    arytothepl anti
    nginterest.Theywer econst antl
    y
    compar edwithther estri
    ctiv
    emeasur esbywhi chGreatBr i
    tai
    nmor et hanhal facent urybef ore
    hadsoughtt obindAmer icani nt
    erests.

    Asoppr essionjust if
    iedawarf ori ndependenceonce, statesmenar gued, soi tcanj ustif
    yitagain."It
    i
    scur iousasi ti
    smel anchol yanddi str
    essing,
    "cameabr oadhi ntfrom Sout hCar oli
    na, "t
    oseehow
    stri
    kingi stheanal ogybet weent hecol onialvassalaget owhi chthemanuf acturingst ateshave
    reducedt heplant i
    ngst atesandt hatwhi chformerlyboundt heAngl o-Amer i
    cancol oniestothe
    Brit
    ishempi re..
    ..Engl andsai dtoherAmer i
    cancoloni es: '
    Youshal l
    nott radewi thther estofthe
    worldf orsuchmanuf actur esasar e
    producedi nthemot hercount r
    y.'Themanuf acturi
    ngst atessayt ot heirSout herncol onies:'
    You
    shallnott radewi t
    ht her estoft hewor l
    df orsuchmanuf acturesaswepr oduce. '"Theconcl usion
    wasi nexor able:eithert heSout hmustcont rolthenat i
    onal governmentandi tseconomi cmeasur es,
    oritmustdecl ar e,asAmer icahaddonef ourscorey ear sbef or
    e, i
    tspol i
    ticalandeconomi c
    i
    ndependence.AsNor t
    her nmi ll
    smul ti
    pli
    ed,asr ai
    l
    way sspunt heirmi ghtywebov erthef aceoft he
    North, andasaccumul atedcapi t
    al roseintothehundr edsofmi ll
    ions,theconv icti
    onoft hepl
    ant ers
    andt
    hei
    rst
    atesmendeepenedi
    ntodesper
    ati
    on.

    Eff
    ort
    stoStartSouthernIndustri
    esFail
    .—Afewofthem,seei
    ngthepredomi
    nanceoftheNort
    h,
    madedetermi
    nedef fort
    st oi
    ntroducemanufact
    uresint
    otheSouth.Tothel
    eader
    swhower e
    aver
    setosecessionandnul l
    if
    icati
    onthi
    sseemedt heonl
    yremedyforthegr
    owingdi
    spari
    tyi
    nthe
    powerofthet
    wosect i
    ons.
    Societiesf ortheencour agementofmechani cali
    ndustri
    eswer eformed, theinvest mentof
    capitalwassought ,andi ndeedaf ewmi ll
    swer ebuil
    tonSout hernsoil.Ther esul tswer e
    meager .Thenat ur
    al resources,coal andwat erpower,wereabundant ;buttheent er
    prisef or
    dir
    ect i
    onandt heskill
    edl aborwer ewant i
    ng.Thestream ofEur opeanimmi grationflowedNor th
    andWest ,notSout h.TheI rishorGer manl aborer
    ,evenifhef inall
    ymadehi shomei naci ty,had
    beforehi m, whi lei
    nt heNor th,theal t
    ernati
    veofahomest eadonWest ernl and.Tohi m slavery
    wasast r
    ange, i
    fnotar epell
    ing,insti
    tuti
    on.Hedidnott aketoi tki
    ndlynorcar etof i
    xhi shome
    wherei tflourished.Whi leslaverylasted,t
    heeconomyoft heSout hwasi nevitablyagricultural
    .
    Whileagr iculturepredomi nated,leadershipwithequalnecessi t
    yfellt
    ot hepl antinginterest.
    Whilet hepl antinginterestruled, pol
    iti
    calopposit
    iontoNor therneconomywasdest i
    nedt o
    growi nst rengt h.

    TheSout her nTheor yofSect ional ism. —I nt heopi nionoft hest atesmenwhof rankl yr epr esentedt he
    plantingi nt erest ,t
    hei ndust r i
    al sy stem wasi t
    sdeadl yenemy .Thei rent irephi losophyofAmer ican
    politi
    cswassummedupi nasi ngl epar agr aphbyMcDuf fi
    e,aspokesmanf orSout hCar olina:
    "Owi ngt othef eder ati
    v echar acterofourgov ernment , thegr eatgeogr aphi cal ext entofourt erritory,
    andt hedi ver sityoft hepur sui tsofourci ti
    zensi ndifferentpar tsoft heuni on, ithassohappened
    thatt wogr eati nter estshav espr ungup, standingdi r
    ect lyopposedt oeachot her .Oneoft hese
    consi stsoft hosemanuf act ur eswhi cht heNor thernandMi ddl est atesar ecapabl eofpr oduci ngbut
    whi ch, owi ngt othehi ghpr iceofl aborandt hehi ghpr of i
    tsofcapi tal int hosest at es, cannothol d
    compet i
    tionwi thf oreignmanuf act ureswi thoutt heaidofbount i
    es, directlyori ndi r
    ect lygi ven, either
    byt hegener al gov ernmentorbyt hest at egov ernment s.Theot heroft hesei nter estsconsi stsoft he
    greatagr icultur alstaplesoft heSout her nst ateswhi chcanf i
    ndamar ketonl yinf oreigncount ries
    andwhi chcanbeadv ant ageousl ysol donl yinexchangef orf orei
    gnmanuf act ur eswhi chcomei n
    compet i
    tionwi tht hoseoft heNor t
    her nandMi ddlestat es..
    ..Thesei nterest s
    thenst anddi amet ri
    callyandi rreconci labl yopposedt oeachot her .Thei nter est ,thepecuni ary
    i
    nt erestoft heNor thernmanuf act ur er, i
    sdi rectlypromot edbyev er yincr easeoft het axes
    i
    mposeduponSout her ncommer ce; andi ti
    sunnecessar yt oaddt hatt hei nt erestoft he
    Sout her npl ant erispr omot edbyev er ydi minut i
    onoft axesi mposedupont hepr oduct ionsof
    theirindust ry.If,undert heseci rcumst ances, t
    hemanuf act urerswer ecl othedwi tht hepower
    ofi mposi ngt axes, attheirpl easur e,upont hef orei
    gni mpor tsoft hepl ant er, nodoubtwoul d
    existi nt hemi ndofanymant hati twoul dhav eallthechar acteristicsofanabsol ut eand
    unqual ifi
    eddespot ism. "Theeconomi csoundnessoft hisr easoni ng, asubj ectofi nterest i
    ng
    specul ationf ortheeconomi st ,isofl it
    t l
    econcer nt ot hehi storian.Thehi stor ical poi nti sthat
    thisopi nionwaswi delyhel di nt heSout handwi ththepr ogr essoft imebecamet hepr evailing
    doct rineoft hepl ant i
    ngst at esmen.

    Thei rantagoni sm wasdeepenedbecauset heyal sobecameconv i


    nced, onwhatgr oundsi ti
    snot
    necessar yt oinqui r
    e, thatthel eadersoft hei ndust r
    ialinter estt husopposedt opl antingf ormeda
    consol idated" aristocr acyofweal t
    h,"bentupont hepur suitandat tai nmentofpol i
    ti
    cal powerat
    Washi ngt on." Byt heai dofv ari
    ousassoci atedi nterest s,"cont i
    nuedMcDuf fie,"themanuf act uri
    ng
    capitalistshav eobt ainedacompl eteandper manentcont rol overt hel egislationofCongr esson
    thissubj ect[ thet ari
    ff]..
    ..Men
    conf ederat edt oget heruponsel fi
    shandi nterest edpr i
    nci ples, whet heri npur sui toft heof ficesor
    thebount iesoft hegov ernment ,areev ermor eact i
    veandv i
    gilantt hant hegr eatmaj or i
    tywhoact
    from di si
    nt erest edandpat rioti
    cimpul ses.Hav ewenotwi tnessedi tont hisf l
    oor ,sir?Whoev er
    knewt het ariffment odi v
    ideonanyquest ionaf fectingt hei rconf eder atedi nter ests?...The
    wat chwor di s, stickt oget her,ri
    ghtorwr onguponev eryquest ionaf fect i
    ngt hecommoncause.Such,
    sir,i
    st heconcer tandv i
    gilanceandsucht hecombi nationsbywhi cht hemanuf acturingpar t
    y ,
    actingupont hei nterest sofsomeandt hepr ejudi cesofot hers, hav eobt ainedadeci dedand
    permanentcont rolov erpubl icopinioninal lthet ar i
    ffst ates. "Thus, ast heSout her nst atesman
    woul dhav ei t
    , theNor th, i
    nmat t
    ersaffect i
    ngnat ional pol icies, wasr ul
    edbya" conf eder ated
    i
    nter
    est"whichmenacedtheplant
    inginter
    est.Asthefor
    mergr ewinmagnitudeandatt
    achedto
    i
    tsel
    fthefr
    eef armersoft
    heWestthroughchannelsoftradeandcredi
    t,i
    tfoll
    owedasnightt
    heday
    t
    hatinti
    met heplanter
    swouldbeovershadowedandatl engt
    hov er
    borneinthest
    ruggl
    eofgiant
    s.
    Whethert
    het heorywassoundornot,Souther
    nstatesmenbeli
    eveditandacteduponit
    .
    Ref
    erences

    M.Bear
    d,Shor
    tHi
    stor
    yoft
    heAmer
    icanLaborMov
    ement
    .

    E.
    L.Bogar
    t,Economi
    cHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    J. Hi
    R.Commons, st
    oryofLabouri
    ntheUni
    tedSt
    ates(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    E. Amer
    R.Johnson, icanRai
    l
    wayTr
    anspor
    tat
    ion.

    C.
    D.Wr
    ight
    ,Indust
    ri
    alEv
    olut
    ionoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Whatsi
    gnspoi
    ntedt
    oacompl
    eteDemocr
    ati
    ctr
    iumphi
    n1852?

    2.
    Whati
    stheexpl
    anat
    ionoft
    heext
    raor
    dinar
    yindust
    ri
    alpr
    ogr
    essofAmer
    ica?

    3.
    Compar
    ethepl
    ant
    ingsy
    stem wi
    tht
    hef
    act
    orysy
    stem.

    4.
    Inwhatsect
    ionsdi
    dindust
    ryf
    lour
    ishbef
    oret
    heCi
    vi
    lWar
    ?Why
    ?

    5.
    Showwhyt
    ranspor
    tat
    ioni
    ssov
    ital
    tomoder
    nindust
    ryandagr
    icul
    tur
    e.

    6.
    Expl
    ainhowi
    twaspossi
    blet
    osecur
    esomanypeopl
    etol
    abori
    nAmer
    icani
    ndust
    ri
    es.

    7.
    Tracet
    hest
    epsi
    nther
    iseofor
    gani
    zedl
    aborbef
    ore1860.

    8.
    Whatpol
    i
    tical
    andeconomi
    cref
    ormsdi
    dlabordemand?

    9.
    Whydi
    dtheEastandt
    heSout
    hseekcl
    osert
    ieswi
    tht
    heWest
    ?

    10.
    Descr
    ibet
    heeconomi
    cfor
    ceswhi
    chwer
    edr
    awi
    ngt
    heEastandt
    heWestt
    oget
    her
    .

    11.
    Inwhatwaywast
    heSout
    heconomi
    cal
    l
    ydependentupont
    heNor
    th?

    12St
    atet
    henat
    ional
    pol
    i
    ciesgener
    all
    yfav
    oredi
    ntheNor
    thandcondemnedi
    ntheSout
    h.

    13.
    Showhoweconomi
    ccondi
    ti
    onsi
    ntheSout
    hwer
    eunf
    avor
    abl
    etoi
    ndust
    ry.

    14.
    Giv
    etheSout
    her
    nexpl
    anat
    ionoft
    heant
    agoni
    sm bet
    weent
    heNor
    thandt
    heSout
    h.

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    TheInvent
    ions.—Assi
    gnonet oeachst
    udent.Sat
    isf
    act
    oryaccount
    sar
    etobef
    oundi
    n
    anygoodency cl
    opedi
    a,especial
    l
    ytheBri
    tanni
    ca.

    Ri
    verandLakeCommer
    ce.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,Economi
    cHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.313-
    326.

    Rail
    waysandCanal
    s.—Cal
    l
    ender
    ,pp.326-
    344;
    359- I
    387.Coman,ndust
    ri
    alHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    ted
    Stat
    es,
    pp.216-
    225.
    TheGrowthofI
    ndust
    ry,
    1815-
    1840.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,pp.459-
    471.Fr
    om 1850t
    o1860,
    Cal
    l
    ender
    ,
    pp.471-
    486.

    Ear
    lyLaborCondi
    ti
    ons.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,pp.701-
    718.

    Ear
    lyI
    mmi
    grat
    ion.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,pp.719-
    732.

    Cl
    ay'
    sHomeMar
    ketTheor
    yoft
    heTar
    if
    f.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,pp.498-
    503.

    TheNewEngl
    andVi
    ewoft
    heTar
    if
    f.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,pp.503-
    514.

    CHAPTERXI
    V
    THEPLANTI
    NGSYSTEM ANDNATI
    ONALPOLI
    TICS

    JamesMadi son,thefatheroft hef ederalConstitut


    ion, afterhehadwat chedf ormanyday sthe
    batt
    ler oyalinthenat i
    onal conv entionof1787, exclaimedt hatthecontestwasnotbet weenthe
    l
    argeandt hesmal l
    states, butbet weenthecommer cial Northandtheplant i
    ngSouth.Fr
    om t he
    i
    naugur ationofWashi ngt ont otheel ecti
    onofLi ncolnt hesect i
    onalconfl
    ict,di
    scernedbythis
    penetrati
    ngt hinker,exercisedapr ofoundinf
    luenceont hecourseofAmer icanpoli
    ti
    cs.I
    twas
    l
    atentdur ingthe" er
    aofgoodf eeling"whentheJef fer
    soni anRepublicansadopt edFederal
    ist
    poli
    cies;itfl
    amedupi nt hecont estbetweentheDemocr atsandWhi gs.Finall
    yitr
    agedintheangry
    poli
    ti
    cal quarrelwhichcul mi natedi ntheCivi
    lWar .

    Sl
    aver
    y—Nor
    thandSout
    h

    TheDeclineofSlaveryintheNor t
    h.—Att heti
    meoftheadopt ionoftheConst i
    tut
    ion,sl
    avery
    wasl awf
    ul i
    nallt
    heNor ther
    nst atesexceptMassachuset t
    s.Therewer eal
    mostasmany
    bondmeni nNewYor kasinGeor gia.NewJerseyhadmor ethanDelawareorTennessee,
    i
    ndeednear l
    yasmanyasbot hcombi ned.All
    tol
    d,howev er,t
    herewer eonl
    yaboutf ort
    y
    thousandintheNort hasagainstnear l
    ysevenhundredthousandint heSouth.Moreov er
    ,most
    oftheNor t
    hernslavesweredomest icserv
    ants,
    notlaborersnecessarytokeepmi l
    lsgoingor
    fi
    eldsundercult
    ivat
    ion.

    Therewas, intheNor th,asteadil


    ygr owingmor alsentimentagai nstthesy stem.
    Massachuset tsabandonedi tin1780.I nthesamey ear, Pennsy l
    vaniapr ovidedf orgradual
    emanci pati
    on.NewHampshi r
    e, wheretherehadbeenonl yahandf ul,Connect i
    cutwi t
    haf ew
    thousanddomest i
    cs,andNewJer seyear l
    yf ol
    l
    owedt heseexampl es.NewYor k, i
    n1799,
    declaredthatallchil
    drenbornofsl avesafterJuly4oft haty earshoul dbef ree, thoughheldfor
    aterm asappr enti
    ces; andin1827i tsweptawayt helastv esti
    gesofsl avery.Sowi t
    hthe
    passingoft hegenerationthathadf ramedt heConst i
    tut i
    on, chattelservi
    tudedi sappearedin
    thecommer ci
    alstates, l
    eavi
    ngbehi ndonlysuchdi scrimi nationsasdi sfr
    anchi sementorhi gh
    propertyquali
    fi
    cationsoncol oredv oter
    s.

    TheGr owt
    hofNor t
    hernSent
    imentagainstSl
    aver
    y.—Inbothsectionsofthecountr
    yt hereear
    ly
    exi
    sted,amongthosemoreorlessphil
    osophi
    call
    yincl
    ined,astrongopposit
    iontoslaveryon
    moralaswellaseconomicgrounds.I
    ntheconsti
    tut
    ionalconventionof1787,Gouverneur
    Morri
    shadv i
    gorousl
    ycondemnedi
    tandpr
    oposedt
    hatt
    hewhol
    ecount
    ryshoul
    dbeart
    hecost
    ofabol
    ishi
    ngit.Aboutt
    hesame
    ti
    measoci etyforpromotingtheaboliti
    onofsl avery,
    undert hepr esidencyofBenj aminFr ankli
    n,
    l
    aidbef oreCongressapet it
    ionthatseriousat t
    enti
    onbegi v
    ent ot heemanci pati
    onof"those
    unhappymenwhoal onei
    nt hi
    slandoff reedom aredegr adedintoper petualbondage."When
    Congress, acti
    ngont herecommendat i
    onsofPr esidentJefferson, providedf ort
    heabol it
    ionof
    thefor
    ei gnslavetradeonJanuar y1,1808, severalNorthernmember sjoinedwi t
    hSout hern
    member sincondemni ngthesyst em aswel lasthetrade.Later,colonizationsociet
    ieswer e
    for
    medt oencour agetheemanci pati
    onofsl avesandt heirret
    urnt oAf ri
    ca.JamesMadi son
    waspr esidentandHenr yClayvicepresidentofsuchanor ganization.

    Theanti-
    slaverysent i
    mentofwhi chthesewer ethesi gnswasnev erthel
    essconf i
    nedtonar row
    cir
    clesandbor enot raceofbi
    tterness."
    Weconsi derslaver
    yy ourcalamit
    y,noty ourcr
    ime,"
    wroteadistinguishedBostonclergymant ohisSout hernbrethren,"
    andwewi llsharewithy ou
    theburdenofput t
    inganendtoi t
    .Wewi l
    lconsentt hatthepublicl
    andsshallbeappr opri
    atedto
    thi
    sobject..
    ..Ideprecateever
    ythi
    ngwhi chsowsdi scordandexasper ati
    ngsectional
    animosit
    ies."

    Uncompr omi si
    ngAbol it
    ion.
    —I nal itt
    lewhi lethespi ritofgenerositywasgone.Justas
    Jacksoni anDemocr acyroset opowert hereappear edanewki ndofant i-slaverydoctri
    ne—t he
    dogmat i
    sm oft heabol i
    ti
    onagi tator.Formi ldspecul at
    ionont heev i
    lsoft hesy stem was
    subst i
    tut
    edani mper i
    ousandbel li
    ger entdemandf orinstantemanci pation.Ifadat emustbe
    fi
    xedf oritsappear ance,they ear1831maybet akenwhenWi ll
    iam LloydGar ri
    sonf oundedi n
    Bost onhisant i-
    slaver
    ypaper ,TheLi berator.Withsi nglenessofpur poseandut tercontemptf or
    al
    lopposi ngopinionsandar gument s, hepur suedhi scour seofpassi onat edenunci ati
    on.He
    apologizedf orhav i
    ngev er"assent edt othepopul arbutper ni
    ciousdoct r
    ineofgr adual
    aboliti
    on."Hechosef orhismot to:"I
    mmedi at eanduncondi ti
    onal emanci pation!"Hepr omi sed
    hi
    sr eader sthathewoul dbe" harshast ruthanduncompr omi si
    ngasj ustice";t
    hathewoul dnot
    "t
    hinkorspeakorwr i
    tewithmoder at i
    on."Thenhef l
    ungouthi sdef i
    antcal l
    :"Iam inear nest—I
    wil
    l notequi vocate—Iwi l
    lnotexcuse—Iwi llnotretreatasi ngleinch—andIwi ll
    behear d...
    .

    '
    Suchi
    sthev
    owIt
    ake,
    sohel
    pmeGod.
    '
    "

    ThoughGar ri
    soncompl ainedthat" t
    heapat hyoft hepeopl ei senought omakeev erystatue
    l
    eapf rom i
    tspedest al,
    "hesoonl earnedhowal ivet hemasseswer et othemeani ngofhi s
    propaganda.Abolit
    ionor atorswer estonedi nthest reetandhi ssedfrom theplat form.Their
    meet i
    ngplaceswer eof tenattackedandsomet i
    mesbur nedt othegr ound.Garrisonhi mself
    wasassaul t
    edinthest r
    eet sofBoston, f
    indingref ugefrom t heangr ymobbehi ndpr isonbars.
    Lovejoy,
    apubl i
    sheri nAlton,Il
    li
    nois,forhiswill
    ingnesst ogi veabol i
    tionaf ai
    rhear i
    ng,was
    brutal
    lymurdered;hispr int
    ingpresswasbr okent opi ecesasawar ningtoallthosewho
    di
    sturbedthenat i
    on'speaceofmi nd.TheSout h, doublyfrightenedbyasl averev oltin1831
    whichendedi nthemur derofanumberofmen, women, andchi ldr
    en, cl
    osedal ldiscussionof
    sl
    av eryi
    nthatsection."Now, "exclai
    medCal houn, "i
    tisaquest ionwhi chadmitsofnei ther
    concessionnorcompr omi se.
    "

    Ast
    heopposi
    ti
    onhardened,
    theant
    i-
    slav
    eryagi
    tat
    iongat
    her
    edi
    nfor
    ceandi
    ntensi
    ty.
    Whi
    tt
    ierbl
    ewhi
    sblastfr
    om theNewEnglandhi
    l
    ls:

    "Nosl ave-huntinour
    bor ders—nopi r
    ateonour
    strand;
    Nof et
    tersintheBayStat
    e—no
    slav euponourl and.
    "

    Lowel
    l
    ,looki
    ngupont
    heespousal
    ofagr
    eatcauseast
    henobl
    estai
    m ofhi
    sar
    t,r
    idi
    cul
    edand
    excori
    atedbondageintheSout
    h.Thoseabol i
    ti
    oni
    sts,
    notgiftedasspeakersorwrit
    ers,
    signed
    peti
    ti
    onsagainstsl
    aver
    yandpouredt hem i
    nuponCongr ess.Thefloodofthem wasso
    conti
    nuousthattheHouseofRepresentat
    ives,
    for
    gett
    ingitstradi
    ti
    ons,adoptedi
    n1836a" gag
    rul
    e"whichprevent
    edthereadi
    ngof
    appealsandconsignedt
    hem t
    othewast
    ebasket.Notunt
    ilt
    heWhigswer
    einpowernearl
    y
    tenyearslat
    erwasJohnQuincyAdamsabl
    e,af
    terarel
    ent
    lesscampai
    gn,
    tocar
    ryamot i
    on
    resci
    ndingther
    ule.

    Howdeepwast hei mpressionmadeupont hecount rybyt hi sagitati


    onf ori mmedi ateand
    uncondi t
    ionalemanci pat i
    oncannotbemeasur ed.Ifthepopul arvot eforthosecandi dateswho
    opposednotsl avery,butitsextensiont othet err
    itori
    es, bet akenasast andar d,itwassl ighti ndeed.
    In1844, theFr eeSoi lcandidate,Birney ,
    pol l
    ed62, 000v otesoutofov erami lli
    onandahal f;theFr ee
    Soil voteoft henextcampai gnwentbey ondaquar t
    erofami l
    li
    on,butt hei ncreasewasduet ot he
    strengt hoft hel eader,Mar ti
    nVanBur en; f
    oury earsaf terwar ditrecededt o156, 000, aff
    or dingall
    theout wardsi gnsf orthebel i
    efthatt hepl easoft heabol it
    ionistfoundnowi despr eadresponse
    amongt hepeopl e.Yett heagit
    ationundoubt edlyrandeepert hant hebal l
    otbox.Youngst atesmen
    oft heNor t
    h, i
    nwhosehandst hedest inyoff r
    ightfulyear swast olie,foundt hei
    ri ndif
    fer
    encet o
    slav erybrokenandt heirconsciencesst irr
    edbyt heunendi ngappeal andt het ir
    elessr ei
    ter ati
    on.
    Char l
    esSumneraf terwar dboastedt hather eadt heLi beratort woy earsbef oreWendel lPhi l
    li
    ps, t
    he
    youngBost onl awy erwhocastasi dehi spr ofessiontot akeupt hedanger ouscause.

    Earl
    ySout hernOpposi ti
    ont oSl avery
    .—IntheSout h,thesenti
    mentagai nstslaverywasst rong;it
    l
    edsomet obelievethati twoul dalsocomet oanendt hereinduet ime.Washi ngtondislikedi t
    anddi rect edinhiswi ll
    thathisownsl avesshoul dbesetf r
    eeaf t
    erthedeat hofhi swife.
    Jefferson, l
    ooki
    ngi ntothef uture,condemnedt hesystem bywhi chhealsol i
    ved,saying: "
    Can
    thelibertiesofanat i
    onbet houghtsecur ewhenwehav eremov edtheironl
    yf i
    rm basis, a
    conv i
    ctioni nthemi ndsoft hepeopl ethattheirli
    bert
    iesarethegi f
    tofGod?Ar etheynott obe
    viol
    atedbutwi t
    hHi swr ath?IndeedIt remblef ormycount rywhenIr efl
    ectthatGodi sj ust; t
    hat
    Hisjust i
    cecannotsl eepf orever."NordidSout hernmenconf inetheirsenti
    ment sto
    expressi onsofacademi copinion.Theyaccept edin1787theOr dinancewhi chexcludedsl aver
    y
    from theNor thwestt err
    itoryforeverandalsot heMi ssour
    i Compr omise,whichshutitoutofa
    vastsect ionoft heLoui sianat erri
    tor
    y.

    TheRev oluti
    oni ntheSlaveSy stem.—Amongt herepresentati
    vesofSout hCaroli
    naand
    Geor gia,howev er,t
    heant i
    -sl
    averyv i
    ewsofWashi ngtonandJef fersonwer ebynomeans
    approv ed;andt hedr i
    ftofSoutherneconomywasdeci dedlyinfavorofext endingand
    perpetuat i
    ng,ratherthanabolishing,t
    hesystem ofchattelserv
    itude.Thei nventi
    onofthe
    cottongi nandt extil
    emachi nerycreatedamarketforcot t
    onwhi cht heplanters,wi
    thal
    lthei
    r
    ski
    llandener gy,couldhardlysupply.Almosteveryavail
    ableacrewasbr oughtundercott
    on
    cul
    tur east hesmal lfarmerswer edrivenst
    eadil
    yf r
    om theseaboar dint
    ot heuplandsort
    ot he
    Northwest .

    Thedemandf orslav estotill


    theswi f
    tlyexpandingfieldswasenor mous.Thenumberofbondmen
    rosefr
    om 700, 000inWashi ngton'
    sdayt omor ethant hr
    eemi l
    l
    ionsin1850.Atthesamet ime
    slav
    eryit
    selfwast r
    ansf ormed.Insteadoft hehomest eadwher ethesamef amil
    yofmast erskept
    thesamef amiliesofsl avesfrom gener ati
    ontogener ati
    on,camet hepl
    antati
    onsystem oftheFar
    SouthandSout hwestwher emasterswer eevermovingandev erex t
    endi
    ngt hei
    rholdi
    ngsoflands
    andslaves.Thisint urnreactedont heol derSouthwher etheraisi
    ngofslavesforthemarket
    becamear egul arandhi ghlyprofi
    tablebusiness.
    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    JohnC.Cal
    houn
    Slaver yDefendedasaPosi ti
    veGood. —Ast heabol i
    ti
    onagi t
    ationi ncreasedandt heplanti
    ng
    system expanded, apol ogiesf orsl
    aver ybecamef ai
    nt erandf ainterint heSout h.Thenapol ogi es
    wer esuper sededbycl aimst hatslaver ywasabenef icialschemeofl aborcont rol.Calhoun, i
    na
    famousspeechi ntheSenat ein1837, soundedt henewnot ebydecl ar i
    ngsl avery"insteadofan
    evil
    ,agood—aposi ti
    vegood. "Hisreasoni ngwasasf ollows: inev eryciv il
    izedsoci etyone
    portionoft hecommuni tymustl i
    veont helaborofanot her;l
    ear ni
    ng, science, andt heartsare
    buil
    tuponl ei
    sure;t
    heAf ri
    cansl ave,kindlytreatedbyhi smast erandmi st r
    essandl ookedaf t
    er
    i
    nhi sol dage, i
    sbetterof fthant hefreel aborersofEur ope;andundert hesl avesy stem
    conflictsbetweencapi talandl aborar eav oided.Theadv antagesofsl av eryint hisrespect,he
    concl uded,"wil
    lbecomemor eandmor emani f
    est,i
    fleftundi sturbedbyi nterf
    er encefrom
    without ,asthecountryadv ancesinweal thandnumber s.
    "

    SlaveOwnersDomi natePoli
    ti
    cs.
    —Thenewdoct ri
    neofCalhounwaseager l
    yseizedbyt he
    plant
    ersastheycamemor eandmor etoovershadowthesmal l
    farmersoftheSout handas
    theybeheldthemenaceofabol i
    ti
    ongrowingupont hehori
    zon.I
    tformed,astheyv iewed
    mat t
    ers,
    amor aldefensef
    ortheirl
    aborsyst
    em—sound, logi
    cal,
    invi
    nci
    ble.I
    twar rantedthem i
    n
    drawingtogetherfortheprot
    ecti
    onofaninstitut
    ionsonecessary,
    soinevit
    able,sobenef i
    cent
    .

    Thoughi n1850t heslaveowner swer eonl yaboutt hreehundredandf i


    ftythousandina
    national populati
    onofnear l
    ytwent ymi l
    li
    onwhi tes,theyhadani nf
    luenceal l
    outofpr oport
    ion
    tothei rnumber s.Theywereknitt ogetherbyt hebondsofacommoni nter
    est.Theyhad
    l
    eisur eandweal t
    h.Theycouldtrav elandat tendconf er
    encesandconv entions.Throughout
    theSout handl ar
    gelyintheNorth, t
    heyhadt hepr ess, t
    heschools,andthepul pi
    tsont heir
    side.Theyf ormed, asitwere,ami ghtyuni onf orthepr otect
    ionandadv ancementoft heir
    commoncause.Ai dedbythosemechani csandf armersoftheNor thwhost uckby
    Jacksoni anDemocr acythr
    ought hickandt hin,theplantersbecameapoweri nt hefederal
    gov ernment ."
    Wenomi natePresidents,"exultant l
    yboastedaRi chmondnewspaper ;"the
    Nor thelectsthem. "

    Thisj ubil
    antSout herncl ai
    m wasconcededbyWi lli
    am H.Sewar d, aRepubl icanSenat orfrom New
    Yor k,inaspeechdescr ibingthepowerofsl averyi nt henat i
    onal gov ernment ."Apar ty,"hesaid,"i
    s
    i
    nonesenseaj ointstockassoci ation,inwhi cht hosewhocont r
    ibut emostdi r
    ectt heact ionand
    managementoft heconcer n..
    ..Thesl avehol der s, contributi
    nginanov erwhelmi ngpr opor ti
    ontothe
    strengt hoftheDemocr ati
    c
    par ty,necessar il
    ydi ctateandpr escribei tspol icy ."Hewenton: "
    Thesl avehol dingcl asshas
    becomet hegov erningpoweri neachoft hesl av ehol dingstatesandi tpracticallychooses
    thirtyoft hesixt y-t
    womember soft heSenat e, ni netyoft hetwohundr edandt hir
    ty-three
    member soft heHouseofRepr esent ati
    v es, andonehundr edandf i
    v eoft het wohundr edand
    ninet y-
    fiveelect orsofPr esi
    dentandVi ce- Presi dentoft heUni tedSt ates."Thenheconsi dered
    thesl av epoweri ntheSupr emeCour t."Thatt ri
    bunal ,
    "heexcl aimed, "consistsofachi ef
    j
    ust iceandei ghtassoci atejustices.Oft hese, fi
    v ewer ecall
    edf r
    om sl avest at esandf ourfrom
    freest ates.Theopi nionsandbi asofeachoft hem wer ecarefullyconsi deredbyt hePr esi
    dent
    andSenat ewhenhewasappoi nted.Notoneoft hem wasf oundwant i
    ngi nsoundnessof
    politics,accor dingtot hesl avehol der'
    sexposi tionoft heConst i
    tution."Suchwast heNor t
    hern
    viewoft hepl ant i
    ngi nterestthat ,
    from t hear enaofnat ionalpol i
    tics,chal l
    engedt hewhol e
    count r
    yin1860.
    Di
    str
    ibut
    ionofSl
    avesi
    ntheSout
    her
    nSt
    ates

    Sl
    aver
    yinNat
    ional
    Pol
    i
    tics

    National Aspect sofSl av ery.—I tmaybeaskedwhyi twast hatsl avery,foundedor i


    gi nallyon
    statelawandsubj ectt ost ategov ernment ,wasdr awni ntothecur rentofnat i
    onal af f
    airs.The
    answeri ssi mpl e.Ther ewer e,int hef i
    rstpl ace, const i
    t uti
    onal r
    easons.TheCongr essoft he
    UnitedSt at eshadt omakeal lneedf ul r
    ulesf orthegov ernmentoft het err
    itories, t
    heDi stri
    ctof
    Columbi a, thef ortsandot herpr oper tyundernat i
    onal author i
    ty; soitwascompel l
    edt o
    determinewhet hersl av er yshoul dexi stint hepl acessubj ecttoi tsjurisdiction.UponCongr ess
    wasal soconf erredt hepowerofadmi t
    tingnewst ates; whenev erat errit
    oryaskedf or
    admi ssion, thei ssuecoul dber aisedast owhet hersl av eryshoul dbesanct ionedorexcl uded.
    Undert heConst itution, pr ov i
    sionwasmadef orther etur nofr unawaysl aves; Congr esshadt he
    powert oenf or cet hiscl ausebyappr opriatel egislati
    on.Si ncet hecont roloft hepostof ficewas
    vestedint hef eder al gov ernment ,ithadt of acet hepr obl em r aisedbyt het ransmi ssi onof
    aboliti
    onl iteraturet hr ought hemai ls.Finallyci t
    izenshadt herightofpet it
    ion; itinher esinal l
    freegov ernmentandi ti sexpr essl yguar ant eedbyt hef i
    rstamendmentt otheConst i
    tuti
    on.It
    wast her eforel egal forabol iti
    oni ststopr esentt oCongr esst heirpet it
    ions, eveni ft heyasked
    forsomet hingwhi chi thadnor ightt ogr ant .Itwast husi mpossi ble,const it
    ut i
    onal ly,todr awa
    cordonar oundt hesl av eryi ssueandconf inet hedi scussi onofi ttost atepol i
    tics.

    Ther ewer e,inthesecondpl ace, economi creasonswhysl av erywasi nevi


    tablydrawni ntot he
    national sphere.Itwast hebasi soft heplantingsy stem whi chhaddi rectcommer cial relati
    onswi th
    theNor thandEur opeancount r
    ies;itwasaf fectedbyf eder al lawsrespectingtarif
    f s, bount i
    es, ship
    subsi di
    es, banking,andki ndredmat ters.Thepl antersoft heSout h,almostwi t
    houtex cept i
    on,
    l
    ookedupont heprotecti
    v etar i
    ffasat r
    ibutelaidupont hem f orthebenef i
    tofNor ther ni ndust ries.
    Asheav ybor rowersofmoneyi nt heNor t
    h,theywer egener allyinfavorof"easymoney ,
    "ifnot
    papercur r
    ency ,asanai dint her epay mentoft heirdebt s.Thi sthrewmostoft hem i ntoopposi tion
    totheWhi gpr ogram foraUni tedSt atesBank.Al lf
    inanci al aidstoAmer i
    canshi ppingt heyst out ly
    resisted,preferri
    ngt orelyupont hecheaperser v i
    cer ender edbyEngl ishshippers.I nter nal
    i
    mpr ovement s,thosesubst ant ialti
    est hatwer ebindingt heWestt otheEastandt ur ningt het r affi
    c
    from NewOr l
    eanst oPhiladel phiaandNewYor k,theyv iewedwi thalarm.Freehomest eadsf r om
    thepubl iclands, whichtendedt oov erbalancet heSout hbybui l
    dingfreestates,becamet ot hem a
    measur edanger oust otheirinterests.Thusnat ionaleconomi cpoli
    cies,whichcoul dnotbyany
    twistort urnbeconf i
    nedt ost atecont rol,dr
    ewt heslav esy st em andi tsdefendersi nt ot hepol i
    tical
    conf
    li
    ctt
    hatcent
    eredatWashi
    ngt
    on.

    Slaver yandt heTerritor


    ies—t heMi ssour iCompr omi se( 1820) .
    —Thoughmencont inuallytalked
    about" takingslaveryoutofpol it
    ics,"itcouldnotbedone.By1818sl averyhadbecomeso
    entrenchedandt heant i-sl
    averysent imentsost rong, thatMi ssouri'
    squestf oradmi ssion
    broughtbot hhousesofCongr essi ntoadeadl ockt hatwasbr okenonl ybycompr omi se.The
    Sout h, havinghalftheSenat ors,coul dpreventt headmi ssionofMi ssour istrippedofsl av ery;
    andt heNor t
    h,power ful i
    ntheHouseofRepr esent atives, couldkeepMi ssour iwithslav eryout
    oftheuni oni ndefi
    nitely.Anadj ustmentofpr etensi onswast helastr esort.Mai ne,separ ated
    fr
    om t hepar entstateofMassachuset ts,wasbr oughti ntot heuni onwi thf reedom andMi ssouri
    withbondage.Att hesamet imei twasagr eedt hatt her emai nderoft hev astLoui sianat errit
    ory
    northoft hepar al
    lelof36°30' shoul dbe, l
    iketheol dNor t
    hwest ,forev erfree; whilethesout hern
    portionwasl ef
    ttosl avery.Inrealit
    yt hiswasani mmensegai nforliberty.Thear eadedi cat edto
    fr
    eef armer swasmanyt imesgr eatert hanthatl efttot hepl anters.Thepr inciplewasoncemor e
    asser tedt hatCongr esshadf ullpowert opreventsl aver yint heter r
    it
    or i
    es.

    TheMi
    ssour
    iCompr
    omi
    se
    TheMi
    ssour
    iCompr
    omi
    se

    TheTer rit
    orial
    Quest i
    onReopenedbyt heWilmotPr oviso.—Tot heSouthernleader s,t
    heannexat i
    on
    ofTexasandt heconquestofMexi comeantr enewedsecur i
    tytotheplanti
    ngi nter
    estagai nstthe
    i
    ncreasingweal thandpopul ationoft heNor th.Texas,itwassai d,couldbedi v
    idedi nt
    of ourslave
    stat
    es.Thenewt err
    it
    oriessecur edbyt hetreatyofpeacewi thMexicocont ai
    nedt hepr omiseofat
    l
    eastt hreemor e.Thus, aseachnewf reesoi lst
    ateknockedf oradmissionintotheuni on,theSouth
    coulddemandast hepr i
    ceofi tsconsentanewsl avest ate.NowonderSout hernst at
    esmensaw, in
    theannexat i
    onofTexasandt heconquestofMexi co,slaveryandKingCot tont r
    iumphant —secure
    forallti
    meagai nstadv erselegi slat
    ion.Northernleaderswer eequal l
    yconv i
    ncedt hattheSout her
    n
    prophecywast rue.Aboliti
    onistsandmoder ateopponent sofsl av
    eryalikewerei ndespai r
    .Texas,
    theylament ed,wouldfast ensl averyupont hecount ryforevermore."Nol i
    vi
    ngman, "cri
    edone, "wil
    l
    seetheendofsl averyint heUni tedSt ates!
    "

    Itsohappened, howev er,


    thattheev entswhi ch,i
    twast hought ,
    wouldsecureslaveryl
    etl
    oose
    ast or m againstit
    .Asi gnappear edf irstonAugust6, 1846, onlyafewmont hsafterwarwas
    decl aredonMexi co.Ont hatday, Dav i
    dWi l
    mot ,aDemocr atfrom Pennsyl
    vani
    a, i
    ntr
    oducedint
    o
    theHouseofRepr esentati
    vesar esol utiontotheeffectthat,asanexpressandf undamental
    condi tiontot heacquisit
    ionofanyt errit
    oryfrom therepubli
    cofMexi co,sl
    averyshouldbe
    forev erexcludedf rom everypartofi t."TheWi lmotProviso,
    "ast heresol
    uti
    onwaspopul arl
    y
    called, thoughdef eat
    edont hatoccasi on, wasachal l
    enget otheSouth.

    TheSout hanswer edt hechallenge.Speaki ngintheHouseofRepr esent ati


    ves, RobertToombs
    ofGeor giabol dl
    ydecl ar
    ed:"Inthepr esenceoft heli
    vingGod, i
    fbyy ourl egislationy ouseekt o
    driveusf r
    om t heterri
    tori
    esofCal iforni
    aandNewMexi co..
    .Iam f ordisuni on. "Sout hCar ol
    i
    na
    announcedt hatthedayf ortalkhadpassedandt hetimehadcomet oj oinhersi sterstates"in
    resisti
    ngtheappl icati
    onoft heWi lmotPr ov i
    soatanyandal lhazards."Aconf erence,
    assembl edatJackson, Mississippi,i
    ntheaut umnof1849, calledagener al conv entionof
    Sout her
    nst atestomeetatNashv il
    lethef oll
    owingsummer .Theav owedpur posewast oarrest
    "thecourseofaggr ession"and, i
    fthatwasnotpossi ble,toprovide" i
    nthel astr esortfortheir
    separ at
    ewel farebyt heformat i
    onofacompactanduni onthatwillaffordpr ot ecti
    ont ot hei
    r
    l
    i
    berti
    esandri
    ghts.
    "St
    atest
    hathadspur
    nedSouthCarol
    i
    na'spl
    eaf ornul
    li
    fi
    cat
    ioni
    n1832
    r
    espondedtot
    hisnewappealwi
    thal
    acri
    ty—anaugur
    yofthesecessiontocome.
    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Henr
    yCl
    ay

    TheGr eatDebateof1850. —Thetemperoft hecount rywaswhi tehotwhenCongr ess


    convenedi nDecember,1849.Itwasamemor ablesession,memor ableforthegreatmen
    whot ookpartinthedebatesandmemor ablef orthegrandCompr omi seof1850whi chit
    produced.IntheSenatesatforthelastti
    met hreeheroicfi
    gures:Webst erfrom theNor th,
    Calhounf r
    om theSouth,andClayfrom abor derstate.Fornearlyfortyyearstheset hreehad
    beenleadersofmen.Al lhadgrownol dandgr ayi
    nser vi
    ce.Calhounwasal readybrokeni n
    healt
    handi naf ewmont hswast obebor nefr om thepoli
    ti
    calarenaf orever
    .Clayand
    Webst erhadbuttwomor eyearsi
    nt hei
    rall
    ottedspan.

    Experi
    ence, l
    earni
    ng,statecraft—alltheset hingst heynowmar shaledi nami ghtyef forttosol vethe
    slav
    erypr oblem.OnJanuar y29, 1850, Clayof f eredt ot heSenat eacompr omi segr anting
    concessionst obothsides; andaf ewday slater , i
    napower fulorati
    on, hemadeapassi onateappeal
    foraunionofhear t
    sthr oughmut ualsacr i
    fices.Cal hounr el
    entlesslydemandedt hef ullmeasur eof
    j
    usticefort heSouth:equal ri
    ght sinthet errit
    or iesboughtbycommonbl ood; ther eturnofr unaway
    slav
    esasr equiredbytheConst it
    ution;thesuppr essi onoftheabol it
    ionists; andt her estorat
    ionof
    thebalanceofpowerbet weent heNor t
    handt heSout h.Webster,inhisnot able" Sev enthofMar ch
    speech,"condemnedt heWi lmotPr ovi
    so, adv ocat edast ri
    ctenforcementoft hef ugi t
    iveslavelaw,
    denouncedt heaboli
    ti
    oni st
    s, andmadeaf inal pl eaf ortheConst it
    ution,uni on, andl iberty.Thiswas
    theaddresswhi chcall
    edf orthfrom Whi tti
    ert hepoem, "I
    chabod,"depl ori
    ngt hef all ofthemi ghty
    onewhom het houghtlosttoal lsenseoff ait
    handhonor .

    TheTer msoft heCompr omi seof1850. —Whent hedebateswer ecl osed,ther esul t
    swer e
    total
    edi naser i
    esofcompr omi semeasur es,all ofwhichweresi gnedi nSept ember ,1850, by
    thenewPr esident ,Mi l
    lardFi l
    lmor e,whohadt akenof fi
    cetwomont hsbef oreont hedeat hof
    Zachar yTay lor.Byt heseact stheboundar iesofTexaswer eadjustedandt het err
    itoryofNew
    Mexi cocr eated, subj ecttot hepr ov i
    sionthatal l oranypartofitmightbeadmi ttedt ot heunion
    "withorwi thoutsl averyast heirconst i
    tuti
    onmaypr ovi
    deatthet i
    meoft heiradmi ssion."The
    Territ
    oryofUt ahwassi milarl
    yor ganizedwi t
    ht hesamecondi t
    ionsast oslaver y,t
    hus
    repudiati
    ngt heWi lmotPr ovisowi thoutguar ant eeingslav
    erytot hepl ant
    ers.Cal if
    or niawas
    admi tt
    edasaf reest ateunderaconst i
    tut
    ioni nwhi cht
    hepeopl eoft heterrit
    oryhad
    themsel vespr ohi bitedsl avery.

    Thesl avet radewasabol i


    shedint heDi st
    rictofColumbi a,butslaveryit
    selfexistedasbef oreatthe
    capitalofthenat i
    on.Thisconcessi ont oanti-
    slaver
    ysent imentwasmor ethanof fsetbyaf ugi
    ti
    ve
    slavelaw, dr asti
    cinspiri
    tandi nlett
    er.Itplacedtheenfor cementofi tstermsint hehandsof
    federalofficer sappoi
    ntedf rom Washi ngtonandsor emov editfrom thecont r
    ol ofauthor i
    ti
    es
    l
    ocallyelect ed.Itprov
    idedt hatmast ersort hei
    ragents,onf il
    ingclai
    msi nduef orm, might
    summar il
    yr emov etheirescapedsl aveswi thoutaff
    ordingt heir"
    all
    egedf ugit
    ives"t heri
    ghtoft ri
    al
    byjury,ther ighttowitness,therighttoof feranytesti
    monyi nevidence.Finall
    y,to" putteeth"int
    o
    theact,
    heav
    ypenal
    tieswerepr
    escr
    ibedforal
    lwhoobstr
    uctedorassi
    stedi
    nobst
    ruct
    ingt
    he
    enfor
    cementoft
    helaw.SuchwastheGreatCompromiseof1850.
    AnOl
    dCar
    toonRepr
    esent
    ingWebst
    er"
    Steal
    i
    ngCl
    ay'
    sThunder
    "

    ThePr o-slaver yTr i


    umphi nt heEl ectionof1852. —Ther esul tsoft heel ect ionof1852seemedt o
    showconcl usi velythatthenat ionwaswear yofsl averyagi tationandwant edpeace.Bot h
    parties, WhigsandDemocr ats, endor sedt hef ugiti
    vesl av el awandappr ov edt heGr eat
    Compr omi se.TheDemocr at s, wi
    thFr anklinPierceast hei rleader ,sweptt hecount ryagai nst
    thewarher o,Gener alWi nfieldScot t
    ,onwhom t heWhi gshadst akedt hei rhopes.Ev enWebst er
    ,
    brokenwi thgr iefathi sfai l
    ur et or eceiv ethenomi nation, adv isedhi sfri
    endst ov otef orPierce
    andt ur nedawayf rom pol iti
    cst omedi tateuponappr oachi ngdeat h.Thev erdictoft hev ot er
    s
    woul dseem t oi ndicat ethatf orthet i
    meev erybody ,sav eahandf ul ofdisgr unt l
    edagi tat
    or s,
    l
    ookeduponCl ay '
    sset tl
    ementast helastwor d."Thepeopl e, especi all
    yt hebusi nessmenoft he
    count ry,"say sEl son,"wer eut terl
    ywear yoftheagi tationandt heygav et heirsuf fragest ot he
    partyt hatpr omi sedt hem r est .
    "TheFr eeSoil party,condemni ngsl averyas" asi nagai nstGod
    andacr i
    meagai nstman, "andadv ocat i
    ngf r
    eedom f ort het er ri
    tori
    es, failedt ocar r
    yasi ngle
    state.Inf acti tpol l
    edf ewerv otest hani thadf oury ear sear lier —156, 000asagai nstnear ly
    3,000,000, thecombi nedv oteoft heWhi gsandDemocr ats.I ti snotsur prising,ther efore,that
    PresidentPi erce, surroundedi nhiscabi netbyst r
    ongSout her nsy mpat hizer s,coul dpr omi seto
    putanendt osl averyagi tationandt ocr usht heabol iti
    onmov ementi nt hebud.

    Ant i-
    slaveryAgi t
    ationCont inued.—Thepr omisewasmor edi ff
    iculttof ul
    fil
    lthant out t
    er.Inf act
    ,the
    vigorousexecut ionofonemeasur eincludedi nt heCompr omi se—t hef ugiti
    vesl avelaw—onl ymade
    mat terswor se.Desi gnedassecur i
    tyf orthepl anters, i
    tprovedapower f
    ul i
    nstrumenti nt heir
    undoi ng.Slav er
    yf i
    v ehundredmi l
    esawayonaLoui sianaplant ationwassor emot efrom t heNor th
    thatonl ythest rongesti maginationcoul dmai ntainaconst antr ageagai nstit."Slavecatchi ng,"
    "manhunt ing"byf eder alof
    f i
    cersont hest r
    eetsofPhi l
    adelphia, NewYor k,Boston, Chicago, or
    Mi l
    waukeeandi nt hehaml etsandv il
    lagesoft hewi de- st
    retchingf arml andsoft heNor t
    hwas
    anot hermat ter.Itbroughtt hemostodi ousaspect sofsl averyhomet ot housandsofmenand
    womenwhowoul dother wi
    sehav ebeeni ndi
    fferentt ot hesy stem.Law- abidingbusi nessmen,
    mechani cs,farmer s,andwomen, whent heysawpeacef ulnegr oes,whohadr esidedint heir
    neighbor hoodsper hapsf oryears, t
    ornawaybyf eder aloffi
    cersandcar r
    iedbackt obondage, wer e
    transformedi ntoenemi esofthel aw.Theyhel pedsl avest oescape; theysnat chedt hem awayf rom
    officerswhohadcapt uredthem; theybr okeopenj ail
    sandcar riedf ugiti
    vesof ftoCanada.

    Assist
    ancet orunawayslaves,alwaysmor eorl esscommoni ntheNor th,wasbyt hi
    st i
    me
    organi
    zedintoasystem.Regul
    arroutes,knownas"under
    groundrai
    lways,
    "wer el
    aidoutacrossthe
    fr
    eestatesintoCanada,andtrust
    edf r
    iendsoffr
    eedom maintai
    ned"undergr
    oundst at
    ions"where
    f
    ugi
    ti
    veswer
    econceal
    edi
    nthe
    dayti
    mebet weentheirl
    ongni ghtj ourneys.Fundswer eraisedandsecr etagentssentintothe
    Southtohelpnegroestof l
    ee.Onenegr owoman, Har r
    ietTubman, "theMosesofherpeopl e,
    "
    withheadquart
    ersatPhil
    adel phia, i
    saccreditedwithnineteeninvasionsint
    osl av
    et er
    ri
    toryand
    theemancipati
    onofthreehundr ednegr oes.Thosewhowor kedatthisbusinesswer ein
    constantper
    il
    .Oneunder groundoper ator,Calv
    inFair
    bank, spentnearlytwentyyearsinpri
    son
    forai
    dingfugi
    ti
    vesfrom justi
    ce.Yetper il
    sandpr i
    sonsdi dnotstayt hosedeterminedmenand
    womenwho, i
    nobediencet ot heirconsciences,setthemsel vestothislawl
    esswor k.

    Har
    ri
    etBeecherSt
    owe

    From thri
    lli
    ngst ori
    esofadv entur
    eal ongtheunder gr
    oundr ai
    lway scamesomeoft hescenes
    andt hemesoft henov elbyHar ri
    etBeecherStowe, "
    UncleTom'sCabi n,
    "publ ishedtwoy ears
    aftertheCompr omiseof1850.Herst i
    rr
    ingtal
    esetf ort
    ht hewor stfeaturesofsl averyi nvivi
    d
    wor dpicturesthatcaughtandhel dt heatt
    enti
    onofmi l
    l
    ionsofr eaders.Thought hebookwas
    unfairtotheSout handwasdenouncedasahi deousdistorti
    onoft het ruth,itwasqui ckly
    dramat i
    zedandpl ayedinev erycityandtownt hroughouttheNor th.Topsy ,Lit
    tl
    eEv a,Uncl e
    Tom, t
    hef l
    eeingslav e,
    ElizaHar r
    is,andthecruel sl
    avedriver
    ,SimonLegr ee, withhisbay ing
    bloodhounds, becamel ivingspectersinmanyahomet hatsoughtt obart hedoort ot he
    "unpleasantandi rri
    tati
    ngbusi nessofslaveryagitati
    on.
    "

    TheDr
    if
    tofEv
    ent
    stowar
    dtheI
    rr
    epr
    essi
    bleConf
    li
    ct

    Repeal oftheMi ssouriCompr omise.


    —Topr actical men, afterall
    ,the"rub-a-dub"agit
    at i
    onofaf ew
    abol i
    ti
    onists,anoccasi onalriotoverfugiti
    vesl av es,andt hev ogueofapopul arnovel seemedof
    slightort r
    ansientimpor tance.Theycoul dpointwi thsat i
    sfactiontotheel ecti
    onr et
    urnsof1852;
    butt heirverysecuritywasf oundeduponshi fti
    ngsands.Themagni fi
    centt r
    iumphoft hepr o-
    slaveryDemocr atsin1852br oughtat urninaf fairsthatdest royedthef oundationsundert heirfeet
    .
    Embol denedbyt heirownst rengthandt heweaknessoft hei ropponents, t
    heynowdar edtor epeal
    theMi ssouriCompr omi se.Theleaderi nthi
    sf at efulenterprisewasSt ephenA.Dougl as,Senat or
    from Illi
    nois,andtheoccasi onf orthedeedwast hedemandf ortheorgani zati
    onofter r
    it
    orial
    gov ernmenti nther egi
    onswestofI owaandMi ssour i
    .

    Dougl as,li
    keCl ayand Webst erbeforehim,wasconsumed byast rong passi
    on f ort
    he
    presidency,and,t oreachhi
    sgoal ,i
    twasnecessar yt
    owi nthesuppor
    toftheSout h.Thishe
    undoubt edl
    ysoughtt o do when hei nt
    roduced on Januar
    y4,1854,abi l
    lor gani
    zing t
    he
    Nebr askaterr
    it
    oryont hepr
    inci
    pleoftheCompr omiseof1850;namely
    ,thatthepeopl eint
    he
    terr
    itorymightt hemsel v
    esdecidewhet hertheywoul dhavesl
    averyornot.Unwi tt
    inglyt
    he
    avalanchewasst art
    ed.

    Aft
    erast ormydebat e,
    inwhichimportantamendment swer efor
    cedonDougl as,theKansas-
    NebraskaBill
    becameal awonMay30, 1854.Themeasur ecreatedtwoterr
    it
    ories,Kansasand
    Nebraska,andprovidedthatthey
    ,orterri
    tor
    iesorgani
    zedoutoft hem,coul
    dcomei ntotheunionas
    st
    ates"withorwithoutslaver
    yast hei
    rconstit
    uti
    onsmaypr escri
    beatthetimeoft heiradmissi
    on."
    Notcontentwiththi
    s, t
    helawwentont odeclar
    etheMi ssouri
    Compr omisenullandv oi
    dasbei ng
    i
    nconsi
    stentwi
    tht
    hepri
    ncipl
    eofnon-
    int
    erv
    enti
    onbyCongr
    esswi
    thsl
    aver
    yint
    hest
    atesand
    t
    err
    it
    ori
    es.Thusbyasi
    ngleblowt
    heveryhear
    tof
    theconti
    nent
    ,dedi
    catedtofr
    eedom bysol
    emnagr
    eement
    ,wast
    hrownopentosl
    avery.A
    desperat
    estr
    ugglebetweensl
    aveownersandt
    headv
    ocat
    esoff
    reedom wast
    heoutcome
    i
    nKansas.

    IfDouglasf anci edthattheNor thwouldrecei vetheov ert


    hr owoft heMi ssouriCompromi seint he
    samet empert hati tgreetedCl ay'
    ssettlement ,hewasr apidlydisil
    l
    usioned.A blastofr age,
    ter
    rifi
    ci ni tsf ur y
    ,sweptf rom MainetoI owa.St aidoldBost onhangedhi mi neffigywi than
    i
    nscr i
    ption—" St ephenA.
    Dougl as, authoroft heinfamousNebr askabi ll:
    theBenedi ctAr nol
    dof1854. "Ci
    tyaf t
    ercity
    burnedhi mi nef fi
    gyunt i
    l,ashehi mselfsaid, hecoul dtrav elfrom theAt l
    ant i
    ccoastt oChi cago
    i
    nt hel i
    ghtoft hef i
    res.ThousandsofWhi gsandFr ee-soil Democr atsdeser tedtheirparti
    es
    whichhadsanct i
    onedoratl easttol
    eratedt heKansas- Nebr askaBi ll
    ,declaringt
    hatt hest artl
    i
    ng
    measur eshowedanev identresolveont hepar toft hepl anter storulethewhol ecount ry.A
    gageofdef iancewast hrowndownt otheabol i
    tionist
    s.Ani ssuewassetev enfort hemoder ate
    andt imidwhohadbeenunmov edbytheagi t
    ationov ersl aver yintheFarSout h.Thati ssuewas
    whet hersl av erywast obeconf inedwithini t
    sexi sti
    ngboundar i
    esorbeal lowedt ospr ead
    withouti nterf erence,therebyplacingthef reest atesint hemi norit
    yandsur r
    enderingthef ederal
    gov ernmentwhol l
    yt othesl av
    epower .

    TheRi seoft heRepubl i


    canPar ty.
    —Ev entsoft erribl
    esignif
    icance, swiftlyfollowing, drovet he
    count rylikeashi pbef oreagal estraightintocivilwar.TheKansas- Nebr askaBi l
    lrentt heol d
    partiesasunderandcal ledintobei ngt heRepubl i
    canpar t
    y.Whi lethatbi llwaspendi ngi n
    Congr ess, manyNor t
    hernWhi gsandDemocr atshadcomet ot heconcl usiont hatanewpar ty
    dedi catedt of r
    eedom i nthet errit
    oriesmustf ollowt herepealoft heMi ssour iCompr omise.
    Sev eralplacescl aimt obet heor i
    ginalhomeoft heRepublicanpar ty;buthi storiansgener all
    y
    yi
    eldi ttoWi sconsin.AtRi poni nthatst ate,amassmeet i
    ngofWhi gsandDemocr ats
    assembl edi nFebr uary,1854, andr esolvedtof orm anewpar tyiftheKansas- Nebr askaBi ll
    shoul dpass.Atasecondmeet ingaf usioncommi t
    teerepresentingWhi gs, FreeSoi lers,and
    Democr at swasf ormedandt henameRepubl ican—t henameofJef f
    erson'sol dpar t
    y —was
    selected.Al l overthecount rysimi l
    armeet i
    ngswer eheldandpol i
    ticalcommi t
    teeswer e
    organi zed.

    Whent hepr esidenti


    al campaignof1856begant heRepubl i
    cansent er
    edt hecont est.Af t
    era
    pr
    eliminaryconf erencei nPitt
    sburghi nFebruary,t
    heyheldaconv ent i
    oni nPhi ladel
    phi aat
    whichwasdr awnupapl atf
    orm opposi ngtheextensionofsl averytothet erritori
    es.JohnC.
    Fr
    émont ,t
    hedi sti
    nguishedexpl orer,
    wasnamedf orthepresidency .Ther esul t
    soft heel ecti
    on
    wereast oundingascompar edwi t
    htheFr ee-soi
    lfai
    lureofthepr ecedingel ect i
    on.Pr omi nent
    menl i
    keLongf el
    low, WashingtonI r
    ving,Will
    iam Cull
    enBr y
    ant ,
    Ral phWal doEmer son, and
    GeorgeWi ll
    iam Cur ti
    swentov ertothenewpar t
    yand1, 341,264v oteswer er oll
    edupf or"fr
    ee
    l
    abor,freespeech, f
    reemen, f
    reeKansas, andFr émont .
    "Nev er
    thelesst hev ictoryoft he
    Democr atswasdeci sive.Theircandidate,JamesBuchananofPennsy l
    v ani a, waselect edbya
    majori
    tyof174t o114el ect
    oral v
    otes.

    Sl
    aveandFr
    eeSoi
    lonEv
    e
    ofCi
    vi
    lWar
    Sl
    aveandFr
    eeSoi
    lonEv
    eofCi
    vi
    lWar

    TheDr edScottDeci
    sion(1857).
    —I nhi
    sinaugural
    ,Buchananv aguel
    yhintedthatinaf ort
    hcomi ng
    decisi
    ontheSupremeCour twouldset t
    leoneofthev i
    talquestionsoftheday .Thiswasar eference
    totheDredScottcasethenpending.Scottwasasl avewhohadbeent akenbyhi smast erint
    ot he
    upperLouisi
    anaterr
    it
    ory,wherefreedom hadbeenest abli
    shedbyt heMi ssouriCompr omise,and
    thencarri
    edbackint
    ohi soldstat
    eofMi ssouri
    .Hebr oughtsui tf
    orhisli
    bertyonthegr oundthat
    hisresi
    denceinthefr
    eet er
    ri
    torymadehi mfree.Thisraisedthequestionwhet herthelawof
    Congressprohibiti
    ngslaver
    ynorthof36°30' wasaut hor
    izedbythefederalConstit
    utionornot.The
    Courtmighthav eav oi
    dedansweringitbysayingthateventhoughScottwasf reeintheterri
    tor
    y,he
    becameasl aveagai ninMissour
    i byvir
    tueofthelawoft hatst
    ate.TheCour t
    ,howev er,f
    acedthe
    i
    ssuesquar el
    y.ItheldthatScot
    thadnotbeenf r
    eeany whereandthat,besi
    des, t
    heMi ssouri
    Compr omiseviolatedtheConsti
    tuti
    onandwas
    nul
    landv
    oid.

    Thedeci si onwasat riumphf ortheSout h.Itmeantt hatCongr essaf terallhadnopowert o


    aboli
    shsl averyint heterritories.Undert hedecr eeoft hehi ghestcour tinthel and,thatcoul dbe
    doneonl ybyanamendmentt otheConst it
    utionwhi chr equiredat wo- t
    hirdsv oteinCongr ess
    andt heappr ovalofthr ee-four thsoft hest ates.Suchanamendmentwasobv i
    ously
    i
    mpossi ble—t heSout hernst ateswer etoonumer ous; buttheRepubl i
    canswer enotdaunt ed.
    "Weknow, "saidLincoln, "t
    heCour tthatmadei thasof t
    enov err
    uleditsowndeci si
    onsandwe
    shalldowhatwecant ohav ei tov errul
    et his.
    "LegislaturesofNor thernstat espassed
    resol
    ut i
    onscondemni ngt hedeci sionandt heRepubl i
    canpl atf
    orm of1860char acter
    izedt he
    dogmat hatt heConst i
    tutioncar r
    iedsl averyintothet errit
    oriesas" adanger ouspoliti
    cal heresy
    atvariancewi ththeexpl icitpr ovisionsoft hatinstrumenti tself..
    .wi t
    hl egislat
    iveandj udici
    al
    precedent. .
    .revoluti
    onar yi nt endencyandsubv ersiveoft hepeaceandhar monyoft he
    count r
    y."

    ThePani cof1857. —Int hemi dstoft heacr imoni ousdi sputeov ertheDr edScot tdecision,came
    oneoft hewor stbusi nesspani cswhi chev eraffli
    ct edt hecount ry
    .Inthespr i
    ngandsummerof
    1857, four teenr ail
    roadcor por ati
    ons, i
    ncl udingt heEr i
    e, MichiganCent ral,
    andt heIll
    inois
    Cent r
    al, failedt omeett heirobl i
    gations; banksandi nsur ancecompani es,someoft hem t he
    l
    ar gestandst r
    ongesti nstit
    ut i
    onsi ntheNor th,closedt heirdoor s;stocksandbondscame
    downi nacr ashont hemar kets; manuf acturingwaspar alyzed; t
    ensoft housandsofwor ki
    ng
    peopl ewer et hrownoutofempl oyment ;"hungermeet ings"ofi dlemenwer eheldint heci t
    ies
    andbanner sbear ingt hei nscription,"Wewantbr ead, "wer eflungout .InNewYor k,wor ki
    ngmen
    threatenedt oinv adet heCounci lChambert odemand" wor korbr ead,"andt hef ri
    ghtenedmay or
    calledf ort hepol i
    ceandsol diers.Fort hisdi str
    essi ngst ateofaf fair
    smanyr emedieswer e
    offered; nonewi thmor ezeal andper sistencet hant hepr oposal forahi ghert ar
    ifft
    ot aket he
    placeoft hel awofMar ch, 1857, aDemocr at i
    cmeasur emaki ngdr asticreduct i
    onsint her ates
    ofdut y.Int hemanuf acturingdi stri
    ctsoft heNor th,thepani cwasascr ibedt othe"Democr atic
    assaul tonbusi ness. "Soanol dissuewasagai nv igor ouslyadv anced, prepar at
    orytot henext
    president ial campai gn.

    TheLi ncoln-Dougl asDebat es.—Thefollowingy eartheinterestofthewhol ecount rywasdr awn


    toaser iesofdebat eshel di nIl
    li
    noi
    sbyLi ncolnandDougl as, bot
    hcandi datesfortheUni ted
    StatesSenat e.Inthecour seofhiscampai gnLincolnhadut teredhistrenchantsay ingthat" a
    housedi videdagai nsti tselfcannotstand.Ibel i
    evet hi
    sgov ernmentcannotendur eper manent l
    y
    halfslav eandhal ffree."Att hesamet i
    mehehadaccusedDougl as,Buchanan, andt he
    SupremeCour tofact ingi nconcerttomakesl averynational.Thisdaringst atementar rested
    theat tentionofDougl as, whowasmaki nghi scampai gnont hedoct ri
    neof" squatter
    sover eignty;"thatis,ther ightofthepeopl eofeacht er
    ri
    tory"tovot esl
    av eryupordown. "Aftera
    fewl ong- distanceshot sateachot her,thecandi datesagreedt omeetf acet ofaceanddi scuss
    theissuesoft heday .Nev erhadsuchcr owdsbeenseenatpol it
    icalmeet ingsinIll
    inois.
    Farmer sdeser t
    edt heirplows, smithstheirforges,andhousewi v
    est heirbaki ngtohear" Honest
    Abe"and" theLi t
    tl
    eGi ant .
    "

    Theresultsoft heser i
    esofdebatesweremoment ous.Li
    ncolnclearl
    ydef i
    nedhisposi t
    ion.The
    South,headmi tted, wasenti
    tl
    edundertheConstit
    uti
    ontoaf ai
    r,fugi
    ti
    v esl
    avelaw.Hehoped
    thatther
    emi ghtbenonewsl avestat
    es;buthedidnotseehowCongr esscoul
    dexcl udet he
    peopleofat erri
    toryf r
    om admissi
    onasast atei
    ftheysawf i
    ttoadoptaconst i
    tutionlegali
    zing
    theownershipofsl aves.Hefavor
    edthegradualabol
    it
    ionofslaveryi
    nt heDist
    rictofCol umbia
    andthetotal exclusionofitf
    rom theter
    ri
    tori
    esoftheUnit
    edSt at
    esbyactofCongr ess.

    Moreover,hedroveDougl
    asintoaholebyaskinghowhesquar ed"
    squatt
    ersover
    eignty"wit
    ht he
    DredScottdecisi
    on;how,
    inotherwords,
    thepeopleofaterr
    it
    orycoul
    daboli
    shslaverywhent he
    Courthaddeclaredt
    hatCongress,
    thesuperi
    orpower,coul
    dnotdoitundertheConsti
    tuti
    on?To
    thisbaf f
    li
    ngquestionDouglasl
    amelyrepl
    iedthattheinhabi
    tantsofat err
    itor
    y ,
    by"unfr
    iendly
    l
    egi slati
    on,
    "mightmakepr oper
    tyi
    nslavesinsecureandthusdestroythei nst
    ituti
    on.Thisanswert
    o
    Lincol n'
    squer
    yalienat
    edmanySout hernDemocr at
    swhobel iev
    edt hattheDr edScottdecisi
    on
    settledthequesti
    onofslaveryi
    nthe
    t
    err
    it
    ori
    esforal
    lti
    me.Dougl
    aswontheel
    ect
    iont
    otheSenat
    e;butLi
    ncol
    n,l
    if
    tedi
    ntonat
    ional
    f
    amebyt hedebat
    es,
    beathi
    minthecampai
    gnforPr
    esi
    denttwoyear
    slat
    er.

    JohnBr own'sRai d.—Tot heabol it


    ionistst hel i
    neofar gumentpur suedbyLi ncoln, i
    ncludinghis
    proposal toleav eslav eryunt ouchedi nt hest ateswher ei texist
    ed, waswhol lyunsat i
    sfactory.
    Oneoft hem, agr i
    m andr esol uteman, i
    nf l
    amedbyahat redforsl av er
    yi nit
    sel f,
    turnedf rom
    agitationt oviolence." Thesemenar eall t
    al k;whati sneededi sact ion—act ion!"SospokeJohn
    BrownofNewYor k.Dur ingt hesangui naryst r
    uggl einKansashehur r
    iedtot hef ronti
    er,gunand
    daggeri nhand, tohel pdr ivesl av eowner sf rom thef reesoi loftheWest .Ther ehecommi tted
    deedsofsuchdar i
    ngandcr ueltyt hathewasout lawedandapr iceputuponhi shead.St i
    llhe
    keptont hepathof" action. "Ai dedbyf undsf rom Nor ther nfri
    ends, hegat heredasmal lbandof
    hisf ol
    lower sar oundhi m, sayingt ot hem: "IfGodbef orus, whocanbeagai nstus? "Hewent
    i
    nt oVi rgini
    aint heaut umnof1859, hoping, asheexpl ained, "t
    oef f
    ectami ght yconquestev en
    thoughi tbeliket helastv ictoryofSamson. "Hesei zedt hegov ernmentar mor yatHar per'sFerry
    ,
    decl ar
    edf r
    eet hesl aveswhom hef ound, andcal l
    edupont hem t ot akeupar msi ndef enseof
    theirli
    ber ty.Hiswasahopeasf orlornasi twasdesper ate.Armedf orcescamedownuponhi m
    and, afterahar dbat tl
    e, capt uredhi m.Tr iedf ortreason, Brownwascondemnedt odeat h.The
    gov ernorofVi rginiat urnedadeafeart opl easf orcl emencybasedont hegr oundt hatthe
    prisonerwassi mpl yal unat ic." Thisi sabeaut if
    ul count ry,
    "saidt hest ernoldBr owngl ancing
    upwar dt otheet ernal hil
    lsonhi swayt ot hegal l
    ows, ascal mlyasi fhewer er eturninghome
    from al ongjourney ."Soper i
    shal lsuchenemi esofVi rginia.Allsuchenemi esoft heUni on.All
    suchf oesoft hehumanr ace,"sol emnl yannouncedt heexecut i
    onerashef ul f
    ill
    edt hejudgment
    oft hel aw.

    Ther aidandi t
    sgr i
    m endi ngdeepl ymov edthecount ry .Abolit
    ionist
    sl ookeduponBr ownasa
    mar tyrandt oll
    edf uner albel
    lsont hedayofhi sexecut i
    on.Longf ell
    owwr otei nhisdi ary:"Thi
    s
    willbeagr eatdayi nourhi story;thedat eofanewr ev olut
    ionasmuchneededast heol done. "
    JeffersonDav i
    ssawi nt heaffair"thei nvasionofast atebyamur derousgangofabol it
    ionist
    s
    bentoni ncitingslavest omur derhel plesswomenandchi ldren"—acr imef orwhi cht hel eader
    hadmetaf elon'sdeat h.Lincolnspokeoft her aidasabsur d, t
    hedeedofanent husiastwhohad
    broodedov ert heoppr essionofapeopl eunt i
    l hefanci edhi mselfcommi ssi onedbyheav ento
    l
    iberatethem—anat temptwhi chendedi n" l
    i
    ttl
    eel set hanhi sownexecut ion. "ToRepubl ican
    l
    eader sasawhol e,theev entwasv eryembar rassing.Theywer etaunt edbyt heDemocr atswith
    responsibi
    lityf orthedeed.Dougl asdecl aredhi s"firm anddel iberateconv ictionthatt he
    Harper '
    sFer rycrimewast henat ural,l
    ogi cal
    ,inevitabler esultofthedoct rinesandt eachi ngsof
    theRepubl i
    canpar ty."Soper sistentwer esuchat t
    ackst hattheRepubl icansf el
    tcalleduponi n
    1860t odenounceBr own' sraid"asamongt hegr av estofcr i
    mes. "

    TheDemocr atsDi vided.—Whent heDemocr ati


    cconv ent i
    onmetatChar l
    est oni nthespr ingof
    1860, af ewmont hsaf terBrown' sexecut ion,i
    tsoonbecamecl earthatther ewasdangerahead.
    Bet weent heext remesl av er
    yadv ocat esoft heFarSout handt heso- call
    edpr o-sl
    av ery
    Democr atsoft heDougl astype, ther ewasachasm whi chnoappeal stopar tyl oyaltycoul d
    bridge.Ast hespokesmanoft heWest ,Douglasknewt hat ,whiletheNor thwasnotabol iti
    onist
    ,
    i
    twaspassi onat elysetagai nstanext ensionofsl av eryint othet err
    itori
    esbyactofCongr ess;
    thatsquat tersov ereigntywast hemi ldestkindofcompr omi seaccept ablet ot hef armer s
    whosev oteswoul ddet erminet hef at eoft heelection.Sout hernleader swoul dnotaccepthi s
    opinion.Yancey ,speaki ngf orAl abama, refusedt opal terwi thanypl annotbui l
    tont he
    propositiont hatsl av er
    ywasi ni t
    sel fright.Hetaunt edt heNor thernDemocr atswi tht akingt he
    viewt hatsl averywaswr ong,butt hatt heycouldnotdoany thi
    ngabouti t.That ,hesai d,wast he
    fatalerror—t hecauseofal ldiscor d,thesour ceof" BlackRepubl i
    canism,"aswel lassquat ter
    sov erei
    gnty .Thegaunt l
    etwast hust hrowndownatt hef eetoft heNor t
    her ndel egat es:"You
    mustnotapol ogizef orslavery;youmustdecl arei tright; youmustadv ocatei tsext ension. "The
    chal l
    enge, sobl untlyput ,wasasbl unt l
    yanswer ed." Gent lemenoft heSout h,"respondeda
    del
    egat
    efr
    om Ohi
    o,"
    youmi
    stakeus.Youmi
    stakeus.Wewi
    l
    lnotdoi
    t.
    "

    Fort
    enday st
    heChar
    lest
    onconv
    ent
    ionwr
    angl
    edov
    ert
    hepl
    atf
    orm andbal
    l
    otedf
    ort
    he
    nominat
    ionofa
    candidat
    e.Dougl as,thoughi nthel ead,couldnotgett hetwo- t
    hir
    dsv ot erequiredforv i
    ctory.
    Formor ethanf i
    ftyti
    mest her olloftheconv enti
    onwascal l
    edwi thoutadeci si
    on.Theni n
    sheerdesperationtheconv ent i
    onadj ournedtomeetl ateratBal t
    imor e.Whent hedel egates
    againassembl ed,theirpassi onsr anashi ghasev er.Thediv i
    sionintot woirreconcil
    abl e
    fact
    ionswasunchanged.Uncompr omisingdelegatesf r
    om t heSouthwi t
    hdrewt oRichmond,
    nominatedJohnC.Br eckinridgeofKent uckyf
    orPr esident,andputf orthapl atform asserti
    ng
    theri
    ghtsofsl aveowner sint heter r
    it
    oriesandthedut yoft hefederal governmentt opr otect
    them.Thedel egateswhor emai nedatBal ti
    morenomi natedDougl asandendor sedhis
    doctri
    neofsquat tersov ereignty.

    TheConst i
    tut
    ionalUnionPar ty
    .—Whi letheDemocr ati
    cpartywasbei ngdi srupt ed,af ragment
    ofthef ormerWhi gpar ty,knownast heConst itut
    ionalUni
    oni sts,heldaconv ent i
    onatBal t
    imor
    e
    andsel ectednationalcandi dates: JohnBel lfrom TennesseeandEdwar dEv er ettfrom
    Massachuset ts.Amel anchol yi nterestattachedt othi
    sassembl y .I
    twasmai nlycomposedof
    oldmenwhosepol it
    ical vi
    ewswer ethoseofCl ayandWebst er,cherishedl eader snowdead
    andgone.I nt
    heirplatformt heysoughtt oexor ci
    setheevilspiritofpar t
    isanshi pbyi nv i
    ti
    ng
    thei
    rfellowciti
    zenst o" supportt heConst i
    tuti
    onoft hecount ry
    , theunionoft hest ates,andthe
    enforcementoft hel aws."Thepar t
    yt hatcampai gnedont hisgr andsent imentonl ydr ew
    l
    aught erfrom theDemocr atsandder i
    sionf r
    om theRepubl i
    cansandpol ledl esst hanone-
    fourt
    ht hev ot
    es.

    TheRepubl icanConv enti


    on.—Wi tht heWhi gsdefinit
    elyforcedint oasepar ategr oup,the
    Republ i
    canconv ent i
    onatChi cagowasf at
    edt obesect i
    onal inchar acter,althoughf ivesl ave
    statesdi dsenddel egates.Ast heDemocr atswer esplit
    ,thepar tyt hathadl edaf orl
    ornhope
    foury earsbef orewasont hehighr oadt osuccessatl ast.Newandpower ful recruit
    swer e
    found.Theadv ocatesofahi ghprot ecti
    vetari
    ffandt hef r
    iendsoff reehomest eadsforfar mers
    andwor kingmenmi ngledwithenthusi asti
    cfoesofsl avery.Whi lest il
    lfir
    mi nt heiropposit i
    onto
    slaveryint heterri
    tor i
    es,theRepubl icanswentonr ecordinf avorofahomest eadl awgr anting
    freelandst oset tl
    er sandappr ovedcust omsdut iesdesi gned" toencour aget hedev elopmentof
    theindust ri
    alinterestsoft hewhol ecount ry.
    "Thepl atf
    or m wasgr eetedwi thcheer swhi ch,
    accordingt ot hest enographicrepor toftheconv enti
    on, becamel oudandpr ol ongedast he
    protectivetariffandhomest eadpl ankswer eread.

    Hav i
    ngski l
    lf
    ull
    ydrawnapl atf
    ormt ouni tetheNor thinopposi t
    iontoslaveryandt hepl anti
    ng
    system, t
    heRepubl i
    canswer ealsoadr oiti
    nt heirsel
    ecti
    onofacandi date.Thetariffplank
    mightcar r
    yPennsy l
    vani
    a, aDemocr aticstate;butOhio,Indiana,andIll
    inoiswereequal l
    y
    essentialtosuccessatthepolls.Thesout her ncounti
    esoft hesest at
    eswer ef i
    l
    ledwi th
    settl
    ersfrom Vir
    gini
    a,Nor t
    hCar oli
    na, andKent uckywho, eveniftheyhadnol ov eforslavery,
    werenof riendsofaboli
    tion.Mor eover, r
    emember ingtheoldf i
    ghtont heUni t
    edSt atesBanki n
    AndrewJackson' sday,theywer esuspi ciousofmenf rom theEast .Accordingly
    , t
    heydi dnot
    favorthecandidacyofSewar d,thel eadingRepubl i
    canstatesmanand" favori
    teson"ofNew
    York.

    Aftermucht radinganddi scussi ng, theconv entioncamet otheconcl usiont hatAbr aham
    LincolnofI l
    li
    noiswast hemost" av ailable"candidat
    e.HewasofSout hernor igin,bor nin
    Kentuckyi n1809, afactthattoldheav i
    lyinthecampai gnintheOhi oValley.Hewasamanof
    thesoi l,
    thesonofpoorf ront i
    erpar ents, apioneerwhoinhisy outhhadl abor edi nt hef i
    elds
    andf orests,celebrat
    edf arandwi deas" honestAbe,therail
    -split
    ter.
    "Itwaswel l
    -knownt hathe
    disl
    ikedsl avery,butwasnoabol it
    ioni st.Hehadcomedanger ouslyneart oSewar d'
    sr adicali
    sm
    i
    nhi s" house-divi
    ded-against-i
    tself"speechbuthehadnev ercommi tt
    edhi msel ft other eckless
    doctrinethatt herewasa" higherlaw"t hant heConstit
    uti
    on.Sl averyintheSout hhet oleratedas
    abi t
    terfact;slaveryinthet err
    itori
    esheopposedwi thall
    hisst rength.Ofhissi ncer i
    tyt here
    couldbenodoubt .Hewasaspeakerandwr i
    terofsi
    ngularpower ,commandi ng, bytheuseof
    simpleandhomel ylanguage, thehear t
    sandmi ndsofthosewhohear dhim speakorr eadhis
    pri
    ntedwords.Hehadgonef arenoughinhisopposit
    iontosl
    av er
    y;butnottoofar.Hewast he
    manoft hehour!Ami
    dlustycheersfrom t
    enthousandthroat
    s,Lincol
    nwasnomi natedf
    orthe
    presi
    dencybytheRepubl
    icans.Intheensui
    ngelect
    ion,hecarr
    iedallthefr
    eestatesexceptNew
    Jersey
    .
    Ref
    erences

    P.
    E.Chadwi Causesoft
    ck, heCi
    vi
    lWar(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .

    W. St
    E.Dodd, at
    esmenoft
    heOl
    dSout
    h.

    E.Engl
    e,Sout
    her
    nSi
    del
    i
    ght
    s(Sy
    mpat
    het
    icaccountoft
    heOl
    dSout
    h).

    A.
    B.Har
    t,Sl
    aver
    yandAbol
    i
    tion(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .

    J. Hi
    F.Rhodes, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    Vol
    s.IandI
    I.

    T.
    C.Smi
    t Par
    h, ti
    esandSl
    aver
    y(Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Tracet
    hedecl
    i
    neofsl
    aver
    yint
    heNor
    thandex
    plai
    nit
    .

    2.
    Descr
    ibet
    hechar
    act
    erofear
    lyopposi
    ti
    ont
    osl
    aver
    y.

    3.
    Whatwast
    heef
    fectofabol
    i
    tionagi
    tat
    ion?

    4.
    Whydi
    dant
    i-
    slav
    erysent
    imentpr
    act
    ical
    l
    ydi
    sappeari
    ntheSout
    h?

    5.
    Onwhatgr
    oundsdi
    dCal
    houndef
    endsl
    aver
    y?

    6.
    Expl
    ainhowsl
    aveowner
    sbecamepower
    ful
    inpol
    i
    tics.

    7.
    Whywasi
    timpossi
    blet
    okeept
    hesl
    aver
    yissueoutofnat
    ional
    pol
    i
    tics?

    8.
    Giv
    ethel
    eadi
    ngst
    epsi
    nthel
    ongcont
    rov
    ersyov
    ersl
    aver
    yint
    het
    err
    it
    ori
    es.

    9.
    Stat
    ethet
    ermsoft
    heCompr
    omi
    seof1850andexpl
    aini
    tsf
    ail
    ure.

    10.
    Whatwer
    ethest
    art
    li
    ngev
    ent
    sbet
    ween1850and1860?

    11.
    Accountf
    ort
    her
    iseoft
    heRepubl
    i
    canpar
    ty.Whatpar
    tyhadusedt
    het
    it
    lebef
    ore?

    12.
    Howdi
    dtheDr
    edScot
    tdeci
    sionbecomeapol
    i
    tical
    issue?

    13.
    Whatwer
    esomeoft
    hepoi
    ntsbr
    oughtouti
    ntheLi
    ncol
    n-Dougl
    asdebat
    es?

    14.
    Descr
    ibet
    hepar
    tydi
    vi
    sioni
    n1860.

    15.
    Whatwer
    ethemai
    npl
    anksi
    ntheRepubl
    i
    canpl
    atf
    orm?

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    TheExt
    ensi
    onofCot
    tonPl
    ant
    ing.
    —Cal
    l
    ender
    ,Economi
    cHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.760-
    768.

    Abol
    it
    ionAgi
    tat
    ion.
    —McMast
    erHi
    , st
    oryoft
    hePeopl
    eoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    Vol
    .VI
    ,pp.271-
    298.
    Calhoun'
    sDef
    enseofSl
    aver
    y.—Har
    di Sel
    ng, ectOr
    ati
    onsI
    ll
    ust
    rat
    ingAmer
    icanHi
    stor
    y,pp.247-
    257.

    TheCompr omiseof1850.
    —Clay'
    sspeechinHar ng,Sel
    di ectOrati
    ons,pp.267-289.The
    compromiselawsi d,Document
    nMacdonal arySour
    ceBookofAmer icanHist
    ory,pp.383-
    394.Narr
    ati
    veaccounti
    nMcMaster,Vol
    .VI
    II
    ,pp.1- son,Hi
    55;El stor
    yoft heUnit
    edSt at
    es,
    pp.540-
    548.

    TheRepeal
    oft
    heMi
    ssour
    iCompr
    omi
    se.
    —McMast
    er,
    Vol
    .VI
    II
    ,pp.192-
    231;
    Elson,
    pp.571-
    582.

    TheDredScot
    tCase.
    —McMast er
    ,Vol
    .VII
    I,pp.278-282.Comparetheopini
    onofTaneyandt
    he
    di
    ssentofCur
    ti
    sinMacdonal
    d,DocumentarySourceBook,pp.405-420;
    Elson,
    pp.595-
    598.

    TheLincoln-DouglasDebat
    es.
    —Anal
    ysi
    sofor
    igi
    nal
    speechesi
    nHar
    di Sel
    ng, ectOr
    ati
    onspp.
    309-
    341; Elson,pp.598-
    604.

    Bi
    ographi
    calSt
    udi
    es.
    —Calhoun,
    Clay,Webster
    ,A.H.Stephens,
    Dougl
    as,
    W.H.Sewar
    d,Wi
    l
    li
    am
    Ll
    oydGarri
    son,
    Wendell
    Phil
    li
    ps,andHarr
    ietBeecherStowe.

    CHAPTERXV
    THECI
    VILWARANDRECONSTRUCTI
    ON

    "Theirrepressibleconf l
    i
    cti sabouttobev i
    siteduponust hrought heBl ackRepublicannomi neeand
    hisfanat i
    cal,diaboli
    calRepubl i
    canparty,
    "rananappeal tothev ot
    ersofSout hCar oli
    nadur ingthe
    campai gnof1860.I fthatcalamitycomest opass, r
    espondedt hegov ernorofthest ate,theanswer
    shouldbeadecl arati
    onofi ndependence.I
    naf ewday sthesuspensewasov er.Thenewsof
    Lincoln'selecti
    oncamespeedi ngalongthewi res.Preparedf ortheev ent,t
    heeditoroft he
    Char l
    estonMer curyunfurledtheflagofhisst ateamidwi l
    dcheer sfrom anexcitedt hrongint he
    streets.Thenhesei zedhispenandwr ote:"Thet eahasbeent hrownov er
    board;ther evoluti
    onof
    1860hasbeeni ni
    ti
    ated."Theissuewassubmi t
    tedtot hevotersi nthechoiceofdel egat estoa
    stateconv entioncalledtocastof ftheyokeoft heConst it
    ution.

    TheSout
    her
    nConf
    eder
    acy

    Secession.
    —Asar ranged,t
    heconv enti
    onofSout hCar ol
    inaassembledi nDecemberand
    withoutadissentingv oi
    cepassedt heordi
    nanceofsecessi onwi t
    hdrawingfrom theunion.
    Bellswererungexul tant
    ly,
    theroarofcannoncar ri
    edt henewst ooutlyi
    ngcounties,f
    ir
    ewor ks
    l
    ighteduptheheav ens,andchampagnef l
    owed.Thecr i
    sissol
    ongexpect edhadcomeatl ast;
    eventheconser v
    at iveswhohadpr ayedthattheymi ghtescapethedr eadf
    ulcrashgreetedit
    withasighofr el
    ief.
    TheUni
    tedSt
    atesi
    n1861
    Thebor
    derstat
    es(i
    npurpl
    e)r
    emai
    nedl
    oyal
    .

    SouthCar oli
    nanowsentf ort
    hanappeal tohersisterstates—stat
    est hathadi nJackson'sday
    repudiatednull
    i
    ficati
    onasl eadi
    ngt o"t
    hedi ssol
    uti
    onoft heunion."Theanswert hatcamet his
    ti
    mewasi nadi f
    ferentvein.Amont hhadhar dlyel
    apsedbef orefi
    veot herstates—Flori
    da,
    Geor gi
    a,Alabama, Missi
    ssippi,
    andLouisiana—hadwi thdrawnf r
    om theuni on.InFebruary,
    Texasf oll
    owed.Virgi
    nia,hesit
    atingunti
    lthebombar dmentofFor tSumt erforcedaconcl usion,
    secededi nApril
    ;butfif
    ty-
    fiveoftheonehundr edandf orty-
    thr
    eedelegat esdissented,
    foreshadowingthecr eat
    ionoft henewst at
    eofWestVi rgi
    niawhichCongr essadmi t
    tedtothe
    unionin1863.InMay ,NorthCaroli
    na,Arkansas,andTennesseeannouncedt heir
    i
    ndependence.

    Secessi onandt heTheor i


    esoft heUni on.—I nsev er i
    ngt hei rrelati
    onswi tht heuni on, t
    he
    secedi ngst atesdeni edev er ypoi nti ntheNor ther nt heoryoft heConst itution.Thatt heor y, as
    everyoneknows, wascar efullyfor mul atedbyWebst erandel aboratedbyLi ncol n.Accor dingt o
    i
    t,theuni onwasol dert hant hest ates;itwascr eat edbef or et heDecl ar ationofI ndependence
    forthepur poseofcommondef ense.TheAr ti
    clesofConf eder at
    iondi dbutst rengt hent his
    national bondandt heConst it
    utionseal edi tforev er.Thef eder algover nmentwasnotacr eat ur
    e
    ofst ategov ernment s.Itwaser ect edbyt hepeopl eandder i
    vedi t
    spower sdi rectl
    yf rom t hem.
    "I
    tis,"sai dWebst er,"thepeopl e'sConst itution,thepeopl e'sgov ernment ;madef ort hepeopl e;
    madebyt hepeopl e;andanswer abl et othepeopl e.Thepeopl eoft heUni tedSt ateshav e
    declaredt hatt hisConst i
    tut ionshal lbet hesupr emel aw."Whenast atequest i
    onst he
    l
    awf ulnessofanyactoft hef eder al government , i
    tcannotnul li
    fythatactorwi t
    hdrawf rom t he
    union; i
    tmustabi debyt hedeci sionoft heSupr emeCour toft heUni tedSt at es.Theuni onof
    thesest atesi sper pet ual,ranLi ncol n'ssi mpl ear gumenti nt hef ir
    stinaugur al;thef ederal
    Const i
    t utionhasnopr ov i
    sionf ori t
    sownt erminat i
    on; i
    tcanbedest r
    oy edonl ybysomeact ion
    notpr ov idedf ori nthei nst rumenti tself;ev enifiti sacompactamongal lthest atest heconsent
    ofal lmustbenecessar yt oi tsdi ssol uti
    on; therefor enost atecanl awf ullygetoutoft heuni on
    andact sofv i
    ol enceagai nstt heUni tedSt atesar ei nsurrect i
    onar yorr ev olutionar y.Thi swast he
    system whi chhebel ievedhi msel fboundt odef endbyhi soat hofof fi
    ce" regi steredi nheav en. "

    Allt
    hisreasoningSout hernstatesmenut t
    erlyrejected.Inthei
    ropinionthet hir
    teenor i
    ginal
    stat
    eswont heirindependenceassepar ateandsov erei
    gnpower s.Thet reatyofpeacewi t
    h
    GreatBri
    tainnamedt hem allandacknowl edgedt hem "tobefree,sov er
    eign,andi ndependent
    stat
    es."TheAr ticl
    esofConf ederat
    ionveryexplicitl
    ydeclaredthat"eachst ateretainsit
    s
    soverei
    gnty,fr
    eedom, andindependence."TheConst it
    utionwasa" leagueofnat ions"formedby
    anall
    ianceoft hirteensepar at
    epower s,eachoneofwhi chrat
    ifi
    edthei nstrumentbef oreitwas
    puti
    ntoef
    fect
    .Theyv
    olunt
    ari
    l
    yent
    eredt
    heuni
    onundert
    he
    Const i
    tut
    ionandv ol
    untari
    l
    ytheycouldleaveit.Suchwast heconstitut
    ional doctri
    neofHay ne,
    Calhoun,andJef f
    ersonDav i
    s.I
    nseceding,theSouther nstateshadonl yt ofoll
    owl egal
    met hods,andt hetransact
    ionwoul dbecorr
    ectinev eryparti
    cular.Soconv enti
    onswer e
    summoned, electi
    onswer eheld,and"sover
    eignassembl i
    esofthepeopl e"setasidet he
    Const i
    tut
    ionint hesamemannerasi thadbeenr ati
    fiednearlyfourscor ey earsbefore.Thus,
    sai
    dt heSout hernpeople,themor alj
    udgmentwasf ul f
    il
    ledandt helett
    eroft helawcar ri
    edint
    o
    eff
    ect .

    Jef
    fer
    sonDav
    is

    TheFor mati
    onoft heConf ederacy.—Act i
    ngont hecal lofMississippi,acongressofdelegates
    from t
    hesecededst atesmetatMont gomer y,
    Al abama, andonFebr uary8,1861,adopteda
    temporaryplanofuni on.Itselected,aspr ovi
    sional pr
    esident,
    Jef f
    ersonDav i
    sofMi ssi
    ssippi
    ,a
    manwel lfi
    tt
    edbyexper ienceandmoder ati
    onf orleadershi
    p,agr aduat eofWestPoi nt
    ,whohad
    render
    eddistingui
    shedser vi
    ceont hefiel
    dofbat t
    leintheMexi canWar ,i
    npublicoffi
    ce,andas
    amemberofCongr ess.

    InMar ch,aper manentconst ituti


    onoft heConf ederatest ateswasdr af t
    ed.Itwasqui ckl
    y
    rati
    fiedbythest ates;electi
    onswer ehel dinNov ember ;andt hegov ernmentunderi twentint o
    effectthenexty ear.Thisnewconst ituti
    on, i
    nform, wasv erymuchl ikethef amousi nstr
    ument
    draftedatPhiladelphiain1787.I tpr
    ov i
    dedf oraPr esident ,aSenate,andaHouseof
    Repr esent
    ati
    vesal ongal mosti dent
    icalli
    nes.Int hepower sconferr
    edupont hem, howev er
    ,
    therewer est
    rikingdifferences.Ther i
    ghtt oappropriatemoneyf orinternalimpr ovement swas
    expresslywit
    hhel d;bount i
    eswer enott obegr antedf r
    om t hetreasurynori mpor tdut i
    essol ai
    d
    ast opromoteorf osteranybr anchofindust r
    y.Thedi gnityofthest ate,ifanymi ghtbebol d
    enought oquest ionit,wassaf eguardedi ntheopeningl i
    nebyt hedecl arati
    ont hateachact ed
    "i
    ni t
    ssov er
    eignandi ndependentchar acter"i
    nf ormingt heSout hernuni on.

    Financingt heConf ederacy.


    —Nogov ernmentev ersetoutuponi tscar eerwi thmor eperpl
    exing
    tasksinf rontofi t
    .TheNor thhadamonet arysy st em; t
    heSout hhadt ocr eateone.TheNor th
    hadaschemeoft axationthatproducedl arger ev enuesf r
    om numer oussour ces;theSouthhad
    toformul ateandcar ryoutaf i
    nanci alplan.Liket heNor th,t
    heConf eder acyexpect edtosecure
    alarger ev enuef r
    om cust omsdut ies,easilycollect edandlit
    tl
    ef eltamongt hemasses.Tot his
    expect ationt hebl ockadeofSout her npor t
    sinaugur atedbyLincol ninApr i
    l,1861,soonputan
    end.Fol lowi ngt hepr ecedentsetbyCongr essundert heArti
    clesofConf ederati
    on, t
    heSouthern
    Congr essr esortedt oadi r
    ectproper tytaxappor tionedamongt hest ates, onl
    ytomeett he
    fail
    uret hatmi ghthav ebeenf oretold.

    TheConf ederacyalsosol dbonds,thefir


    stissuebri
    ngingint
    ot hetreasurynearl
    yallthespecie
    availabl
    eintheSout hernbanks.Thisspeciebyunhappymanagementwasear lysentabroadtopay
    forsupplies,
    sappingt hefoundati
    onsofasoundcur rencysystem.Largeamount sofbondswer e
    soldov er
    seas,commandi ngatfi
    rstbettert
    ermst hanthoseoft heNor t
    hinthemar ketsofLondon,
    Paris,andAmst er
    dam, manyanEngl ishlor
    dandst at
    esmanbuy ingwithenthusiasm and
    confidencetolamentwi thinafewy earstheproofsofhisfol
    ly.Thedi f
    fi
    cult
    iesofbringingthr
    ough
    theblockadeanysuppliespurchasedbyforei
    gnbondissues,
    howev
    er,nul
    li
    fi
    edtheeff
    ectoffor
    eign
    credi
    tandf orcedtheConfederacybackuponthedevi
    ceofpapermoney.I
    nallappr
    oxi
    matelyone
    bil
    li
    ondollarsstr
    eamedf r
    om thepr i
    nti
    ngpresses,
    tof
    all
    i
    nv alueatanalarmingrate,r
    eachi
    nginJanuary,
    1863,theast
    oundingfi
    gureoff
    if
    tydollar
    s
    i
    npapermoneyf oronei ngol
    d.Everyknowndevicewasusedtopreventi
    tsdepr
    eciat
    ion,
    wit
    houtr esul
    t.TotheissuesoftheConfeder
    ateCongresswereaddeduntol
    dmill
    ions
    pouredoutbyt hestat
    esandbypr iv
    atebanks.

    HumanandMat eri
    al Resour ces.—Whenwemeasur estr
    engt hf orst r
    engt hint hosesignsof
    power —men, money ,andsuppl i
    es—itisdiffi
    culttoseehowt heSout hwasabl et oembar kon
    secessionandwarwi thsuchconf idenceintheout come.I ntheConf ederacyatt hefi
    nal
    reckoningt her
    ewer eel evenstatesinall
    ,tobepi ttedagainstt went y-two; apopul ati
    onofnine
    mill
    ions, nearl
    yone- hal fserv
    il
    e,tobepi t
    tedagai nsttwenty-t
    womi l
    lions; alandwi t
    houtgreat
    i
    ndust ri
    est oproducewarsuppl i
    esandwi t
    houtv astcapitaltof urnishwarf inances, j
    oinedin
    battl
    ewi thanat i
    onal readyindustri
    alandf orti
    fi
    edbypr opertywor t
    hel evenbi l
    liondoll
    ars.
    Evenaf tertheConf eder at
    eCongr essauthorizedconscripti
    oni n1862, Southernmanpower ,
    measur edi nnumber s, waswhol l
    yinadequat etoupholdt heindependencewhi chhadbeen
    declared.How, theref ore,couldtheConfeder acyhopet osust ainitsel fagainstsucha
    combi nationofmen, money ,andmat eri
    alsast heNor t
    hcoul dmar shal ?

    Sout her
    nExpect ations.—Theanswert othisquest ionist obef oundi nt heideast hatpr ev ai
    l
    ed
    amongSout hernleader s.Fir stofal l,
    theyhoped, i
    nv ai
    n, tocarrytheConf ederacyupt ot heOhio
    River;and,withtheai dofMi ssour i
    ,togainpossessi onoft heMi ssissippiValley,thegr anaryof
    thenat i
    on.Inthesecondpl ace, t
    heyr eckoneduponal argeandcont inuoust radewi thGr eat
    Br i
    tai
    n—theexchangeofcot tonf orwarmat erial
    s.Theyl i
    kewiseexpect edtor eceiv e
    recogniti
    onandopenai df rom Eur opeanpower sthatlookedwi t
    hsat i
    sfacti
    onupont hebr eakup
    oft hegreatAmer icanr epubl ic.Inthet hirdplace, theybel i
    evedt hattheircont rolov ersev eral
    staplessoessent ial t
    oNor ther nindust r
    ywoul denabl ethem t obringonani ndust rial cri
    sisin
    themanuf acturingst ates."If i
    rml ybelieve,"wroteSenat orHammond, ofSout hCar olina, in1860,
    "thattheslave-hol
    di ngSout hi snowt hecont roll
    ingpoweroft hewor ld;thatnoot herpower
    woul dfaceusi nhost il
    ity.Cot ton, r
    ice,tobacco, andnav alstorescommandt hewor ld; andwe
    hav ethesenset oknowi tandar esuf fi
    cientl
    yTeut onictocar ryitoutsuccessf ull
    y.TheNor th
    wi t
    houtuswoul dbeamot her lesscal f,bl
    eatingabout ,anddi eofmangeandst ar
    v ation."

    Therewer eot hergroundsf orconf i


    dence.Hav ingsei z
    edal lofthefederalmi li
    taryandnav al
    suppliesi nt heSouth,andhav i
    ngleftthenat ional gov ernmentweaki narmedpowerdur i
    ngtheir
    possessi onoft hepresidency ,
    Southernl eader slookedt oaswi ftwar,i
    fitcameatal l
    ,toputt he
    fi
    nishingst roket oindependence." Thegr easymechani csoft heNorth,
    "itwasr epeatedlysaid,"wi
    l
    l
    notfight .
    "Ast odispari
    tyinnumber stheydr ewhi storicpar allel
    s."
    Ourf at
    hers, amer ehandf ul,
    overcamet heenor mouspowerofGr eatBr i
    tain,"asay i
    ngofex- Presi
    dentTy ler,rancur r
    entto
    reassur ethedoubt f
    ul.Finall
    y,andthispoi ntcannotbet oost rongl
    yemphasi zed,theSout h
    expect edt oseeaweakenedanddi videdNor th.Itknewt hattheaboliti
    onistsandt heSouther n
    sympat hi
    zer swer ereadyt olettheConf ederat est atesgoi npeace; t
    hatLincol nrepresentedonl ya
    l
    ittl
    emor et hanone- t
    hirdthev oter
    soft hecount ry; andt hatt hevoteforDougl as, Bell
    ,and
    Breckinr i
    dgemeantadeci dedopposi ti
    ont ot heRepubl i
    cansandt heirpolici
    es.

    Effort
    satCompr omi se.—Republi
    canl eaders,onrevi
    ewingthesamef acts,weret hemsel ves
    uncertai
    nast otheout comeofaci vi
    l warandmademanyef for
    tstoavoidacr isis.Thurlow
    Weed, anAlbanyjournal i
    standpoli
    ti
    cianwhohaddonemucht ocarr
    yNewYor kf orLincoln,
    proposedapl anforext endi
    ngtheMi ssouriCompr omiseli
    netothePaci f
    ic.JeffersonDav is,
    war ni
    nghisfoll
    ower sthatawari fi
    tcamewoul dbeter
    ri
    ble,waspreparedt oacceptt heof fer
    ;
    butLincol
    n,remember i
    nghi scampaignpl edges,st
    oodf i
    rm asarockagai nsti
    t.Hi sfol
    lower s
    i
    nCongr esstookt hesameposi t
    ionwi t
    hregar dtoasimil
    arsettl
    ementsuggest edbySenat or
    Critt
    endenofKent ucky.

    Thoughunwil
    l
    ingt
    osurr
    enderhissol
    emnpromisesr
    especti
    ngslaver
    yint
    heterri
    tor
    ies,
    Lincol
    n
    wasprepar
    edtogi
    vetoSouther
    nleader
    sastr
    ongguaranteethathi
    sadmini
    str
    ati
    onwoul dnot
    i
    nterf
    eredi
    rect
    lyori
    ndir
    ectl
    ywi
    thslav
    eryi
    nthestat
    es.Anxi
    oustoreassur
    etheSout
    honthi
    spoi
    nt,
    theRepubl
    i
    cansinCongresspr
    oposedtowri
    tei
    ntotheConsti
    tut
    ionadecl
    arat
    iont
    hatno
    amendmentshouldeverbemade
    authori
    zi
    ngtheaboli
    ti
    onoforinter
    ferencewithsl
    averyinanystat
    e.Theresol
    uti
    on,dul
    y
    passed,wassentfor
    thonMar ch4,1861, wit
    htheapprovalofLi
    ncol
    n;i
    twasactuall
    yrat
    if
    ied
    bythreestat
    esbefor
    ethestorm ofwardest r
    oyedit
    .Bytheironyoff
    atethethi
    rt
    eenth
    amendmentwast oaboli
    sh,notguarantee,sl
    aver
    y.

    TheWarMeasur
    esoft
    heFeder
    alGov
    ernment

    RaisingtheArmi es.—Thecr i
    sisatFor tSumt er,onApr i
    l12- 14,1861, forcedt hePr esidentand
    Congr esstoturnfrom negot i
    ationstopr oblemsofwar fare.Litt
    ledidt heyr eal
    izet he
    magni tudeofthet askbef oret hem.Lincoln'sfirstcallforv olunt
    eers, issuedonApr il15,
    1861,
    l
    imitedt henumbert o75,000, puttheirterm ofser viceatt hreemont hs, andprescr ibedtheir
    dutyast heenforcementoft helawagai nstcombi nati
    onst oopower fultobeov ercomeby
    ordinaryjudi
    ci
    al process.Di sil
    lusi
    onmentswi f
    tl
    yf oll
    owed.Thet err
    ibledef eatoftheFeder alsat
    BullRunonJul y21r eveal
    edt heseri
    ouschar acteroft het askbef oret hem; andbyaser i
    esof
    measur esCongr essputt heent i
    remanpoweroft hecount ryatthePr esident'
    scommand.
    Undert heseacts,hei ssuednewcal lsforv olunteers.Ear l
    yi nAugust ,1862, heor der edadr aft
    ofmi li
    ti
    amennumber i
    ng300, 000forninemont hs' servi
    ce.Ther esultswer e
    di
    sappoi nti
    ng—omi nous—f oronl y

    about87,
    000sol
    dier
    swer
    eaddedt
    othear
    my.Somet
    hingmor
    edr
    ast
    icwascl
    ear
    lynecessar
    y.

    InMar ch, 1863,Lincolnsignedt heinevi


    tabledr aftl
    aw; itenroll
    edi nthenat i
    onal f
    orcesli
    able
    tomili
    t arydutyal lable-
    bodiedmal eciti
    zensandper sonsoff oreignbir
    thwhohaddecl ared
    thei
    rint enti
    ont obecomeci ti
    zens,betweent heagesoft wentyandf orty-f
    ivey ear
    s—wi t
    h
    exempt ionsongr oundsofphy si
    calweaknessanddependency .Fr om themenenr oll
    edwer e
    drawnbyl otthosedest i
    nedtoact i
    veservice.Unhappi lythemeasur estruckamor t
    albl
    owat
    theprincipleofuni versall
    iabi
    li
    tybyexcusi nganyper sonwhof oundasubst ituteforhi
    msel for
    paidi
    nt ot hewarof f
    iceasum, notexceedingt hreehundr eddol lars,
    tobef ixedbygener al
    order
    .Thi sprovisi
    on, socrassandsoobv iouslyf av
    or i
    ngt hewel l-
    to-
    do, sowedseedsof
    bit
    ter
    nesswhi chspr angupahundr edf
    oldi ntheNor th.

    TheDr
    aftRi
    otsi
    nNewYor
    kCi
    ty

    Thebegi nningoft hedr awingsundert hedraftactinNewYor kCit


    y,onMonday ,July13,1863,was
    thesignal forf ourday sofriot
    ing.Int hecour seofthisupr i
    sing,dr
    aftheadquar t
    erswer edestroyed;
    theof fi
    ceoft heTr i
    bunewasgut ted;negr oeswer eseized,hanged, andshot ;
    thehomesof
    obnoxi ousUni oni
    stswer eburneddown; theresidenceoft hemay oroft hecitywasat t
    acked;and
    regularbat t
    leswer efoughtinthest reetsbet weent heri
    otersandt hepol i
    ce.Businessstoppedand
    alargepar toft hecit
    ypassedabsol ut el
    yintothecont r
    ol ofthemob.Notunt ill
    atethefoll
    owing
    Wednesdaydi denought roopsarrivet orestoreorderandenabl et
    her esident
    soft hecityto
    resumet heirdai l
    yactivi
    ti
    es.Atleastat housandpeopl ehadbeenki ll
    edorwoundedandmor ethan
    ami l
    liondol lars'worthofdamagedonet opr operty
    .Thedr af tt
    empor ar
    ilyint
    err
    uptedbyt hi
    s
    out
    breakwast
    henr
    esumedandcar
    ri
    edoutwi
    thoutf
    urt
    hert
    roubl
    e.
    Ther esul
    tsofthedraf
    twer eintheenddi st
    inctl
    ydisappoi nti
    ngt othegov ernment .The
    exempt i
    onswer enumerousandt henumberwhopr eferredandwer eablet opay$300r at
    her
    thanser v
    eexceededallexpectati
    ons.Volunteer
    ing,itistrue,wasst imul
    at ed,butev enthat
    resourcecouldhardl
    ykeept hethinni
    ngranksoft hear myf i
    lled.Wi t
    hrel
    uct anceCongr ess
    struckoutthe$300exempt ionclause,butsti
    llf
    avoredt hewel l-
    to-dobyal l
    owi ngthem tohir
    e
    substit
    utesift
    heycouldfindthem.Wi thallt
    hispoweri ni t
    shandst headmi nistr
    ationwasable
    byJanuar y,
    1865,toconstructaunionarmyt hatoutnumber edt heConfeder atestwot oone.

    WarFi nance. —Inthefinancial spheretheNor thf acedi mmensedi f


    ficulties.Thesur plusinthe
    tr
    easur yhadbeendi ssipatedby1861andt het ari
    ffof1857hadf ail
    edt opr oduceani ncome
    suf ficientt omeett heor di
    nar yexpensesoft hegov ernment .Conf r
    ont edbymi l
    itaryandnav al
    expendi t uresofappal li
    ngmagni tude,r
    isingf rom $35, 000,000i nthef irsty earoft hewart o
    $1, 153, 000, 000i nthelasty ear,theadmi nistr
    ationhadt otapev er
    yav ai lablesour ceofi ncome.
    Thedut iesoni mport
    swer eincreased, notoncebutmanyt imes, produci nghuger evenuesand
    alsomeet i
    ngt hemostext r
    av agantdemandsoft hemanuf acturersforpr otecti
    on.Di recttaxes
    wer ei mposedont hest atesaccor di
    ngt ot heirrespect i
    vepopul at
    ions, butt heret urnswer e
    meager —al l outofpropor ti
    ont ot heirr
    itationinv olved.Stampt axesandt axesonl uxuries,
    occupat ions, andtheear ningsofcor porat i
    onswer elaidwi thawei ghtt hat, i
    nor di
    nar ytimes,
    woul dhav edr awnforthopposi t
    ionofomi nousst rength.Thewhol egamutoft axat i
    onwasr un.
    Ev enat axoni ncomesandgai nsbyt hey ear,thef i
    rstinthehi storyoft hef ederalgov ernment,
    wasi ncludedi nthelongl i
    st.

    Rev enueswer esuppl


    ement edbybondi ssues,mount inginsizeandinterestrate,unt
    ili
    n
    October ,
    att heendoft hewar ,t
    hedebtst oodat$2, 208,000,
    000.Thetotal costofthewarwas
    manyt i
    mest hemoneyv alueofal lt
    heslavesintheSout hernstat
    es.Tot hedebtmustbe
    addednear l
    yhal fabi
    ll
    iondollar
    si n"gr
    eenbacks" —papermoneyi ssuedbyCongr essin
    desper at
    ionasbondsal esandr evenuesfrom taxesfail
    edt omeetther i
    singexpenditures.
    Thiscur r
    encyi ssuedatparonquest i
    onablewar r
    antf r
    om theConstit
    ution, l
    i
    keallsuchpaper,
    quicklybegant odecl
    i
    neunt il
    int heworstfort
    unesof1864onedol lari
    ngol dwaswor thnearl
    y
    thr
    eei ngr eenbacks.

    ABl
    ockadeRunner

    TheBlockadeofSouthernPor t
    s.—Fourdaysaf t
    erhiscal lf
    orvolunteers,
    Apr i
    l19, 1861,Presi
    dent
    Li
    ncol
    ni ssuedaproclamationblockadingt
    hepor tsoftheSout hernConf eder
    acy .Laterthe
    bl
    ockadewasext endedt oVir
    giniaandNorthCarolina,astheywi t
    hdrewf rom theuni on.Vessel
    s
    at
    temptingtoent
    erorl eavetheseports,i
    ftheydisregardedthewar ningsofabl ockadingship,
    weretobecapturedandbr oughtaspr i
    zestothenear estconvenientport.Tomaket heor der
    ef
    fect
    ive,
    immedi
    atest
    epswer
    etakent
    o
    i
    ncreasethenavalf
    orces,deplet
    edbyneglect
    , unti
    ltheenti
    recoastli
    newaspat rol
    ledwit
    h
    suchanumberofshi psthatitwasar ar
    ecaptainwhov enturedtorunthegant l
    et.Thecoll
    i
    sion
    betweentheMerri
    macandt heMoni t
    orinMarch,1862,sealedthefateoftheConf eder
    acy.The
    exploi
    tsoft
    heunionnav yarerecordedi
    nthefalli
    ngexportofcotton:$202,000,
    000i n1860;
    $42,000,
    000in1861;and$4,000,000in1862.

    Thedeadl yef fectoft hi


    spar al
    y si
    soft radeuponSout her
    nwarpowermayber eadil
    yimagi ned.
    Foreignl oans, pay ablei
    ncot ton,couldbenegot i
    atedbutnotpaidof f
    .Suppli
    escoul dbe
    purchasedoncr editbutnotbr oughtthr oughthedr agnet .Wit
    hextremediffi
    cultycouldthe
    Confeder ategov ernmentsecur eevenpaperf orthei ssueofmoneyandbonds.Publ ishers,i
    n
    despai ratt helossofsuppl ies, werefinal l
    ydri
    v entot heuseofbrownwr appi
    ngpaperandwal l
    paper .Ast her ailwaysandr olli
    ngstockwor eout, i
    tbecamei mpossibl
    etorenewt hem f r
    om
    EnglandorFr ance.Unabl etoexpor tthei rcott
    on, pl
    ant er
    sontheseaboardbur neditinwhat
    werecal led" fir
    esofpat riot
    ism. "I
    nt heirluri
    dlightthef atal
    weaknessofSout herneconomy
    stoodr ev ealed.

    Diplomacy.—Thewarhadnotadv ancedf arbeforethefederalgovernmentbecamei nvolvedin


    manyper plexingproblemsofdi plomacyi nEurope.TheConf ederacyearlyturnedtoEngland
    andFr anceforfinancialaidandf orrecogniti
    onasani ndependentpower .Davisbeli
    evedt hat
    theindustr
    ialcrisi
    screatedbyt hecot tonblockadewoul dintimel i
    ter
    all
    ycompel Europet o
    i
    nter v
    eneinor dertogett hisessentialst
    aple.Thecr i
    siscameasheexpect edbutnott heresul
    t.
    ThousandsofEngl i
    sht exti
    leworker swer ethr
    ownoutofempl oyment ;andy et,whi
    leont he
    pointofstarvati
    on,theyadopt edr esol
    utionsfavori
    ngt heNorthinsteadofpet it
    ioni
    ngtheir
    governmentt oai dtheSout hbybr eaki
    ngt heblockade.

    Witht heruli
    ngclassesi twasf arot herwise.Napol eonI I
    I,t
    heEmper oroft heFr ench,waseager
    tohelpindi srupt
    ingt heAmer icanr epubli
    c; i
    fhecoul dhav ewonEngl and' ssuppor t
    ,hewoul d
    havecar ri
    edouthi sdesi gns.Asi tturnedouthef oundpl entyofsympat hyacr osstheChannel
    butnotopenandof fi
    cialcoöper ati
    on.Accor dingt ot heemi nenthistori
    an, Rhodes,"four-
    fift
    hs
    oftheBr i
    t i
    shHouseofLor dsandmostmember soft heHouseofCommonswer efavorableto
    theConf ederacyandanxi ousfori t
    st ri
    umph. "Latei n1862t heBri
    tishmi nist
    ers,thussust ai
    ned,
    wereont hepointofr ecognizi
    ngt hei ndependenceoft heConf ederacy.Hadi tnotbeenf orthei
    r
    extr
    emecaut i
    on,fortheconst antandhar assingcriticism byEnglishfriendsoft heUni t
    ed
    States—likeJohnBr ight—andf ort hev i
    ctori
    esofVi cksbur gandGet tysbur g,bothEngl andand
    Francewoul dhavedoubt l
    essdecl aredtheConf eder acyt obeoneoft hei ndependentpower sof
    theear t
    h.

    JohnBr
    ight

    Whilest
    oppi ngshor
    tofrecognizi
    ngi t
    sindependence,Engl
    andandFrancetooksev eralst
    epsthat
    wereinfavoroftheSouth.Inproclai
    mingneutral
    it
    y,theyear
    lyaccept
    edtheConf ederat
    esas
    "bel
    l
    iger
    ents"andaccordedt hem theri
    ghtsofpeopleatwar—ameasur ewhichar ousedangeri
    nt he
    Northatfi
    rstbutwaslateradmittedtobesound.Ot herwi
    seConfeder
    atestakeninbat t
    lewould
    havebeenr egar
    dedas"rebels"or"tr
    ait
    ors"tobehangedorshot.NapoleonII
    Iproposedt oRussiain
    1861acoal
    i
    tionofpowersagai
    nsttheNor
    th,onlytomeetaf
    ir
    mref
    usal
    .Thenexty
    earhe
    suggest
    edi
    nter
    venti
    ontoGreatBr
    it
    ain,
    encounteri
    ng
    thi
    stimeacondi t
    ional
    rej
    ect
    ionofhispl
    ans.I
    n1863,notdaunt
    edbyrebuffs,
    heoff
    eredhis
    serv
    icestoLincol
    nasamedi at
    or,r
    eceiv
    ingi
    nr epl
    yapoli
    tel
    ett
    erdecl
    i
    ninghispr
    oposalanda
    sharpresol
    uti
    onfrom Congr
    esssuggesti
    ngthatheat
    tendtohisownaffai
    rs.

    I
    nbot hEngl andandFr ancet hegov ernmentspursuedapolicyoffri
    endlinesstotheConf ederate
    agent s.TheBr it
    ishministry
    ,wi t
    hi ndi
    ffer
    enceifnotconnivance,permitt
    edr amsandshi pst obe
    builtinBriti
    shdocksandal lowedt hem toescapet oplayhavocundert heConf ederateflagwi th
    Amer i
    cancommer ce.
    Oneoft hem, heAl
    t abama, buil
    tinLi ver
    poolbyaBr it
    ishfi
    rm andpai df orbybondssol din
    Engl and,rananext raordinarycar eerandthreatenedtobreakt heblockade.Thecour sef oll
    owed
    byt heBr i
    tishgov er
    nment ,
    againstt heprotestsoftheAmer icanmi ni
    sterinLondon, wasl ater
    regretted.Byanawar dofat ri
    bunal ofarbi
    trati
    onatGenev ai n1872,Gr eatBri
    tai
    nwasr equired
    topayt hehugesum of$15, 500,000t ocoverthedamageswr oughtbyConf ederatecruisers
    fi
    ttedouti nEngl and.

    Wi
    l
    li
    am H.Sewar
    d

    Inallfairnessitshouldbesai dt hattheconductoft heNor thcont r


    ibutedt otheirr
    itation
    betweent hetwocount r i
    es.Sewar d,theSecr etaryofState,wasv indicti
    v eindeali
    ngwi thGreat
    Brit
    ain;hadi tnotbeenf orthemoder ationofLi ncoln,hewoul dhav epur suedacour sev er
    ging
    i
    nt hedi recti
    onofopenwar .TheNewYor kandBost onpaper swer esev ereinthei
    rat tackson
    England.Wor dswer e,
    ononeoccasi onatl east,accompani edbyanactsav ori
    ngofopen
    hostil
    ity.InNov ember, 1861, Capt ai
    nWi lkes,commandi ngauni onv essel ,
    overhauledt he
    Brit
    ishst eamerTr ent,
    andcar riedof fbyf orcetwoConf ederat
    eagent s,MasonandSl i
    dell
    ,sent
    byPr esidentDav i
    st orepr esentt heConf ederacyatLondonandPar i
    sr especti
    vely.Thi swasa
    clearviolati
    onoft herightofmer chantv esselstobei mmunef rom sear chandi mpr essment ;
    and, i
    nanswert othedemandofGr eatBr it
    ainforthereleaseoft hetwomen, t
    heUni t
    edSt ates
    concededt hatitwasint hewr ong.Itsur renderedthet woConf ederateagent stoaBr iti
    sh
    vessel f
    orsaf econductabr oad, andmadeappr opr
    iateapologies.

    Emanci pation.—Amongt heext r


    emewarmeasur esadopt edbyt heNor t
    her ngovernmentmust
    becount edt heemanci pationoft heslavesi nthest atesinarmsagai nsttheunion.Thisstep
    wasear lyandr epeatedlysuggest edt oLincolnbyt heabol i
    ti
    onists;
    butwasst eadil
    yputaside.
    Heknewt hatt heaboli
    tionistswer eamer ehandf ul
    , t
    hatemanci pati
    onmi ghtdrivetheborder
    statesintosecession,andt hattheNor t
    her nsoldiershadenl i
    stedtosav etheuni on.Moreover
    ,
    hehadbef orehim asol emnr esol ut
    ionpassedbyCongr essonJul y22,1861, declari
    ngthesole
    purposeoft hewartobet hesalv ati
    onoft heunionanddi savowinganyi ntenti
    onofi nt
    erf
    eri
    ng
    withslavery.

    Thef ederalgover
    nment ,
    thoughpl
    edgedt othepreser
    v ati
    onofsl avery,
    soonf oundit
    sel
    f
    beatenbackuponi t
    scourseandoutuponanewt ack.Bef oreay earhadelapsed,namelyon
    Apri
    l 10,1862,Congressresol
    vedthatf i
    nancial
    aidshouldbegi v entoanyst at
    ethatmight
    adoptgr adualemancipat
    ion.Si
    xday slateri
    taboli
    shedsl averyintheDistri
    ctofColumbia.Two
    shortmont hselapsed.OnJune19, 1862, i
    tsweptslaveryforeverfrom theterr
    it
    ori
    esofthe
    Unit
    edStates.Chi
    efJust
    iceTaneysti
    ll
    li
    ved,t
    heDr
    edScot
    tdeci
    sionst
    oodaswr i
    tt
    eni
    nthe
    book,butt
    heConstit
    uti
    onhadbeenr e-
    readi
    nthel
    i
    ghtoft
    heCiv
    ilWar.Thedr
    if
    tofpubl
    ic
    sent
    imentintheNorthwasbeingrev
    ealed.
    Whilethesemeasur eswer ependi ngi nCongr ess, Li
    ncol nwassl owl ymaki nguphi smi nd.By
    Julyoft haty earhehadcomet ohi sgr eatdecision.Neart heendoft hatmont hher eadt ohis
    cabinett hedr aftofapr oclamationofemanci pat i
    on; buthel aidi tasideunt i
    lami l
    it
    ar y
    achievementwoul dmakei tsomet hingmor et hanani dlegest ure.InSept ember ,
    thesev ere
    checkadmi nist
    eredt oLeeatAnt i
    et am seemedt oof ferthegol denoppor tuni
    ty.Ont he22d, the
    i
    mmor tal documentwasgi ventot hewor ldannounci ngt hat,unlesst hestatesinarmsr eturned
    totheuni onbyJanuar y1,1863, thef at
    alblowatt heir"peculiarinstituti
    on"woul dbedel iver
    ed.
    Southernl eaderstreateditwithslightr egard,andsoont hedat esett hepromisewasf ulf
    ill
    ed.
    Thepr ocl amat i
    onwasi ssuedasawarmeasur e,adopt edbyt hePr esidentascommander -i
    n-
    chi
    efoft hear medf or
    ces,ongr oundsofmi li
    tar ynecessi ty.I
    tdidnotabol ishslaver
    y .I
    tsimpl y
    emanci pat edslavesi nplacestheni nar msagai nstfeder alauthor i
    ty.Everywhereelsesl avery,
    asfarast hePr oclamat i
    onwasconcer ned,remai nedl awf ul.

    Abr
    aham Li
    ncol
    n

    Toseal f
    oreverthepr
    oclamati
    onofemanci pati
    on,andtoextendf r
    eedom t ot
    hewhol ecount
    ry,
    Congress,inJanuar
    y,1865,
    ont heurgentrecommendationofLincoln,tr
    ansmittedtothe
    st
    atesthet hi
    rt
    eenthamendment ,abol
    ishi
    ngslaver
    ythr
    oughoutt heUni t
    edStates.Bytheend
    of1865t heamendmentwasr atif
    ied.Thehousewasnotdi v
    idedagai nstit
    sel
    f;i
    tdidnotfal
    l;
    it
    wasallfree.

    TheRest r
    ai ntofCi v i
    lLibert
    y.—Asi nal lgreatwar s,par ti
    cul arl
    yt hosei nthenat ureofaci vi
    l
    stri
    fe,itwasf oundnecessar yt ousest r
    ongmeasur est osust ainopi ni
    onf av orabl etothe
    admi nistr
    at i
    on'smi li
    tarypoli
    ci esandt of rustratethedesi gnsoft hosewhosoughtt ohamper
    i
    tsact ion.Wi thintwoweeksofhi sf ir
    stcal lforvolunt eer s,Lincolnempower edGener alScottto
    suspendt hewr tofhabeascor
    i pusal ongt helineofmar chbet weenPhi ladel phiaand
    Washi ngtonandt hust oar r
    estandhol dwi thoutinter ferencef rom ci vi
    lcour tsanyonewhom he
    deemedamenacet otheuni on.Atal aterdat ethear eat husr uledbymi li
    taryof ficerswas
    extendedbyexecut iveproclamat ion.ByanactofMar ch3, 1863, Congress, desiringtolayal l
    doubt saboutt hePr esi
    dent'spower ,aut hor i
    zedhi mt osuspendt hewr i
    tthr oughoutt heUni t
    ed
    Statesori nanypar tthereof.Ital sof reedmi l
    itar
    yof ficer sf r
    om t henecessi tyofsur renderingto
    ci
    v i
    lcour t
    sper sonsar r
    estedundert hei ror ders,orev enmaki nganswer st owr i
    t sissuedf rom
    suchcour ts.Intheaut umnoft haty eart hePr esident ,act i
    ngundert het ermsoft hislaw,
    declaredt hisanci entandhonor ableinst rumentf ort hepr otecti
    onofci vi
    lliberties, hehabeas
    t
    corpus, suspendedt hroughoutt hel engt handbr eadt hoft heland.Thepoweroft he
    governmentwasal sost r
    engt henedbyanactdef i
    ningandpuni shi ngcer t
    ainconspi racies,
    passedonJul y31, 1861—ameasur ewhi chi mposedheav ypenal ti
    esont hosewhobyf orce,
    i
    ntimidat i
    on, orthr eatinterf
    er edwi tht heexecut ionoft hel aw.

    Thusdoublyarmed,themi l
    it
    aryaut hori
    ti
    essparednoonesuspect edofacti
    v esympathywiththe
    Souther
    ncause.Editorswerearrestedandi mpri
    soned,thei
    rpaperssuspended,andtheir
    newsboyslockedup.Thosewhoor gani
    zed"peacemeet i
    ngs"soonfoundthemsel v
    esinthet oi
    lsof
    thel
    aw.Member soft heMar yl
    andl egi
    slat
    ure,
    themay orofBalti
    more,andlocaledit
    orssuspected
    ofenter
    tai
    ningsecessioni
    stopinions,wereimprisonedonmi l
    i
    taryorder
    salthoughchargedwi t
    hno
    off
    ense,andwer edeni
    edtheprivi
    legeofexaminat
    ionbef
    oreaciv
    ilmagi
    str
    ate.AVer
    montf
    armer
    ,
    toooutspokeninhiscr
    it
    ici
    sm ofthegovernment,f
    oundhimsel
    fbehi
    ndthebarsunt
    ilt
    he
    gover
    nment ,i
    nitsgoodpleasur
    e,sawf i
    ttorel
    ease
    him.Thesemeasur eswer enotconfinedtothetheaterofwarnortot heborderstat
    eswher ethe
    spiri
    tofsecessionwasst rongenought oendangerthecauseofunion.Theywer eappli
    edal l
    throught heNorthernstat
    esupt othev eryboundari
    esofCanada.Zeal fort
    henationalcause,too
    oftensuppl ementedbyazeal forpersecuti
    on,spreadter
    roramongt hosewhowav er
    edint he
    singlenessoftheirdevoti
    ontot heunion.

    Thesedr asticoperati
    onsont hepar tofmi lit
    aryaut hor
    ities, sof orei
    gnt ot henormal courseof
    civi
    li
    zedl ife,nat
    urall
    yar ousedi ntenseandbi tterhosti
    l
    ity .Meet i
    ngsofpr otestwerehel d
    throughoutt hecountry.Thirty-
    sixmember soft heHouseofRepr esentat i
    vessoughtt oputon
    recordt heircondemnat ionoft hesuspensi onoft hehabeascor pusact ,onlytomeetaf i
    rm
    denial byt hesupportersoft heact .ChiefJust iceTaney ,bef orewhom t hecaseofaman
    arrestedundert hePr esident '
    smi li
    tar
    yaut hor i
    tywasbr ought ,emphat icallydeclared,inal ong
    andl earnedopi ni
    onbr i
    st l
    ingwi thhistori
    cal exampl es,thatt hePr esidenthadnopowert o
    suspendt hewr tofhabeascor
    i pus.InCongr essandout ,Democr ats,abol i
    tioni
    sts,and
    champi onsofci v
    illi
    bertydenouncedLi ncol nandhi sCabi neti nunspar i
    ngt erms.Val landigham,
    aDemocr ati
    cleaderofOhi o,afterwardbani shedt otheSout hforhisopposi ti
    ontot hewar ,
    const antlyappli
    edt oLincol ntheepi t
    hetof" Cæsar ."Wendel l Phil
    li
    pssawi nhim" amor e
    unlimiteddespott hant hewor l
    dknowst hissi deofChi na. "

    Sensi t
    ivetosuchsti
    ngingt hrustsandnof ri
    endofwant onpersecuti
    on,Lincolnat tempt edto
    mitigatetheri
    gorsofthel awbypar oli
    ngmanypol i
    ticalpri
    soners.Thegener alpolicy ,
    howev er
    ,
    hedef endedinhomelyl anguage, verydiffer
    entintoneandmeani ngfrom theinv olv ed
    reasoningofthelawyers."MustIshootasi mple-mindedsol di
    erboywhodeser ts, whileImust
    nott ouchahairofthewi l
    yagi tatorwhoi nduceshimt odeser t
    ?"heaskedi naqui etwayof
    somespokesmenf orthosewhopr otestedagainstar rest
    ingpeoplefor"talki
    ngagai nstthe
    war."Thissummeduphi sphilosophy .Hewasengagedi nawart osavet heunion, andall
    measur esnecessaryandpr opert oaccompl i
    shthatpur posewer ewarrantedbyt he
    Const i
    tuti
    onwhichhehadswor ntouphol d.

    Mil
    it
    aryStrat
    egy—Nor t
    handSout h.—Thebr oadoutl
    inesofmi l
    it
    arystrategyfoll
    owedbyt he
    commander softheopposingforcesarecleareventot helaymanwhocannotbeexpect edto
    masterthedetai
    lsofacampai gnor,fort
    hatmat ter
    ,themaneuv ersofasi nglegreatbatt
    le.
    Theproblem f
    ortheSouthwasoneofdef ensemai nly,
    thoughevenf ordefenseswi ftand
    par
    alyzi
    ngstrokesattheNor t
    hwer elat
    erdeemedi mper ati
    vemeasur es.Theproblem ofthe
    Nort
    hwas, toputitbal
    dly
    , oneofinvasi
    onandconquest .Sout
    hernterri
    toryhadtobei nvaded
    andSouthernarmiesbeatenontheirowngr oundorwor ndowntoexhaust ionthere.

    Intheexecutionoft hi
    sundertaking,geography,asusual,play edasignif
    icantpartinthe
    disposit
    ionofforces.TheAppal achi
    anr anges,str
    et chi
    ngthr oughtheConf ederacyto
    Nor t
    hernAlabama, div
    idedthecampai gnsint
    oEast ernandWest ernenterpri
    ses.Bothwere
    ofsignal i
    mportance.Vict
    oryintheEastpr omisedt hecaptur eoftheConf ederatecapit
    alof
    Richmond, astrokeofmor alwor t
    h,hardlytobeov eresti
    mat ed.Victor
    yint heWestmeant
    severingtheConf eder
    acyandopeni ngt heMississippiVall
    eydownt otheGul f.

    Asitturnedout ,theWest ernforcesaccompl i


    shedtheirt
    askf ir
    st,vi
    ndicati
    ngt hemi li
    tary
    powersofuni onsoldi
    ersandshaki ngtheconf i
    denceofopposi ngcommander s.InFebr uary,
    1862,Grantcapt uredFor tDonelsonont heTennesseeRi ver,r
    all
    iedwav eri
    nguni onist
    si n
    Kentucky ,
    forcedt heevacuationofNashv il
    le,andopenedt hewayf ortwohundr edmi l
    esi nt
    o
    theConf ederacy.AtShiloh,Murfreesboro, Vicksburg,Chickamauga, Chattanooga, desper at
    e
    fi
    ghti
    ngf oll
    owedand, i
    nspi teofv aryi
    ngf ortunes,i
    tresultedinthediscomf i
    tureandr etirement
    ofConfeder ateforcestot heSout heastintoGeor gi
    a.Byt hemi ddleof1863, theMi ssissippi
    Vall
    eywasopent otheGul f,t
    hei nit
    iat
    ivetakenoutoft hehandsofSout herncommander sin
    theWest
    ,andt
    hewayprepar
    edforSherman'
    sfi
    nalst
    roke—themar
    chfrom At
    lant
    atot
    he
    sea—amaneuv
    erexecut
    edwit
    hneedlesssev
    eri
    tyi
    ntheautumnof1864.
    Gener
    alUl
    yssesS.Gr
    ant Gener
    alRober
    tE.Lee

    Fort heal mostunbr okensuccessi onofachi evement si nt heWestbyGener alsGr ant,Sherman,


    Thomas, andHookeragai nstAl ber tSidneyJohnst on, Bragg, Pember t
    on, andHood, theuni on
    forcesi nt heEastof feredatf ir
    stanal mostequal lyunbr okenser iesofmi sfortunesand
    disast ers.Farf r
    om capt uringRi chmond, t
    heyhadbeent hr ownont hedef ensiv e.General af
    ter
    gener al—McCl el
    lan,Pope, Burnsi de,Hooker ,andMeade—wast r
    iedandf oundwant i
    ng.Noneof
    them coul dadmi nisteracr ushi ngdef eattot heConf eder atetroopsandmor et hanoncet he
    unionsol dierswer ebeateni naf airbat t
    le.Theydi dsucceed, howev er,
    indel i
    ver i
    ngasev ere
    checkt oadv ancingConf eder atesunderGener al Rober tE.Lee, fi
    rstatAnt i
    etam i nSeptember ,
    1862, andt henatGet t
    ysbur gi nJul y,1863—checksr eckonedasv ictori
    est houghi neach
    i
    nst ancet heConf ederatesescapedwi thoutdemor al
    ization.Notunt il
    thebegi nni ngofthenext
    year, whenGener al Grant,suppl iedwi thalmostunl i
    mi tedmenandmuni t
    ions, beganhi s
    i
    rresist i
    blehammer i
    ngatLee' sar my ,didthef i
    nal phaseoft hewarcommence.Thepi ti
    less
    drivet ol
    datl ast
    .Gener al Lee, onApr i
    l9,1865, seeingt hef uti
    li
    tyoff urtherconf l
    i
    ct,surr
    ender ed
    anar myst i
    ll
    capabl eofhar dfight i
    ng,atAppomat t
    ox, notf arfr
    om t hecapi taloft he
    Conf eder acy.

    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    TheFeder
    alMi
    l
    itar
    yHospi
    tal
    atGet
    tysbur
    g
    Abraham Li ncoln.—Theser v
    icesofLi ncolnt othecauseofuni ondef ydescription.Ajudicial
    scruti
    nyoft hewarr eveal
    shisthoughtandpl anni nginev erypar tofthev ari
    edact ivi
    tythat
    fi
    nallycrownedNor thernarmswi thv i
    ctory.Isiti nthef i
    eldofdi pl
    omacy ?DoesSewar d,the
    SecretaryofSt ate,proposeharshandcaust i
    cmeasur eslikelyt odrawEngl and'sswor dint ot
    he
    scale?Lincolncounsel smoder ati
    on.Het akest heirr
    it
    atingmessageandwi t
    hhi sownhand
    stri
    kesout ,erases,tonesdown, andi nterl
    ines, exchangingf orwor dsthatstingandbur nt he
    l
    anguageofpr udenceandcaut ion.Isitamat terofcompr omi sewi t
    ht heSout h,soof t
    en
    proposedbymenonbot hsi
    dessi ckofcar nage?Li ncolnisal way sreadyt olistenandt urns
    awayonl ywhenhei sinvi
    tedtosur r
    enderpr inci pl
    esessent i
    al tothesaf et
    yoft heuni on.Isit
    highstrategyofwar ,aquesti
    onoft hegener albestf it
    tedt owi nGettysburg—Hooker , Sedgwick,
    orMeade?Li ncolngoesi npersont ot heWarDepar tmenti nt hedeadofni ghtt otakecounsel
    withhisSecr etaryandt omaket hef atefulchoice.

    Isitacompl aintfrom acitizen, deprived, ashebel iev


    es,ofhisci vill
    iber
    ti
    esunjustlyori n
    violat
    ionoft heConst i
    tuti
    on?Li ncol nisr eadyt oheari tandanxi oust oaffordrel
    ief,i
    fwar r
    ant
    canbef oundf orit.Isamot herbeggi ngf ort hel i
    feofasonsent encedtobeshotasadeser t
    er?
    Lincolnhear sherpet i
    ti
    on, andgr antsi tev enagai nsttheprotestsmadebyhi sgener alsinthe
    nameofmi l
    itarydiscipli
    ne.Dopol it
    icianssowdi ssensionsint hear myandamongci vili
    ans?
    Lincolngrandl ywav esasi det heirpettyper sonali
    tiesandinvitest hem tothinkofthegr eat
    er
    cause.Isitaquest i
    onofsecur i
    ngv otest or ati
    fythet hi
    rt
    eenthamendmentabol ishingsl aver
    y?
    Lincolnthinksi tnotbeneat hhisdigni tytot raff
    icandhuckst erwi t
    hpol i
    ti
    ciansoverthet r
    if
    li
    ng
    j
    obsaskedi nr eturnbyt hemember swhohol doutagai nsthi
    m.DoesaNewYor knewspaper
    callhim anignor antWest er nboor ?Lincol n'sreplyi salett
    ertoamot herwhohasgi venher
    all—hersonsont hefiel
    dofbat tle—andanaddr essatGet t
    ysbur g, bothofwhichwi l
    l l
    iveas
    l
    ongast het onguei nwhi cht heywer ewr itten.Thesear etri
    but esnotonl ytohismast eryofthe
    Engl i
    shlanguagebutal sot ohismast eryofal lthosesent i
    ment sofsweet nessandst rength
    whi charethef i
    nestf l
    ower sofcul ture.

    Throughouttheenti
    respanofservice,howev er,Lincol
    nwasbesetbymer cil
    esscrit
    ics.Thef i
    ery
    apostl
    esofabolit
    ionaccusedhim ofcowar dicewhenhedel ayedt
    heboldstrokeatslavery.Anti
    -
    warDemocr atsl
    ashedoutatev er
    yst ephet ook.Ev eninhisownpar t
    yhefoundnopeace.Char l
    es
    Sumnercompl ai
    ned:"OurPresi
    dentisnowdi ctator,i
    mperator
    —whicheveryouli
    ke;buthowv ai
    nto
    havethepowerofagodandnott ousei tgodl i
    ke."Leadersamongt heRepubli
    canssoughtt oput
    hi
    m asidein1864andpl aceChasei nhischair."Ihopewemaynev erhaveawor seman, "was
    Li
    ncoln'
    squietanswer.

    Wi dewer ethedi ssensionsi nt heNor thdur i


    ngt haty earandt heRepubl i
    cans, whileselecti
    ng
    Lincolnast heircandidat eagai n,castof ft heirol dnameandchoset hesimpl etitl
    eoft he"Union
    par t
    y."Mor eov er,t
    heysel ect edaSout hernman, Andr ewJohnson, ofTennessee, tobe
    associ atedwi thhim ascandi dateforVi cePr esident .Thiscombi nationt heNor thernDemocr at
    s
    boldlyconf rontedwi thapl atform decl aringt hat" afterf ouryearsoff ail
    ur etor estoret heunion
    byt heexper i
    mentofwar , dur i
    ngwhi ch, undert hepr et enceofmi l
    itarynecessi tyorwarpower
    highert hant heConst i
    tution, theConst i
    tutioni tselfhasbeendi sregar dedi nev erypar tand
    publ i
    clibertyandpr i
    vater i
    ghtal i
    ketr oddendown. .
    .j usti
    ce,humani ty,l
    iberty ,
    andpubl icwelfar
    e
    demandt hatimmedi ateef fortsbemadef oracessat ionofhost i
    l
    iti
    es, totheendt hatpeace
    mayber estoredont hebasi soft hef eder aluni onoft hestates."I
    ti struet hatt heDemocr ati
    c
    candi date,Gener alMcCl ellan, soughtt obr eakt hey okei mposeduponhi m byt heplatform,
    say i
    ngt hathecoul dnotl ookhi soldcomr adesi nt hef aceandpr onouncet heireffortsv ai
    n;but
    thepar tycal lt
    ot henat iont or epudiat eLincol nandhi swor kshadgonef orth.Ther esponse
    came, givi
    ngLi ncoln2, 200, 000v otesagai nst1, 800, 000f orhisopponent .Thebi tt
    erthingssai d
    abouthi m dur ingthecampai gn, hefor gotandf or gav e.Wheni nApr il
    ,1865, hewasst ruckdown
    byt heassassi n'shand, heabov eal lother si nWashi ngt onwaspl anni ngmeasur esof
    moder
    ati
    onandheal
    i
    ng.

    TheResul
    tsoft
    heCi
    vi
    lWar
    Thereisastrongandnaturalt
    endencyonthepartofwr it
    erst
    ostressthedr amaticandheroic
    aspectsofwar;butt
    helongjudgmentofhistor
    yr equir
    esustoincludeall
    othersignifi
    cant
    phasesaswel l
    .Li
    keeverygreatarmedconfl
    ict
    ,theCi vi
    lWaroutr
    ant hepurposesoft hosewho
    tookparti
    nit.Wagedoverthenatureoftheuni
    on, itmadearevoluti
    onintheunion, changi
    ng
    publi
    cpoli
    ciesandconsti
    tuti
    onalpri
    nci
    plesandgi v
    inganewdi r
    ectiontoagricul
    tureand
    i
    ndustry.

    TheSupremacyoftheUnion.—Firstandfor
    emost,thewarset
    tledforal
    l t
    imethelongdisput
    e
    astothenatur
    eofthefederalsystem.Thedoctri
    neofstat
    esov er
    eignt
    ywasl ai
    dtorest.Men
    mightst
    il
    lspeakoftheri
    ghtsofst at
    esandthinkofthei
    rcommonweal thswit
    haffect
    ion,but
    nul
    li
    fi
    cati
    onandsecessionwer edestroy
    ed.Thenationwassupreme.

    TheDest r
    uct ionoft heSl av ePower .
    —Nextt ot hev i
    ndicat i
    onofnat i
    onal supr emacywast he
    dest ructi
    onoft heplant ingar i
    stocracyoft heSout h—t hatgreatpowerwhi chhadf ur nished
    l
    eader shipofundoubt edabi lityandhadsol ongcont estedwi t
    ht heindust rialandcommer cial
    i
    nt erestsoft heNor t
    h.Thef irstparalyzingblowatt hepl anterswasst ruckbyt heabol it
    ionof
    sl
    av ery.Thesecondandt hirdcamewi t
    ht hef ourteenth( 1868)andf i
    fteenth( 1870)
    amendment s, givi
    ngt hebal lottofreedmenandexcl udingf rom publ i
    cof fi
    cet heConf ederat e
    l
    eader s—dr ivi
    ngf r
    om t hewor kofreconst ructiont hef i
    nestt al
    entsoft heSout h.Asi ft oadd
    bi
    t ternesst ogal landwor mwood, thef ourteent hamendmentf orbadet heUni tedSt atesorany
    statet opayanydebt si ncur redinai doft heConf ederacyori ntheemanci pat i
    onoft he
    sl
    av es—pl ungi ngintout terbankr uptcyt heSout hernfinancierswhohadst rippedt hei rsect ion
    ofcapi t
    al tosuppor tthei rcause.Sot heSout her nplantersfoundt hemsel vesexcl udedf rom
    publ icofficeandr ul
    edov erbyt hei
    rf ormerbondmenundert hetut el
    ageofRepubl i
    canl eader s.
    Thei rlaborsy stem waswr eckedandt heirmoneyandbondswer easwor t
    hl essaswast epaper .
    TheSout hwassubj ectt ot heNor t
    h.Thatwhi chnei thert heFeder ali
    stsnort heWhi gshadbeen
    ablet oaccompl i
    shint her ealm ofst atecraftwasaccompl i
    shedont hef i
    eldofbat tl
    e.

    TheTr i
    umphofIndustr
    y.—Thewr eckoftheplanti
    ngsy st
    em wasaccompani edbyami ghty
    upswingofNortherni
    ndustr
    ywhi chmadet heoldWhi gsofMassachuset t
    sandPennsy l
    vaniastar
    e
    i
    nwonder ment.Thedemandsoft hef
    ederalgovernmentformanuf acturedgoodsatunrestrict
    ed
    pri
    cesgav easti
    mulustobusinesswhichmor ethanreplacedthelostmar ketsoftheSouth.
    Between1860and1870t henumberofmanuf acturi
    ngestabli
    shment sincreased79.6percentas
    against14.
    2forthepr
    eviousdecade;whilethenumberofper sonsempl oy edalmostdoubled.
    Therewasnodoubtaboutt hefutureofAmer i
    canindustry
    .

    TheVi ctoryforthePr ot
    ecti
    veTariff
    .—Mor eover,itwashencef ort
    ht obewellprotected.For
    manyy earsbeforethewart hefr
    iendsofpr otectionhadbeenont hedefensi
    ve.Thet ar
    if
    fact
    of1857i mposeddut iessolowast opresageat arif
    fforrevenueonly.Thewarchangedal l
    that.Theext r
    aordinarymili
    tar
    yexpenditures,requiri
    ngheav ytaxesonallsources,justi
    fi
    ed
    tari
    ffssohi ghthataf ol
    lowerofClayorWebst ermi ghtwellhavegaspedwi t
    hast onishment.
    Afterthewarwasov erthedebtremainedandbot hint
    erestandprinci
    palhadtobepai d.
    Protectiveargument sbasedoneconomi creasoni ngwer esupportedbyaplainnecessi t
    yfor
    revenuewhi chadmi ttednodispute.

    ALiberal I
    mmi grationPolicy.
    —Linkedwi t
    hindust r
    ywast helaborsuppl y
    .Thepr oblem of
    manningi ndustr
    iesbecameapr essi
    ngmat ter,andRepubl i
    canl eadersgr appledwi thi
    t.I
    nt he
    plat
    for
    m oft heUni onpar tyadoptedin1864i twasdecl ared"t
    hatf oreignimmi gration,whichin
    thepasthasaddedsomucht otheweal t
    h,thedev el
    opmentofr esources, andt hei ncr
    easeof
    powert othisnation—t heasylum oftheoppr essedofal lnati
    ons—shoul dbef ost eredand
    encouragedbyal iberalandjustpoli
    cy .
    "Inthatv eryyearCongr ess,recogni zi
    ngt hei mportance
    oftheproblem, passedameasur eofhighsi gni
    f i
    cance,creat
    ingabur eauofi mmi grati
    on,and
    author
    izingamodi fiedform ofi
    ndent uredlabor,bymaki ngitlegalforimmi grantst opledge
    thei
    rwagesi nadvancetopaythei
    rpassageover
    .Thought hebi
    llwassoonrepeal
    ed,t
    he
    practi
    ceauthori
    zedbyitwaslongconti
    nued.Thecheapnessofthepassageshort
    enedthe
    term ofser
    vice;
    butthepri
    nci
    plewasolderthanthedaysofWill
    i
    am Penn.
    TheHomest eadActof1862. —I ntheimmigrati
    onmeasur eguar anteei
    ngacont i
    nuousand
    adequatel aborsuppl y,themanufacturer
    ssawanof fsett otheHomest eadActof1862gr anti
    ng
    fr
    eelandst oset tl
    ers.TheHomest eadlawtheyhadr esist
    edi nal ongandbit
    tercongressional
    batt
    le.Nat urall
    y ,
    theyhadnott akenkindl
    ytoaschemewhi chluredmenawayf r
    om thef act
    oriesor
    enabledthem t omakeunl imi
    teddemandsf orhigherwagesast hepr i
    ceofremaining.Southern
    pl
    anterslikewi sehadf earedf
    reehomest eadsf orthev erygoodr easonthattheyonlypromisedt o
    addtot heov erbal
    ancingpoweroft heNor t
    h.

    Inspi t
    eoft heopposi ti
    on, suppor tersofal i
    berall
    andpol icymadest eadygai ns.Free- soil
    Democr ats,
    —Jacksoni anf armer sandmechani cs,—laborr efor
    mer s, andpol it
    icall
    eader s,li
    ke
    StephenA.Dougl asofI ll
    inoisandAndr ewJohnsonofTennessee, keptupt heagitationi n
    seasonandout .Mor ethanoncewer et heyabletoforceahomest eadbi llthrought heHouseof
    Repr esentati
    vesonl ytohav eitblockedi ntheSenatewher eSout her ninterestswer ei ntrenched.
    Then, aftertheSenat ewaswonov er
    ,aDemocr at
    icPr esi
    dent ,
    JamesBuchanan, vet oedt hebil
    l.
    Stil
    lthei ssueli
    v ed.TheRepubl i
    cans, strongamongt hefar mersoft heNor thwest,fav oredi t
    from thebegi nningandpr essedi tupont heattenti
    onoft hecount r
    y .Finall
    yt hemanuf act urer
    s
    yiel
    ded; theyrecei vedtheircompensat ioninthecont r
    actlaborl aw.I n1862Congr esspr ovi
    ded
    forthef reedistributi
    onofl andin160- acrelot
    samongmenandwomenofst rongar msand
    wi l
    l
    inghear tsreadyt obuildt hei
    rser ri
    edl i
    nesofhomest eadst otheRocki esandbey ond.

    Int
    ernalImpr ov ements.—Iffarmer sandmanuf act
    urerswereearl
    ydivi
    dedont hemat teroff r
    ee
    homest eads, thesamecoul dhar dl
    ybesai dofi nt
    ernali
    mprovements.TheWest erntill
    erofthe
    soil
    wasaseagerf orsomeeasywayofsendi nghisproducetomarketast hemanuf act ur
    er
    wasf orthesamemeanst otransporthisgoodst otheconsumeront hefarm.Whi l
    et he
    Confeder at
    el eader swerewr i
    tingintotheirconsti
    tuti
    onaclausefor
    biddingallappropriati
    ons
    fori
    nternal i
    mpr ovements,theRepubl i
    canl eadersatWashingtonwereplanningsuch
    expendituresf rom thetreasuryintheform ofpubl i
    clandgrantstor
    ailwaysaswoul dhav e
    dazedtheaut hor softhenational r
    oadbi l
    lhalfacenturyear
    li
    er.

    SoundFi nance—Nat ional Banking.—From Hami l


    ton'sdayt oLi
    ncol n's,businessmeni nt heEasthad
    contendedf orasoundsy st
    em ofnat i
    onal currency .Theexper ienceoft hest ateswi thpapermoney ,
    painfull
    yimpressiveinthey earsbeforethef r
    ami ngoft heConst i
    tuti
    on,hadbeenconv i
    ncingto
    thosewhounder stoodt heeconomyofbusi ness.TheConst i
    tution,aswehav eseen, boret hesi
    gns
    ofthisexper i
    ence.Stateswer eforbi
    ddent oemi tbill
    sofcr edi
    t: papermoney ,inshor t
    .Thi s
    provisi
    onst oodclearint hedocument ;butjudiciali
    ngenui tyhadci rcumv entedi ti
    nt heageof
    JacksonianDemocr acy.Thest ateshadenact edandt heSupremeCour t,aft
    ert hedeat hofJohn
    Mar shall
    ,hadsustainedl awschar t
    eri
    ngbanki ngcompani esandaut horizingthem toi ssuepaper
    money .Sot hecountrywasbesetbyt heol dcur se,thebanksofWest ernandSout hernst ates
    i
    ssui ngreamsofpapernot est ohelpborrower spayt heirdebts.

    Indealingwithwarf inances,t
    heRepublicansat t
    ackedthisanci
    entev i
    l
    .ByactofCongressin
    1864,theyaut hori
    zedaser i
    esofnat
    ionalbanksf oundedonthecreditofgover
    nmentbondsand
    empower edt oi ssuenot es.Thenexty eart heystoppedallbankpapersentf ort
    hunderthe
    authori
    tyoft hest atesbymeansofapr ohibit
    ivetax.I
    nt hi
    sway ,bytwomeasur esCongr
    ess
    restor
    edf ederalcont roloverthemonetarysy stem alt
    houghitdidnotr eëst
    abl
    ishtheUni
    ted
    StatesBanksohat edbyJacksonianDemocr acy.

    Destructi
    onofStates'Ri
    ghtsbyFour teenthAmendment .—Theseactsandot hersnotcit
    ed
    herewer emeasuresofcent r
    ali
    zat
    ionandconsol i
    dat i
    onattheexpenseoft hepowersand
    digni
    tyofthestates.Theywereallofhi ghimport,butthecrowningactofnat i
    onal
    ism wasthe
    fourt
    eenthamendmentwhi ch,amongot hert
    hings,forbadestat
    esto"depr i
    veanypersonof
    l
    ife,l
    iber
    tyorpropertywit
    houtduepr ocessofl aw."Thei mmediateoccasion,t
    houghnott he
    actualcauseofthisprovi
    sion,wastheneedf orpr otecti
    ngtheri
    ghtsoffreedmenagai nst
    hosti
    lel
    egisl
    aturesi
    nt heSout
    h.Ther esul
    toft
    heamendment ,aswasprophesi
    edi
    nprotest
    s
    l
    oudandl ongfrom everyquar
    teroftheDemocrat
    icparty
    ,wasthesubj
    ecti
    onofever
    yactof
    stat
    e,munici
    pal,andcountyauthor
    it
    iestopossi
    bleannulmentbyt
    heSupremeCourtat
    Washingt
    on.Theexpect edhappened.
    Fewnegr oeseverbr oughtcasesundert hef ourt
    eent hamendmentt otheat tent i
    onoft hecourts;
    butt housandsofst at el
    aws, muni ci
    palor di
    nances, andactsoflocal authoriti
    eswer esetasi de
    asnul landvoidunderi t
    .Lawsofst atesregulati
    ngr ail
    wayrates,fixinghour sofl aborin
    bakeshops, andt axingcor por
    ationswer ei nduet i
    met obeannul ledasconf li
    ctingwi than
    amendmenter r
    oneousl ysupposedt obedesi gnedsol el
    yforthepr ot ect
    ionofnegr oes.As
    cent r
    ali
    zedpowerov ert
    ar i
    ff
    s,rail
    way s,publicl
    ands, andothernat ionalconcer nswentt o
    Congr ess,socent r
    alizedpowerov ertheact sofstat eandlocalaut horit
    iesi nvolvingan
    i
    nfringementofper sonal andproper t
    yrightswasconf err
    edont hef ederaljudiciary,theapexof
    whi chwast heSupr emeCour tatWashi ngt on.Thust heoldfederationof" independentst at
    es,"
    al
    l equal i
    nrightsanddi gnity,
    eachwear ingthe"jewel ofsoverei
    gnt y"socel ebr atedinSout hern
    oratory,hadgonet hewayofal l f
    leshundert hewi theri
    ngblastsofCi vi
    lWar .

    Reconst
    ruct
    ioni
    ntheSout
    h

    Theor i
    esaboutt hePosi t
    ionoftheSecededSt ates.—Ont hemor ningofApr il9,1865, when
    Gener al Leesur r
    ender edhisarmyt oGener al Gr ant,elev enst atesstoodi napecul i
    arrel
    ationto
    theuni onnowdecl aredperpetual.Lawyersandpol i
    tical philosopher swer emuchper turbed
    andhadbeenf orsomet i
    meast owhatshoul dbedonewi ththemember soft hef ormer
    Conf eder acy.Radical Republi
    canshel dthattheywer e" conquer edpr ovi
    nces"att hemer cyof
    Congr ess, tobegov ernedundersuchl awsasi tsawf i
    tt oenactandunt ilinitswisdom i t
    decidedt oreadmi tanyoral lofthem totheuni on.Menofmor econser vativeviewshel dthat,
    ast hewarhadbeenwagedbyt heNor thont het heoryt hatnost atecouldsecedef r
    om the
    union, t
    heConf eder atestat
    eshadmer elyattempt edt owi t
    hdr awandhadf ai
    led.Thecor ollar
    y
    ofthisl atterl
    ineofar gumentwassi mple: "
    TheSout her nst atesar esti
    ll
    int heuni onandi tis
    thedut yoft hePr esident,ascommander -i
    n-chi ef,toremov ethef ederaltr
    oopsassoonas
    orderisr est
    oredandt hestategov ernmentsr eadyt of unctiononcemor easusual ."

    Lincoln'sPr oposal .
    —Somesuchsi mpl eandconser v ati
    vef orm ofreconstructionhadbeen
    suggest edbyLi ncolni napr oclamationofDecember8, 1863.Hepr oposedpar donanda
    restorat i
    onofpr oper ty,excepti nslaves, t
    onear lyall whohad" dir
    ect l
    yorbyi mpl i
    cati
    on
    participatedint heexi stingr ebell
    i
    on,"oncondi tionthatt heyt akeanoat hofloy al
    tytot heunion.
    Het henannouncedt hatwhen, i
    nanyoft hest atesnamed, abodyofv ot
    ers,qualifi
    edundert he
    l
    awasi tstoodbef or
    esecessi onandequal innumbert oone- t
    entht hevotescasti n1860, took
    theoat hofallegiance, theyshoul dbeper mittedt or eëstablishast ategov ernment .Sucha
    gov ernment ,headded, shoul dber ecognizedasal awf ulauthor i
    tyandent it
    ledt oprotecti
    on
    undert hefederal Const ituti
    on.Wi threferencet ot hest atusoft hef ormerslav esLincolnmadei t
    clearthat ,whiletheirf r
    eedom mustber ecogni zed, hewoul dnotobj ecttoanyl egisl
    ation"which
    mayy etbeconsi stentasat empor aryarrangementwi t
    ht heirpresentconditionasal abor i
    ng,
    l
    andl ess, andhomel esscl ass."

    Andr ewJohnson' sPlan—HisImpeachment .


    —Lincoln'ssuccessor ,
    AndrewJohnson, t
    heVice
    President,soonaf t
    ertaki
    ngoffi
    ce, proposedt opur sueasomewhatsi milarcour se.Inanumberof
    stat
    esheappoi ntedmi l
    it
    arygovernor s,i
    nst r
    uctingt hem attheearli
    estpossi bl
    emomentt o
    assembl econv enti
    ons,chosen"byt hatpor t
    ionofthepeopl eoft hesaidst at
    eswhoar eloyaltothe
    UnitedSt at
    es,"andproceedtotheor ganizationofr egularcivi
    lgovernment .Johnson, aSouthern
    manandaDemocr at,wasimmedi atelychar gedbyt heRepubl i
    canswithbei ngtoor eadytorestore
    theSout hernstates.Asthemont hswentby ,theopposi ti
    ont ohismeasur esandpol ici
    esin
    Congr essgrewi nsizeandbitt
    erness.Thecont estresultedintheimpeachmentofJohnsonbyt he
    HouseofRepr esentati
    vesinMar ch,1868, andhi sacquittal
    byt heSenatemer el
    ybecausehi s
    opponent slackedonev oteofthet wo- t
    hirdsr equir
    edf orconv i
    cti
    on.

    Congr
    essEnact
    s"Reconstruct
    ionLaws.
    "—Infact
    ,Congr
    esswasinastrat
    egi
    cposi
    ti
    on.I
    twasthe
    l
    aw-maki
    ngbody,anditcould,
    moreover
    ,determi
    nethecondi
    ti
    onsunderwhi
    chSenat
    orsand
    Representati
    vesfr
    om t
    heSout hwer
    etobereadmi
    tted.Itt
    herefor
    eproceededtopassaseri
    esof
    reconst
    ructionact
    s—carr
    yingall
    oft
    hem ov
    erJohnson'sveto.Thesemeasures,t
    hefi
    rstofwhi
    ch
    becameal awonMarch
    2,
    1867,
    bet
    ray
    edanani
    musnotf
    oundany
    wher
    einLi
    ncol
    n'
    spl
    ansorJohnson'
    spr
    ocl
    amat
    ions.

    Theyl aidof fthet enst at


    es—t hewhol eConf ederacywitht heexcept ionofTennessee—st ill
    outsidet hepal e,intofivemilitarydistri
    cts,eachcommandedbyami l
    itaryof fi
    cerappoi ntedby
    thePr esident .Theyor deredt hecommandi nggener alt
    opr eparear egist erofv otersforthe
    elect
    ionofdel egat estoconv entionschosenf orthepurposeofdr af
    tingnewconst i
    tuti
    ons.
    Suchv oters,howev er
    , werenott obe,asLi ncolnhadsuggest ed, l
    oyal per sonsdul yqualifi
    ed
    undert hel awexi stingbef or
    esecessi onbut" themal ecit
    izensofsai dst at e,t
    went y-oney ears
    oldandupwar d,ofwhat everr ace,color,
    orpr eviouscondi ti
    on, .
    ..exceptsuchasmaybe
    disfr
    anchi sedf orpar ti
    cipati
    oni ntherebell
    ionorf orfel
    onyatcommonl aw. "Thiswast hedeat h
    knelltothei deat hatt heleader soft heConf ederacyandt hei rwhitesuppor t
    ersmi ghtbe
    permi t
    tedt oshar ei ntheest abl i
    shmentoft henewor der.Powerwast husar bi
    traril
    ythrustinto
    thehandsoft henewl yemanci patedmal enegr oesandt hehandf ulofwhi teswhocoul dshowa
    recordofl oy alty.Thatwasnotal l
    .Eachst atewas, undert her econstruct ionacts, compel l
    edt o
    rati
    fythef our teent hamendmentt othefeder alConstit
    utionasapr i
    ceofr est
    orationtot he
    union.

    Thecomposi tionoft heconv entionst husaut hor i


    zedmaybei magi ned.Bondmenwi thoutthe
    askingandwi thoutpr eparat i
    onf oundt hemsel v
    est hegov er
    ningpower .Anar myofadv enturers
    from t heNor th, "carpetbagger s"ast heywer ecalled,pouredinupont hescenet oaidin
    "reconst ruct
    ion. "Undoubt edlymanymenofhonorandf i
    neintent i
    onsgav eunstint
    edser vi
    ce,
    butt her esul
    tsoft heirdeliberati
    onsonl yaggr avatedtheopenwoundl ef tbythewar .Any
    numberofpol itical doctorsof feredt heirprescripti
    ons;butnoef fecti
    v er emedycoul dbef ound.
    Undermeasur esadmi t
    tedlyopent ogr aveobj ecti
    ons, t
    heSout hernst at eswer eoneaf ter
    anotherr est
    or edt ot heuni onbyt hegr aceofCongr ess,thelastonei n1870.Ev enthisgr udging
    concessi onoft hef ormal i
    tiesofst atehooddi dnotmeanaf ullrestorationofhonor sand
    privi
    leges.Thel astsol dierwasnotwi thdrawnf rom thelastSout herncapi tal
    unt i
    l1877, and
    feder alcontrol ov erelect i
    onsl ongr emai nedasasi gnofcongr essional supremacy .

    TheSt at usoft heFreedmen. —Evenmor eintr


    icatethant hei
    ssuesi nv
    olvedinr estoringtheseceded
    statest ot heunionwast hequest ionofwhatt odowi ththenewlyemanci patedsl av es.That
    problem, oftenputtoabol i
    ti
    onist
    sbef orethewar ,
    hadbecomeatl astarealconcer n.Thet hi
    rteent
    h
    amendmentabol i
    shingslaveryhadnott ouchedi tatall.I
    tdecl
    aredbondmenf r ee,butdi dnothing
    topr ovidet hem withworkorhomesanddi dnotment i
    onthesubjectofpolit
    ical ri
    ght s.Allt
    hese
    mat terswer elef
    ttothest at
    es,andt helegisl
    aturesofsomeoft hem, bythei
    rf amous" blackcodes,"
    restoredaf orm ofservi
    tudeundert heguiseofv agrancyandappr ent
    icelaws.Suchmet hodswer e
    i
    nf actpar tl
    yresponsibl
    ef orthereacti
    ont hatledCongr esstoabandonLi ncoln'spol ici
    esand
    under t
    akei t
    sownpr ogr
    am ofr econstruct
    ion.

    Stil
    lnoext ensiv
    eef fortwasmadet osolv ebylawt heeconomi cprobl emsoft hebondmen.
    Radicalabol i
    ti
    onistshadadv ocatedthatt heslaveswhenemanci patedshoul dbegi ven
    outri
    ghtthef iel
    dsoft heirformermast ers;butCongr esssteadi
    lyrejectedthev eryideaof
    confiscati
    on.Thenecessi tyofimmedi at eassist
    ancei trecogni
    zedbycr eati
    ngi n1865t he
    Freedmen' sBureaut ot akecareofr efugees.Itauthor i
    zedtheissueoff oodandcl othi
    ngto
    thedest i
    tuteandt herent i
    ngofabandonedandcer tainotherl
    andsunderf ederalcontr
    ol t
    o
    formerslav esatreasonabl erates.Butt helargerproblem oftherelati
    onoft hef reedment o
    theland,itleftt
    ot heslowwor kingoftime.

    Againstshar pprotestsfr
    om conservati
    vemen, par
    ti
    cularl
    yamongt heDemocrats,Congressdid
    i
    nsist,howev er,
    onconf err
    ingupont hefreedmencer tai
    nright
    sbynat i
    onall
    aw.Theser i
    ghtsfel
    li
    nto
    broaddiv i
    sions,ci
    vilandpoliti
    cal
    .Byanactpassedi n1866,Congressgavetoformerslavesthe
    ri
    ghtsofwhi t
    eciti
    zensint hematterofmaki ngcontract
    s,givi
    ngtesti
    monyincourts,and
    purchasing,sell
    ing,andleasingproper
    ty.Asi twasdoubtfulwhetherCongr
    esshadt hepowert o
    enactthislaw, t
    herewaspassedandsubmi ttedtothestatesthefour
    teent
    hamendmentwhi ch
    gaveci
    ti
    zenshiptot
    hef reedmen,assur
    edt hem ofthepri
    vi
    legesandimmuniti
    esofcit
    izensofthe
    Uni
    tedStates,
    anddeclaredthatnostat
    eshoul ddepriv
    eanyper sonofhi
    sli
    fe,
    li
    bert
    y,orpropert
    y
    wit
    houtdueprocessoflaw.Noty etsat
    isfi
    ed,Congressatt
    emptedt ogi
    vesoci
    alequal
    itytonegroes
    bythesecondciv
    ilr
    ightsbill
    of1875whi chpromisedtothem,
    amongothert
    hings,
    thef
    ull
    andequalenj
    oymentofinns,theat
    ers,
    publi
    cconvey
    ances,
    andpl
    acesofamusement—alawlat
    erdecl
    aredunconsti
    tuti
    onalbytheSupr
    emeCourt.

    Themat t erofpolit
    icalright
    swasev enmor ehot l
    ycontested;buttheradical
    Republicans,l
    ike
    CharlesSumner ,assertedthatci
    v i
    lrightswerenotsecur eunlesssuppor t
    edbyt hesuffr
    age.In
    thi
    ssamef our
    teenthamendmentt heyat t
    empt edtoguaranteethebal l
    ottoall
    negromen,
    l
    eavingt hewoment otakecareoft hemsel ves.Theamendmentdecl aredineff
    ectthatwhen
    anyst at
    edepr i
    v edadul tmalecit
    izensoft her i
    ghttovote,i
    tsrepresentati
    oninCongr essshould
    bereducedi nt
    hepr oporti
    onsuchper sonsboretothev oti
    ngpopul at
    ion.

    Thispr ov i
    sionhav ingfail
    edtoaccompl i
    shit
    spur pose,t
    hef ifteenthamendmentwaspassedand
    rati
    fied, ex presslydecl ari
    ngthatnoci t
    izenshouldbedepr iv
    edoft heri
    ghttov ot
    e" onaccountof
    race, col or,orpr eviousconditionofser vit
    ude."Tomakeassur ancedoublysecure,Congress
    enact edi n1870, 1872, and1873t hreedr ast
    iclaws,somet i
    mesknownas" forcebill
    s,
    "providi
    ng
    fortheuseoff eder alauthori
    ties,civi
    landmi li
    tar
    y,insupervisingelect
    ionsinallpart
    soft heUnion.
    Sot hef eder algov ernment ,
    hav i
    ngdest royedchattelsl
    avery, soughtbylegaldecreetosweep
    awayal l it
    ssi gnsandbadges, civi
    l,social
    ,andpolit
    ical
    .Nev er ,sav
    eperhapsinsomeoft hecivi
    l
    conflictsofGr eeceorRome, hadt hereoccurredintheaffai
    rsofanat i
    onasoci alrevol
    uti
    onso
    compl ete, sodr astic,andfar-reachinginitsresul
    ts.

    Summar
    yoft
    heSect
    ional
    Conf
    li
    ct

    Justast heUni tedSt ates,undert heimpet usofWest ernenterpri


    se,r
    oundedoutt he
    continentaldomai n,itsveryexi stenceasanat ionwaschal lengedbyaf ratr
    ici
    dalconfli
    ct
    betweent wosect i
    ons.Thi sst orm hadbeenl onggat heri
    ngupont hehor i
    zon.From thevery
    beginningincol onialti
    mest herehadbeenamar keddiff
    erencebetweent heSouthandt he
    North.Thef ormerbycl imateandsoi lwasdedi catedtoapl anti
    ngsystem—t heculti
    vati
    onof
    tobacco, r
    ice,cotton,andsugarcane—andi nthecour seoftimeslavelaborbecamet he
    foundationoft hesy stem.TheNor th,ontheotherhand, supplementedagr i
    cul
    tureby
    commer ce,tr
    ade, andmanuf acturi
    ng.Slavery,
    thoughl awful,di
    dnotflouri
    shthere.An
    abundantsuppl yoffreel aborkeptt heNor ther
    nwheel sturning.

    Thisdifferencebet weent hetwosect i


    ons, earlynotedbycl oseobserver
    s, wasincreasedwi th
    theadv entoft hest eam engi neandt hef actorysyst em.Bet ween1815and1860ani ndustri
    al
    revol
    ut i
    ont ookpl aceint heNor th.It
    ssi gnswer egigant i
    cfactori
    es,hugeaggr egati
    onsof
    i
    ndust ri
    alwor kers,immenseci t
    ies,aflourishingcommer ce,andprosperousbanks.Fi ndingan
    unfavorabler eceptionint heSout h,thenewi ndustrialsystem wasconf i
    nedmai nl
    ytot heNorth.
    Bycanal sandr ail
    way sNewYor k,Boston,andPhi l
    adel phiawereli
    nkedwi ththewheat fiel
    dsof
    Ohio,Indiana, andIlli
    nois.Ast eelnetwov eNor thandNor thwesttogether.Acommer cialnet
    supplement edi t.West erntradewasdi vertedf r
    om NewOr leanstotheEastandEast erncredi
    t
    sustainedWest ernent erpri
    se.

    Intime,theindust r
    ialNort
    handt heplanti
    ngSout hevolveddi
    fferentideasofpoli
    ti
    calpol
    icy
    .
    Thef ormerlookedwi t
    hfavoronpr ot
    ectiv
    et ari
    ff
    s,shipsubsi
    dies,asoundnat i
    onalbanki
    ng
    system, andinternalimprovements.Thef ar
    mer softheWestdemandedt hatthepubli
    c
    domai nbedi vi
    dedupi nt
    ofreehomest eadsf orf
    armers.TheSout hsteadil
    yswungaroundto
    theopposi t
    ev i
    ew.I tsspokesmencamet oregardmostoft hesepol i
    ciesasinj
    uri
    oustothe
    planti
    ngi nt
    erests.

    Theeconomicquesti
    onswereallinvol
    vedinamor al
    issue.TheNor t
    hernstates,i
    nwhich
    slav
    erywasofsli
    ghtconsequence,hadearl
    yaboli
    shedthei nst
    it
    uti
    on.Inthecourseofafew
    yearst
    hereappear
    eduncompr omisingadv
    ocatesofuniversalemancipat
    ion.Farandwide
    t
    heagi
    tat
    ionspread.TheSouthwasthor
    oughl
    yfr
    ight
    ened.Itdemandedprot
    ecti
    onagai
    nst
    t
    heagi
    tat
    ors,t
    heenf or
    cementofit
    sri
    ghtsi
    nthecaseofrunawayslaves,
    andequal
    pri
    vi
    leges
    f
    orsl
    aver
    yinthenewt err
    it
    ori
    es.
    Wi t
    hthepassi ngy earst heconf li
    ctbetweent het wosect i
    onsincreasedinbitt
    erness.I
    tflamedupi n
    1820andwasal l
    ay edbyt heMi ssouri
    compr omi se.I
    ttookont heform ofatarif
    fcontr
    ov ersyand
    null
    ifi
    cationi n1832.I tappear edagainaf tertheMexi canwarwhent hequest i
    onofslaveryint he
    newt erri
    torieswasr aised.Agai ncompr omi se—t hegreatsett
    lementof1850—seemedt orestore
    peace, onlytopr oveani l
    lusion.Aser i
    esofst ar t
    li
    ngev entssweptthecount r
    yintowar:ther epealof
    theMi ssour icompr omi sei n1854, t
    her i
    seoft heRepublicanpartypledgedtotheprohi
    bi t
    ionof
    slaver
    yi nthet erri
    tories,theDr edScottdeci sionof1857, theLincol
    n-Douglasdebates,John
    Brown'sr aid,theelect i
    onofLi ncoln,andsecessi on.

    TheCivil
    War ,
    lasti
    ngforfouryear
    s,testedthestrengthofbot hNort
    handSouth,inleadershi
    p,
    i
    nfinance,i
    ndiplomaticski
    ll
    ,i
    nmat eri
    alresources,i
    ni ndust
    ry,andi
    narmedforces.Bythe
    bl
    ockadeofSout hernport
    s,byanov er
    whel mingwei ghtofmenandmat er
    ial
    s,andbyr elentl
    ess
    hammer i
    ngont hefiel
    dofbattl
    e,t
    heNor t
    hwasv i
    ctori
    ous.

    Ther esultsofthewarwer erevoluti


    onar yi nchar acter.Slaverywasabol ishedandt hefr
    eedmen
    givent heballot
    .TheSout hernplanterswhohadbeent heleader softheirsect i
    onwer erui
    ned
    fi
    nanci al
    lyandal mostt oamanexcl udedf rom takingpar tinpol i
    ti
    calaffairs.Theunionwas
    decl aredt obeper pet
    ual andther i
    ghtofast atet osecedeset tl
    edbyt hej udgmentofbat t
    le.
    Feder alcontrolov ert
    heaf fai
    rsofst ates, counties,andci ti
    eswasest ablishedbyt he
    fourt eenthamendment .Thepowerandpr estigeoft hefederal gover
    nmentwer eenhanced
    bey ondi magi nation.TheNor thwasnowf reet opur suei t
    seconomi cpolicies:aprotect
    ive
    tari
    ff ,anat i
    onal bankingsy st
    em, landgr ant sforr ai
    lway s,fr
    eel andsforf armers.Planti
    nghad
    domi natedt hecount r
    yf ornearlyagener ation.Busi nessent erpri
    sewast ot akeit
    splace.

    Ref
    erences

    Nor
    ther
    nAccount
    s

    J.
    K.Hosmer
    ,TheAppealt
    oAr
    msandTheOut
    comeoft
    heCi
    vi
    lWar(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    .

    Hi
    J.Ropes, st
    oryoft
    heCi
    vi
    lWar(
    bestaccountofmi
    l
    itar
    ycampai
    gns)
    .

    J. Hi
    F.Rhodes, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    Vol
    s.I
    II
    ,I
    V,andV.

    J.
    T.Mor Abr
    se, aham Li
    ncol
    n(2v
    ols.
    ).

    Sout
    her
    nAccount
    s

    W. Jef
    E.Dodd, fer
    sonDav
    is.

    Jef
    fer
    sonDav
    i Ri
    s, seandFal
    loft
    heConf
    eder
    ateGov
    ernment
    .

    E.Pol
    l
    ar TheLostCause.
    d,

    A.
    H.St TheWarbet
    ephens, weent
    heSt
    ates.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Cont
    rastt
    her
    ecept
    ionofsecessi
    oni
    n1860wi
    tht
    hatgi
    vent
    onul
    l
    ifi
    cat
    ioni
    n1832.

    2.
    Compar
    etheNor
    ther
    nandSout
    her
    nvi
    ewsoft
    heuni
    on.
    3.
    Whatwer
    ethepecul
    i
    arf
    eat
    uresoft
    heConf
    eder
    ateconst
    it
    uti
    on?
    4.
    Howwast
    heConf
    eder
    acyf
    inanced?

    5.
    Compar
    ether
    esour
    cesoft
    het
    wosect
    ions.

    6.
    Onwhatf
    oundat
    ionsdi
    dSout
    her
    nhopesr
    est
    ?

    7.
    Descr
    ibet
    heat
    tempt
    satapeacef
    ulset
    tl
    ement
    .

    8.
    Comparether
    aisi
    ngofarmiesf
    ort
    heCi
    vi
    lWarwi
    tht
    hemet
    hodsempl
    oyedi
    ntheWor
    ld
    War.(
    Seebel
    ow,chapt
    erxxv.
    )

    9.
    Compar
    ethef
    inanci
    almet
    hodsoft
    hegov
    ernmenti
    nthet
    wowar
    s.

    10.
    Expl
    ainwhyt
    hebl
    ockadewassuchadeadl
    yweapon.

    11.
    Giv
    ethel
    eadi
    ngdi
    plomat
    icev
    ent
    soft
    hewar
    .

    12.
    Tracet
    hegr
    owt
    hofant
    i-
    slav
    erysent
    iment
    .

    13.
    Whatmeasur
    eswer
    etakent
    orest
    rai
    ncr
    it
    ici
    sm oft
    hegov
    ernment
    ?

    14.
    Whatpar
    tdi
    dLi
    ncol
    npl
    ayi
    nal
    lphasesoft
    hewar
    ?

    15.
    Stat
    ethepr
    inci
    pal
    resul
    tsoft
    hewar
    .

    16.
    Compar
    eLi
    ncol
    n'
    spl
    anofr
    econst
    ruct
    ionwi
    tht
    hatadopt
    edbyCongr
    ess.

    17.
    Whatr
    ight
    sdi
    dCongr
    essat
    temptt
    oconf
    erupont
    hef
    ormersl
    aves?

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    WasSecessi
    onLawful
    ?—TheSouther
    nviewbyJeff
    ersonDav
    isinHardi Sel
    ng, ectOr
    ati
    ons
    I
    ll
    ust
    rat
    ingAmeri
    canHist
    ory
    ,pp.364-
    369.Li
    ncol
    n'
    sv i
    ew,Har
    ding,
    pp.371-
    381.

    TheConfederat
    eConst
    it
    uti
    on.—Comparewit
    hthefeder
    alConst
    it
    uti
    oni
    nMacdonal
    d,
    DocumentarySour
    ceBook,pp.424-
    433andpp.271-
    279.

    Feder
    alLegi
    slat
    iveMeasur
    es.
    —Pr
    epar
    eat
    abl
    eandbr
    iefdi
    gestoft
    hei
    mpor
    tantl
    awsr
    elat
    ingt
    othe
    war.
    Macdonald,
    pp.433-482.

    EconomicAspect
    soft heWar.
    —Coman,Industr
    ialHi
    storyoft
    heUnit
    edStat
    es,
    pp.279-
    301.
    Dewey,Fi
    nanci
    alHistor
    yoftheUnit
    edSt
    ates,Chaps.XIIandXI
    II
    .Tabul
    atet
    heeconomi
    c
    measuresofCongressinMacdonal
    d.

    Mili
    taryCampaigns.—Thegreatbat
    tl
    esar eful
    l
    yt r
    eat
    edinRhodes, Hi
    stor
    yoftheCi
    vi
    lWar,
    andt eacher
    sdesir
    ingtoemphasizemili
    taryaff
    air
    smayassi gncampaignst
    omember sof
    theclassforst
    udyandr epor
    t.Abri
    efert
    reatmentinEl Hi
    son, st
    oryoft
    heUnit
    edStat
    es,pp.
    641-785.

    Bi
    ographi
    cal
    Studi
    es.
    —Lincol
    n,Davis,
    Lee,Grant,
    Sherman,
    andot
    herl
    eader
    sinci
    vi
    land
    mi
    li
    taryaf
    fai
    rs,
    wit
    hrefer
    encetolocal"wargover
    nors.
    "

    Engl
    i
    shandFr
    enchOpi
    nionoft
    heWar
    . Hi
    —Rhodes, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    Vol
    .IV,
    pp.337-
    394.
    TheSout
    hdur
    ingt
    heWar
    .—Rhodes,
    Vol
    .V,
    pp.343-
    382.

    TheNor
    thdur
    ingt
    heWar
    .—Rhodes,
    Vol
    .V,
    pp.189-
    342.

    Reconst
    ruct
    ionMeasur
    es.
    —Macdonal
    d,Sour
    ceBook,
    pp.500-
    511;
    514-
    518;
    529-
    530;
    Elson,
    pp.786-
    799.

    TheFor
    ceBi
    l
    ls.
    —Macdonal
    d,pp.547-
    551;
    554-
    564.

    PARTVI
    .NATI
    ONALGROWTHANDWORLDPOLI
    TICS

    CHAPTERXVI
    THEPOLI
    TICALANDECONOMI
    CEVOLUTI
    ONOFTHESOUTH

    Theout comeoft heCivil


    Wari ntheSouthwasnot hi
    ngshortofar ev
    olut
    ion.Ther ul
    ingcl
    ass,
    thel
    aw, andt
    hegov ernmentoft heoldorderhadbeensubv ert
    ed.Topoliti
    calchaoswasadded
    thehavocwr oughtinagricul
    ture,busi
    ness,andtranspor
    tat
    ionbymi li
    tar
    yoper at
    ions.Andasif
    tofi
    llt
    hecupt othebr im,thetaskofreconstruct
    ionwascommi t
    tedtopoli
    ticall
    eadersfr
    om
    anothersecti
    onoft hecountry,str
    angerstothelifeandt
    radit
    ionsoftheSout h.

    TheSout
    hatt
    heCl
    oseoft
    heWar

    ARul i
    ngCl assDisfr
    anchi
    sed.—Ast hesovereignt
    yoft heplanter
    shadbeent hest r
    iki
    ngfeatur
    e
    oftheoldr égime,sothei
    rrui
    nwast heoutst
    andingf actofthenew.Thesituati
    onwas
    ext
    raordinary.TheAmer i
    canRev ol
    utionwascar r
    iedoutbypeopl eexperi
    encedi ntheart
    sof
    sel
    f-government ,
    andatitscl
    oset heywerefreetof oll
    owt hegener
    alcoursetowhi chtheyhad
    l
    ongbeenaccust omed.TheFr enchRev ol
    uti
    onwi tnessedtheovert
    hrowoft heclergyandthe
    nobil
    ity
    ;butmi ddlecl
    asseswhot ookt hei
    rplaceshadbeenst eadil
    yri
    singinintell
    i
    genceand
    wealth.

    TheSout hernRev ol
    uti
    onwasunl i
    keei t
    herofthesecatacly
    sms.I twasnotbr oughtaboutbya
    socialupheav al,
    butbyanext ernal cr
    isi
    s.Itdi
    dnotenf r
    anchiseacl assthatsoughtandunder st
    ood
    power ,butbondmenwhohadpl ayednopar ti
    nt hestr
    uggle.Mor eoveritstr
    uckdownacl ass
    equippedt or ule.Theleadingpl anterswer eal
    mostt oamanexcl udedf r
    om stat
    eandf ederal
    offi
    ces, andt hef ourt
    eenthamendmentwasabart otheirr
    eturn.Allciv
    ilandmili
    tar
    yplacesunder
    theauthor ityoftheUni t
    edSt atesandoft hestateswereclosedt oev er
    ymanwhohadt akenan
    oathtosuppor ttheConstit
    utionasamemberofCongr ess,asast atelegisl
    ator
    ,orasast ateor
    federalof f
    icer,andaf t
    erwardengagedi n"i
    nsurr
    ecti
    onor
    rebel
    li
    on,"or"gi
    venai
    dandcomforttot
    heenemies"oftheUni
    tedStat
    es.Thi
    ssweepi
    ng
    provi
    sion,suppl
    ementedbyt
    hereconst
    ruct
    ionact
    s,l
    aidunderthebanmostoft
    hetal
    ent
    ,
    energy,andspir
    itoft
    heSout
    h.

    TheCondi t
    ionoft heStateGov er
    nment s.—Thel egislati
    v e,executiv
    e,andjudicialbranchesof
    thestategov er
    nment sthuspassedi nt
    ot hecont rol offormersl aves,l
    edpr i
    ncipall
    ybyNor ther
    n
    adventurersorSout hernnov i
    ces,knownas" Scalawags. "Ther esul
    twasacar nivalofwast e,
    fol
    ly,andcor r
    upti
    on.The" r
    econstructi
    on"assembl yofSout hCar oli
    naboughtcl ocksat$480
    apieceandchandel i
    ersat$650.Topur chaselandf orfor merbondment hesum of$800, 000
    wasappr opriat
    ed;andswampsboughtatsev enty-fivecent sanacr eweresol dtothest ateat
    fi
    vet i
    mest hecost.Intheyearsbetween1868and1873, thedebtoft hestaterosef r
    om about
    $5,800,000t o$24,000,000,andmi l
    li
    onsoft heincr easecoul dnotbeaccount edf orbyt he
    authori
    tiesr esponsi
    bleforit.

    Economi cRuin—Ur banandRur al


    .—Nomat terwhereSout hernment urnedin1865t heyf ound
    devastati
    on—int hetowns,inthecount ry,andalongt hehighways.Atlanta,
    thecit
    yt owhi ch
    Shermanappl iedthetorch,l
    ayinashes; Nashv i
    ll
    eandChat t
    anoogahadbeenpar ti
    al l
    ywr ecked;
    RichmondandAugust ahadsuf feredsev erelyfrom f
    ires.Charl
    estonwasdescr i
    bedbyav i
    sit
    or
    as"acityofruins,ofdesolati
    on,ofv acanthouses, ofrottenwharves,ofdesert
    edwar ehouses,
    ofweedgar dens, ofmilesofgrass-grownst r
    eets.
    ..
    .Howf ewyoungment her
    eare, how
    generall
    ythey oungwomenar edressedi nbl ack!Thef l
    oweroftheirproudari
    stocracyi sbur i
    ed
    onscor esofbattlefi
    elds.
    "

    Thosewhoj ourneyedt hroughthecount r


    yaboutt hesamet i
    mer eporteddesol at
    ionequall
    y
    widespreadandequal l
    ypat heti
    c.AnEngl i
    shtravelerwhomadehi swayal ongt hecourseoft he
    TennesseeRi verin1870wr ote:"
    Thet rai
    lofwari svisi
    blethroughoutt hevalleyinburnt-
    upgi n
    houses, r
    uinedbridges, mill
    s,andfactori
    es..
    .andl argetractsofoncecul t
    ivatedlandare
    stri
    ppedofev eryv esti
    geoff enci
    ng.Ther oads,longnegl ect
    ed, areindisorderand, havi
    ngi n
    manypl acesbecomei mpassabl e,newt r
    ackshav ebeenmadet hr
    ought hewoodsandf ields
    withoutmuchr espectt oboundar i
    es."Manyagr eatplantati
    onhadbeenconf iscatedbythe
    federalauthor
    iti
    eswhi letheownerwasi nConf ederateservice.Manymor elayi nwaste.Inthe
    wakeoft hear miest hehomesofr i
    chandpooral i
    ke, i
    fsparedt hetorch,hadbeendespoi l
    edof
    thestockandseedsnecessar ytorenewagr i
    cul t
    ure.

    Railway sDi l
    apidated.—Transportati
    onwasst i
    llmor edemor alized.Thisisrevealedint hepages
    ofcongr essionalreportsbaseduponf i
    rst
    -handi nv esti
    gati
    ons.Oneel oquentpassage
    i
    llustratesall t
    herest .Fr
    om Pocahont astoDecat ur,Alabama, adistanceof114mi les,wear e
    told,ther ai
    lroadwas" al
    mostent ir
    elydestroyed,exceptt her oadbedandi ronrai l
    s,andt hey
    wer einav erybadcondi ti
    on—ev erybri
    dgeandt rest l
    edestroy ed,cross-t
    iesrotten,buil
    di ngs
    bur ned,wat ertanksgone, t
    racksgrownupi nweedsandbushes, notasawmi l
    l nearthel ine
    andt hel aborsy st
    em oft hecount r
    ygone.Aboutf ortymil
    esoft het r
    ackwer ebur ned,thecr oss
    -t
    iesent irel
    ydest r
    oy ed,andt herai
    lsbentandt wi stedinsuchamannerast orequiregr eat
    l
    abort ost r
    aightenandal argeporti
    onofthem r equi ri
    ngrenewal .
    "

    Capit
    al andCr editDestroyed.—Thef l
    uidcapitaloftheSout h,moneyandcr edit,
    wasi nthe
    samepr ost
    ratecondi t
    ionast hemat eri
    alcapital
    .TheConf ederatecurrency ,
    infl
    at edt othe
    burst
    ingpoi nt
    , hadut t
    erlycol
    lapsedandwasaswor t
    hlessaswast epaper .Thebondsoft he
    Confeder at
    egov er
    nmentwer eequall
    yv aluel
    ess.Speciehadnear lydisappearedf r om
    ci
    rculati
    on.Thef ourt
    eenthamendmentt othefederalConst i
    tut
    ionhadmadeal l"debt s,
    obli
    gations,andcl ai
    ms"i ncurredinaidoft heConfederatecause" i
    ll
    egalandv oid."Mi l
    li
    onsof
    doll
    arsowedt oNor therncreditor
    sbeforet hewarwer eov erdueandpay mentwaspr essed
    upont hedebtor s.Wher esuchdebt swer esecuredbymor tgagesonland, execut i
    onsagai nst
    t
    hepr
    oper
    tycoul
    dbeobt
    ainedi
    nfeder
    alcour
    ts.

    TheRest
    orat
    ionofWhi
    teSupr
    emacy
    Intimidation.—Inbot hpol i
    ticsandeconomi cs,t
    hepr ocessofr econst ructionintheSouthwas
    slowandar duous.Thef i
    rstbat tl
    eint hepol i
    ti
    calcontestforwhi tesupr emacywaswonout side
    thehal lsofl egislat
    uresandt hecour tsofl aw.Itwaswaged, i
    nt hemai n,bysecret
    organi zati
    ons, amongwhi cht heKuKl uxKl anandt heWhi teCamel i
    awer et hemostprominent.
    Thef irstoft hesesoci eti
    esappear edinTennesseei n1866andhel ditsf i
    rstnati
    onal
    conv entiont hef oll
    owingy ear.Itwasi nor iginasoci alcl
    ub.Accor di
    ngt oitsannouncement ,
    its
    objectswer e" t
    opr otecttheweak, thei nnocent ,
    andt hedef encelessf rom t hei
    ndigni
    ti
    es,
    wr ongs, andout r
    agesoft hel awless, thev i
    olent,andt hebrutal;andt osuccort hesuffer
    ing,
    especi all
    yt hewi dowsandor phansoft heConf ederatesoldiers.
    "Thewhol eSouthwascalled
    "theEmpi re"andwasr ul
    edbya" Gr andWi zar d.
    "Eachst atewasar ealm andeachcount ya
    prov i
    nce.I nt hesecretorder stherewer eenr oll
    edov erhalfami lli
    onmen.

    Themet hodsoft heKuKl uxandt heWhi teCamel i


    awer esi milar.Sol emnpar adesofmasked
    menonhor sesdeckedi nl ongrobeswer ehel d,somet imesi nt heday ti
    meandsomet i
    mesat
    thedeadofni ght.Not iceswer esentt oobnoxi ousper sonswar ningt hem t ostopcertain
    practi
    ces.I fwarningf ailed,somethingmor econv incingwast r
    ied.Fr ightwast heemot i
    onmost
    commonl yst i
    rr
    ed.Ahor seman,att hewitchinghourofmi dnight,woul drideupt othehouseof
    someof fender,l
    ifthisheadgear ,takeoffaskul l,andhandi ttot het rembl i
    ngv i
    cti
    m wi t
    ht he
    requestt hathehol ditf oraf ewmi nutes.Frequent lyviolencewasempl oyedeitheroff
    icial
    lyor
    unoffi
    ciallybymember soft heKlan.Tarandf eather swer ef reelyappl i
    ed; t
    hewhi pwas
    somet imesl ai
    donunmer cif
    ull
    y,andoccasi onallyabr utalmur derwascommi tt
    ed.Oftenthe
    member swer efireduponf r
    om bushesorbehi ndt rees, andswi f
    tr etali
    ationfoll
    owed.So
    alarmingdi dthecl ashesbecomet hatin1870Congr essf orbadei nterferencewi t
    helectorsor
    goingindi sguisef orthepur poseofobst ructingtheexer ciseoft her i
    ght senjoyedunderf ederal
    l
    aw.

    I
    nant i
    cipati
    onofsuchast epont hepartofthefederalgovernment
    ,theKuKluxwasof f
    ici
    all
    y
    dissolvedbyt he"GrandWiz ar
    d"in1869.Nevert
    heless,thelocal
    soci
    eti
    escontinuedtheir
    organi zat
    ionandmet hods.Thespiri
    tsurvi
    vedthenat i
    onalassoci
    ati
    on."Onthewhole,"saysa
    Sout hernwriter
    ,"i
    tisnoteasytoseewhatot hercoursewasopent otheSouth..
    ..Ar
    med
    resistancewasoutoft hequest i
    on.Andyet
    theremustbesomecont rolhadofthesituati
    on..
    ..Iffor
    cewasdeni ed,cr
    aftwasi nevit
    able.
    "

    TheStrugglefort heBal l
    otBox.—Theef fectsofi nti
    midationwer esoonseenatel ecti
    ons.The
    fr
    eedman, int
    owhosei nexperi
    encedhandt hebal l
    othadbeent hrust,wasor dinar
    ilyl
    oathtoriskhis
    headbyt heexer ciseofhisnewr ight s.Hehadnotat t
    ainedt hem byal ongandl abori
    ouscont estof
    hi
    sownandhesawnour gentreasonwhyheshoul dbat tl
    ef ort heprivi
    legeofusi ngthem.The
    mereshowoff or ce,themer eexistenceofat hreat,deterredt housandsofex- sl
    avesfrom
    appearingatthepol ls.Thusthewhi tessteadilyrecoveredt heirdomi nance.Not hingcouldpreventi
    t.
    Congressenact edf orcebil
    lsestablishingfeder alsupervisionofel ecti
    onsandt heNor t
    hern
    poli
    ti
    ciansprotest edagainstther eturnoffor merConf eder atest opractical
    ,ifnotoff
    icial
    ,power;
    butallsuchopposi t
    ionwasl i
    keresi stancet othecour seofnat ure.

    Amnest yf orSout herners.—Therecov eryofwhi t


    esupr emacyi nt hiswaywasqui cklyfelti
    n
    nati
    onal counci ls.TheDemocr aticpar t
    yintheNor thwelcomedi tasasi gnofi tsreturnt o
    power .Themor emoder ateRepubli
    cans, anxioust oheal thebreachi nAmer i
    canuni ty,sought
    toencour ager at herthant orepr
    essi t.Soitcameaboutt hatamnest yf
    orConf ederateswas
    widelyadv ocated.Yeti tmustbesai dt hatthestrugglefort her emov al
    ofdi sabili
    ti
    eswas
    stubbor nandbi tt er
    .Lincoln,wit
    hchar acteri
    sticgenerosity,inthemi dstoft hewarhadi ssueda
    general procl amat i
    onofamnest ytonear l
    yallwhohadbeeni nar msagai nsttheUni on,on
    conditiont hatt heyt akeanoat hofl oyalty
    ;butJohnson, vindict
    iv etowardSout hernleader sand
    determi nedt omake" t
    reasoninfamous, "hadext endedt helistofexcept ions.Congr ess,even
    mor erelent lessi nitspur sui
    tofConf ederates,pushedt hrought hef our
    teent hamendment
    whichwor kedthesweepi ngdisabil
    iti
    eswehav ej ustdescr i
    bed.
    Toappealsforcompr ehensi
    veclemency
    , Congresswasatfir
    stadamant.I
    nvaindi
    dmenl ikeCarl
    Schurzexhortt
    heircoll
    eaguestocrowntheirvi
    ctoryi
    nbatt
    lewit
    hanobleactofuniver
    salpardon
    andobliv
    ion.Congresswouldnotyiel
    d.I
    twoul dgrantamnestyi
    nindi
    vi
    dualcases;
    forthepri
    ncipl
    e
    ofproscri
    pti
    onit
    stoodfast.Whenf i
    nall
    yi n1872,sevenyearsafterthesurrenderatAppomat tox, i
    tdidpasst
    he
    generalamnest ybi
    ll
    ,i
    tinsist
    edoncer tai
    nexcept ions.Confederateswhohadbeenmember sof
    Congressjustbeforethewar ,orhadservedinot herhighpost s,
    civil
    ormilit
    ary, underthe
    feder
    al government,
    wer estil
    lexcl
    udedfrom impor tantoff
    ices.Notuntilt
    hesummerof1898,
    whent hewarwi thSpainproducedoncemor eauni onofhear ts,didCongressr elentand
    aboli
    sht helastoft
    hedi sabi
    li
    tiesi
    mposedont heConf ederates.

    TheFor ceBi ll
    sAt tackedandNul li
    fi
    ed.—Thegr anti
    ngofamnest yencour agedt heDemocr atst o
    redoublet heireffort
    sal lalongt heline.In1874t heycapt ur
    edt heHouseofRepr esent ati
    v esand
    declaredwaront he" f
    orcebi ll
    s."AsaRepubl icanSenat eblockedi mmedi aterepeal ,
    theyr esorted
    toani ngeniouspar l
    iament arytrick.Tot heappr opriationbi
    ll f
    ort hesuppor toft hear myt hey
    attacheda" rider,
    "orcondi ti
    on,tot heef f
    ectthatnot roopsshoul dbeusedt osust aint he
    Republ i
    cangov ernmenti nLoui siana.TheSenat erej ectedthepr oposal .Adeadl ockensuedand
    Congr essadj ournedwi thoutmaki ngpr ovisi
    onf orthear my.Satisfiedwi ththetechni calv i
    ctory,the
    Democr atsletthear mybi llpasst henextsessi on, butkeptupt heirf i
    ghtont hef orcelawsunt i
    lthey
    wr ungfrom Pr esidentHay esameasur ef orbi
    ddi ngt heuseofUni tedSt atestroopsi nsuper vi
    sing
    electi
    ons.Thef oll
    owi ngy eartheyagai nhadr ecourset oarideront hear mybillandcar r
    iedi t
    through, putti
    nganendt ot heuseofmoneyf ormi l
    itarycont r
    olofel ections.Ther econst ruction
    program wascl earlygoingt opieces,andt heSupr emeCour thelpedal ongt hepr ocessof
    dissoluti
    onbydecl aringpar tsoft helawsi nvali
    d.In1878t heDemocr atsev enwonamaj or i
    tyinthe
    Senat eandr eturnedt opoweral argenumberofmenoncepr omi nenti ntheConf eder atecause.

    Thepassi onsoft hewarbyt hist i


    mewer eev i
    dentl
    ycooli
    ng.Anewgener ati
    onofmenwas
    comi ngont hescene.Thesupr emacyoft hewhi t
    esintheSouth,i
    fnoty etcomplete,wasat
    l
    eastassur ed.Federalmar shals,theirdeputi
    es,andsupervi
    sorsofelectionssti
    llpossessed
    author i
    tyov erthepoll
    s,butt heirstrengthhadbeenshor nbythewithdrawal ofUnit
    edSt ates
    troops.Thewaront heremai ningr emnant softhe"f
    orcebil
    ls"l
    apsedintodesultory
    skirmishing.Wheni n1894t hel astfragmentwassweptaway ,thecountrytookli
    ttl
    enot eof
    thef act.Theonl ytaskthatlaybef oret heSouthernl
    eaderswast owrit
    ei ntheconstit
    utionsof
    theirrespect i
    vestatesthe

    provi
    si
    onsoflawwhi
    chwouldcli
    nchthegai
    nssof
    arsecur
    edandest
    abl
    i
    shwhi
    tesupr
    emacy
    beyondther
    eachofout
    sidei
    nter
    vent
    ion.

    WhiteSupremacySeal edbyNewSt ateConst i


    tutions.
    —Thei mpetust othisfi
    nal stepwas
    giv
    enbyt heriseoft hePopul istmov ementi ntheSout h,whichsharplydivi
    dedthewhi t
    esand
    i
    nmanycommuni t
    iesthrewt hebal anceofpoweri ntothehandsoft hefewcol oredv oter
    swho
    survi
    vedthepr ocessofi nti
    mi dati
    on.Sout hernleadersnowdev isednewconst i
    tutionsso
    construct
    edast odepr ivenegr oesofthebal l
    otbyl aw.Mi ssi
    ssi
    ppi t
    ookt heleadi n1890;Sout
    h
    Carol
    inafoll
    owedf ivey earslater;
    Louisiana,in1898; NorthCaroli
    na,in1900; Al
    abamaand
    Maryland,i
    n1901; andVi rginia,i
    n1902.

    Theaut horsoft hesemeasur esmadenoat temptt oconceal theirpurposes."Thei ntell


    i
    gent
    whitemenoft heSout h,"sai dGov ernorTillman,"intendt ogov ernher e.
    "Thef i
    fteent h
    amendmentt ot hef ederal Constitution,howev er,forbadet hem todepr iveanyci t
    izenoft he
    ri
    ghttov oteonaccountofr ace,col or,orprevi
    ouscondi tionofser vit
    ude.Thismadenecessar y
    thedevicesofi ndir
    ect ion.Theywer efew, simple,andef fect i
    ve.Thef ir
    standmosteasi l
    y
    administeredwast hei ngeni ouspr ovisi
    onr equiri
    ngeachpr ospectivevotertoreadasect ionof
    thestateconst i
    tuti
    onor" understandandexpl ainit"whenr eadt ohim byt heelectionof f
    icers.
    Asanal ternat
    ive,thepay mentoft axesort heowner shipofasmal lamountofpr oper t
    ywas
    acceptedasaqual ificationf orvoting.Sout her
    nl eader s,unwi l
    li
    ngt odisfr
    anchiseanyoft he
    poorwhi temenwhohadst oodsidebysi dewi t
    ht hem " i
    nt hedar kday sofreconst ructi
    on,"also
    resort
    edtoafamousprovi
    sionknownas"thegrandfathercl
    ause.
    "Thi
    splanadmitt
    edtothe
    suffr
    ageanymanwhodi dnothaveei
    therproper
    tyoreducational
    qual
    if
    icat
    ions,
    provi
    dedhe
    hadv ot
    edonorbefor
    e1867orwast hesonorgr andsonofanysuchperson.
    Thedev i
    ceswor kedeffect i
    vel
    y.Ofthe147,000negroesinMi ssi
    ssippi abovetheageoft wenty
    -one,onl
    yabout8600r egister
    edundert heconsti
    tut
    ionof1890.Loui sianahad127,000
    color
    edv otersenrol
    ledin1896; undertheconsti
    tuti
    ondraft
    edt woy ear slat
    erther
    egistrat
    ion
    fel
    lto5300.Ananal ysisoft hefi
    guresforSouthCaroli
    nain1900i ndicat est
    hatonl
    yaboutone
    negrooutofev eryhundr edadultmalesofthatracetookpartinelections.Thuswascl osed
    thi
    schapt erofreconstructi
    on.

    TheSupr emeCour tRefusestoI ntervene.—Numer ousef f


    or t
    swer emadet opr evai
    lupont he
    SupremeCour toft heUni t
    edSt atestodecl aresuchl awsunconst it
    uti
    onal ;buttheCour t
    ,
    usuall
    yont echnicalgrounds, avoidedcomi ngt oadirectdecisionont hemer i
    tsofthemat t
    er.
    Inonecaset heCour tremar kedt hatitcoul dnottakechar geofandoper at
    et heelecti
    on
    machineryofAl abama; itconcludedt hat"r el
    i
    eff r
    om agr eatpol i
    ti
    calwr ong,ifdoneasal l
    eged,
    bythepeopl eofast ateandbyt hestat eitself
    , mustbegi venbyt hem, orbyt helegisl
    ati
    veand
    executi
    vedepar tmentsoft hegov er
    nmentoft heUnitedStates."Onlyoneoft hesev eral
    schemesempl oyed,namel y,t
    he" grandf atherclause,"washel dtobeav i
    olat
    ionoft hefederal
    Constit
    ution.Thi sblow, eff
    ectedi n1915byt hedeci sionintheOkl ahomaandMar ylandcases,
    l
    eft,howev er,themai nst r
    uctureofdi sfranchisementuni mpai r
    ed.

    ProposalstoReduceSout hernRepr esentat


    ioninCongr ess.—Theseprovisi
    onsexcl udi ng
    thousandsofmal eciti
    zensfrom t hebal l
    otdidnot,inexpressterms,depriv
    eanyoneoft he
    voteonaccountofr aceorcol or.Theydi dnot,theref
    ore, r
    uncountertotheletteroft he
    fi
    fteenthamendment ;buttheydi dunquest i
    onablymaket hestat
    eswhi chadopt edt hem liabl
    e
    totheoper ati
    onsofthefourteenthamendment .Thelatterver
    yexpli
    citl
    yprovidest hat
    whenev eranystatedepri
    vesadul tmal eciti
    zensoft herighttovote(exceptincertainmi nor
    cases)ther epr
    esentat
    ionoft hest ateinCongressshall bereducedinthepropor t
    ionwhi ch
    suchnumberofdi sf
    ranchi
    sedci ti
    zensbear st othewhol enumberofmal ecit
    izensov ertwenty-
    oney earsofage.

    Mi ndfulofthispr ovi
    si
    on, thosewhopr otestedagainstdisfranchisementi ntheSout hturnedto
    theRepubl icanpar tyforreli
    ef,askingforact i
    onbyt hepoliti
    cal branchesoft hef eder al
    gov ernmentast heSupr emeCour thadsuggest ed.TheRepubl i
    cansr espondedi nt hei r
    platform of1908bycondemni ngalldevicesdesignedt odepr i
    v eanyoneoft hebal lotf or
    reasonsofcol oralone;theydemandedt heenforcementi nletterandspi r
    itoft hef our t
    eenthas
    wel lasallotheramendment s.Thoughv i
    ctori
    ousint heelecti
    on, theRepublicansr ef rai
    ned
    from reopeningt heanci entcont est;
    theymadenoat tempttor educeSout hernr epr esentati
    on
    i
    nt heHouse.Sout her
    nl eaders,whi l
    eprotesti
    ngagai nstthedecl arati
    onsoft heiropponent s,
    wer eabletov iewt hem asi dlethreatsinnowayendanger i
    ngt hesecur i
    tyoft hemeasur esby
    whi chpolit
    icalreconst r
    uctionhadbeenundone.

    TheSol idSout h.—Outoft hethir t


    y-yearconf l
    ictagai nst"car pet-bagr ul
    e"thereemer gedwhatwas
    l
    ongknownast he"solidSout h"—aSout hthat ,exceptoccasi onallyinthebor derst ates,nev ergave
    anel ectoral v
    ot et oaRepubl i
    cancandi dateforPr esi dent.Bef oretheCi vi
    l War,theSout hernpeopl e
    hadbeendi vi
    dedonpol i
    ti
    cal quest ions.Take, forexampl e, t
    heel ectionof1860.I nallthef ift
    een
    slav est atesthev arietyofopi nionwasmar ked.I nni neoft hem—Del awar e,Vir
    ginia,Tennessee,
    Mi ssour i,Mar yland, Louisiana, Kent ucky ,Geor gia,andAr kansas—t hecombi nedv oteagai nstthe
    repr esent ati
    veoft heext r
    emeSout her npoi ntofv i
    ew, Brecki nri
    dge, constit
    utedasaf emaj ori
    ty.I
    n
    eachoft hesi xst ateswhi chwer ecar ri
    edbyBr ecki nridge,ther ewasal argeandpower fulmi nori
    ty.
    InNor thCar olinaBr ecki nridge'smaj ori
    tyov erBel l andDougl aswasonl y849v otes.Equal ly
    ast oundi ngt ot hosewhoi magi net heSout huni t
    edi ndef enseofex t
    remev i
    ewsi n1860wast he
    vot ef orBel l
    ,theUni onistcandi dat e,whost oodf i
    rml yfortheConst i
    tuti
    onandsi l
    enceonsl avery
    .In
    ever ySout hernst ateBel l'
    sv otewasl arge.InVi r
    gini a,Kent ucky ,Missouri,andTennesseei twas
    great ert hant hatr eceivedbyBr eckinridge;inGeor gia, i
    twas42, 000agai nst51, 000;inLoui si
    ana,
    20,000agai nst22, 000; inMi ssissippi ,25,000agai nst40, 000.
    Theef f
    ectoftheCivi
    lWarupont hesedi
    vi
    si
    onswasi mmediat
    eanddecisive,savei
    nt heborder
    stateswherethousandsofmencont i
    nuedtoadher
    etothecauseofUnion.IntheConf eder
    acy
    i
    tselfnear
    lyalldi
    ssentwassi
    lencedbywar.Menwhohadbeenbi t
    teropponent sj
    oinedhandsin
    defenseoftheirhomes;
    whent hear medconfl
    i
    ctwasov ert
    heyr emainedsi
    debysideworkingagai
    nst"Republi
    can
    misruleandnegrodomi nat
    ion."By1890, af
    terNort
    hernsupr
    emacywasdef ini
    tel
    ybroken,t
    hey
    boastedt hatt
    herewereatleasttwelv
    eSout hernst
    atesinwhichnoRepubl
    icancandidatef
    or
    Presidentcouldwinasingl
    eelectoralvote.

    Dissenti ntheSol idSout h.—Thoughev eryonegr ewaccust omedt ospeakoft heSout has
    "sol
    id,
    "i tdi
    dnotescapecl oseobser v
    er st hatinanumberofSout hernst at esthereappear ed
    from ti
    met otimeaf airl
    yl ar
    gebodyofdi ssenters.In1892t hePopul i
    stsmadeheav yinroads
    upont heDemocr ati
    cr anks.Onot heroccasi ons,thecont estsbet weenf act i
    onswi thinthe
    Democr ati
    cpar tyovert henomi nationofcandi datesr ev eal
    edshar pdiffer encesofopi ni
    on.In
    somepl aces,mor eov er,theregrewupaRepubl i
    canmi nori
    tyofr espect abl esize.Forexampl e,
    i
    nGeor gia,Mr.Taf ti
    n1908pol l
    ed41, 000v otesagainst72, 000f orMr .Br yan; i
    nNor th
    Caroli
    na, 114,000agai nst136,000; i
    nTennessee, 118,000agai nst135, 000; i
    nKent ucky ,
    235,000agai nst244, 000.I n1920, Senat orHar di
    ng, theRepubl icancandi date,broket he
    recordbycar ryingTennesseeaswel lasKent ucky,Okl ahoma, andMar yland.

    TheEconomi
    cAdv
    anceoft
    heSout
    h

    TheBr eak-upoftheGr eatEst ates.—Inthedissol ut


    ionofchatt
    el slaveryitwasi nevit
    abl ethat
    thegr eatestateshoul dgi vewaybef orethesmal lfar
    m.Thepl antationwasi nf actfoundedon
    slav ery.I
    twascont inuedandexpandedbysl avery.Beforet
    hewart hepr osperouspl anter,
    eitherbyi ncl
    inati
    onornecessi ty,i
    nvestedhissur plusinmorelandt oaddt ohisor i
    ginal
    domai n.Ashisslav esincr easedi nnumber ,hewasf orcedt
    oincr easehi sacreageorsel lthem,
    andheusual lypreferredt hef ormer ,
    especiall
    yint heFarSouth.St il
    lanotherelementf avored
    thel argeestate.Slavel aborqui cklyexhaustedt hesoilandofitsownf orcecompel l
    edt he
    cut ti
    ngoft heforestsandt heext ensionofthear eaundercult
    ivation.Finall
    y,t
    hepl antert ooka
    nat uralpri
    deinhisgr eatest at e;i
    twasasi gnofhi sprowessandhi ssocialprestige.

    In1865t hef oundationsoft hepl ant


    ingsyst
    em wer egone.Itwasdi ff
    iculttogetef fi
    cientlabor
    totil
    lthev astplantations.Thepl ant
    ersthemselveswer eburdenedwi thdebt sand
    handicappedbyl ackofcapi tal.Negroescommonl ypreferr
    edt i
    ll
    i
    ngpl otsoft heirown, r
    ented
    orboughtundermor t
    gage, t
    ot hemor eir
    ksomewagel aborunderwhi tesuper vi
    si on.Thel and
    hungeroft hewhi tef armer,oncecheckedbyt heplantingsystem, r
    easser t
    edi t
    sel f.Before
    thesef orcest heplant ati
    onbr okeup.Thesmal lfar
    m becamet heunitofcul t
    ivationi nthe
    Southasi nt heNor th.Between1870and1900t henumberoff armsdoubl edi nev eryst at
    e
    southoft hel i
    neoft hePot omacandOhi ori
    vers,exceptinArkansasandLoui siana.Fr om y ear
    toyeart hepr ocessofbr eakingupcont i
    nued,withallt
    hatitimpliedinthecr eati
    onofl and-
    owningf ar mer s.

    TheDi versi fi
    cationofCr ops. —Nol esssi gnifi
    cantwast heconcur r
    entdi v
    er si
    ficationofcrops.Under
    sl
    avery ,
    t obacco, r
    ice,andsugarwer est aplesand" cott
    onwaski ng. "Thesewer estandardcr ops.
    Themet hodsofcul t
    ivat
    ionwer esimpl eandeasi l
    ylearned.Theytest ednei thert heskil
    lnort he
    i
    ngenui t
    yoft hesl aves.Ast her eturnswer equi ck,theydidnotcall forlong- t
    imei nvestment sof
    capi
    tal.Af tersl averywasabol i
    shed, theyst il
    lremai nedthestaples, butfar -
    sightedagr i
    culturist
    s
    sawt hedanger sofdependi nguponaf ewcr ops.Themi ldcli
    mat eal lt
    hewayar oundt hecoast
    fr
    om Vi rginiat oTexasandt hechar acteroft heal luvi
    alsoili
    nvi
    tedt heexer ci
    seofmor ei magi nat
    ion.
    Peaches, oranges, peanuts, andot herf rui
    tsandv egetablesweref oundt ogr owl uxuri
    antly
    .
    Refr
    igerat ionf orsteamshi psandf reightcar sputt hemar ketsofgr eatcitiesatt hedoor sof
    Southernf rui
    tandv egetablegar dener s.TheSout h,whichinplantingday shadr eli
    edsoheav il
    y
    upont heNor thwestf oritsf oodstuffs, begantobat tl
    eforindependence.Bet ween1880andt he
    cl
    oseoft hecent urythev alueofi t
    sf ar m cropsi ncreasedfrom $660, 000,000t o$1,270,000,000.

    TheI
    ndust
    ri
    alandCommer
    cial
    Rev
    olut
    ion.
    —Ont
    opoft
    her
    adi
    cal
    changesi
    nagr
    icul
    tur
    ecame
    anindustr
    ial
    andcommer
    cial
    rev
    olut
    ion.TheSout
    hhadl
    ongbeenr
    ichi
    nnat
    ural
    resour
    ces,
    but
    theslav
    e
    system hadbeenunf avorabl
    etot hei
    rdevel
    opment.Ri
    verst
    hatwouldhaveturnedmi l
    li
    onsof
    spindlestumbledunheededt otheseas.Coalandir
    onbedslayunopened.Ti
    mberwasl ar
    gel
    y
    sacrif
    icedincleari
    ngl andsforplanti
    ng,orf
    ell
    toeart
    hindecay.Sout
    hernenterpr
    isewas
    consumedi npl anti
    ng.Slaverykeptoutthewhitei
    mmigrant
    swhomi ghthavesuppliedthe
    skil
    ledlaborforindustry.

    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    St
    eel
    Mil
    l
    s—Bi
    rmi
    ngham,
    Alabama

    After1865, achievementandf ortunenol ongerlayont helandal one.Assoonast heparaly si


    s
    ofthewarwasov er,t
    heSout hcaughtt heindustrialspi
    ritthathadconquer edf eudal Europe
    andt heagr icult
    uralNorth.Inthedev elopmentofmi ner
    al wealth,enormousst r
    ideswer e
    taken.Ironor eofev eryqualit
    ywasf ound, thechiefbedsbei nginVirgini
    a,WestVi rgini
    a,
    Tennessee, Kentucky,NorthCar oli
    na,Geor gia,Alabama, Arkansas, andTexas.Fi veimpor tant
    coalbasi nswer euncov ered:inVirgi
    nia, NorthCar ol
    ina,theAppal achianchainf rom Mary l
    and
    toNor t
    her nAl abama, Kentucky,Arkansas, andTexas.Oi lpoolswer efoundi nKent ucky,
    Tennessee, andTexas.Wi t
    hintwodecades, 1880t o1900, theout putofmi neralwealth
    mul t
    ipl
    iedt enfold:f
    rom tenmi ll
    ionsay eartoonehundr edmi l
    l
    ions.Thei r
    oni ndustri
    esof
    WestVi rginiaandAl abamabegant orival t
    hoseofPennsy lvania.Birmingham becamet he
    Pitt
    sburghandAt l
    antatheChi cagooft heSout h.
    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    ASout
    her
    nCot
    tonMi
    l
    linaCot
    tonFi
    eld

    Inotherlinesofindust r
    y,l
    umberingandcot tonmanufactur
    ingtookahighrank.The
    developmentofSout hernti
    mberr esourceswasi neveryrespectremar
    kable,par
    ti
    cular
    lyin
    Louisiana,Arkansas,andMi ssi
    ssippi.Attheendoft hefi
    rstdecadeofthetwenti
    ethcentury,
    pri
    macyi nlumberhadpassedf r
    om t heGr eatLakesregi
    ont otheSout
    h.In1913eight
    Southernst at
    espr oducednearlyfourt i
    mesasmuchl umberast heLakestat
    esandt wiceas
    muchast hev astforestsofWashingt onandOr egon.

    Thedev elopmentoft hecot t


    onindustry,i
    nthemeant ime, wassimi l
    arlyastounding.In1865
    cot t
    onspi nningwasanegl i
    gibl
    emat terintheSouthernst at
    es.In1880t heyhadone- four t
    hof
    themi ll
    soft hecount ry.Attheendoft hecenturytheyhadone- halfthemi ll
    s,thetwoCar oli
    nas
    takingthel eadbyconsumi ngmor ethanone- t
    hirdoftheirenti
    recottoncr op.Hav i
    ngbot hthe
    rawmat erial
    sandt hepowerathand, theyenjoyedmanyadv antagesov ertheNewEngl and
    ri
    v al
    s,andatt heopeningoft henewcent urywereoutstrippi
    ngt helatterintheproportionof
    spindlesannual lyputintooperati
    on.Mor eover,
    thecot t
    onpl ant
    ers,findingamar ketatt he
    neighbor i
    ngmi l
    l
    s,begant olookforwar dtoadaywhent heywoul dbesomewhatemanci pated
    from absol utedependenceupont hecot t
    onexchangesofNewYor k,NewOr leans,and
    Liverpool.

    Transportati
    onkeptpacewi thi
    ndust ry.In1860,theSouthhadabouttenthousandmi l
    esof
    rai
    lway.By1880t hef i
    gurehaddoubl ed.Dur i
    ngthenexttwentyyear
    sov erthirt
    yt housand
    mileswer eadded, mostoft heincreasebei nginTexas.About1898thereopenedaper i
    odof
    consoli
    dat i
    oninwhi chscoresofshor tl i
    neswer euni
    ted,mainl
    yundertheleader shipof
    Northerncapitali
    sts,andnewt hroughser v
    iceopenedtotheNorthandWest .ThusSout her
    n
    i
    ndust r
    ieswer egiveneasyout l
    etst othemar ketsofthenati
    onandbr oughtwi t
    hint hemain
    current
    sofnat ionalbusinessenterpri
    se.

    TheSoci alEff
    ectsoftheEconomi cChanges.
    —Asl ongast heslav
    esy st
    em lastedandpl ant
    ing
    wast hemaj orint
    erest
    ,theSouthwasboundt obesect i
    onalincharacter.Withslaver
    ygone,
    cropsdiversif
    ied,
    naturalr
    esourcesdevel
    oped,andindustri
    espromot ed,thesocialorderofthe
    ante-bel
    lum daysinevi
    tabl
    ydissolv
    ed;t
    heSout hbecamemor eandmor eassimilat
    edt othe
    system oftheNor t
    h.Inthi
    sprocessseverall
    i
    nesofdev elopmentareev ident.
    I
    nt hef
    ir
    stplaceweseet
    hest
    eadyr
    iseoft
    hesmal
    lfar
    mer
    .Ev
    eni
    ntheol
    dday
    sther
    ehad
    beenalarge
    cl
    assofwhitey eomenwhoownednosl avesandt i
    ll
    edthesoilwit
    htheirownhands,butthey
    l
    aboredundersev er
    ehandicaps.Theyf
    oundt hef ert
    ilel
    andsofthecoastandriv
    ervalley
    snear l
    y
    al
    lmonopolizedbyplanter
    s,andtheywerebyt hef orceofci
    rcumstancesdri
    venint
    ot heuplands
    wherethesoilwasthinandthecropswerelight.Stil
    ltheyi
    ncreasedi
    nnumber sandzealously
    workedthei
    rfreehol
    ds.

    Thewarpr ovedtobet heiropportuni


    ty.Wi t
    ht hebr eak-upofthepl antat
    ions,theymanagedt o
    buyl andmor ewor t
    hyoft hei
    rplows.Byi ntelligentlaborandintensiveculti
    vationt heywer eable
    torestoremuchoft hewor n-
    outsoi l
    toitsor iginalfert
    il
    it
    y.Inthemeant imetheyr osewi ththei
    r
    prosper i
    tyi
    nt hesocialandpolit
    icalscale.Itbecamecommonf orthesonsofwhi tef armersto
    enterthepr of
    essions,whilethei
    rdaught erswentawayt ocollegeandpr eparedf ort eaching.
    Thusamor edemocr at
    ictonewasgi ventot hewhi tesocietyoft heSouth.Mor eov erthe
    migr ati
    ontotheNor thandWest ,whichhadf ormerlycarri
    edthousandsofener geticsonsand
    daught erstosearchfornewhomest eads, wasmat eri
    all
    yreduced.Theener gyoft he
    agricult
    uralpopulat
    ionwenti ntorehabil
    itat
    ion.

    Thei ncreasei nthenumberofi ndependentf armerswasaccompani edbyther i


    seofsmall
    townsandv il
    lageswhichgav ediv er
    sitytothelif
    eoft heSouth.Befor e1860itwaspossibleto
    travelthroughendl essstretchesofcot tonandt obacco.Thesoci al
    af fai
    rsoftheplant
    er'
    s
    fami l
    ycent eredinthehomest eadev eniftheywer eoccasionall
    yinterrupt
    edbyt ri
    pstodi
    stant
    citi
    esorabr oad.Carpentry,bricklayi
    ng, andblacksmithingwereusual lydonebyslavesski
    ll
    ed
    i
    nsi mpl ehandi craf
    ts.Supplieswer eboughtwhol esale.Inthi
    swayt her ewaslit
    tl
    eplacein
    plantationeconomyf orvil
    lagesandt ownswi t
    ht hei
    rstoresandmechani cs.

    Theabolit
    ionofsl av
    eryalter
    edthis.Smal lf
    armsspreadoutwhereplant
    ati
    onshadoncestood.
    Theskil
    ledf r
    eedment urnedtoagricult
    urerathert
    hantohandicr
    aft
    s;whit
    emenofabusi ness
    ormechani calbentfoundanoppor tuni
    tytoservetheneedsofthei
    rcommuniti
    es.Solocal
    merchantsandmechani csbecameani mportantel
    ementinthesoci
    alsyst
    em.Inthecounty
    seat
    s,oncedomi nat
    edbyt heplanters,busi
    nessandprofessi
    onalmenassumedt hel
    eadershi
    p.

    Anotherv italout comeoft hisrevol uti


    onwast het ransfer
    enceofal ar
    gepar tofpl anti
    ngent erpri
    se
    tobusiness.Mr .Br uce,aSout hernhi stori
    anoff i
    neschol arshi
    p,hassummedupt hispr ocessi na
    singl
    etellingpar agraph:"Thehi gherpl ant i
    ngclasst hatundert heoldsystem gav esomuch
    disti
    ncti
    ont orur all
    ifehas, sof arasi thassur vivedatal l
    , beenconcentr
    atedi nt hecities.The
    famili
    est hati nthet imeofsl averywoul dhavebeenf oundonl yinthecountryar enowf ound,wi t
    ha
    fewexcept ions,inthet owns.Thet ransplantat
    ionhasbeenpr acti
    call
    yuniversal.Thet al ent,t
    he
    energy,theambi ti
    ont hatformer l
    ysoughtex pressionint hemanagementofgr eatest atesandt he
    controlofhost sofsl aves,nowseekaf ieldofact i
    oni ntrade,inmanufacturingent erprises,orinthe
    generalent erprisesofdev elopment .Thiswasf ortheruli
    ngcl assoftheSout ht henat ur aloutcome
    ofthegr eateconomi crevolut i
    ont hatfol l
    owedt hewar .
    "

    Asi nallotherpar t
    soft hewor l
    d, t
    hemechani cal r
    ev oluti
    onwasat tendedbyt hegr owt hofa
    populati
    onofi ndustri
    alworkersdependentnotupont hesoilbutuponwagesf ort heirliveli
    hood.
    WhenJef fersonDav iswasinaugur atedPr esi dentoft heSout her nConf ederacy ,
    t herewer e
    approximat elyonlyonehundr edt housandper sonsempl oyedi nSout hernmanuf actur esasagai nst
    mor ethanami l
    l
    ioninNor t
    her nmi l
    ls.Fift
    yy ear slater,GeorgiaandAl abamaal onehadmor ethan
    onehundr edandf ift
    ythousandwage- earner s.Necessar i
    lythismeantal soamat eri
    al increasei n
    urbanpopul ation,alt
    hought hewi dedi spersionofcot tonspinni ngamongsmal lcenter spr evented
    thecongest ionthathadaccompani edt heriseoft het ext
    il
    eindust r
    yi nNewEngl and.I n1910, New
    Orleans,At l
    anta,Memphi s,Nashv il
    le,andHoust onst oodint hesamer elati
    ont ot heNewSout h
    thatCincinnati,Chicago,Cl
    ev eland,andDet r
    oi thadst oodt ot heNewWestf iftyy earsbef ore.The
    pr
    obl
    emsofl
    aborandcapit
    alandmunicipal
    admini
    str
    ati
    on,whi
    cht
    heear
    li
    erwr
    it
    ersboast
    ed
    woul
    dnev
    erper
    plext
    heplanti
    ngSout
    h, hadcomeinful
    lfor
    ce.
    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    AGl
    i
    mpseofMemphi
    s,Tennessee

    TheRev ol
    ut i
    oni ntheSt at
    usoft heSlaves.—Nopar tofSouthernsocietywassopr ofoundly
    aff
    ectedbyt heCi v
    ilWarandeconomi creconstructi
    onasthef ormerslaves.Ont hedayof
    emancipation,theyst oodfree,butempt y-
    handed, t
    heowner sofnotool sorproper t
    y,the
    mastersofnot r adeandwhol l
    yinexperi
    encedi ntheartsofself-
    hel
    pt hatcharacteri
    zedthe
    whit
    esingener al .Theyhadnev erbeenaccust omedt olookingoutforthemsel ves.The
    pl
    antati
    onbel lhadcal ledthem tolaborandr el
    easedt hem.Dolesoffoodandcl othi
    nghad
    beenregularlymadei ngivenquantiti
    es.Theydidnotunder standwages, ownership,rent
    ing,
    contr
    acts,mor t
    gages, l
    eases,bil
    ls,oraccounts.

    Whent heywer eemanci pated,fourcourseswer eopent ot hem.Theycoul dfl


    eefr om the
    plantationtot henearestt ownorci t
    y,ortot hedistantNorth, t
    oseekal i
    v eli
    hood.Thousandsof
    them choset hisway, overcrowdingcit
    ieswher edi seasemowedt hem down.Theycoul d
    remai nwher et hey,
    wer eint hei
    rcabinsandwor kfordailywagesi nsteadoff ood, cl
    othing,and
    shelter.Thissecondcour set hemajorpor t
    ionoft hem chose; but,asfewmast er
    shadcasht o
    dispense, thenewr elationwasmuchl iketheold, i
    nf act
    .Itwasst il
    loneofbar ter.Thepl anter
    offer
    edf ood,clothi
    ng, andshelter;t
    hef or
    mersl avesgav et hei
    rlaborinreturn.Thatwast he
    bestt hatmanyoft hem coul ddo.

    Athi r
    dcour seopentof reedmenwast hatofr enti
    ngf r
    om thefor mermaster,payi
    nghim
    usuallywi thashareoft hepr oduceoft hel and.Thi swayalargenumberoft hem chose.It
    off
    er edt hem achancet obecomel andowner si nt i
    meandi taffordedaneasierli
    fe,
    therenter
    bei
    ng, toacer t
    ainextentatleast,mast erofhi sownhour soflabor.Thefi
    nal andmostdiffi
    cult
    pathwast hattoowner shipofl and.Manyamast erhelpedhisformerslavestoacquiresmal l
    holdingsbyof f
    eri
    ngeasyt er
    ms.Themor eent erprisi
    ngandt hemor efort
    unat ewhostart
    edl i
    fe
    asr entersorwage- earnersmadet heirwayupwar dt oownershipi nsomanycasest hatbyt he
    endoft hecentury,one-f
    our t
    hoft hecol oredlabor ersonthelandownedt hesoi lt
    heytil
    l
    ed.

    Inthemeantime,t
    heSouth,thoughr el
    ati
    velypoor,maderel
    ati
    v el
    ylargeexpendit
    uresforthe
    educati
    onofthecolor
    edpopul at
    ion.Bytheopeni ngofthet
    went i
    ethcentur
    y,faci
    li
    ti
    eswer e
    provi
    dedformorethanone-halfofthecoloredchildr
    enofschool age.Whil
    einmanyr espects
    thi
    sprogresswasdisappoi
    nting,i
    tssignif
    icance,tobeappr
    eciated,mustbeder i
    vedfr
    om a
    comparisonwit
    hthetotali
    l
    li
    teracywhi chprevail
    edundersl
    avery.
    Inspiteofal lt
    hathappened, howev er
    ,thest atusoft henegroesi ntheSout hcontinuedtogive
    apecul iarchar actert ot hatsect i
    onoft hecount r
    y .Theywer eal mostenti
    relyexcludedf r
    om
    theexer ciseoft hesuf frage,especi all
    yi ntheFarSout h.Specialroomswer esetasi deforthem
    atther ail
    wayst ationsandspeci al carsont her ailwayl i
    nes.Inthef i
    eldofindustrycall
    ingfor
    technical skil
    l,i
    tappear s,fr
    om t hecensusf i
    gur es, thattheylostgroundbet ween1890and
    1900—acondi tionwhi cht heirfr
    iendsascr i
    bedt odiscr i
    minationsagainstthem inlawandi n
    l
    aboror ganizationsandt heircri
    t i
    csascr ibedt ot heirlackofapt i
    tude.Whatev ermaybet he
    trut
    h, t
    hef actremai nedt hatatt heopeni ngoft het went i
    ethcenturyneit
    hert hehopesoft he
    emanci pat orsnort hef earsoft heiropponent swer ereali
    zed.Themar ksoft he"peculi
    ar
    i
    nstituti
    on"wer est illl
    ar gelyimpr esseduponSout hernsociety.

    Thesituat i
    on, howev er,wasbynomeansunchangi ng.Ont hecont r
    ar yt herewasadeci deddr if
    t
    i
    naf f
    airs.Foronet hing,thepropor t
    ionofnegr oesi nt heSout hhadsl owl ydecli
    ned.By1900
    theywer einamaj orityinonlytwost ates,Sout hCar oli
    naandMi ssi
    ssi ppi.InArkansas, Vi rgini
    a,
    WestVi rginia,andNor thCar ol
    inat hepr oporti
    onoft hewhi tepopulationwasst eadilygr owi ng.
    Thecolor edmi grat i
    onnor t
    hwar di ncreasedwhi l
    ethewest war dmov ementofwhi t
    ef armer s
    whichchar act erizedpi oneerday sdecl i
    ned.Att hesamet i
    meapar toft hef orei
    gni mmi gration
    i
    ntotheUni tedSt ateswasdi vertedsout hwar d.Ast hey earspassedt heset endenciesgai ned
    moment um.Theal readyhugecol oredquar tersinsomeNor therncitieswer ewi delyexpanded,
    aswhol ecount iesi nt heSout hwer estri
    ppedoft heircol oredlaborers.Ther acequest ion, init
    s
    poli
    ti
    cal andeconomi caspects, becamel essandl esssect ional
    , moreandmor enat i
    onal .The
    Southwasdr awni nt othemai nst ream ofnat ionallife.Thesepar at
    istf orceswhi chpr oduced
    thecatacly sm of1861sanki rresisti
    blyintothebackgr ound.

    Ref
    erences

    H.
    W.Gr
    ady
    ,TheNewSout
    h(1890)
    .

    H.
    A.Her
    ber
    t,Whyt
    heSol
    i
    dSout
    h.

    W.
    G.Br TheLowerSout
    own, h.

    E.
    G.Mur
    phy
    ,Pr
    obl
    emsoft
    hePr
    esentSout
    h.

    B.
    T.Washi
    ngt TheNegr
    on, oPr
    obl
    em;
    TheSt
    oryoft
    heNegr
    o;TheFut
    ureoft
    heNegr
    o.

    A.
    B.Hart,TheSout
    her
    nSout
    handR.
    S.Baker
    ,Fol
    l
    owi
    ngt
    heCol
    orLi
    ne(
    twowor
    ksbyNor
    ther
    n
    wr
    iter
    s).

    T. TheNegr
    N.Page, o,t
    heSout
    her
    ner
    'sPr
    obl
    em.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Giv
    ethet
    hreemai
    nsubdi
    vi
    sionsoft
    hechapt
    er.

    2.Comparet
    hecondit
    ionoftheSout
    hi n1865wit
    hthatoftheNort
    h.Compar
    ewitht
    he
    condi
    ti
    onoftheUni
    tedStat
    esatthecloseoftheRevol
    uti
    onaryWar.Att
    hecl
    oseoft
    heWor
    ld
    Warin1918.

    3.
    Contr
    astt
    heenf
    ranchi
    sementoft
    hesl
    aveswi
    tht
    heenf
    ranchi
    sementofwhi
    temenf
    if
    ty
    year
    searl
    i
    er.

    4.
    Whatwast
    hecondi
    ti
    onoft
    hepl
    ant
    ersascompar
    edwi
    tht
    hatoft
    heNor
    ther
    nmanuf
    act
    urer
    s?
    5.
    Howdoesmoneycapi
    tal
    cont
    ri
    but
    etopr
    osper
    it
    y?Descr
    ibet
    hepl
    i
    ghtofSout
    her
    nfi
    nance.

    6.
    Giv
    ethechi
    efst
    epsi
    nther
    est
    orat
    ionofwhi
    tesupr
    emacy
    .
    7.
    Doy
    ouknowofanyot
    hersoci
    eti
    est
    ocompar
    ewi
    tht
    heKuKl
    uxKl
    an?

    8.
    Giv
    eLincoln'
    spl
    anf
    oramnest
    y.Whatpr
    inci
    plesdoy
    out
    hinkshoul
    dgov
    ernt
    hegr
    ant
    ingof
    amnesty?

    9.
    Howwer
    ethe"
    For
    cebi
    l
    ls"ov
    ercome?

    10.
    Compar
    ethef
    our
    teent
    handf
    if
    teent
    hamendment
    swi
    thr
    egar
    dtot
    hesuf
    fragepr
    ovi
    sions.

    11.
    Expl
    ainhowt
    heymaybeci
    rcumv
    ent
    ed.

    12.
    Accountf
    ort
    heSol
    i
    dSout
    h.Whatwast
    hesi
    tuat
    ionbef
    ore1860?

    13.I
    nwhatwaysdidSout
    her
    nagr
    icul
    tur
    etendt
    obecomel
    i
    ket
    hatoft
    heNor
    th?Whatwer
    e
    thesoci
    alr
    esul
    ts?

    14.
    Namet
    hechi
    efr
    esul
    tsofan"
    indust
    ri
    alr
    evol
    uti
    on"i
    ngener
    al.I
    ntheSout
    h,i
    npar
    ti
    cul
    ar.

    15.
    Whatcour
    seswer
    eopent
    ofr
    eedmeni
    n1865?

    16.
    Giv
    et hemai
    nfeat
    uresi
    ntheeconomi
    candsoci
    alst
    atusoft
    hecol
    oredpopul
    ati
    oni
    nthe
    South.

    17.
    Expl
    ainwhyt
    her
    acequest
    ioni
    snat
    ional
    now,
    rat
    hert
    hansect
    ional
    .

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    AmnestyforConfeder
    ates.
    —Studycareful
    lytheprov
    isi
    onsofthefourt
    eent
    hamendment
    i
    ntheAppendix.Macdonald,DocumentarySourceBookofAmericanHist
    ory,
    pp.470and
    564.ApleaforamnestyinHardi
    ng,Sel
    ectOrationsI
    ll
    ustr
    ati
    ngAmer i
    canHist
    ory
    ,pp.467-
    488.

    Poli
    ti
    calCondi
    tionsi
    ntheSout hin1868.—Dunning,Reconstruct
    ion,Pol
    it
    icalandEconomic
    (Ameri
    canNationSeri
    es),pp.109-123;
    Hart,AmericanHistoryToldbyCont emporar
    ies,
    Vol.I
    V,
    pp.445-
    458,497-500;
    Elson,Hist
    oryoftheUnitedStates,pp.799-805.

    MovementforWhit
    eSupremacy.
    —Dunni
    ng,Reconst
    ruct
    ion,pp.266-
    280;
    Paxson,TheNew
    Nat
    ion(
    Riversi
    deSeri
    es)
    ,pp.39-
    58;
    Bear
    d,Amer i
    canGovernmentandPoli
    ti
    cs,pp.454-
    457.

    TheWit
    hdrawalofFederal
    Tr oopsf
    rom t
    heSouth.
    —Spar
    ks,Nati
    onalDevel
    opment(Amer
    ican
    Nati
    onSer
    ies)
    ,pp.84-102; Hi
    Rhodes, st
    oryoft
    heUnit
    edStates,
    Vol.VI
    II
    ,pp.1-
    12.

    Sout
    hernIndust
    ry. TheNewNat
    —Paxson, ion,
    pp.192-
    207;
    T. TheAmer
    M.Young, icanCot
    ton
    I
    ndustr
    y,pp.54-
    99.

    TheRaceQuest ion.
    —B.T.Washingt UpFr
    on, om Sl
    avery(sympatheti
    cpresentat
    ion)
    ;A.H.
    Stone,Studiesi
    ntheAmer i
    canRaceProbl
    em (col
    dlyanaly
    tical
    );Har
    t,Contemporar
    ies,Vol
    .
    I
    V, pp.647-649,
    652-654,663-
    669.
    CHAPTERXVI
    I
    BUSI
    NESSENTERPRI
    SEANDTHEREPUBLI
    CANPARTY

    Ifasi nglephr asebechosent ochar acterizeAmer i


    canl i
    fedur i
    ngt hegener ati
    ont hatf ol
    lowed
    theageofDougl asandLi ncol n,i
    tmustbe" businessent erpri
    se"—t het remendous, irresisti
    ble
    ener gyofav ir
    il
    epeopl e, mount i
    ngi nnumber stowardahundr edmi lli
    onandappl i
    edwi t
    houtl et
    orhi ndrancet othedev elopingofnat ural r
    esour cesofunpar al
    leledr ichness.Thechi efgoal of
    thi
    sef f
    or twashi ghpr ofit
    sf ort hecapt ainsofi ndustry,ont heonehand; andhighwagesf orthe
    wor kers, ontheot her.Itssigns, touset helanguageofaRepubl icanor atorin1876, wer e
    goldenhar vestfi
    elds, whi rl
    i
    ngspi ndles,turningwheel s,openf urnacedoor s,fl
    ami ngf orges, and
    chimney sfil
    ledwi theagerf ir
    e.Thedev icebl azonedoni tsshieldandwr i
    tt
    enov eritsf actory
    door swas" prosperit
    y .
    "ARepubl icanPr esidentwasi ts" advanceagent ."Releasedf rom t he
    hamper inginterf
    erenceoft heSout her nplant ersandt heconf usingi ssuesoft heslav ery
    cont roversy,businessent erprisespr angf orwar dtothet askofwi nningt heentirecount ry.Then
    i
    tflungi tsout poststot heut termostpar t
    soft heearth—Eur ope, Afri
    ca, andtheOr i
    ent —wher e
    weret obef oundmar ketsf orAmer i
    cangoodsandnat uralresour cesf orAmer icancapi talto
    devel op.

    Rai
    l
    way
    sandI
    ndust
    ry

    TheOut wardSi gnsofEnt erpri


    se. —I tisdi ff
    iculttocompr ehendal lthemul t
    itudinousact ivi
    ti
    es
    ofAmer icanbusinessener gyort oappr aisei t
    sef f
    ect supont hel i
    feanddest inyoft he
    Amer icanpeopl e;forbey ondt hehor i
    zonoft het went i
    ethcent uryli
    econsequencesasy et
    undreamedofi nourpoorphi l
    osophy .St ati
    sticiansat t
    emptt orecor ditsachi evement sin
    termsofmi lesofr ail
    way sbui lt
    ,f actoriesopened, menandwomenempl oy ed, f
    ortunesmade,
    wagespai d,cit
    iesf ounded, riv
    er sspanned, boxes, bales, andtonspr oduced.Hi stor i
    ansapply
    standar dsofcompar isonwi tht hepast .Agai nstt hesl owandl eisurelystagecoach, t
    heysetthe
    swiftexpr ess,r
    ushi ngf r
    om NewYor kt oSanFr anci scoi nlesstimet hanWashi ngton
    consumedi nhistri
    umphal tourf r om Mt .Vernont oNewYor kforhi sf i
    rstinaugur al.Against
    thelazysai li
    ngv essel dri
    fti
    ngbef oreageni albr eeze, theyplacet het urbinest eamercr ossing
    theAt l
    ant i
    cinfiveday sort hest il
    l swifterai r
    plane, inf i
    fteenhour s.Fort heol dwor kshopwher e
    amast erandadozenwor kmenandappr enti
    ceswr oughtbyhand, t heyof f
    ert hegi antfactor
    y
    wher etent housandper sonsat tendt hewhi rl
    ingwheel sdr i
    venbyst eam.Theywr it
    eoft he
    "romanceofi nvention"andt he" capt ainsofi ndust ry .
    "
    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    ACor
    neri
    ntheBet
    hlehem St
    eel
    Wor
    ks

    TheSer v iceoftheRai lway.—Al lthisisfitt


    inginitsway .Figur esandcont r
    astscannot ,howev er
    ,
    tel
    lthewhol est ory.Take, forexampl e,theextensi onofr ailway s.Itiseasyt orelatethatthere
    were30, 000mi lesi n1860; 166, 000in1890; and242, 000i n1910.I tiseasyt oshowupont he
    maphowaf ewst ragglinglinesbecameaper fectmeshofcl oselykni tt
    edr ail
    way s;orhow, l
    i
    ke
    thet entaclesofagr eatmonst er,t
    hef ewr oadsendi ngi nt heMi ssissippiValleyin1860wer e
    extendedandmul ti
    pliedunt iltheytappedev erywheatf i
    eld, mine, andf orestbey ondt hev all
    ey.
    Allthis,eloquentofent erpriseasi ttrulyis,doesnotr ev eal thesi gnifi
    canceofr ail
    way sfor
    Amer i
    canl if
    e.Itdoesnoti ndi catehowr ail
    waysmadeacont inent almar ketforAmer i
    cangoods;
    norhowt heystandar dizedt hewhol ecount ry,
    givingt ocitiesont headv ancingf r
    ontierthe
    l
    eadi ngf eaturesofci tiesint heol dEast ;norhowt heycar riedt othepi oneert hecomf ortsof
    civ
    ili
    zation; nory ethowi ntheWestt heywer ethef orerunner sofci vi
    li
    zat i
    on,themaker sof
    homest eads, t
    hebui l
    der sofst ates.

    Gov er nmentAi df orRail


    ways.—St il
    lthest oryisnotended.Thesi gnificantr elati
    onbetween
    rai
    lway sandpol iti
    csmustnotbeov erlooked.Thebount yofal avishgov ernment ,forexampl e,
    madepossi blethewor kofr ai
    lwaypr omot ers.Byt hey ear1872t heFeder al governmenthad
    grant edi nai dofr ail
    ways155,000, 000acr esofl and—anar eaest imat edasal mostequal to
    Pennsy l
    vania,NewYor k,Connect i
    cut, RhodeI sland, Massachuset ts,Mai ne, NewHampshi re, and
    Vermont .TheUni onPacifi
    cCompanyal onesecur edf r
    om t hefeder algov ernmentaf reer ightof
    wayt hr ought hepubl i
    cdomai n, t
    went ysect i
    onsofl andwi t
    heachmi leofr ailway ,
    andal oanupt o
    fi
    ftymi lli
    onsofdol l
    arssecuredbyasecondmor tgageont hecompany 'spr operty.Mor et hanhal f
    ofthenor therntierofstateslyingagai nstCanadaf r
    om LakeMi chigant ot hePaci ficwasgr ant ed
    topr i
    v at ecompani esinaidofr ai
    lway sandwagonr oads.Abouthal fofNewMexi co,Arizona, and
    Califor niawasal sogi venout r
    ighttor ail
    waycompani es.Thesev astgr antsf rom thefeder al
    gover nmentwer esuppl ementedbygi ftsfrom thest atesinl andandbysubscr ipti
    onsamount ing
    tomor et hantwohundr edmi l
    li
    ondol lars.Thehi storyoft hesegi ft
    sandt hei rrel
    ationtot he
    poli
    tical l
    eader sthatengineeredt hem woul dalonef illalargeandi nterestingv olume.

    Rail
    wayFor t
    unesandCapi tal
    .—Outoft hi
    sgiganti
    cr ai
    lwaypromoti
    on,thefi
    rstreall
    yimmense
    Amer i
    canfortuneswer emade.Henr yAdams, t
    hegr andsonofJohnQuincyAdams, r
    elatedthat
    hi
    sgr andf
    atheronhi smot her'
    sside,PeterBrooks,onhisdeathin1849,l
    eftaf or
    tuneoft wo
    mill
    i
    ondol l
    ars,"supposedt obethelargestestat
    einBost on,
    "thenoneofthef ewcent er
    sofgr eat
    ri
    ches.Compar edwi t
    ht heopulencethatsprangoutoft heUnionPacif
    ic,t
    heNor thernPacif
    ic,the
    SouthernPacifi
    c,withtheirsubsi
    diar
    yandcomponentl i
    nes,
    theestat
    eofPet erBrookswasa
    poorman'sher i
    tage.

    Thecapi tali
    nvestedintheserail
    way swasenor mousbey ondthei maginat i
    onofthemenoft he
    stagecoachgener ati
    on.Thetotal debtoft heUnitedStatesincurr edint heRev ol
    uti
    onaryWar —a
    debtwhi chthoseofl i
    ttl
    efai
    ththoughtt hecountrycouldneverpay —wasr eckonedataf igur
    e
    wellunder$75, 000,
    000.Whent heUni onPacifi
    cRai l
    roadwascompl et
    ed, ther
    ewer e
    outstandingagainstit$27,
    000,000i nf i
    rstmortgagebonds, $27,000, 000i nsecondmor tgage
    bondshel dbyt hegov er
    nment ,
    $10, 000,000inincomebonds, $10, 000,000i nl
    andgr antbonds,
    and,ont opoft hathugebondedi ndebt edness,$36,000,000inst ock—maki ng$110,000,000in
    al
    l.Iftheamountduet heUnitedSt atesgov er
    nmentbesubt racted, sti
    l
    l therer
    emained, i
    n
    priv
    atehands, stocksandbondsexceedi nginvaluethewhol enat i
    onaldebtofHami l
    ton's
    day—adebtt hatstr
    ainedallt
    her esour cesoftheFeder algovernmenti n1790.Suchwast he
    fi
    nancialsignif
    icanceoftherail
    way s.

    Rai
    l
    roadsoft
    heUni
    ted
    St
    atesi
    n1918
    Rai
    l
    roadsoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    atesi
    n1918
    GrowthandExt ensionofIndustr
    y.—Inthefi
    eldofmanuf act
    uri
    ng,mining,andmet al
    wor king, t
    he
    resul
    tsofbusinessent er
    pri
    sefaroutstri
    pped,i
    fmeasuredinmer edollars,t
    her esul
    tsofr ailway
    constr
    ucti
    on.Byt heendoft hecenturyther
    ewer eabouttenbil
    li
    ondol l
    arsinvestedinfact ori
    es
    aloneandfi
    v emill
    ionwage- ear
    nersempl oy
    edinthem; whil
    ethetotalvalueoftheout put,fourteen
    bil
    li
    ondoll
    ars,wasf if
    teenti
    mest hefiguref
    or1860.IntheEasternstatesindustri
    esmul ti
    pl i
    ed.In
    theNorthwestterri
    tory,t
    heoldhomeofJacksoni anDemocr acy,t
    heyov ert
    oppedagr icult
    ur e.Bythe
    endofthecent ur
    y,Ohiohadal mostreachedandI l
    l
    inoi
    shadsur passedMassachuset tsint he
    annualval
    ueofmanuf actur
    ingoutput.

    Thatwasnotal l
    .Untoldweal thinthefor
    m ofnat uralresourceswasdi scoveredi ntheSout h
    andWest .Coal depositswer efoundintheAppal achiansst r
    etchingf r
    om Pennsy l
    vaniadownt o
    Alabama, inMi chigan,i
    nt heMi ssi
    ssippiValley,
    andi nt heWest ernmount ai
    nsf rom Nor th
    DakotatoNewMexi co.Innear l
    yeverycoal-bearingregion, i
    ronwasal sodiscov er
    edandt he
    greatfi
    eldsofMi chigan,Wi sconsi
    n,andMi nnesot asoonr ivaledt hoseoftheAppal achianarea.
    Copper,lead, gold,andsilverinfabul
    ousquant i
    ti
    eswer eunear thedbyt herestlesspr ospectors
    whol ef
    tnopl ainormount ainfast
    nessunexpl ored.Pet r
    oleum, fir
    stpumpedf rom thewel lsof
    Pennsylvaniai nthesummerof1859, madenewf or
    tunesequal ingt hoseoftrade, r
    ailways,and
    l
    andspecul ati
    on.Itscattereditsri
    cheswi t
    hanespeci al
    lylavishhandt hroughOkl ahoma, Texas,
    andCalifornia.

    JohnD.Rockef
    ell
    er

    TheTr ust—anI nstrumentofI ndust r


    ialProgress.—Busi nessent er
    prise,undert hedirectionof
    power fulmenwor kingsingle-
    handed, orofsmal lgroupsofmenpool ingt heircapi
    talforoneor
    mor eunder taki
    ngs, hadnotadv ancedf arbef orethereappear edupont hescenest i
    llmi ghti
    er
    l
    eader sofev engr eateri
    magi nation.Newconst ructi
    vegeni usnowbr oughtt ogetherandcombi ned
    underonemanagementhundr edsofconcer nsort housandsofmi lesofr ailways,r
    ev ealingthe
    magi cst r
    engthofcoöper ati
    ononanat ionalscale.Price-cutti
    nginoi l
    , t
    hreateningruint othose
    engagedi nt heindustry,asearlyas1879, l
    edanumberofcompani esi nCl evel
    and,Pittsburgh,and
    Phil
    adel phiatouniteinpr i
    ce-fi
    xing.Threey earslateragr oupofoi linterestsformedacl ose
    organization,placi
    ngal l
    theirstocksi nthehandsoft rustees,amongwhom wasJohnD.
    Rockef ell
    er.Thet r
    ustees, i
    nturn,issuedcer t
    ifi
    catesr epresenti
    ngtheshar et owhicheach
    parti
    cipantwasent itl
    ed;andtookov erthemanagementoft heentirebusi ness.Suchwast he
    natureoft he" t
    rust,
    "whichwast opl aysuchanuni quer ôleinthepr ogressofAmer ica.

    Theideaofcombi nationwasappl i
    edintimetoi r
    onandst eel,copper,lead, sugar ,
    cordage, coal,
    andothercommodi t
    ies,unti
    l i
    neachf i
    eldther
    el oomedagi antt rustorcor poration,controll
    ing,
    i
    fnotmostoft heoutput ,
    atleastenought odetermineinal argemeasur ethepr iceschargedt o
    consumer s.Witht
    hepassi ngy ears,t
    herail
    ways, mi
    lls,
    mi nes, andotherbusi nessconcer ns
    weretransferr
    edfrom indivi
    dual ownerstocorporat
    ions.Att heendoft heni neteenthcent ury,
    thewhol efaceofAmer icanbusinesswaschanged.Thr ee-f
    our thsoftheout putfrom industries
    camef rom fact
    ori
    esundercor porat
    emanagementandonl yone- four
    thf rom individualand
    part
    nershipundert
    akings.
    TheBanki
    ngCorporat
    ion.—Ver
    ycloselyr
    elat
    edt
    othegrowthofbusi
    nessenter
    pri
    seonalar
    ge
    scal
    ewasthesystem ofbanki
    ng.I
    nt heol
    ddaysbef
    orebanks,
    apersonwithsavi
    ngsei
    ther
    employ
    edthem i
    n
    hi
    sownunder t
    akings,lentthem toaneighbor,orhidthem awaywheret heysetnoi ndustryin
    mot i
    on.Evenintheear l
    ystagesofmoder nbusi ness,
    itwascommonf oramanuf acturerto
    ri
    sef r
    om smallbeginningsbyf i
    nancingextensi
    onsoutofhi sownearningsandpr ofi
    ts.This
    stateofaff
    air
    swaspr ofoundlyal
    teredbythegr owthofthehugecorporationsrequiri
    ng
    mi l
    l
    ionsandevenbi l
    li
    onsofcapi tal
    .Thebanks, onceanadjunctt
    obusi ness,becamet he
    l
    eader si
    nbusiness.

    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    Wal
    lSt
    reet
    ,NewYor
    kCi
    ty

    Itwast hebankst hatundert


    ooktosel lthestocksandbondsi ssuedbynewcor por
    at i
    onsand
    trustsandt osupplythem wit
    hcredi ttocarryont heiroper ati
    ons.Indeed,manyoft hegr eat
    mer gersorcombi nati
    onsinbusinesswer einiti
    atedbymagnat esinthebankingwor ldwith
    mi l
    li
    onsandbi ll
    ionsunderthei
    rcont rol.Throught heirconnectionswi t
    honeanot her,thebanks
    formedaper f
    ectnetworkofagenci esgat heringupt hepenni esanddol larsoft
    hemassesas
    wel l
    ast hethousandsofther i
    chandpour i
    ngt hem allintothechannel sofbusi
    nessand
    manuf acturi
    ng.Inthi
    sgrowt hofbanki ngonanat i
    onal scale,
    itwasi nevit
    ablet
    hataf ewgr eat
    centers,li
    keWal lSt
    reeti
    nNewYor korSt ateSt r
    eetinBost on,shouldr i
    setoapositionof
    domi nancebot hinconcentr
    ati
    ngt hesav i
    ngsandpr ofi
    t softhenat i
    onandi nfi
    nancingnewas
    wel l
    asol dcorporati
    ons.

    TheSi gnificanceoft heCor poration.—Thecor porati


    on,infact,becamet hest ri
    ki
    ngf eatureof
    Amer icanbusi nesslife,
    oneoft hemostmar v elousinst
    ituti
    onsofal l ti
    me, compar abl einweal th
    andpowerandt henumberofi tsser vantswi thkingdomsandst atesofol d.Theef fectofi tsrise
    andgr owt hcannotbesummar ilyestimat ed; butsomespeci alfactsar eobv i
    ous.Itmadepossi bl
    e
    gigant i
    cent erprisesonceent i
    relybey ondt her eachofanyi ndivi
    dual ,nomat terhowr ich.It
    eli
    mi natedmanyoft hef uti
    leandcost l
    ywast esofcompet it
    ioninconnect ionwithmanuf acture,
    adv erti
    sing, andsel li
    ng.Itst udi
    edt hecheapestmet hodsofpr oduct ionandshutdownmi ll
    st hat
    wer epoor lyequi ppedordi sadv antageousl yl ocated.Itestabli
    shedl abor atoriesforr esearchi n
    i
    ndust ry
    , chemi str
    y,andmechani calinventions.Thr ought hesaleofst ocksandbonds, itenabl ed
    tensoft housandsofpeopl et obecomecapi talists,
    ifonlyinasmal lway .Thecor por ati
    onmadei t
    possi blef oroneper sont oown, forinstance, a$50shar einami ll
    i
    ondol larbusinessconcer n—a
    thingent irelyimpossi bl
    eunderar égimeofi ndi vi
    dualowner sandpar tnerships.

    Ther
    ewas,
    ofcour
    se,
    anot
    hersi
    det
    othepi
    ctur
    e.Manyoft
    hecor
    por
    ati
    onssoughtt
    obecome
    monopoli
    esandt omakepr of
    it
    s,notbyeconomiesandgoodmanagement
    ,butbyext
    ort
    ionfrom
    pur
    chasers.Somet i
    mestheymercil
    essl
    ycrushedsmal
    lbusi
    nessmen,t
    hei
    rcompeti
    tor
    s,bri
    bed
    membersofl egi
    slat
    ures
    t
    osecur efavorablelaws,andcontri
    butedtothecampaignfundsofbothleadi
    ngparti
    es.
    Whereveratr ustapproachedtheposit
    ionofamonopol y,
    itacqui
    redadomi ni
    onoverthe
    l
    abormar ketwhi chenableditt
    obreakev enthestr
    ongesttr
    adeunions.I
    nshort,t
    hepowerof
    t
    hetrustinfinance,inmanufactur
    ing,i
    npol i
    ti
    cs,
    andinthefiel
    doflaborcontr
    olcanhardl
    ybe
    measured.

    TheCor porat i
    onandLabor .—Inthedevel
    opmentoft hecor por ati
    ont herewast obeobser veda
    dist
    inctsev eri
    ngoft heoldtiesbet
    weenmast erandwor kmen, whichexistedi ntheday sof
    smal li
    ndust ri
    es.Forthepersonalbondbetweentheownerandt heempl oyeeswassubst ituted
    anewr elation."Inmostpar t
    sofourcountry,
    "asPresidentWi l
    sononcesai d, "
    menwor k,notf or
    themsel ves, notaspar t
    nersintheoldwayinwhicht heyusedt owor k,butgener all
    yas
    empl oyees—i nahigherorlowergrade—ofgreatcorporat i
    ons."Theownerdi sappear edfrom
    thefactor yandi nhisplacecamet hemanager ,
    repr
    esent i
    ngt heusual lyinvisibl
    est ockholders
    anddependentf orhissuccessuponhi sabi
    li
    tytomakepr ofit
    sf ort heowner s.Hencet het er
    m
    "soull
    esscor porati
    on,"whichwast oexer
    tsuchadeepi nfluenceonAmer i
    cant hinkingabout
    i
    ndust r
    ial relati
    ons.

    Citi
    esandI mmi grati
    on.—Ex pr
    essedint ermsofhumanl if
    e,thiseraofunpr ecedent edent erpr
    ise
    meanthugei ndustr
    ialci
    tiesandani mmensel aborsuppl y,deri
    v edmai nlyfrom Eur opean
    i
    mmi grat
    ion.Here,too,f
    igurestell
    onlyapar tofthest or
    y.InWashi ngton'sdayni ne-tenthsoft he
    Amer icanpeoplewer eengagedi nagri
    cul tur
    eandl ivedinthecount ry;i
    n1890mor et hanone- thi
    rd
    ofthepopul ati
    ondwel ti
    nt ownsof2500andov er
    ;in1920mor ethanhal foft hepopul ationli
    vedin
    townsofov er2500.Infortyyears,
    between1860and1900, GreaterNewYor khadgr ownf rom
    1,174,000to3,437,000;SanFr anci
    scof rom 56,000to342, 000; Chicagof rom 109, 000t o1,698,000.
    Themi l
    esofcitytenement sbegant ori
    v al,i
    nthenumberoft heirresidents,thefarm homest eadsof
    theWest .Thet i
    mesodr eadedbyJef f
    er sonhadar ri
    v ed.Peoplewer e"pil
    edupononeanot herin
    greatciti
    es"andt herepublicofsmallfarmer shadpassedaway .

    Tot heseindust r
    ialcentersf l
    owedannual lyanev er-i
    ncreasingt ideofi mmi gration,reachingthe
    halfmi l
    li
    onpoi ntin1880; risi
    ngt othr
    ee-
    quar tersofami ll
    ionthr eey earslater;andpassi ngthe
    mill
    ionmar kinasi ngl
    ey earatt heopeni
    ngoft henewcent ur
    y .Immi grationwasasol das
    Amer icabutnewel ement snowent er
    edt hesituati
    on.I nthef i
    rstpl ace,therewer er adi
    cal
    changesi nt henationali
    tyoft henewcomer s.Themi grat i
    onfrom Nor thernEur ope—Engl and,
    Ir
    eland,Ger many ,andScandi navi
    a—diminished;thatfrom I t
    aly,Russi a,andAust r
    ia-Hungary
    i
    ncr eased,mor ethant hree-fourt
    hsoftheent irenumbercomi ngf rom theset hr
    eel ands
    betweent hey ears1900and1910.Thesel aterimmi grantswer eIt
    al i
    ans, Poles,Magy ars,
    Czechs, Slovaks,Russians, andJews, whocamef rom count r
    iesf arr emov edf r
    om t helanguage
    andt hetraditi
    onsofEngl andwhencecamet hef ounder sofAmer ica.

    Inthesecondpl ace,t
    herecepti
    onaccor dedthenewcomer sdif
    fer
    edfrom t
    hatgiventot he
    i
    mmi grant
    sint heearlydays.By1890al lt
    hef r
    eelandwasgone.Theycouldnot,therefore,
    be
    dispersedwidelyamongt henativ
    eAmer i
    canstoassimil
    atequi
    cklyandunconsci
    ousl ythe
    habitsandideasofAmer icanli
    fe.Onthecont r
    ary
    , t
    heywerediver
    tedmainl
    ytothei ndustri
    al
    centers.Theretheycr owded—nay ,ov
    ercrowded—intocol
    oniesofthei
    rownwher ethey
    preservedtheirlanguages,thei
    rnewspaper s,
    andtheirol
    d-worl
    dcustomsandv i
    ews.

    Soeagerwer eAmer icanbusinessment ogetanenor mousl aborsupplythattheyaskedfew


    quest i
    onsaboutt heef f
    ectofthis"ali
    eni nvasi
    on"upont heoldAmer icainheri
    tedfrom t
    he
    fathers.Theyev enstimulat
    edthei nvasionar t
    if
    ici
    all
    ybyi mporti
    nghugear miesoff orei
    gner
    s
    undercont racttowor kinspeci
    fiedmi nesandmi l
    ls.Thereseemedt obenol i
    mittothe
    factori
    es,forges,ref
    ineri
    es,andr ai
    lwayst hatcoul
    dbebui l
    t,t
    othemul ti
    tudesthatcouldbe
    empl oyedinconquer ingacontinent.Asf orthefuture,t
    hatwasi nthehandsofPr ovi
    dence!

    Busi
    nessTheor
    iesofPol
    i
    tics.
    —Ast
    hest
    atesmenofHami
    l
    ton'
    sschool
    andt
    hepl
    ant
    ersof
    Calhoun'
    shadt hei
    rtheori
    esofgovernmentandpol
    iti
    cs,
    sotheleader
    sinbusinessenter
    pri
    sehad
    thei
    rs.I
    twassi mpleandeasil
    ystated."
    Iti
    sthedut
    yofthegovernment,
    "theyur
    ged,"t
    oprotect
    Amer i
    canindustr
    yagainstfor
    eign
    compet iti
    onbymeansofhi ght arif
    fsoni mpor t
    edgoods, t
    oai drail
    way sbygener ousgr ant
    sof
    l
    and, tosellmi ner alandt i
    mberl andsatl owpr i
    cest oenerget i
    cmenr eadyt odev el
    opt hem,
    andt hentol eav et herestt othei nit
    iat
    iveanddr iveofindividual
    sandcompani es."Al l
    governmenti nterferencewi ththemanagement ,pri
    ces,r
    at es,charges, andconductofpr i
    vate
    busi
    nesst heyhel dt obeei t
    herwhol l
    yper ni
    ciousorintolerablyimpertinent.Judgingf rom t
    heir
    speechesandwr i
    tings,theyconcei vedthenat i
    onasagr eatcol l
    ecti
    onofi ndivi
    dual s,
    compani es,andl aboruni onsal lstruggl
    ingf orprofi
    tsorhighwagesandhel dtogetherbya
    governmentwhosepr i
    ncipal dutywast okeept hepeaceamongt hem andpr otectindustry
    againstthef oreignmanuf acturer.Suchwast hepoliti
    caltheoryofbusi nessdur ingt he
    gener at
    ionthatf ol l
    owedt heCi v i
    l War.

    TheSupr
    emacyoft
    heRepubl
    i
    canPar
    ty(
    1861-
    85)

    Busi nessMenandRepubl icanPol ici


    es.—Mostoft heleader sinindustrygr avitat
    edt ot he
    Republ i
    canr anks.Theywor kedi ntheNor thandt heRepubl icanpart ywasessent i
    all
    yNor ther n.It
    wasmor eov er—atl eastsof arast hemaj orityofi tsmember swer econcer ned—commi t
    tedt o
    protect ivet ar i
    ffs,asoundmonet aryandbanki ngsy stem, t
    hepr omot i
    onofr ai l
    waysandi ndust ryby
    l
    andgr ant s,andt hedev elopmentofi nter
    nal impr ovement s.Itwasf ur thermor egener ousi nits
    i
    mmi grationpol icy.ItproclaimedAmer icat obeanasy l
    um f ortheoppr essedofal lcount r i
    esand
    fl
    ungwi det hedoor sforimmi grantseagert of il
    lthefact ories,mant hemi nes, andset t
    leupon
    West ernl ands.I nawor dtheRepubl i
    cansst oodf orall t
    hosespeci f
    icmeasur eswhi chf av oredt he
    enlargementandpr osperityofbusi ness.Att hesamet imet heyresistedgov ernmenti nter ference
    withpr i
    vat eent erpri
    se.Theydi dnotr egulaterailwayr ates, prosecutet rustsf orformi ng
    combi nat i
    ons, orpr eventrailwaycompani esf rom gi v
    ingl owerr atest osomeshi pper sthant o
    other s.Tosum i tup, t
    hepol iti
    cal t
    heoriesoft heRepubl icanpar tyfort hreedecadesaf tert heCi vi
    l
    Warwer et het heoriesofAmer i
    canbusi ness—pr osper ousandpr ofi
    t ableindust r
    iesf ortheowner s
    and" thef ull di
    nnerpai l
    "fort hewor kmen.Nat urallyalar gepor ti
    onoft hosewhof l
    our i
    shedunderi ts
    policiesgav et heirsuppor ttoi t
    ,votedfori t
    scandi dates, andsubscr ibedt oit scampai gnf unds.

    Sour cesofRepubl icanSt rengthi nt heNor t


    h.—TheRepubl i
    canpar tywasi nfactapol i
    tical
    organi z ationofsi ngul arpower .I
    tor iginatedi nawav eofmor alent husi asm, hav ingat t
    ractedt o
    i
    tsel f,ifnott heabol i
    tioni
    st s,certainlyal l
    thosei dealists, l
    i
    keJamesRussel lLowel landGeor ge
    Wi l
    liam Cur ti
    s, whohadopposedsl av erywhenopposi tionwasnei thersaf enorpopul ar.Tomor al
    principl esi taddedpr acti
    cal consi derat i
    ons.Busi nessmenhadconf i
    dencei ni t.Wor kingmen, who
    l
    ongedf ort hei ndependenceoft hef armer ,owedt oitsindul gentl andpol i
    cyt heoppor tunit
    yof
    secur ingf reehomest eadsi ntheWest .Thei mmi grant, l
    andi ngpenni lessont heseshor es,asa
    resul toft hesamebenef icentsy stem, oftenf oundhi msel final itt
    lewhi l
    ewi thanest ateaslar geas
    manyabar oni aldomai nint heOl dWor l
    d.UnderaRepubl i
    canadmi nist rati
    on, theuni onhadbeen
    sav ed.Toi tthev eteransoft hewarcoul dturnwi thconf i
    dencef ort hoser ewar dsofser vi
    cewhi ch
    thegov ernmentcoul dbest ow: pensi onssur passi nginl iberali
    tyany thingt hatt hewor ldhadev er
    seen.UnderaRepubl icanadmi nistrati
    onal sot hegr eatdebthadbeencr eatedi nthedef enseoft he
    union, andt ot heRepubl i
    canpar tyev er yinvestoringov ernmentbondscoul dl ookf orthef ul
    l and
    honor abl edi schar geoft hei nterestandpr i
    ncipal.Thespoi lssy stem, inaugur at edbyJacksoni an
    Democr acy ,i
    nt urnpl acedal lt
    hef eder alofficesinRepubl icanhands, furnishinganar myofpar t
    y
    wor ker st obecount edonf orloyal serv i
    ceinev er
    ycampai gn.

    OfallthesethingsRepubl i
    canleader
    smadef ul
    landvigoroususe,somet imesascribingtothe
    party,
    inaccordancewi thancientpol
    iticalusage,meri
    tsandachi evementsnotwhol lyitsown.
    Parti
    cularl
    ywast hi
    st ruei nthecaseofsav i
    ngtheunion."Wheni ntheeconomyofPr ov i
    dence,t
    his
    l
    andwast obepur gedofhumansl avery...t
    heRepublicanpartycamei ntopower,"rana
    declar
    ationinonepl atform."TheRepubl i
    canpartysuppressedagigant i
    crebel
    li
    on,emanci pated
    fourmi l
    li
    onslaves,decr eedtheequal citi
    zenshi
    pofall,andestabli
    sheduni v
    ersalsuffrage,
    "ran
    another.Asfortheai drender edbythemi l
    li
    onsofNor t
    hernDemocr at
    swhost oodbyt heunionand
    t
    hetensofthousandsofthem whoactual
    lyf
    oughti
    ntheuni
    onar
    my,
    theRepubl
    i
    cansi
    nthei
    rzeal
    wer
    eincl
    inedtobeobli
    vious.Theyr
    epeatedl
    ychar
    gedthe
    Democrat
    icpar
    ty"
    wit
    hbei
    ngt
    hesamei
    nchar
    act
    erandspi
    ri
    taswheni
    tsy
    mpat
    hizedwi
    th
    t
    reason.
    "

    Republ icanCont rol oft heSout h. —Tot hest rengthenj oy edi nt heNor th,theRepubl icansf ora
    l
    ongt i
    meaddedt headv antagest hatcamef rom cont rol ov ert hefor merConf ederatestates
    wher et henewl yenf ranchi sednegr oes,underwhi teleader shi p,gav eagr atefulsuppor ttothe
    par t
    yresponsi blef ort heirfreedom.I nthisbr anchofpol itics, mot i
    v eswer esomi xedt hatno
    histori
    ancanhopet oappr aiset hem allatt heirproperv alues.Ont heonesi deoft heledger
    mustbesett hev igorousef fortsoft hehonestandsi ncer ef riendsoft hef reedment owi nfor
    them compl eteci v i
    landpol iti
    cal equalit
    y ,wipingoutnotonl ysl averybutal lit
    sbadgesof
    mi seryandser vitude.Ont hesamesi demustbepl acedt hel aboroft hosewhohadv al
    iantl
    y
    foughti nforum andf ieldt osav et heuni onandwhor egar dedcont inuedRepubl i
    cansupr emacy
    afterthewarasabsol ut el
    ynecessar ytopr ev entthef ormerl eadersi nsecessi onf rom comi ng
    backt opower .Att hesamet i
    met herewer eundoubt edl ysomemenoft hebasersor twho
    l
    ookedonpol iticsasagameandwhomadeuseof" car pet -
    baggi ng"i nt heSout htowi nthe
    spoilsthatmi ghtr esul tf r
    om it.Atal levent s,bothbyl awsandpr esident ialacts, t
    he
    Republ icansf ormanyy earskeptakeeney eupont hemai nt enanceoft heirdomi ni
    oni nthe
    Sout h.Theirdecl ar ationt hatnei therthel awnori tsadmi nistrat i
    onshoul dadmi tany
    discriminationi nr espectofci tizensbyr easonofr ace, color ,orpr ev i
    ouscondi t
    ionofser vit
    ude
    appeal edt oideal i
    st sandbr oughtr esult
    si nel ect
    ions.Ev enSout hCar olina, wher ereposedt he
    ashesofJohnC.Cal houn, wentRepubl i
    cani n1872byav ot eoft hr eet oone!

    Republicancontrolwasmadeeasybyt heforcebill
    sdescr i
    bedi napreviouschapter—measur es
    whichv estedthesuper visi
    onofelecti
    onsi nfederaloffi
    cersappointedbyRepubl i
    can
    Presidents.Thesedrast i
    cmeasur es,departi
    ngfrom Amer i
    cant r
    adit
    ion,theRepubli
    canaut hors
    urged,wer enecessaryt osafeguardthepurit
    yoft hebal l
    ot,notmerelyint heSout
    hwher ethe
    ti
    midf reedmanmi ghtr eadil
    ybef r
    ightenedfrom usingit;butalsointheNor th,
    parti
    cular
    lyi
    n
    NewYor kCity,
    wherei twascl ai
    medt hatfraudwasr egul
    arlypracti
    cedbyDemocr ati
    cleaders.

    TheDemocr at s,ont hei rside, indignant l


    ydeni edt hechar ges, r
    eplyingt hattheforcebill
    swer e
    nothingbutdev i
    cescr eat edbyt heRepubl icansf ort hepur poseofsecur ingtheirconti
    nuedr ule
    throughsy stemat i
    ci nterferencewi thelecti
    ons.Ev ent hemeasur esofr econstructi
    onwer edeemed
    byDemocr aticleader sast hinlyv eil
    edschemest oest ablishRepubl icanpowert hroughoutthe
    count r
    y." Norist her et hesl ight estdoubt ,
    "excl ai
    medSamuel J.Tilden, spokesmanoft he
    Democr atsinNewYor kandcandi dateforPr esidenti n1876, "t
    hatt hepar amountobjectandmot iv
    e
    oftheRepubl i
    canpar t
    yi sbyt hesemeanst osecur ei t
    selfagainstar eactionofopinionadv ersetoit
    i
    nourgr eatpopul ousNor ther ncommonweal ths...
    .
    Whent heRepubl icanpar tyr esol vedt oestabl i
    shnegr osupr emacyi nt hetenst atesinor derto
    gaint oitselft her epr esent ationoft hosest atesi nCongr ess,ithadt obeginbygov erni
    ngt he
    peopl eoft hosest atesbyt heswor d..
    ..Thenextwast hecr eationofnewel ectoralbodiesf or
    thoset enst at es,inwhi ch, byexcl usions,bydi sfr anchisement sandpr oscri
    ptions,bycont rol
    overr egistration,byappl y ingt estoat hs. .
    .
    byi nt
    imi dationandbyev eryf or m ofinfluence, thr eemi l
    lionnegr oesar emadet o
    predomi nateov erf ourandahal fmi ll
    ionwhi tes."

    TheWarasaCampai gnI ssue.—Ev enther epeal offorcebill


    scouldnotal l
    aythesect i
    onalfeeli
    ngs
    engender edbyt hewar .TheRepubl icanscoul dnotf orgiv
    et hemenwhohadsor ecent l
    ybeeni n
    armsagai nsttheuni onandi nsistedoncal l
    i
    ngt hem "trai
    tors"and"rebels.
    "TheSout herners,
    smar t
    ingundert her econst r
    uctionact s,couldr egar dtheRepubl i
    cansonl yaspol it
    icaloppressors.
    Thepassi onsoft hewarhadbeent oost rong; thedi st
    resst oodeept obesoonf orgotten.The
    generationthatwentt hroughital lr
    emember edi tall
    .Fort wentyyears,theRepubl i
    cans, i
    nt hei
    r
    speechesandpl atforms, made" astraightappeal tothepat ri
    oti
    sm oft heNorthernv oters.
    "They
    maintainedthatt heirpar t
    y,whichhadsav edt heuni onandemanci patedtheslav es,wasal one
    worthyofpr otectingtheuni onandupl ift
    ingthef reedmen.
    Thought heDemocr ats,
    especi
    all
    yintheNorth,r
    esent
    edthispol
    icyanddubbedi twiththe
    expressivebutinel
    egantphr
    ase,"wav
    ingthebloodyshi
    rt,
    "theRepubli
    cansrefusedtosurrendera
    sloganwhi chmadesuchar eadypopularappeal
    .Aslat
    eas1884, aleaderexpressedthehopet hat
    theymi ght"wr
    ingonemor e
    Presi
    dentfrom thebloodyshi r
    t.
    "Theyrefusedtoletthecount
    ryforgett
    hatt
    heDemocr at
    ic
    candi
    date,GroverCleveland,hadescapedmi l
    it
    aryservi
    cebyhiri
    ngasubstit
    ute;
    andthey
    madepol i
    ti
    calcapit
    al outofthefactthathehad"insult
    edtheveter
    ansoftheGrandArmyof
    theRepubli
    c"bygoingf ishi
    ngonDecor ati
    onDay .

    ThreeRepubl icanPr esidents.—Forti


    fi
    edbyal ltheseel ement sofst r
    ength,theRepublicanshel d
    thepr esidencyf r om 1869t o1885.Thet hr eePr esidentselectedinthisperiod,Grant
    , Hay es,
    andGar fi
    eld,hadcer tainstriki
    ngcharact erist
    icsincommon.Theywer eal
    l ofori
    ginhumbl e
    enought opleaset hemostexact i
    ngJacksoni anDemocr at.Theyhadbeengener al
    sint he
    unionar my .Gr ant ,nexttoLincoln,wasr egar dedast hesav i
    oroft heConst i
    tuti
    on.Hay esand
    Garfield,thoughl esserlightsinthemi l
    itaryf i
    rmament ,hadhonor ablerecordsdulyappr eciat
    ed
    byv eteransoft hewar ,nowt horoughlyor ganizedi ntotheGr andAr myoft heRepublic.Itistrue
    thatGr antwasnotapol i
    ti
    cianandhadnev erv otedtheRepubl i
    cant i
    cket;
    butt hi
    swasr eadil
    y
    overlooked.Hay esandGar fiel
    dont heot herhandwer eloyalpartymen.Thef ormerhadser ved
    i
    nCongr essandf orthr
    eet ermsasgov ernorofhi sstate.Thel at
    terhadlongbeenamemberof
    theHouseofRepr esentativ
    esandwasSenat or -
    electwhenher eceivedthenomi nati
    onf or
    President .

    Allofthem possessed, mor eover,anotherimpor t


    antasset , whichwasnotf orgottenbyt he
    astutemanager swhol edi nselectingcandidates.Alloft hem wer efr
    om Ohi o—thoughGr ant
    hadbeeni nIl
    l
    inoiswhent hesummonst omi l
    itarydutiescame—andOhi owasast r
    ategi cstate.
    Itl
    aybet weent hemanuf acturi
    ngEastandt heagr ari
    ancount ryt otheWest .Havinggr owi ng
    i
    ndust ri
    esandwool tosel litbenefitedfr
    om thepr otectivetariff.Yetbeingmai nl
    yagr icultural
    sti
    ll
    ,itwasnotwi t
    houtsy mpat hyf orthefarmer swhoshowedl owt arif
    forfreetrade
    tendencies.What evershar etheEasthadi nshapingl awsandf ramingpol i
    cies,i
    twascl earthat
    theWestwast ohav ethecandi dates.Thisdivisi
    oni npr i
    vil
    eges—notuncommoni npol i
    tical
    management —wasal way saccompani edbyaj udici
    oussel ectionofthecandi dateforVi ce
    President.WithGarfield,forexampl e,
    wasassoci atedapr omi nentNewYor kpoliti
    cian,Chest er
    A.Arthur,who, asfatedecr eed, wasdest i
    nedt omor et hant hreey ears'ser
    viceaschi ef
    magistrate,ontheassassi nati
    onofhi ssuperiorinof fi
    ce.

    TheDi sputedEl ectionof1876. —Whi l


    et akingnoteoft hel ongyearsofRepubl i
    cansupr emacy ,
    it
    mustber ecordedt hatgr av edoubt sexistinthemi ndsofmanyhi storiansast owhet heroneof
    thet hreePr esident s,Hay es, wasact uall
    yt hevi
    ctorin1876ornot .HisDemocr at
    icopponent ,
    Samuel J.Ti l
    den, receivedapopul arplural
    ityofaquar terofami l
    l
    ionandhadapl ausibleclai
    m
    toamaj or i
    tyoft heel ectoral vote.Atallevents,fourstatessenti ndoubl ereturns,onesetf or
    Tildenandanot herf orHay es; andadeadl ockensued.Bot hparti
    esv ehement lyclaimedt he
    electionandt hepassi onsr ansohi ghthatsobermendi dnotshr i
    nkfr om speakingofci vi
    lwar
    again.For tunatel y
    ,int heend, thecounsel sofpeacepr evail
    ed.Congr essprov i
    dedf oran
    electoralcommi ssionoff ifteenment or eviewthecont estedreturns.TheDemocr at
    s,inspi
    red
    byTi lden'
    smoder at i
    on,accept edthejudgmenti nf avorofHay esev ent hought heywer enot
    conv incedt hathewasr eallyent it
    ledtot heoffi
    ce.

    TheGr
    owt
    hofOpposi
    ti
    ont
    oRepubl
    i
    canRul
    e

    Abusesi nAmer i
    canPol it
    ical Li
    fe.—Dur i
    ngtheirlongtenureofoffice,t
    heRepubli
    canscoul dnot
    escapet heinevit
    abl econsequencesofpower ;t
    hatis,evi
    lpract
    icesandcor r
    uptconductont he
    partofsomewhof oundshel terwi thinthepar t
    y.Forthatmat t
    erneitherdi
    dtheDemocr ats
    managet oavoidsuchdi ffi
    culti
    esi nt hosestatesandci t
    ieswher etheyhadthemaj ori
    ty.InNew
    Yor kCi
    ty,forinstance, t
    hel ocal Democr at
    icorganizat
    ion,knownasTammanyHal l
    , passed
    undertheswayofagr oupofpol it
    iciansheadedby" Boss"Tweed.Hepl underedthecity
    treasur
    yunt il
    publ i
    c-spir
    itedci t
    izens, supportedbySamuel J.Til
    den,theDemocrati
    cl eaderof
    thestate,roseinr evol
    t,drov ether ingleaderfrom power,andsenthi mt oj
    ail
    .InPhil
    adelphia,
    thelocal
    Republ i
    canbossesweregui
    ltyofoff
    ensesasodi
    ousast
    hosecommitt
    edbyNew
    Yorkpoli
    ti
    cians.Indeed,
    thedecadet
    hatfol
    lowedtheCi
    vil
    Warwasmarredbyso
    manyscandal
    sinpubl
    i
    cli
    fethatoneacut
    eedi
    torwasmov edtoinqui
    re:
    "Ar
    enotall
    thegr
    eat
    communit
    iesoft
    heWester
    nWor ldgr
    owingmorecor
    ruptastheygrowinweal
    th?
    "

    Int hesphereofnat ionalpoliti


    cs,wher etheoppor tuniti
    eswer egreater,betrayalsofpubl ic
    trustwereev enmor efl
    agr ant.Oner evelat
    ionaf t
    eranot hershowedof fi
    cers,highandl ow,
    possessedwi t
    hthespiritofpecul ati
    on.Member sofCongr ess, i
    twasf ound,accept edrailway
    stocki nexchangef orv otesinf avoroflandgr antsandot herconcessi onstot hecompani es.I
    n
    theadmi nistrati
    onaswel last helegi
    slatur
    et hedi seasewasr if
    e.Rev enueof fi
    cer sper mi t
    ted
    whi skydisti
    l
    lerstoev adet heirtaxesandr eceivedheav ybr ibesinreturn.Apr obei ntothepost -
    officedepartmentr evealedt hemal odorous" starroutefrauds" —thedel iber
    ateov erpaymentof
    cer tai
    nmai lcarri
    erswhosel i
    neswer eindicatedi ntheof fi
    cialrecordbyast erisksorst ars.
    Ev encabinetof fi
    cersdidnotescapesuspi cion, f
    ort hetrailoftheser pentledst raighttot he
    doorofoneoft hem.

    Inthelowerr angesofof fi
    ciallife,
    thespoi lssy stem becamemor evirul
    entast henumberof
    federalempl oyeesi ncr
    eased.Thehol der sofof f
    icesandt heseekersaf terthem const ituteda
    verit
    ablepol i
    ti
    cal army.Theycr owdedi ntoRepubl icancounci l
    s,fortheRepubl i
    cans, beingi n
    power ,couldalonedi spensef ederal
    fav ors.Theyf i
    ll
    edposi ti
    onsint hepar tyrangingf rom t he
    l
    owestt ownshipcommi tteet ot henati
    onal conv enti
    on.Theyhel pedt onomi natecandi dat es
    anddr aftplatf
    ormsandel bowedt oonesi det hebusyci t
    izen,notconv ersantwi thpar t
    y
    i
    nt r
    igues, whocoul donlygi veanoccasi onal dayt opolit
    ical matt
    ers.Ev entheCi vilServ i
    ceAct
    of1883, wrungfrom ar eluctantCongr esst woy earsaf t
    ert heassassinat i
    onofGar f
    ield, made
    l
    ittl
    echangef oral ongtime.I ttookawayf rom t hespoi l
    smenaf ewt housandgov er
    nment
    positi
    ons, butitformednocheckont hepr acti
    ceofr ewardingpar t
    ywor kersf rom thepubl ic
    treasury.

    Onv i
    ewingthi
    sstateofaffair
    s,manyadi sti
    nguishedci
    tizenbecamepr ofoundlydiscouraged.
    JamesRussellLowell
    , f
    orexample,thoughthesawast eadydeclinei
    npubl i
    cmor als.In1865,
    heari
    ngofLee'ssurr
    ender,hehadexcl ai
    med: "
    Thereissomet hingmagnificentinhavinga
    countr
    ytolove!
    "Teny earslat
    er,
    whenaskedt owr i
    teanodef orthecentennialatPhil
    adelphi
    a
    i
    n1876, hecouldthi
    nkonlyofabi t
    ingsatir
    eont henati
    on:

    "Showy ourst ate


    l
    egi sl
    atur es; showy our
    Rings;
    Andchal lengeEur opet o
    producesucht hings
    Ashi ghof ficial
    ssi t
    ting
    halfinsi ght
    Toshar et hepl underand
    fi
    xt hingsr ight .
    I
    ft hatdon' tf etchher ,
    why ,youneedonl y
    Toshowy ourl atestst y
    le
    i
    nmar t
    y r
    s,—Tweed:
    She' l
    lfi
    ndi thar dtohi de
    herspi teful tears
    Atsuchadv ancei none
    poorhundr edy ears."

    Whenhiscr i
    ti
    cscondemnedhi
    mf ort
    his"at
    tackuponhi
    snati
    veland,
    "Lowel
    lrepl
    iedi
    nsadness:
    "Thesefel
    l
    owshav enonoti
    onofwhatlov
    eofcount r
    ymeans.I
    twasinmyv erybl
    oodandbones.If
    Iam notanAmer i
    canwhoeverwas?.
    ..Whatfil
    l
    smewi t
    hdoubtanddismayisthedegr
    adat
    ionof
    t
    hemor
    alt
    one.I
    sit
    orisi
    tnotaresul
    tofdemocracy
    ?Isoursa'gover
    nmentoft hepeopl
    e,byt
    hepeople,fort
    he
    peopl
    e,'
    oraKakist
    ocracy[
    agovernmentoftheworst
    ],r
    atherfort
    hebenef
    itofknavesatthe
    costoffool
    s?"

    TheRef orm Mov ementi nRepubl i


    canRanks. —Thesent i
    ment sexpr essedbyLowel l,himselfa
    Republ i
    canandf orat imeAmer icanambassadort oEngl and,wer eshar edbymanymeni nhis
    party.Verysoonaf terthecloseoft heCi v i
    l Warsomeoft hem begant opr ot
    estv i
    gorously
    againstthepolici
    esandconductoft hei
    rl eader s.In1872, t
    hedi ssenters,call
    ingthemsel ves
    LiberalRepubli
    cans, brokeawayal t
    oget her ,nomi natedacandi dat eoft heirown, Horace
    Greeley,andputf orwardapl atformi ndi
    ct ingt heRepubl icanPr esidentf i
    ercelyenought o
    pleasethemostuncompr omisi
    ngDemocr at.TheyaccusedGr antofusi ng"thepower sand
    oppor t
    uniti
    esofhi shighof fi
    cef orthepr omot i
    onofper sonalends. "Theychar gedhim with
    retai
    ning"notori
    ousl ycorruptandunwor thymeni npl acesofpowerandr esponsibi
    lit
    y .
    "They
    all
    egedt hattheRepubl icanpartykept" alivet hepassi onsandr esent ment softhelatecivi
    l war
    touset hem fortheirownadv antages,"andempl oy edthe" publ
    icser viceoft hegov ernmentas
    amachi neryofcor rupti
    onandper sonal influence. "

    I
    twasnotappar ent,howev er,f
    rom t heensuingel ecti
    ont hatanyconsi derablenumberof
    Republi
    cansacceptedt hev i
    ewsoft heLiberals.Greeley,thoughindorsedbyt heDemocr at
    s,
    wasut t
    erl
    yroutedanddi edofabr okenhear t.Thelessonofhi sdiscomf i
    tureseemedt obe
    thati
    ndependentactionwasf util
    e.So, atleast,itwasr egardedbymostmenoft her i
    sing
    generat
    ionli
    keHenr yCabotLodge, ofMassachuset ts,andTheodor eRoosev elt
    ,ofNewYor k.
    Profi
    ti
    ngbyt heexperienceofGr eeleytheyinsistedinseasonandoutt hatreformer swho
    desir
    edtoridthepartyofabusesshoul dr emai nloyaltoitanddot hei
    rwor k"ont heinside.
    "

    TheMugwumpsandCl evel
    andDemocr acyin1884.—Thoughai dedbyRepubl icandissensions,
    theDemocr at
    swereslowi nmaki ngheadwayagai nstt hepol i
    ti
    calcurrent.Theywer edeprived
    oftheener geti
    candcapabl eleadershiponceaf f
    ordedbyt hepl anter
    s,li
    keCal houn,Dav i
    s,and
    Toombs; theyweresaddledbyt heiropponentswi t
    hr esponsi bi
    li
    tyforsecession;andt heywer e
    stri
    ppedoft hesupportofthepr ostrat
    eSout h.Notunt ilt
    hel astSouthernst at
    ewasr estor
    edt o
    theunion,notuntil
    agener alamnest ywaswr ungfrom Congr ess,notunti
    l whitesupremacy
    wasest abli
    shedatthepol l
    s,andt helastfederalsoldierwithdrawnf rom Southerncapi t
    alsdid
    theysucceedi ncaptur
    ingthepr esidency.

    Theoppor tunemomentf orthem camei n1884whenanumberofci rcumst ancesf av oredtheir


    aspirati
    ons.TheRepublicans, l
    eav i
    ngtheOhi oValleyint heirsearchforacandi dat e,nomi nated
    JamesG.Bl ai
    neofMaine, avigorousandpopul arleaderbutamanunderf i
    ref rom t he
    refor
    mer sinhisownpar ty.TheDemocr at
    sont heirsidewer eabl
    et ofindatt hisj uncturean
    ablecandidatewhohadnopol it
    icalenemi esinthespher eofnat i
    onal polit
    ics,Gr ov er
    Cleveland,t
    hengovernorofNewYor kandwi del
    ycel ebratedasamanof" sterl
    inghonest y."At
    thesamet i
    meanumberofdi ssat i
    sfi
    edRepubl i
    cansopenl yespousedt heDemocr atic
    cause,—amongt hem Car lSchurz ,GeorgeWi l
    li
    am Cur ti
    s,Henr yWar dBeecher ,andWi ll
    iam
    Everett,menoffi
    neideal sandundoubt edi nt
    egri
    ty.Thought he"r
    egular "Republ icanscal l
    ed
    them "Mugwumps"andl aughedatt hem ast he"menmi ll
    iners,t
    hedi l
    ettanti
    , andcar petknights
    ofpol i
    ti
    cs,
    "theyhadaf ollowingt hatwasnott obedespi sed.

    Thecampai gnwhi chtookpl acethaty earwasoneoft hemostsav ageinAmer i


    canhi st
    or y.I
    ssues
    werethrustint
    ot hebackgr ound.Thet ar
    iff
    ,thoughment i
    oned, wasnottakenser i
    ously.Abuseof
    theoppositi
    onwast hef avorit
    eresour ceofpar t
    yorators.TheDemocr at
    si nsist
    edt hat"the
    Republi
    canpar tysofaraspr inci
    pl eisconcer nedisar eminiscence.Inpracticeitisanor ganizati
    on
    forenr
    ichingthosewhocont roli
    tsmachi nery."FortheRepubl i
    cancandidat e,Blai
    ne, t
    heycoul d
    hardl
    yfindwor dstoexpr esstheircont empt.TheRepubl i
    cansr etal
    iat
    edinki nd.Theypr aisedtheir
    owngoodwor ks,asofol d,insavingt heunion, anddenouncedt he"fr
    audandv iolencepracticedby
    theDemocr acyintheSout hernst ates."Seeinglit
    tl
    eobj ect
    ionableinthepubl icrecordofCl eveland
    asmay orofBuffal
    oandgov er
    norofNewYor k,t
    heyattackedhi spersonalchar
    acter
    .Perhaps
    neveri
    nthehistoryofpol
    it
    icalcampai
    gnsdidthediscussionsont heplatf
    orm andinthepresssi
    nk
    tosolowal ev
    el.Decentpeopl
    ewer esi
    ckened.Evenhotpar t
    isans
    shrankfrom t
    heirownwordswhen,af
    tert
    heelect
    ion,t
    heyhadt imetorefl
    ectonthei
    rheedl
    ess
    passions.
    Mor eov
    er,not
    hingwasdeci
    dedbyt
    heball
    oti
    ng.Cl
    evel
    andwasel ected,
    buthi
    svict
    orywasanarr
    ow
    one.
    Achangeofaf ewhundredvot
    esi
    nNewYor kwouldhav esenthisopponenttotheWhit
    eHouse
    i
    nstead.

    Changi ngPol itical For tunes( 1888- 96)


    .—Af tert heDemocr at
    shadset tl
    eddownt othe
    enjoy mentoft hei rhar d-earnedv ictory,PresidentCl ev elandi nhi smessageof1887at tacked
    thetar iffas" vicious, inequi table,andill
    ogi cal";asasy stem oft axationt hatlaidabur denupon
    "everyconsumeri nt hel andf orthebenef itofourmanuf acturers."Busi nessent erpri
    sewas
    thoroughl yal armed.TheRepubl i
    canschar acter i
    zedt het ari
    ffmessageasaf ree-t
    radeassaul t
    upont hei ndust riesoft hecount ry.Mainlyont hatissuet heyel ectedi n1888Benj aminHar rison
    ofIndi ana, ashr ewdl awy er,ar eti
    centpol i
    tician,adescendantoft heher oofTi ppecanoe, anda
    sonoft heol dNor thwest .Accept i
    ngt heout comeoft heel ecti
    onasav indicati
    onoft heir
    pri
    nci ples, t
    heRepubl icans, undert heleader shipofWi lli
    am McKi nleyi nt heHouseof
    Repr esent atives, enact edin1890at ari
    fflawi mposi ngt hehi ghestdut iesy etlaidinourhistor y
    .
    Tot hei ruttersur prise, howev er,theywer ei nstantlyinf ormedbyt hecount rythattheirprogram
    wasnotappr ov ed.Thatv eryaut umnt heyl osti nthecongr essional elect i
    ons,andt woy ear s
    l
    atert heywer edeci sivelybeat eni nthepresi dent i
    alcampai gn,Clev elandoncemor eleadinghi s
    partyt ov ictory.

    Ref
    erences

    L.
    H.Haney
    ,Congr
    essi
    onalHi
    stor
    yofRai
    l
    way
    s(2v
    ols.
    ).

    J.
    P.Dav
    i Uni
    s, onPaci
    fi
    cRai
    l
    way
    .

    J. Hi
    M.Swank, st
    oryoft
    heManuf
    act
    ureofI
    ron.

    M.
    T.Copel TheCot
    and, tonManuf
    act
    uri
    ngI
    ndust
    ryi
    ntheUni
    tedSt
    ates(
    Har
    var
    dSt
    udi
    es)
    .

    E.
    W.Br
    y Pr
    ce, ogr
    essofI
    nvent
    ioni
    ntheNi
    net
    eent
    hCent
    ury
    .

    I
    daTar
    bel
    l
    ,Hi
    stor
    yoft
    heSt
    andar
    dOi
    lCompany(
    Cri
    ti
    cal
    ).

    G.
    H.Mont Ri
    ague, seandPr
    ogr
    essoft
    heSt
    andar
    dOi
    lCompany(
    Fri
    endl
    y).

    H.P.Fair
    chil
    d,I
    mmi
    grat
    ion,
    andF.
    J.War TheI
    ne, mmi
    grantI
    nvasi
    on(
    Bot
    hwor
    ksf
    avor
    excl
    usion).

    I
    .A.Hour
    wi I
    ch,mmi
    grat
    ion(
    Agai
    nstexcl
    usi
    oni
    stpol
    i
    cies)
    .

    J. Hi
    F.Rhodes, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    1877-
    1896,
    Vol
    .VI
    II
    .

    Edwar
    dSt AHi
    anwood, stor
    yoft
    hePr
    esi
    dency
    ,Vol
    .I,
    fort
    hepr
    esi
    dent
    ial
    elect
    ionsoft
    heper
    iod.

    Quest
    ions

    1.Contr
    astt
    hest
    ateofi
    ndust
    ryandcommer
    ceatt
    hecl
    oseoft
    heCi
    vi
    lWarwi
    thi
    tscondi
    ti
    on
    atthecl
    oseoft
    heRevol
    uti
    onar
    yWar.

    2.
    Enumer
    atet
    heser
    vicesr
    ender
    edt
    othenat
    ionbyt
    her
    ail
    way
    s.
    3.
    Expl
    aint
    hepecul
    i
    arr
    elat
    ionofr
    ail
    way
    stogov
    ernment
    .

    4.
    Whatsect
    ionsoft
    hecount
    ryhav
    ebeeni
    ndust
    ri
    ali
    zed?
    5.Howdoy ouaccountf
    ort
    her
    iseandgr
    owt
    hoft
    het
    rust
    s?Expl
    ainsomeoft
    heeconomi
    c
    advant
    agesofthetr
    ust.

    6.
    Ar et
    hepeopl
    einci
    ti
    esmor
    eorl
    essi
    ndependentt
    hant
    hef
    armer
    s?WhatwasJef
    fer
    son'
    s
    view?

    7.
    Stat
    esomeoft
    hepr
    obl
    emsr
    aisedbyunr
    est
    ri
    ctedi
    mmi
    grat
    ion.

    8.Whatwasthetheoryoft
    her
    elat
    ionofgov
    ernmentt
    obusi
    nessi
    nthi
    sper
    iod?Hasi
    t
    changedi
    nrecentti
    mes?

    9.
    Stat
    ethel
    eadi
    ngeconomi
    cpol
    i
    ciessponsor
    edbyt
    heRepubl
    i
    canpar
    ty.

    10.
    Whywer
    etheRepubl
    i
    cansespeci
    all
    yst
    rongi
    mmedi
    atel
    yaf
    tert
    heCi
    vi
    lWar
    ?

    11.
    Whatil
    l
    ustr
    ati
    onscany
    ougi
    veshowi
    ngt
    hei
    nfl
    uenceofwari
    nAmer
    icanpol
    i
    tical
    campai
    gns?

    12.
    Accountf
    ort
    hest
    rengt
    hofmi
    ddl
    e-west
    erncandi
    dat
    es.

    13.
    Enumer
    atesomeoft
    heabusest
    hatappear
    edi
    nAmer
    icanpol
    i
    tical
    li
    feaf
    ter1865.

    14.
    Sket
    cht
    her
    iseandgr
    owt
    hoft
    her
    efor
    m mov
    ement
    .

    15.
    Howi
    sthef
    luct
    uat
    ingst
    ateofpubl
    i
    copi
    nionr
    efl
    ect
    edi
    ntheel
    ect
    ionsf
    rom 1880t
    o1896?

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    I
    nventi
    on,Di
    scover
    y,andTranspor
    tat
    ion.
    —Sparks,Nat
    ionalDevel
    opment(Ameri
    canNati
    on
    Ser
    ies)
    ,pp.37-
    67;Bogar
    t,EconomicHist
    oryoftheUni
    tedStates,
    Chaps.XXI
    ,XXII
    ,andXXII
    I.

    Busi
    nessandPoliti
    cs.—Paxson,TheNew Nati
    on (
    Riv
    ersi
    deSeri
    es),pp.92-107;Rhodes,
    Hist
    oryoft
    heUnit
    edSt at
    es,Vol
    .VII
    ,pp.1-
    29,
    64-
    73,
    175-206;
    Wil
    son,Hist
    oryoftheAmeri
    can
    People,
    Vol
    .IV,
    pp.78-96.

    I
    mmi grat
    ion.
    —Coman, I
    ndust
    ri
    alHi
    stor
    yoftheUnit
    edSt at
    es(2ded.)
    ,pp.369-374;
    E.L.
    Bogart
    ,EconomicHist
    oryoft
    heUnit
    edStates,
    pp.420-422,434-
    437;JenksandLauck,
    I
    mmi grat
    ionProbl
    ems,Commons,RacesandImmigrants.

    TheDisputedElecti
    onof1876.—Hawor th,TheUnit
    edStatesi
    nOurOwnTime,pp.82-94;
    Dunni
    ng, Reconstr
    ucti
    on,Pol
    i
    ticalandEconomi c(Amer
    icanNati
    onSer
    ies)
    ,pp.294-
    341;
    El
    son,HistoryoftheUnit
    edStates,pp.835-841.

    Abusesi
    nPol i
    tical
    Life.
    —Dunni Reconst
    ng, r
    ucti
    on,pp.281-
    293;seecri
    ti
    cismsi
    npar
    ty
    pl
    atf
    ormsinSt anwood,HistoryofthePresi
    dency,
    Vol.I;
    Bry Amer
    ce, icanCommonwealt
    h(1910
    ed.
    ),Vol
    .II
    ,pp.379-448;136-167.

    StudiesofPresident
    ialAdministr
    ati
    ons.—(a)Grant,b)Hay
    ( es,c)Gar
    ( fiel
    d-Ar
    thur
    ,(d)Cl
    evel
    and,
    and( e)Harr
    ison,inHaworth,TheUnitedStatesinOurOwnTime,ori
    nPaxson,TheNew
    Nation(Riv
    ersideSeries)
    ,orstil
    lmorebrief
    lyinElson.

    Cl
    evelandDemocracy
    .—Hawort
    h,TheUni t
    edSt at
    es,
    pp.164-
    183; Hi
    Rhodes, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    ted
    St
    ates,Vol
    .VI
    II
    ,pp.240-
    327;
    Elson,pp.857-887.
    Anal
    ysi
    sofModer
    nImmi
    grat
    ionPr
    obl —Sy
    ems. ll
    abusi
    nHi
    stor
    y(NewYor
    kSt
    ate,
    1919)
    ,pp.110-
    112.

    CHAPTERXVI
    II
    THEDEVELOPMENTOFTHEGREATWEST

    Atthecl oseoft heCi vilWar ,KansasandTexaswer esent inelstat esont hemi ddlebor der.
    Beyondt heRocki es,Cal ifornia,Or egon, andNev adast oodguar d, thelastoft hem hav i
    ngbeen
    j
    ustadmi tt
    edt of urnishanot herv otef orthef if
    teent hamendmentabol ishingslaver y
    .Bet ween
    thenearandf arf rontiersl ayav astreachofpl ain,deser t,plateau, andmount ain,almostwhol l
    y
    undev eloped.Abr oaddomai n, extendingf rom Canadat oMexi co, andembr aci
    ngt heregions
    nowi ncludedi nWashi ngton, Idaho, Wy omi ng, Mont ana, Utah, Arizona, NewMexi co, the
    Dakotas, andOkl ahoma, hadf ewert hanhal fami ll
    ioni nhabi t
    ant s.I twasl aidoutint oterri
    tor
    ies,
    eachadmi nisteredunderagov ernorappoi nt edbyt hePr esidentandSenat eand,assoonas
    therewast her equisitenumberofi nhabi t
    ant s,al egislatureel ectedbyt hev ot
    ers.Nor ail
    way
    l
    inest retchedacr osst hedeser t.St.Josephont heMi ssour iwast het erminusoft heEast ern
    l
    ines.Itr equi r
    edt went y -
    fiveday sforapassengert omaket heov erlandj ourneytoCal iforni
    aby
    thestagecoachsy stem, establ i
    shedi n1858, andmor et hant enday sfortheswi f
    tponyexpr ess,
    organizedi n1860, t
    ocar ryal ettertoSanFr anci sco.Indi ansst il
    l roamedt hepl ai
    nanddeser t
    andmor et hanonepower fultribedi sputedt hewhi teman' st i
    tlet ot hesoi l
    .

    TheRai
    l
    way
    sAsTr
    ail
    Blazer
    s

    OpeningRailwaystothePacifi
    c.—Adecadebef oret heCi
    vilWartheimpor tanceofrail
    connecti
    onbet weentheEastandt hePacifi
    cCoasthadbeenr ecogni
    zed.Pr essur
    ehadalready
    beenbroughttobearonCongr esst oauthor
    izetheconstructi
    onofal ineandt ograntl
    andand
    moneyini t
    said.BoththeDemocr atsandRepubl i
    cansapprov edtheidea,butitwasinvol
    vedin
    thesl
    averycont r
    over
    sy.Indeeditwassubmer gedi nit
    .Southernstat
    esmenwant ed
    connecti
    onsbet weentheGulfandt hePacif
    icthroughTexas, whi
    leNor t
    hernersstoodoutfora
    centr
    alroute.

    TheNor thhadit
    swaydur ingthewar .Congress, byl egisl
    at i
    oni ni
    ti
    atedi n1862,providedforthe
    i
    mmedi ateorganizat
    ionofcompani estobuildal i
    nef rom t heMi ssouriRivertoCali
    forniaand
    madegr antsoflandandloansofmoneyt oaidi nt heent erprise.TheWest ernend,theCent r
    al
    Pacifi
    c, waslai
    doutundert hesupervisi
    onofLel andSt anf ord.Itwasheav ilyfi
    nancedbyt he
    Mor monsofUt ahandal sobyt hestategovernment , t
    her anchmen, miners,andbusinessmen
    ofCal i
    forni
    a;anditwasbui l
    tprinci
    pall
    ybyChi nesel abor .TheEast er
    nend, t
    heUnionPaci fi
    c,
    start
    ingatOmaha, wasconst r
    uctedmai nl
    ybyv eteransoft heCi vi
    lWarandi mmigrantsf r
    om
    Ir
    elandandGer many.In1869t hetwocompani esmetnearOgdeni nUt ahandt hedrivi
    ngoft he
    l
    astspi ke,uni
    ti
    ngt heAtl
    anticandthePacific,wast heoccasi onofagr eatdemonst ration.

    Otherl
    inest
    ot hePacifi
    cwer eproj
    ectedatt hesamet i
    me; butthepanicof1873checkedr ai
    lway
    enter
    pri
    seforawhi l
    e.Withtherevi
    v al
    ofpr osper
    it
    yatt heendoft hatdecade,construct
    ionwas
    renewedwithvigorandtheyear1883mar kedaser i
    esofrail
    wayt ri
    umphs.InFebr uaryt
    rains
    wererunni
    ngfrom NewOr leansthroughHoust on,SanAntonio,andYumat oSanFr anci
    sco,asa
    resul
    tofaunionoft heTexasPacif
    icwi t
    ht heSouthernPacifi
    candi tssubsi
    diarycorporat
    ions.I
    n
    Sept
    emberthel
    astspi
    kewasdri
    venintheNor
    ther
    nPaci
    fi
    catHel
    ena,
    Mont
    ana.LakeSuper
    ior
    wasconnect
    edwit
    hPugetSound.The
    wat er
    sexploredbyJoli
    etandMar quett
    ewer ejoinedtothewat ersplowedbySirFranci
    s
    Drakewhi l
    ehewassear chingforar outearoundt heworld.Thatsamey earal
    soat hir
    dli
    ne
    wasopenedt ot hePaci
    fi
    cbywayoft heAtchison,TopekaandSant aFé,maki
    ngconnections
    throughAlbuquerqueandNeedl eswi t
    hSanFr ancisco.Thef ondesthopesofr
    ailway
    promot er
    sseemedt ober eal
    ized.

    Uni
    tedSt
    atesi
    n1870

    West ernRailwaysPrecedeSet tl
    ement .
    —Int heOldWor ldandonourAt l
    anticseaboard,r
    ail
    ways
    fol
    lowedpopul ati
    onandmar kets.I
    nt heFarWest ,
    rai
    lwaysusuall
    ypr ecededt hepeople.
    Rail
    waybui lderspl
    annedci ti
    esonpaperbef oretheylai
    dtracksconnectingt hem.Theysent
    missionari
    est ospreadthegospel of" Westernopportunit
    y"topeopleint heMi ddleWest,
    inthe
    Easternciti
    es,andinSout hernstates.Thent heycarr
    iedthei
    renthusiasti
    cconv ert
    sbagand
    baggagei nlongtrai
    nst othedistantDakot asandst i
    l
    l f
    art
    herafi
    eld.Sot hedev elopmentofthe
    FarWestwasnotl efttothetediouspr ocessesoft i
    me.Itwaspushedbymenof
    i
    magi nati
    on—adv enturer
    swhomadear omanceofmoney -
    makingandwhohaddr eamsof
    empir eunequaledbymanyki ngsoft hepast .

    Theseempi rebui l
    dersboughtr ail
    wayl andsi nhuget r
    acts;theygotmor efrom thegov ernment ;
    theyov ercameev er
    yobst acl eofcañon, mount ain,andst r
    eam wi ththeaidofsci ence; t
    heybuilt
    cit
    iesaccor dingt ot heplansmadebyt heengi neer s.Hav ingthet ownsr eadyandr ailwayand
    steamboatconnect ionsf or medwi thther estoft hewor l
    d, t
    heycar ri
    edoutt hepeopl etouset he
    rail
    way s,thest eamshi ps, thehouses, andt heland.I twasi nthiswayt hat"thefrontierspeculator
    pavedt hewayf orthefront ieragri
    culturali
    stwhohadt obenearamar ketbeforehecoul dfarm."
    Thespi ri
    toft hisi maginativ eenterpri
    se, whichlaidoutr ail
    way sandt ownsi nadv anceoft he
    people, i
    sseeni nanadv ertisementoft hatday: "Thisext ensionwi l
    lrun42mi l
    esf r
    om Yor k,
    northeastt hrought heIslandLakecount r
    y,andwi llhavef i
    vegoodNor thDakot atowns.The
    stati
    onsont hel inewillbewel lequippedwi t
    hel evat or
    sandwi llbeconst r
    uctedandr eadyfor
    operationatt hecommencementoft hegr ainseason.Pr ospectivemer chantshav ebeenact iv
    ei n
    securingdesi rablelocationsatt hedifferenttownsont hel i
    ne.Ther earestil
    loppor t
    uni t
    iesfor
    hotels,gener al mer chandi se,hardwar e,furnit
    ure, anddr ugst ores,etc.
    "
    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    ATownont
    hePr
    air
    ie

    Amongt her ailwaypr omot ersandbui lder sintheWest ,JamesJ.Hi l


    l,oft heGr eatNor thernand
    alli
    edl ines,wasoneoft hemostf orcef ul figures.Heknewt hattracksandt rainswer eusel ess
    withoutpassenger sandf rei
    ght ;withoutapopul at i
    onoff armersandt owndwel l
    ers.Het her efore
    organi zedpubl i
    cit
    yint heVi rginias,Iowa, Ohi o,Indiana, Il
    linoi
    s,Wi sconsin, andNebr askaespeci al
    ly.
    Hesentoutagent st ot ell
    thest oryofWest ernoppor tunityinthisv ein:"Youseey ourchi ldrencome
    outofschool wit
    hnochancet ogetf armsoft hei rownbecauset hecostofl andi ny ourol derpar tof
    thecount ryissohi ght haty oucan' taf f ordt obuyl andt ost ar
    ty oursonsouti nl i
    fear oundy ou.They
    hav etogot othecitiest omakeal i
    v i
    ngorbecomel abor ersinthemi ll
    sorhi reoutasf ar
    m hands.
    Ther eisnof uturefort hem t here.Ify ouar edoi ngwel lwher eyouar eandcansaf eguar dt hef ut
    ure
    ofy ourchi ldrenandseet hem pr osperar oundy ou, don' tleaveher e.Buti fy ouwanti ndependence, i
    f
    youar er ent i
    ngy ourl and,ifthemoney -l
    enderi scar ryingy oualongandy ouar erunni ngbehi ndy ear
    aftery ear,youcandonowor sebymov ing...
    .Youf ar mer st al
    kof
    freet radeandpr otectionandwhatt hisort hatpol iti
    cal par
    tywi lldof ory ou.Whydon' ty ou
    voteahomest eadf ory ourself?Thati st heonl yt hi ngUncl eSam wi llev ergi vey ou.Ji m Hi ll
    hasn' tanacr eofl andt osell you.Wear enoti nt her eal est
    atebusi ness.Wedon' twanty out o
    gooutWestandmakeaf ailureofi tbecauset her at esatwhi chwehaul y ouandy ourgoods
    maket hef i
    rstt r
    ansact i
    onal oss..
    ..Wemusthav el andl essmenf oramanl essl and. "

    Unlikest
    eamshipcompani essti
    mul ati
    ngimmi grati
    ont ogetthef ar
    es, Hi
    llwasseeking
    permanentsettl
    erswhowoul dproduce, manuf acture,anduset herailwaysasthemeansof
    exchange.Consequentl
    yhef i
    xedlowr atesandl ethispassenger stakeagooddeal ofliv
    e
    stockandhouseholdfurnit
    urefr
    ee.Bydoi ngt hishemadeanappeal thatwasanswer edby
    eagerfamil
    ies.I
    n1894t hevanguardofhomeseeker slef
    tIndianainf ourt
    eenpassenger
    coaches,fi
    ll
    edwithmen, women, andchildr
    en, andf orty-
    eightfrei
    ghtcarscarry
    ingtheir
    householdgoodsandlivestock.I
    nt heteny earst hatfoll
    owed, 100,000peoplefrom theMiddl
    e
    Westandt heSouth,r
    espondingtohi scall
    ,wentt otheWest erncount rywheretheybrought
    ei
    ghtmi l
    li
    onacresofprairi
    elandundercul t
    ivation.

    WhenHi l
    lgothispeopl eont heland,het ookaninterestinev eryt
    hingt hatincreasedt he
    product iv
    ityofthei rlabor.Wast heout putoffoodforhi sfr
    eightcar slimitedbybaddr ainageon
    thef ar
    ms?Hi l
    l theni nter
    estedhimsel finpracti
    calway sofdi t
    chingandt i
    ling.Weref armers
    hamper edinhaul ingt hei
    rgoodst ohi strai
    nsbybadr oads?I nthatcase, heur gedupont he
    statesthei mpr ovementofhi ghway s.Didthetraff
    icslackenbecauset hefoodshi ppedwasnot
    ofthebestqual ity?Thenl i
    vestockmustbei mprovedandsci entif
    icfar mingpr omoted.Di dthe
    farmer sneedcr edit?Banksmustbeest abli
    shedcloseathandt oadv ancei t
    .Inallconf er
    ences
    onsci entif
    icfarm management ,conser vat
    ionofnatur alr
    esources, bankingandcr editin
    rel
    ationt oagricultureandi ndustry,Hil
    l wasanact i
    vepar ti
    cipant.Hiswast helongv ision,
    seeingi
    nconser
    vat
    ionandper
    manenti
    mpr
    ovement
    sthef
    oundat
    ionofpr
    osper
    it
    yfort
    he
    rai
    lwaysandt
    hepeople.
    Indeed, henegl ectednooppor tunitytoincreasethet r
    af fi
    cont heli
    nes.Hewant ednoempt y
    carsr unninginei t
    herdi recti
    onandnowheatst or
    edi nwar ehousesf ort helackofmar kets.So
    helookedt ot heOr i
    entaswel lastoEur opeasanout letfort hesurplusoft hef arms.Hesent
    agent stoChi naandJapant odi scoverwhatAmer icangoodsandpr oducet hosecount r
    ies
    woul dconsumeandwhatmanuf actur
    est heyhadt oof fertoAmer icansi nexchange.Toopen
    thePaci fictr
    adeheboughtt wooceanmonst ers,
    theMi nnesotaandt heDakot a, t
    huspr eparing
    foremer genciesWestaswel lasEast .WhensomeJapanesecamet otheUni tedSt ateson
    theirwayt oEuropet obuyst eelrai
    ls,Hil
    lshowedt hem howeasyi twasf orthem t omaket heir
    purchasei nthiscount r
    yandshi pbywayofAmer icanr ail
    way sandAmer i
    canv essel s.Sot he
    rail
    waybui l
    derandpr omot er,whohel pedt obreakt hev i
    rginsoilofthepr air
    ies, l
    ivedthrough
    thepi oneerepochandi ntotheageofgr eatfinance.Bef orehedi edhesawt hewheatf ieldsof
    Nort hDakot al i
    nkedwi ththespi nningjenniesofManchest erandthedocksofYokohama.

    TheEv
    olut
    ionofGr
    azi
    ngandAgr
    icul
    tur
    e

    TheRemov aloftheI ndians.—Unl i


    ket hef rontierofNewEngl andi ncolonialday sorthatof
    Kentuckyl at er,t
    headv ancingli
    nesofhomebui ldersi nt heFarWesthadl it
    tl
    edi ffi
    cultywi t
    hwar like
    nati
    v es.Indi anattackswer emadeont her ailwayconst ruct i
    ongangs; General Custerhadhi sf atal
    battl
    ewi t
    ht heSi ouxi n1876andt herewer emi norbr ushes; butt heywer eall ofrelat
    iv el
    ysli
    ght
    consequence.Thef ormerpr acticeoft reatingwi tht heI ndiansasi ndependentnat ionswas
    abandonedi n1871andmostoft hem wer econcent ratedi nreser vati
    onswher etheywer emai nly
    suppor tedbyt hegov ernment .Thesuper vi
    sionoft heiraf f
    airswasv estedinaboar dof
    commi ssioner screat edin1869andi nstructedt ot reatt hem aswar dsoft henat i
    on—at rustwhi ch
    unfortunat elywasof tenbet r
    ayed.Af urtherst epinI ndianpol icywast akenin1887whenpr ovision
    wasmadef orissuingl andst oindividual I
    ndians, thusper mittingthem t obecomeci tizensand
    sett
    ledownamongt heirwhitenei ghborsasf armer sorcat tleraisers.Thedisappear anceoft he
    buffalo,themai nfoodsuppl yoft hewi ldIndians, hadmadet hem mor etractableandmor ewilli
    ng
    tosur rendert hefreedom oft hehunt erf orther outineoft her eservati
    on, r
    anch, orwheatf i
    eld.

    TheCowboyandCat tleRanger .
    —Bet weent hefronti
    eroffarmsandt hemount ai
    nswereplains
    andsemi-aridregionsinv astreachessuit abl
    eforgrazing.Assoonast her ai
    l
    way swereopen
    i
    ntotheMi ssour iVal
    ley,aff
    ordinganout letforstock,t
    herespr angupt othewest wardcatt
    le
    andsheepr aisingonani mmensescal e.Thef ar-f
    amedAmer i
    cancowboywast heheroi
    nt his
    scene.Gr
    eather dsofcat t
    lewer ebredinTexas; withtheadv ancingspri
    ngandsummer
    seasons,
    theywer edr i
    vennorthwardacr osst heplai
    nsandov erthebuffalotrail
    s.I
    nasingle
    year,
    1884, i
    tisest i
    mat edthatnearlyonemi l
    li
    onheadofcat t
    lewer emov edoutofTex astot he
    Northbyfourt housandcowboy s,suppli
    edwi t
    h30,000hor sesandponi es.

    Dur i
    ngt hetwodecadesf rom 1870t o1890bot hthecattlemenandt hesheepr ai
    sershadan
    almostf r
    eerunoft hepl ains,usingpubl i
    clandswi t
    houtpay i
    ngf ortheprivi
    legeandwagi ngwaron
    oneanot herov erthepossessi onofr anges.Atl ength,howev er,bothhadt ogo, asthe
    homest eadersandl andcompani escameandf encedint hepl ainanddeser twithendl essl i
    nesof
    barbedwi r
    e.Al readyin1893awr it
    erf ami l
    i
    arwi ththef r
    ontierl amentedthepassi ngoft he
    pictur
    esqueday s:"Theuni queposi t
    ionoft hecowboy samongt heAmer i
    cansi sjeopar diz edina
    thousandway s.Townsar egrowi ngupont heirpasturelands; irr
    igati
    onschemesofadozensor ts
    threatent oturnbunch- grassscener yi ntofar m-landviews; farmer sarepre-empt i
    ngv alley sandt he
    sidesofwat erway s;andt hedayi snotf ardi stantwhenst ock- raisi
    ngmustbedonemai nl yinsmal l
    herds, withwi ntercorrals,andt hent hecowboy '
    sday swi l
    lend.Ev ennowhi scondi t
    iondi sappoints
    thosewhoknewhi m onlyhal fadozeny earsago.Hi sbreedseemst ohavedet eri
    oratedandhi s
    ranksar ef i
    ll
    ingwi thmenwhowor kforwagesr atherthanf orthel oveofthef r
    eel i
    feandbol d
    compani onshipt hatoncet empt edmeni nt
    ot hatcalli
    ng.Spl endidChey ennesaddl esar el essand
    l
    essnumer ousi ntheout f
    its;thedistinctivehatt hatmadei tswayupf rom Mex icomayormaynot
    bewor n;allt
    heci vilauthor i
    ti
    esi nnear lyalltownsi nthegr azingcount ryforbi
    dt hewear ingofsi de
    arms;nobodyshoot
    supt
    heset
    ownsanymor
    e.Thef
    acti
    stheol
    dsi
    mon-
    pur
    ecowboyday
    sar
    e
    gonealready
    ."
    Set tlementundert heHomest eadActof1862. —Twof actor sgav easpeci al st i
    mul ust ot he
    rapi dset tl
    ementofWest ernl andswhi chsweptawayt heI ndiansandt hecat tleranger s.The
    fi
    rstwast hepol icyoft her ailwaycompani esinselli
    ngl argebl ocksofl andr ecei vedf rom t he
    gov ernmentatl owpr i
    cest oi nducei mmi grat
    ion.Thesecondwast heoper at ionoft he
    Homest eadl awpassedi n1862.Thi smeasur epracti
    callycl osedt hel ongcont r
    over syov ert he
    disposi t
    ionoft hepubl i
    cdomai nt hatwassui t
    ableforagr i
    cul tur e.Itprov i
    dedf orgr anting,
    wi thoutanycostsav easmal lregistrati
    onf ee,publ
    iclandsi nlot sof160acr eseacht oci t
    izens
    andal i
    enswhodecl aredt heirint enti
    onofbecomi ngci ti
    zens.Theonei mpor t antcondi ti
    on
    attachedwast hatt heset tl
    ershoul doccupyt hefarmf orfiv ey ear sbef orehi st i
    tl
    ewasf inall
    y
    conf i
    rmed.Ev ent hisstipulationwaswai vedi nthecaseoft heCi vi
    l Warv eter answhower e
    allowedt ocountt heirterm ofmi li
    taryserviceasapar toft hef iv eyear s'occupancyr equi r
    ed.
    Ast hesol diersoft heRev olutionar yandMexi canwarshadadv ancedi ngr eatnumber st othe
    front ierinear l
    ierday s,sonowv eteransledi nthesettl
    ementoft hemi ddl ebor der.Al ongwi th
    them wentt housandsofGer man, Iri
    sh,andScandi naviani mmi gr ant s,fr
    eshf rom theOl dWor l
    d.
    Bet ween1867and1874, 27, 000, 000acr eswer estakedouti nquar ter-
    sect ionf arms.I nt went y
    year s(1860- 80),thepopul ati
    onofNebr askal eapedfrom 28, 000t oal mosthal fami ll
    ion;
    Kansasf rom 100, 000t oami l
    lion; I
    owaf rom 600,000t o1, 600, 000; andt heDakot asf rom 5000
    to140, 000.

    TheDi v ersi
    tyofWest ernAgr i
    culture.—Insoil,
    produce, andmanagement ,Westernagr i
    cultur
    e
    present edmanycont raststothatoft heEastandSout h.Int her egionofar abl
    eandwat ered
    l
    andst het y
    picalAmer icanunit—thesmal lf
    armt il
    ledbyt heowner —appear edasusual ;butby
    thesideofi tmanyahugedomai nownedbyf oreignorEast erncompani esandtill
    edbyhi red
    l
    abor .Somet i
    mest hegr eatestatetookt heshapeoft he" bonanzaf ar m"devotedmai nlyto
    wheatandcor nandcul ti
    vatedonal argescalebymachi ner y .Againi tassumedt heform oft he
    cattl
    er anchembr aci
    ngt ensoft housandsofacr es.Agai ni twasav astholdi
    ngofdi versi
    fied
    i
    nterest ,suchast heSant aAni t
    ar anchnearLosAngel es, adomai nof60, 000acres"culti
    vated
    i
    nagl orioussweepofv i
    neyardsandor angeandol iveor char ds,ri
    chsheepandcat t
    lepast ur
    es
    andhor seranches, t
    heirli
    feandcust omshandeddownf rom theSpani shownersoft hev ari
    ous
    rancheswhi chwer eswepti ntooneest ate.
    "

    Irr
    igation.
    —I noner espectagr i
    culturei nt heFarWestwasuni que.Inal argear easpr eadi ng
    throughei ghtst at
    es, Mont ana, I
    daho, Wy omi ng,Utah, Col orado, Nev ada,Ar i
    zona, NewMexi co,
    andpar t
    sofadj oi
    ningst ates,ther ainf allwassosl ightthatt heor dinarycropst owhi cht he
    Amer icanf armerwasaccust omedcoul dnotbegr ownatal l.TheMor monswer ethef i
    rstAngl o
    -Saxonst oencount eraridity,
    andt heywer ebaf f
    ledatf irst;butt heyst udieditandmast eredi t
    bymagni fi
    centi rr
    igati
    onsy st
    ems.Asot herset t
    ler
    spour edi ntotheWestt hepr obl em oft he
    deser twasat tackedwi t
    hawi ll
    ,someoft hem r eplyingt ot hecommi serationofEast ernf armer s
    bysay i
    ngt hatitwaseasi ertoscoopoutani rri
    gationdi tcht hant ocutf orestsandwr estlewi th
    stumpsandst ones.Pr ivatecompani esboughti mmensear easatl owpr i
    ces, builtirrigation
    wor ks,anddi sposedoft heirlandsi nsmal lplots.Somer ancher swi thani nstinctf orwat er ,
    like
    thatoft hemi nerf ormet al,sankwel lsi ntot hedr ysandandwer er ewar dedwi thgusher st hat
    "sousedt het hirst
    ydeser tandt urnedi tsgood- for-
    not hingsandi ntogood- for-any thingl oam. "
    Thef ederal governmentcamet ot heai doft hear i
    dr egionsi n1894bygr antingl andst ot he
    statest obeusedf orir
    ri
    gat i
    onpur poses.I nt hiswor kWy omi ngtookt heleadwi t
    hal awwhi ch
    i
    nducedcapi t
    alist
    st oinv esti
    ni rri
    gat ionandatt hesamet i
    mepr ovidedf orthesal eoft he
    redeemedl andst oact ual set
    tlers.Final lyi n1902t hef eder al gov er
    nmentbyi tsliber al
    Reclamat ionActaddedi tsstrengt ht ot hatofi ndividuals, compani es,andst at esinconquer ing
    "ari
    dAmer ica."

    "Nowhere,
    "wri
    tesPowell,ahi
    stori
    anoftheWest
    ,inhi
    spi ct
    uresqueEndoftheTrail
    ,"hast
    hewhite
    manfoughtamor ecour
    ageousfightorwonamorebri
    ll
    iantvict
    orythani
    nArizona.Hisweapons
    havebeenthetransi
    tandthelevel,
    thedri
    l
    landt
    hedredge,thepickandthespade;andtheenemy
    whichhehasconqueredhasbeenthemostst ubbornofal
    lfoes—thehosti
    l
    ef or
    cesofNature.
    ..
    .
    Thestor
    yofhowt he
    whitemanwit
    hinthespaceoflessthanthi
    rt
    yy ear
    spenetr
    ated,expl
    ored,
    andmappedt hisalmost
    unknownregi
    on;ofhowhecarriedl
    aw, or
    der,
    andj ust
    icei
    ntoasecti
    onwhi chhadneverhadso
    muchasa
    speakingacquaintancewi t
    hanyoneoft het hreebef ore; ofhow, reali
    zingt henecessit
    yf or
    meansofcommuni cati
    on,hebuil
    thighway sofst eelacr osst histerr
    itoryfrom easttowest
    andf r
    om northtosout h;
    ofhow, undismay edbyt hesav agenessoft hecount enancewhi ch
    thedeserttur
    neduponhi m,helaughedandr ol
    leduphi ssl eeves,andspatuponhi shands,
    andslashedthef aceofthedesertwit hcanal sandi rri
    gat ingditches, andfill
    edthoseditches
    withwaterbroughtf r
    om deepintheear t
    horhi ghi nthemount ains;andofhow, inthe
    conqueredandsubmi ssi
    vesoil
    ,herepl acedt heal oewi thal f
    alfa,t
    hemesqui t
    ewithmai ze,t
    he
    cactuswithcott
    on, formsoneoft hemosti nspiringchapt ersinourhi story.I
    tisoneoft he
    epicsofcivi
    li
    zat
    ion, t
    hisrecl
    amationoft heSout hwest, andi tsheroes, thankGod, are
    Amer i
    cans.

    "Otherdesertr egionshav ebeenr edeemedbyi r


    ri
    gat i
    on—Egy pt,forexampl e, andMesopot ami a
    andpar tsoftheSudan—butt hepeopl eofal lthoser egionsl ayst retchedouti ntheshadeofa
    conv eni
    entpal m, metaphor i
    cal l
    yspeaki ng,andwai t
    edf orsomeonewi thmor eenergythan
    themsel vestocomeal onganddot hewor k.Butt heAr izonians, mi ndfulofthef actthatGod,
    thegov ernment ,andCar negi ehelpt hosewhohel pt hemsel v es,spentt heirday swieldi
    ngthe
    pickandshov el,andthei rev eningsi nwr i
    ti
    ngl ett
    erst oWashi ngt onwi thtoil
    -hardenedhands.
    Afterat i
    met hegov ernmentwaspr oddedi ntoact i
    onandt hegr eatdamsatLagunaand
    Roosev eltar
    et her esult.Thent hepeopl e,organizingt hemsel vesintocoöper ati
    veleaguesand
    wat er-
    users'
    associ at
    ions, tookupt hewor kofr eclamat i
    onwher et hegov ernmentl eftoff
    ;itis
    totheseener get i
    c,persev eringmenwhohav edril
    ledwel l
    s,pl owedf i
    elds,anddugdi t
    ches
    throughthelengt handbr eadt hofthatgr eatregionwhi chst retchesf rom Yumat oTucson,that
    themet amor phosi sofAr izonai sdue. "

    Theef fectofirri
    gati
    onwher everi ntroducedwasamazi ng.Str
    etchesofsandandsagebr ush
    gav ewayt oferti
    lefieldsbear i
    ngcr opsofwheat ,
    corn,fr
    uit
    s,veget ables,andgr ass.Huge
    ranchesgr azedbybr owsi ngsheepwer ebrokenupi nt
    osmal lpl
    ot s.Thecowboyand
    ranchmanv anished.Int heirplacer oset heprosperouscommuni ty —acommuni tyunli
    kethe
    townshi pofIowaort hei ndust r
    ial centeroftheEast .I
    tsint
    ensivet i
    llageleftli
    tt
    leroom for
    hir
    edl abor.It
    ssmal l holdingsdr ewf ami li
    estogetheri
    nv i
    ll
    ageli
    fer atherthandispersi
    ngthem
    ont helonelyplain.Of t
    ent hedev elopmentofwat erpoweri nconnect i
    onwi thir
    rigat
    ion
    affordedelectri
    cityforlabor -savingdev i
    cesandl ift
    edmanyabur dent hatinotherdaysfell
    heav i
    lyupont heshoul der soft hef armerandhi sfamil
    y.

    Mi
    ningandManuf
    act
    uri
    ngi
    ntheWest

    MineralResources.—Inanotherimpor tantpar t
    iculart heFarWestdi fferedf r
    om theMi ssissippi
    Vall
    eystates.Thatwasi nthepr edomi nanceofmi ni ngov eragr i
    cultur ethroughoutav ast
    secti
    on.Indeeditwast hemi neralsratherthant hel andt hatat t
    ractedt hepioneerswhof ir
    st
    openedt hecountry.Thediscoveryofgol dinCal i
    forniain1848wast hesi gnalforthegr eatrush
    ofprospectors,miners,
    andpr omot erswhoexpl oredt hev all
    eys,cli
    mbedt hehill
    s,washedt he
    sands,anddugupt hesoilintheirfeveri
    shsear chf orgol d, sil
    ver,copper ,coal,andother
    mineral
    s.InNev adaandMont anat hedev elopmentofmi ner alresour ceswentonal lduringt he
    Civi
    lWar.AlderGul chbecameVi rgi
    niaCi t
    yin1863; LastChanceGul chwasnamedHel enai n
    1864;andConf ederateGulchwaschr istenedDi amondCi t
    yi n1865.AtBut tethemi nersbegan
    operati
    onsin1864andwi thinfi
    v eyearshadwashedoutei ghtmi l
    li
    ondol l
    ars'worthofgol d.
    Underthegoldt heyfoundsi l
    ver;undersi l
    vertheyf oundcopper .

    Evenatt heendofthenineteenthcentury,aft
    eragri
    cul
    turewaswel ladvancedandstockandsheep
    rai
    singintr
    oducedonal argescale,mineralsconti
    nuedtobet hechiefsourceofwealt
    hinanumber
    ofstates.Thi
    swasr ev
    ealedbyt hef i
    guresfor1910.Thegol d,si
    l
    ver,i
    ron,andcopperofColor
    ado
    werewor thmorethanthewheat ,corn,andoat scombined;thecopperofMont anasol
    df ormore
    thanallthecer
    ealsandfourt i
    mest hepriceofthewheat .Theint
    erestofNev adawasalsomainl
    y
    mini
    ng,thereceiptsfr
    om t hemineralout
    putbei
    ng$43,
    000,
    000ormorethanone-
    halft
    henati
    onal
    debtofHami l
    ton'sday.They i
    eldoftheminesofUt
    ahwaswor t
    hfourorf
    ivet
    imesthewheatcrop;
    thecoalofWy omingbr oughttwiceasmuchas
    t
    hegreatwoolcl
    ip;
    themi neral
    sofArizonaweretot
    aledat$43,
    000,
    000asagai
    nstawool cl
    ip
    r
    eckonedat$1,
    200,000;
    whi l
    einIdahoaloneofthi
    sgroupofstat
    esdidt
    hewheatcropexceed
    i
    nvaluetheout
    putofthemi nes.

    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    Loggi
    ng

    TimberResour ces.—Thef orestsoft hegr eatWest ,unli


    kethoseoft heOhi oValley,pr
    ov eda
    boont othepi oneersrathert hanaf oet obeat tacked.InOhi oandI ndiana,forexampl e,the
    fronti
    erl i
    neofhomemaker shadt ocut ,roll,andbur nthousandsoft reesbef oretheycoul dput
    outacr opofanysi ze.Beyondt heMi ssi
    ssi ppi,howev er,t
    herewer eal lr
    eadyf orthebr eaking
    plowgr eatreachesofal mostt r
    eel esspr airie,whereev erystickoftimberwaspr eci
    ous.I nthe
    otherpar ts,oftenroughandmount ainous, wher estoodpr i
    mev alforestsoft hef i
    nestwoods,
    therai l
    roadsmadegooduseoft het imber .Theyconsumedacr esoff oreststhemselvesi n
    maki ngt ies,bri
    dget i
    mber s,andt elegraphpol es,andt heylai
    daheav ytributeupont hef orest
    s
    fortheirannual upkeep.Thesur plust rees, suchashadbur denedthepi oneer softhe
    Nor t
    hwestTer ritor
    yahundr edy ear sbef ore, t
    heycar ri
    edof ftomar ketsont heeastandwest
    coast s.

    West ernIndustries.—Thepecul i
    arcondi t
    ionsoft heFarWestst imulatedar i
    seofi ndustri
    esmor e
    rapidt hanisusual innewcount ry.Themi ni ngact i
    vit
    ieswhi chinmanysect ionspreceded
    agriculturecalledf orsawmi l
    lstofurnishtimberf ort hemi nesandsmel terstoreduceandr ef
    ine
    ores.Ther anchessuppl i
    edsheepandcat t
    lef orthepacki nghousesofKansasCi tyaswel las
    Chicago.Thewat ersoft heNor t
    hwestaf for dedsalmonf or4000casesi n1866andf or1,400,000
    casesi n1916.Thef rui
    tsandv egetablesofCal i
    forniabr oughtintoexistenceinnumer able
    canner ies.Thel umberi ndustry
    ,starti
    ngwi thcr udesawmi l
    lstofurni
    shr ought i
    mber sforrail
    way s
    andmi nes, endedi nspeci al
    izedfactoriesf orpaper ,boxes, andfurnit
    ure.Ast herail
    way spreceded
    settlementandf ur nishedar eadyout l
    etforl ocalmanuf actures,sotheyencour agedt heearly
    establ i
    shmentofv ariedindustri
    es,thuscr eatingast ateofaf fai
    rsquiteunl i
    kethatwhi chobtained
    i
    nt heOhi oValleyi nt heearl
    yday sbef oretheopeni ngoft heEr i
    eCanal .

    SocialEff
    ect
    sofEconomi cActi
    viti
    es.—Inmanyr espectsthesociallif
    eoft heFarWestal so
    diff
    eredfr
    om thatoft
    heOhioVall
    ey.Thet r
    eelessprai
    ri
    es,thoughopent ohomest eads,f
    avor
    ed
    thegreatest
    ateti
    ll
    edinpar
    tbytenantlaborandinpartbymi grat
    oryseasonallabor,summoned
    from al
    lsecti
    onsofthecount
    ryf ortheharvests.Themi neralr
    esourcescreatedhundredsof
    hugef
    ort
    uneswhi
    chmadet
    he
    accumul at i
    onsofeast ernmer canti
    lefamilieslooktrivi
    albycompar i
    son.Othermill
    ionair
    eswon
    theirfortunesi nther ailwaybusi nessandst i
    l
    lmor efrom thecattl
    eandsheepr anges.Inmany
    sectionst he"cat t
    leki ng,"ashewascal l
    ed, wasasdomi nantast heplanterhadbeeni ntheold
    Sout h.Ev er
    ywher ei nt hegr azingcount r
    yhewasaconspi cuousandi mportantperson.He
    "somet imesi nvest edmoneyi nbanks, inrailr
    oadst ocks,orincit
    ypr opert
    y..
    ..Hehadhi srati
    ngin
    thecommer cialrev i
    ewsandcoul dhobnob
    withbanker s,railr
    oadpr esident s,andmet r
    opolit
    anmer chants..
    ..Heat t
    endedpar tycaucuses
    and
    conv entions,r anf ort hest atel egisl
    ature,andsomet i
    mesdef eatedal awy erormet ropoli
    tan
    '
    busi nessman' int her acef oraseati nCongr ess.Inpr oport
    iont otheirnumber s,theranchers
    .
    ..hav econst itutedahi ghl yimpr essiv
    ecl ass."

    Althoughmanyoft heearlycapi tali


    stsofthegr eatWest , especiall
    yf rom Nev ada,
    spentt hei
    r
    moneypr incipall
    yint heEast ,
    ot herstookleader shipinpr omot i
    ngt hesectionsinwhi cht hey
    hadmadet heirfortunes.Ar ail
    roadpi oneer,Gener alPalmer ,builthishomeatCol or adoSpr i
    ngs,
    foundedt hetown, andencour agedl ocali
    mpr ov ement s.Denv erowedi tsfir
    stimpr essive
    buildingst othecivicpatrioti
    sm ofHor aceTabor ,aweal t
    hymi neowner .LelandStanf ordpaid
    hist r
    ibutet oCalif
    or niai
    nt heendowmentofal argeuni versit
    y.Col onel W.F.Cody,bet terknown
    as" BuffaloBill
    ,"startedhiscar eerbybui l
    dinga" boom town"whi chcol lapsed,andmadea
    l
    argesum ofmoneysuppl yingbuf falomeatt oconst ructionhands( hencehispopul arname) .
    Byhi sf amousWi l
    dWestShow, hei ncr
    easedi ttoaf ortunewhi chhedev otedmai nlytot he
    promot i
    onofawest ernreclamat ionscheme.

    Whi l
    et heFarWestwasdev elopingthisvigor ous,aggressiveleader shi
    pi nbusiness, a
    consider abl eindustri
    alpopulationwasspr ingingup.Ev ent hecat t
    lerangesandhundr edsof
    farmswer econduct edlikefactor i
    esinthatt heywer emanagedt hroughov erseer swhohi r
    ed
    plowmen, har v
    esters,andcat tl
    emenatr egul arwages.Att hesamet i
    met hereappear edother
    peculiarf eatureswhi chmadeal asti
    ngimpr essiononwest erneconomi cli
    fe.Mi ning,lumberi
    ng,
    andf ruitgr owing,forinstance,empl oyedt housandsofwor kersdur i
    ngt herushmont hsand
    turnedt hem outatot hertimes.Thei nevi
    tabl eresul
    twasanar myofmi gratorylabor ers
    wander ingf rom campt ocamp, from townt otown, andfrom r ancht oranch, wi
    thoutf i
    xed
    homesorest abli
    shedhabi tsofl i
    fe.From thisext r
    aordinarycondi t
    iont hereissuedmanyal ong
    andl awl essconf li
    ctbet weencapi talandlabor ,givi
    ngadi stinctcolortot helabormov ementin
    whol esect ionsoft hemount ainandcoastst at
    es.

    TheAdmi
    ssi
    onofNewSt
    ates

    TheSpi ri
    tofSel f-Government .—Thei nst i
    nctofsel f-
    gov ernmentwasst r
    ongint hewester n
    communi t
    ies.Int heverybegi nning,itledt ot heor ganizationofv olunteercommi ttees,
    known
    as" vigil
    antes,"tosuppr esscr i
    meandpuni shcr iminals.Assoonasenoughpeopl ewere
    set t
    ledper manent l
    yinar egion,theyt ookcar et oform amor establekindofgov ernment .An
    i
    llustrati
    onoft hisprocessi sfoundi nt heOr egoncompactmadebyt hepioneersin1843, t
    he
    spiritofwhi chi srefl
    ectedi nanedi torialinanol dcopyoft heRockyMount ainNews:" We
    claimt hatanybodyorcommuni tyofAmer icanci ti
    zenswhi chfr
    om anycauseorunderany
    circumst ancesi scutof ffrom orf rom i sol
    at i
    oni ssosi tuat edasnott obeunderanyact iveand
    protect i
    ngbr anchoft hecent r
    algov ernment ,hav ear i
    ght ,ifonAmer i
    cansoil,t
    of r
    amea
    gov ernmentandenactsuchl awsandr egul ationsasmaybenecessar yforthei
    rownsaf ety,
    protect i
    on,andhappi ness, al
    way swi tht hecondi t
    ionpr ecedent ,
    thattheyshal l
    ,attheear l
    iest
    momentwhent hecent ralgovernmentshal lextendanef fect i
    veorganizati
    onandl awsov er
    them, gi
    vei tt
    hei runqual i
    fi
    edsuppor tandobedi ence."

    Peoplewhoturnedsonat
    ural
    lyt
    otheorgani
    zat
    ionofl
    ocal
    admini
    str
    ati
    onwereequall
    yeagerfor
    admissi
    ontotheunionassoonasanyshadowofaclai
    mtostat
    ehoodcoul
    dbeadv anced.Aslong
    asaregionwasmer el
    yoneoftheterr
    it
    ori
    esoftheUnit
    edStat
    es,theappointmentofthegovernor
    andotheroffi
    cerswascontrol
    l
    edbypol i
    ti
    csatWashingt
    on.Moreoverthedisposi
    ti
    onofland,
    miner
    alright
    s,forest
    s,andwaterpowerwasalsoint
    hehandsofnat i
    onall
    eaders.Thuspract
    ical
    consi
    derati
    onswer eunit
    edwit
    h
    t
    hespi
    ri
    tofi
    ndependencei
    nthequestf
    orl
    ocal
    aut
    onomy
    .

    NebraskaandCol orado.—Twost ates,NebraskaandCol orado, hadl


    it
    t l
    edi f f
    icult
    yinsecuring
    admissiontotheuni on.Thefi
    rst,Nebraska, hadbeenor ganizedasat erritorybyt hefamous
    Kansas-Nebraskabillwhichdi
    dsomucht opr ecipi
    tat
    et heCivil War
    .Ly ingt ot henorthof
    Kansas,whichhadbeenadmi ttedin1861, itescapedthei nvasionofsl av eowner sf r
    om
    Missouriandwasset t
    ledmainlybyfarmersf r
    om theNor t
    h.Thoughi tclaimedapopul at
    ionof
    only67,
    000,itwasr egardedwithkindlyint
    er estbytheRepubl icanCongr essatWashi ngt
    onand,
    reducedtoitspresentboundaries,i
    treceivedt hecovetedstatehoodi n1867.

    Thiswashar dlyaccompli
    shedbef orethepeopl eofColoradot othesout hwestbegant omake
    knownt heirdemands.Theyhadbeenor ganizedundert er
    ri
    torialgovernmenti n1861whent hey
    number edonl yahandful;butwithi
    nteny earstheaspectoft heiraffai
    rshadcompl et
    elychanged.
    Thesilverandgol ddepositsoftheLeadv i
    ll
    eandCr i
    ppleCreekr egionshadat tract
    edanar myof
    minersandpr ospector
    s.Theci t
    yofDenv er,foundedin1858andnamedaf terthegovernorof
    Kansaswhencecamemanyoft heearlysettler
    s,hadgrownf rom ast r
    aggl i
    ngcampofl oghuts
    i
    ntoapr osper ouscenteroftrade.By1875i twasr eckonedthatt hepopul at
    ionoftheterri
    tor
    ywas
    notlessthanonehundr edthousand; t
    hefollowingyearCongr ess,yiel
    dingtot hepopularappeal
    ,
    madeCol or adoamemberoft heAmer i
    canuni on.

    SixNewSt ates(1889-1890) .
    —Formanyy ear sther ewasadeadl ockinCongr essov erthe
    admi ssionofnewst at
    es.Thespel l wasbr okeni n1889undert heleader shipoft heDakot as.Fora
    l
    ongt i
    met heDakot aterritory ,organi zedin1861, hadbeenl ookeduponast hehomeoft he
    power f
    ul Si
    ouxIndi answhoseenor mousr eser vationblockedt headv anceoft hefronti
    er.The
    discov eryofgoldi ntheBl ackHi l
    ls,howev er ,mar kedt heirdoom.Ev enbef oreCongr esscoul dopen
    theirlandst oprospect ors, pioneer swer eswar mingov erthecount ry.Far mer sfrom theadjoini
    ng
    Mi nnesot aandtheEast ernst ates, Scandinav ians, Germans, andCanadi ans,camei nswelli
    ng
    wav est ooccupyt heferti
    leDakot al ands,nowf amousev enasf arawayast hef j
    ordsofNor way.
    Seldom hadt hepl owofmancutt hroughr ichersoi l
    thanwasf oundint hebot t
    omsoft heRedRi v
    er
    Val l
    ey,andi tbecameal lthemor epr eci
    ouswhent heopeni ngoft heNor thernPaci f
    icin1883
    affordedameansoft ranspor tati
    oneastandwest .Thepopul ati
    on,whichhadnumber ed135,000
    i
    n1880, passedt hehalfmi ll
    i
    onmar kbefor eteny earshadel apsed.

    Remember ingt hatNebraskahadbeenadmi tt


    edwi t
    honl y67, 000inhabit
    ants,t
    heDakotans
    couldnotseewhyt heyshouldbekeptunderf ederaltutelage.Atthesamet i
    meWashi ngton,
    farawayont hePacifi
    cCoast,Montana, I
    daho, andWy omi ng,boasti
    ngoft hei
    rpopulati
    onsand
    thei
    rriches, putinthei
    rownel oquentpleas.Butt hemember sofCongr esswerebusywi t
    h
    poli
    ti
    cs.TheDemocr atssawnogoodr easonf oradmi tti
    ngnewRepubl i
    canstatesunti
    laft
    er
    thei
    rdef eatin1888.Neart heendoft heirter
    mt henexty eart heyopenedt hedoorforNorth
    andSout hDakot a,Washingt
    on,andMont ana.In1890, aRepubl i
    canCongr essbroughtI
    daho
    andWy omingi ntotheunion,t
    hel at
    terwithwomansuf frage,whichhadbeengr ant
    edtwenty-
    oney earsbef ore.

    Utah.—Alt
    houghUtahhadl ongpr esent edalltheel ementsofawel l
    -set
    tledandi ndustrious
    communi ty
    ,it
    sadmi ssiontotheuni onwasdel ayedonaccountofpopul arhostili
    tytot hepractice
    ofpolygamy.Thecust om,i
    tist r
    ue, hadbeenpr ohibit
    edbyactofCongr essi n1862; butt helaw
    hadbeensy st
    ematicallyev
    aded.I n1882Congr essmadeanot herandmor eef f
    ectiveef for
    tto
    stampoutpolygamy .Fiveyearslat eritev enwentsof arastoauthor i
    zet heconf i
    scationoft he
    propert
    yoftheMormonChur chincaset hepracticeofpluralmarriageswasnotst opped.
    Meanwhi l
    etheGentileornon- Mor monpopul ati
    onwasst eadil
    yincreasingandt heleader sinthe
    Churchbecameconv i
    ncedthatt hebat tl
    eagainstt hesenti
    mentoft hecount rywasf utile.Atlasti
    n
    1896Ut ahwasadmi ttedasast ateunderaconst i
    tuti
    onwhi chforbadepl uralmar r
    iagesabsol utel
    y
    andf
    orev
    er.Hor
    aceGreel
    ey,whovi
    si
    tedUtahi
    n1859, hadprophesi
    edt
    hatt
    hePaci
    fi
    cRai
    l
    road
    woul
    dworkarevol
    uti
    oninthel
    andofBri
    gham Young.Hispr
    ophecyhadcomet
    rue.
    TheUni
    tedSt
    atesi
    n1912

    Roundi ngoutt heCont inent.—Thr eemor eterr


    itoriesnowr emai nedoutoft heUni on.Oklahoma,
    l
    onganI ndianr eservati
    on, hadbeenopenedf orset t
    lementt owhi temeni n1889.Ther ush
    upont hef er
    ti
    lel andsoft hisregion,thelastinthehi storyofAmer ica,wasmar kedbyal lthe
    fr
    enzyoft hefinal,desperatechance.Atasi gnal from abugl eanar myofmenwi thfamili
    esi n
    wagons, menandwomenonhor sebackandonf oot,bursti
    nt othet erri
    tory.Duri
    ngt hefi
    r st
    ni
    ghtaci t
    yoft ent swasr aisedatGut hrieandOkl ahomaCi ty.Intenday swoodenhousesr ose
    ont heplains.Inasi ngley eartherewer eschool s,churches,businessbl ocks, andnewspaper s.
    Withinf i
    ft
    eeny ear stherewasapopul ati
    onofmor ethanhalfami l
    lion.Tot hewest ,Ari
    zona
    wit
    hapopul ationofabout125, 000andNewMexi cowi t
    h200, 000i nhabitantsjoinedOklahoma
    i
    naski ngf orstatehood.Congr ess,thenRepubl ican,lookedwi threluctanceupont headdi ti
    onof
    mor eDemocr aticstates;butin1907i twasliterall
    ycompel ledbypubl i
    csent imentandasense
    ofjusti
    cet oadmi tOklahoma.I n1910t heHouseofRepr esentativeswentt otheDemocr ats
    andwi thintwoy earsArizonaandNewMexi cower e"underther oof .
    "Sot hecont i
    nentaldomai n
    wasr oundedout .

    TheI
    nfl
    uenceoft
    heFarWestonNat
    ional
    Lif
    e

    TheLastoftheFronti
    er.
    —WhenHor aceGr
    eeleymadehi
    str
    ipwesti
    n1859het
    hus
    recor
    dedtheprogressofci
    vi
    li
    zat
    ioninhi
    sjournal
    :

    "May12th,
    Chi
    cago.
    —Chocol
    ateandmor
    ningj
    our
    nal
    slastseenont
    hehot
    el
    breakf
    astt
    abl
    e.

    23r
    d,Leav
    enwor
    th(
    Kansas)
    .—Room bel
    l
    sandbat
    htubsmaket
    hei
    rfi
    nal
    appear
    ance.

    26t
    h,Manhat
    tan.
    —Potatoesandeggsl
    astr
    ecogni
    zedamongt
    hebl
    essi
    ngst
    hat
    '
    bri
    ght
    enastheytaket
    heirfl
    i
    ght.
    '

    27t
    h,Junct
    ionCit
    y.—Lastvi
    sit
    ati
    onofaboot
    -bl
    ack,
    wit
    hdi
    ssol
    vi
    ngv
    iewsof
    aboardbedroom.Bedsbidusgood-by
    ."
    Copy
    rightbyPanama-
    Cal
    i
    for
    niaExposi
    ti
    on
    TheCanadi
    anBui
    l
    dingatt
    hePanama-
    Cal
    i
    for
    niaI
    nter
    nat
    ional
    Exposi
    ti
    on,
    SanDi
    ego,
    1915

    Withi
    nthi
    rtyyearstravel
    erswer eri
    dingacr ossthatcountr
    yinPull
    mancarsandenj oyingatthe
    hotel
    sall
    thecomf ortsofast andardiz
    edci vil
    i
    zati
    on.The" wi
    l
    dwest "wasgone,andwi thi
    tthat
    fr
    onti
    erofpioneersandset t
    lerswhohadl onggivensuchabentandt onetoAmer icanli
    feand
    had"pour
    edi nupont hefl
    oorofCongr ess"suchal ongli
    neof"backwoodspoli
    ti
    cians,
    "asthey
    werescornful
    lysty
    led.

    FreeLandandEast er
    nLabor .—I
    twasnotonl ythepicturesquef eat uresoft hefront i
    erthatwer e
    gone.Off armor econsequencewast hedisappearanceoff reelandswi thal l
    thatmeantf or
    Americanl abor.Formorethanahundr edyears,anymanofev enmoder atemeanshadbeen
    ablet
    osecur eahomest eadofhisownandani ndependentl i
    velihood.Forahundr edy ears
    Americahadbeenabl etosupplyfarmst oasmanyi mmi gr
    antsascar edtot i
    llt
    hesoi l
    .Ev ery
    newpai rofstrongarmsmeantmor efarmsandmor eweal th.Wor kmeni nEasternf actories,
    mines,ormi ll
    swhodi dnotliket
    heirhours,wages,orcondi t
    ionsofl abor,couldr eadilyfindan
    outl
    ettothel and.Nowal lt
    hatwasov er.Byabout1890mostoft hedesi rablelandav ail
    able
    undertheHomest eadacthaddisappeared.Amer i
    cani ndustri
    al wor kersconf r
    ont edanew
    si
    tuati
    on.

    GrainSuppl antsKingCotton.
    —Int hemeant i
    mear evoluti
    onwast akingplaceinagri
    cult
    ure.
    Until1860thechi efstapl
    essoldbyAmer i
    cawer ecot t
    onandt obacco.Wi ththeadvanceofthe
    fr
    ontier ,
    cornandwheatsuppl antedt hem bot hinagrarianeconomy .TheWestbecamet he
    granar yoftheEastandofWest ernEur ope.Thescoopshov elonceusedt ohandlegrainwas
    supersededbyt hetoweri
    ngelevator,loadingandunl oadingthousandsofbushel severyhour.
    Ther efri
    geratorcarandshipmadet hepacki ngindustryasstableast heproducti
    onofcot t
    on
    orcor n,andgav eanimmensei mpet ust ocat t
    leraisi
    ngandsheepf arming.Sothemeatoft he
    Westt ookitsplaceont heEngli
    shdi nnert ablebythesi deofbreadbakedf rom Dakotanwheat.

    AidinAmer i
    canEconomi cIndependence. —Theef fect
    soft hiseconomi cmov ementwer emani fol
    d
    andstri
    king.Bil
    li
    onsofdollars'worthofAmer i
    cangrain,
    dai r
    ypr oduce,andmeatwer epouredi nto
    Europeanmar ketswheretheypaidof fdebt sduemoneyl ender sandacqui redcapi t
    al t
    odev elop
    Amer i
    canresources.Thust heyacceleratedt heprogressofAmer icanfinanci
    erst owardnat i
    onal
    i
    ndependence.Thecount r
    y ,whichhadt i
    mi dlytur
    nedt otheOl dWor l
    dforcapitalinHami lt
    on'sday
    andhadbor rowedathighrat esofinterestinLondoni nLi ncol
    n'sday ,mov edswi f
    tlytowardt he
    ti
    mewheni twouldbeamongt hewor l
    d'sfirstbankersandmoneyl endersit
    self.Everygrainof
    wheatandcor
    npul
    l
    edt
    hebal
    ancedownont
    he
    Amer
    icansi
    deoft
    hescal
    e.

    EasternAgr icult
    ureAff
    ected.—Int heEastaswel lasabroadt heopeni ngofthewest ern
    granarypr oducedmoment ousr esul
    ts.Theagr icult
    uraleconomyoft hatpartofthecountry
    waschangedi nmanyr espects.Whol esectionsoft hepoor estlandwental mostoutof
    cult
    ivation,theabandonedf armsoft heNewEngl andhill
    sbear ingsol emnwi tnesstothe
    compet i
    ngpowerofwest ernwheatf ields.Sheepandcat tleraising, aswell
    aswheatand
    cornpr oduct i
    on,suf
    fer
    edatl eastar elati
    vedecl i
    ne.Thousandsoff armersculti
    vati
    nglandof
    thelowergr adewer eforcedtogoWestorwer edr i
    ventothemar ginofsubsistence.Eventhe
    herdst hatsuppliedEasternciti
    eswi t
    hmi l
    kwer efedupongr ainbr oughthalfwayacrossthe
    continent.

    TheExpansi onoftheAmer i
    canMar ket.—Uponi ndust ryaswel lasagr i
    culture, t
    heopeni ngof
    vastfood- producingregionst oldinat housandway s.Thedemandf orfarm machi ner y,clothing,
    boots,shoes, andothermanuf actur
    esgav et oAmer i
    canindust ri
    essuchamar ketasev en
    Hami l
    tonhadnev erfor
    eseen.Mor eov erithelpedtoexpandf ari ntotheMi ssissippi Valleyt he
    i
    ndustrial areaonceconf inedt otheNor t
    her nseaboar dstatesandt otransformt her egionof
    theGreatLakesi ntoani ndustrialempi r
    e.Her einli
    est heexpl anationofthegr owt hofmi d-
    westernci tiesafter1865.Chicago, withi t
    st hir
    ty-
    fi
    v erail
    way s,tappedev erylocal it
    yoft heWest
    andSout h.Tot herail
    way swer eaddedt hewat errout esoftheLakes, t
    huscr eatingast rategic
    centerfori ndustri
    es.Longf oresightcar ri
    edt heMcCor mickreaperwor kst oChi cagobef ore
    1860.Fr om Tr oy,NewYor k,
    wental argest oveplant .Thatwasf oll
    owedbyashoef act oryf rom
    Massachuset t
    s.Thepacki ngindustryr oseasamat terofcour seatapoi ntsoadv ant ageous
    forcattl
    er aisersandshi ppersandsowel lconnect edwi thEast ernmar kets.

    Tot heopeni ngoft heFarWestal sot heLaker egionwasi ndebt edf oral argepartoft hatwater
    -
    bornet raff
    icwhi chmadei t"theMedi terraneanbasi nofNor thAmer ica."Thepr oduceoft he
    Westandt hemanuf actur
    esoft heEastpour edt hroughitinanendl essst ream.Theswi ft
    growt hofshi pbuil
    dingont heGreatLakeshel pedt ocompensat ef orthedecl i
    neoft he
    Amer icanmar i
    neont hehighseas.Inr esponset ot hi
    sstimul usDet roitcouldboastt hather
    shipwr i
    ghtswer eabl etoturnoutat ent housandt onLev iathanf oror eorgr ai
    nabout" as
    quicklyascar penterscouldputupanei ght-r
    oom house. "Thusi nr elati
    ont otheFarWestt he
    oldNor t
    hwestt err
    it
    ory—thewi l
    dernessofJef ferson'sti
    me—hadt akent heposi ti
    onfor merl
    y
    occupi edbyNewEngl andalone.I
    twassuppl yi
    ngcapi talandmanuf acturesforav ast
    agricultur
    alempi reWestandSout h.

    Amer icaont hePacifi


    c.—Ithasbeensai dthattheMediter
    raneanSeawast hecent
    erof
    ancientcivi
    li
    z at
    ion;t
    hatmoder nciv
    ili
    zati
    onhasdev el
    opedont heshoresoftheAtl
    anti
    c;and
    thatthef ut
    urebelongstot hePaci f
    ic.Atanyrate,
    thesweepoft heUnitedStat
    estothe
    shoresoft hePaci f
    icquicklyexerci
    sedapower fuli
    nfl
    uenceonwor ldaffai
    rsandit
    undoubt edl
    yhasast i
    ll
    gr eatersi
    gnifi
    canceforthefut
    ure.

    Veryearl
    yr egulartraf
    ficsprangupbet weent hePaci ficpor t
    sandt heHawai i
    anIslands,China,
    andJapan.Twoy earsbeforetheadj ustmentoft heOr egoncont r
    ov ersywithEngland, namely
    i
    n1844, theUni tedStateshadest abl i
    shedof fi
    cialandt radingrel
    ationswithChi na.Teny ears
    l
    ater,f
    oury earsaftertheadmi ssionofCal i
    forni
    at otheuni on,thebar r
    eddoorofJapanwas
    for
    cedopenbyCommodor ePer r
    y .Thecommer cewhi chhadl ongbef oredev el
    opedbet ween
    thePacif
    icpor tsandHawai i
    ,China, andJapannowf lourishedunderof fi
    cialcar
    e.I n1865a
    shipfr
    om Honol ul
    ucar r
    iedsugar, mol asses,andf rui
    tsfrom Hawai itotheOr egonpor tof
    Astori
    a.Thenexty earav esself
    rom Hongkongbr oughtr i
    ce,mats,andt eaf r
    om Chi na.Anera
    oflucr
    ati
    v etradewasopened.Theannexat i
    onofHawai i i
    n1898, t
    headdi tionofthe
    Phil
    i
    ppinesatthesametime,
    andt
    hepar
    ti
    cipat
    ionofAmericant
    roopsi
    nthesuppressi
    onof
    theBoxerrebel
    li
    oninPeki
    ngi
    n1900,
    wer
    ebutsi gnsandsy
    mbolsofAmericanpoweronthe
    Pacif
    ic.
    Fr
    om anol
    dpr
    int
    Commodor
    ePer
    ry'
    sMenMaki
    ngPr
    esent
    stot
    heJapanese

    Conser vationandt heLandPr oblem. —Thedi sappear anceoft hef ront ieralsobr oughtnewand
    seriouspr oblemst ot hegov ernment soft hest atesandt henat ion.Thepeopl eoft hewhol e
    UnitedSt atessuddenl ywer ef orcedt or eali
    zet hatt herewasal i
    mi tt ot herich, newl andt o
    exploitandt ot hefor estsandmi ner alsawai tingt heaxandt hepi ck.Thenar osei nAmer icat he
    quest ionswhi chhadl ongper plexedt hecount riesoft heOl dWor l
    d—t hesci ent i
    ficuseoft he
    soil
    sandconser vationofnat ural resour ces.Hi thertothegov ernmenthadf ol l
    owedt heeasy
    pathofgi vi
    ngawayar ablel andandsel li
    ngf or estandmi nerallandsatl owpr i
    ces.Nowi thad
    tofacef armor ediffi
    cul tandcompl expr obl
    ems.I talsohadt oconsi derquest ionsofl and
    tenur eagai n,especi allyifthei deal ofanat i
    onofhome- owningf armer swast obemai ntained.
    Whi let herewaspl ent yofl andf orev er ymanorwomanwhowant edahomeont hesoi l
    ,it
    madel i
    ttl
    edi ff
    erencei fsinglel andl ordsorcompani esgotpossessi onofmi l
    lionsofacr es,ifa
    hundr edmeni nonewest ernr iv
    erv alleyowned17, 000,000acr es; butwhent hegoodl andf or
    smal l homest eadswasal lgone, thenwasr aisedt her eal i
    ssue.Att heopeni ngoft het went ieth
    cent uryt henat i
    on, whi chahundr edy ear sbef or ehadl andandnat ural resour cesappar ently
    withoutl imi t
    ,wascompel ledt oenactl awaf terl awconser v
    ingi tsf orest sandmi nerals.Theni t
    wast hatt hegr eatstat eofCal ifornia, ont hev er ybor deroft hecont inent ,f
    el tconst r
    ainedt o
    enactal andset t
    lementmeasur epr ov idinggov ernmentassi stancei nanef forttobr eakup
    l
    argehol dingsi ntosmal llotsandt omakei teasyf oract ualsettlerst oacqui resmal l f
    ar ms.
    Amer i
    cawaspassi ngi ntoanewepoch.

    Ref
    erences

    Henr
    yI TheOl
    nman, dSant
    aFéTr
    ail
    .

    R.
    I ThePl
    .Dodge, ainsoft
    heGr
    eatWest(
    1877)
    .

    C.
    H.Shi TheSt
    nn, oryoft
    heMi
    ne.

    CyWar TheSt
    man, oryoft
    heRai
    l
    road.

    Emer TheSt
    sonHough, oryoft
    heCowboy
    .

    H.
    H.Bancr
    ofti
    stheaut
    horofmanywor
    ksont
    heWestbuthi
    swr
    it
    ingswi
    l
    lbef
    oundonl
    yin
    t
    helar
    gerl
    ibr
    ari
    es.
    JosephSchaf
    erHi
    , st
    oryoft
    hePaci
    fi
    cNor
    thwest(
    ed.1918)
    .
    T.
    H.Hi
    tt
    elHi
    , st
    oryofCal
    i
    for
    nia(
    4vol
    s.)
    .

    W.
    H.Ol
    i
    n,Amer
    icanI
    rr
    igat
    ionFar
    ming.

    W.
    E.Smy
    t TheConquestofAr
    he, idAmer
    ica.

    H.
    A.Mi
    l
    li
    s,TheAmer
    ican-
    JapanesePr
    obl
    em.

    E.
    S.Meany
    ,Hi
    stor
    yoft
    heSt
    ateofWashi
    ngt
    on.

    H.
    K.Nor
    t TheSt
    on, oryofCal
    i
    for
    nia.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Namet
    hest
    ateswestoft
    heMi
    ssi
    ssi
    ppi
    in1865.

    2.
    Inwhatmannerwast
    her
    estoft
    hewest
    ernr
    egi
    ongov
    erned?

    3.
    Howf
    arhadset
    tl
    ementbeencar
    ri
    ed?

    4.
    Whatwer
    ethest
    ri
    ki
    ngphy
    sical
    feat
    uresoft
    heWest
    ?

    5.
    Howwasset
    tl
    ementpr
    omot
    edaf
    ter1865?

    6.
    Whywasadmi
    ssi
    ont
    otheuni
    onsoeager
    lysought
    ?

    7.
    Expl
    ainhowpol
    i
    ticsbecamei
    nvol
    vedi
    nthecr
    eat
    ionofnewst
    ates.

    8.
    Didt
    heWestr
    api
    dlybecomel
    i
    ket
    heol
    dersect
    ionsoft
    hecount
    ry?

    9.
    Whateconomi
    cpecul
    i
    ari
    ti
    esdi
    ditr
    etai
    nordev
    elop?

    10.
    Howdi
    dthef
    eder
    algov
    ernmentai
    dinwest
    ernagr
    icul
    tur
    e?

    11.
    Howdi
    dthedev
    elopmentoft
    heWestaf
    fectt
    heEast
    ?TheSout
    h?

    12.
    Whatrel
    ati
    ondi
    dtheopeni
    ngofthegreatgr
    ainar
    easoft
    heWestbeart
    othegr
    owt
    hof
    Ameri
    ca'
    scommerci
    alandfi
    nanci
    alpower?

    13.
    Stat
    esomeoft
    henewpr
    obl
    emsoft
    heWest
    .

    14.
    Discusst
    hesi
    gni
    fi
    canceofAmer
    icanexpansi
    ont
    othePaci
    fi
    cOcean.

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    ThePassi
    ngoft
    heWi
    l
    dWest
    .—Hawor
    t TheUni
    h, tedSt
    atesi
    nOurOwnTi
    mes,
    pp.100-
    124.

    TheI
    ndi
    anQuest
    ion.
    —Spar Nat
    ks, ionalDev
    elopment(
    Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    ,pp.265-
    281.

    TheChi
    neseQuesti
    on.
    —Spar ks,Nat
    ionalDev
    elopment
    ,pp.229-
    250; Hi
    Rhodes, st
    oryoft
    he
    Uni
    tedSt
    ates,
    Vol.VI
    II
    ,pp.180-196.
    TheRai
    lwayAge.—Schafer,Hist
    oryofthePaci
    fi
    cNort
    hwest,pp.230-245;E.
    V.Smal l
    ey,The
    Nort
    her
    nPaci
    ficRai
    lr
    oad; Paxson,TheNewNati
    on(Ri
    versi
    deSeri
    es),
    pp.20-26,especi
    all
    ythe
    maponp.23,andpp.142-148.

    Agr
    icul
    tur
    eandBusi
    ness.
    —Schaf
    erPaci
    , fi
    cNor
    thwest
    ,pp.246-
    289.

    Ranchi
    ngi
    ntheNor
    thwest
    .—Theodor
    eRoosev
    elt
    ,RanchLi
    fe,
    andAut
    obi
    ogr
    aphy
    ,pp.103-
    143.

    TheConquestoft
    heDeser
    t.
    —W.
    E.Smy
    t TheConquestofAr
    he, idAmer
    ica.

    St
    udi
    esofI
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    West
    ernSt
    ates.
    —Consul
    tanygoodency
    clopedi
    a.

    CHAPTERXI
    X
    DOMESTI
    CISSUESBEFORETHECOUNTRY(
    1865-
    1897)

    Fort hirtyy earsaf tertheCi vi


    lWart heleadi ngpol iti
    cal parties,al
    t hought heyengagedi nheated
    president ial campai gns, werenotshar plyandcl earlyopposedonmanymat t
    ersofv i
    tal
    significance.Dur ingnoneoft hatti
    mewast hereacl ashofopi nionov erspecificissuessuchas
    rentt hecount ryin1800whenJef f
    ersonr odeapopul arwav etov i
    ctory,oragai nin1828when
    Jackson' swest ernhor descamesweepi ngi ntopower .TheDemocr ats,whobef ore1860
    def i
    nitelyopposedpr otect i
    vetari
    ff
    s, f
    eder al banking, internalimpr ov ement s,andheav ytaxes,
    nowspokecaut iouslyonal lthesepoint s.TheRepubl icans, consciousoft hef actthattheyhad
    beenami nor i
    tyoft hev otersin1860andwar nedbyt heear l
    ylossoft heHouseof
    Repr esent at i
    vesi n1874, al
    somov edwi thconsi der ablepr udenceamongt heper plexing
    problemsoft heday .Agai nandagai nt hev otesi nCongr essshowedt hatnocl earline
    separ at edal ltheDemocr at
    sf r
    om alltheRepubl icans.Ther ewer eRepubl icanswhof av ored
    tarif
    fr educt ionsand" cheapmoney ."Ther ewer eDemocr atswhol ookedwi thpartiali
    tyupon
    highpr otectionorwi thindulgenceupont hecont ractionoft hecur rency.Onl yonmat ters
    relati
    ngt ot hecoer cionoft heSout hwast hedi visionbet weent hepar ti
    esf ai
    rlydefini
    te; t
    his
    couldber eadi l
    yaccount edforonpr actical aswel lassent iment algr ounds.

    Afterall
    ,thevaguecri
    ticismsandpr oposalst hatfoundt heirwayint
    ot hepol i
    tical
    platfor msdi d
    butrefl
    ecttheconfusionofmi ndpr ev ai
    li
    ngint hecount ry.Thefactthat,outoft heeight een
    yearsbetween1875and1893, theDemocr atshel dtheHouseofRepr esentativesforf our t
    een
    yearswhi l
    etheRepublicanshadev eryPresidentbutoneshowedt hatthev oters,l
    iket he
    polit
    ici
    ans,wereinast ateofindeci sion.Hay eshadaDemocr at
    icHousedur inghisent i
    reter m
    andaDemocr ati
    cSenat ef ortwoy ear softhef our.Clev elandwasconf r
    ontedbyabel ligerent
    Republicanmajori
    tyint heSenat edur inghisf i
    rstadmi nist r
    ati
    on;andatt hesamet imewas
    supportedbyaDemocr at i
    cmaj ori
    t yintheHouse.Har r
    isonwassust ainedbycont i
    nuous
    Republicansuccessesi nSenat ori
    al electi
    ons; butintheHousehehadt hebar estmaj orityfrom
    1889t o1891andl ostthatal t
    oget heratt heelectionhel di nthemiddleofhi sterm.Theopi nion
    ofthecount r
    ywasev ident l
    yunset tledandf l
    uct uati
    ng.Itwasst il
    ldi
    stractedbymemor i
    esof
    thedeadpastanduncer t
    ainast ot het r
    endoft hefuture.
    TheCur
    rencyQuest
    ion
    Nev er
    thel
    esstheseyearsofmuddl edpolit
    icsandnebulousissuesprovedtobeaper i
    odin
    whichsocialf
    orcesweregat heri
    ngforthegreatcampaignof1896.Exceptf ort
    hreenew
    featur
    es—therail
    ways,thetrust
    s,andthet r
    adeunions—thesubjectsofdebateamongt he
    peoplewerethesameast hosethathadengagedt hei
    rattenti
    onsincethefoundati
    onofthe
    republi
    c:t
    hecurrency,
    thenat i
    onaldebt
    , banki
    ng,t
    het ar
    if
    f,andtaxati
    on.

    Debt orsandt heFal linPrices.—Formanyr easonst hecurrencyquest i


    onoccupi edthecent er
    ofinterest.Asofol d,thefarmer sandpl antersoft heWestandSout hwereheav il
    yindebtt o
    theEastf orbor rowedmoneysecur edbyf arm mor tgages;andt heycountedupont hesaleof
    cotton,corn,wheat ,andhogst omeeti nterestandpr inci
    pal whendue.Dur i
    ngt hewar ,t
    he
    West ernfarmer shadbeenabl et odi sposeoft hei
    rproduceathi ghpr i
    cesandt husdischarge
    theirdebtswi thcompar ati
    v eease; butaf terthewarpr i
    cesdeclined.Wheatthatsol dattwo
    dollarsabushel in1865br oughtsi xty-
    fourcent st
    went yyearslater.Themeaningoft hisforthe
    farmer sindebt —andnear l
    yt hree-fourthsoft hem wer einthatclass—canbeshownbyasi ngle
    i
    llustrat
    ion.At housand- dollarmor tgageonaWest ernfarm couldbepai doffbyf i
    vehundr ed
    bushel sofwheatwhenpr i
    ceswer ehi gh;wher easi tt
    ookaboutf i
    ft
    eenhundr edbushelstopay
    thesamedebtwhenwheatwasatt hebot tom ofthescal e.Forthef ar
    mer,i
    tmustbe
    remember ed,wheatwast hemeasur eofhi slabor,theproductofhi stoil
    undert hesummer
    sun; andinitspr icehef oundt het estofhi spr osperit
    y.

    Credi t
    orsandFal l
    ingPr i
    ces.—Tot hebondhol dersorcreditors,ontheot herhand, fal
    li
    ng
    priceswer ecleargain.Ifafift
    y-doll
    arcoupononabondboughtsev entyorei ghtybushelsof
    wheati nsteadoft wentyort hir
    ty,t
    headv antagetotheowneroft hecouponwasobv i
    ous.
    Mor eov ertheadvantageseemedt ohim enti
    rel
    yjust.Creditorshadsuf feredheav ylosses
    whent heCi v
    ilWarcar ri
    edpr i
    cessky wardwhi l
    etheinterestratesont heiroldbondsr emai ned
    stationary.Forexampl e,i
    famanhada$1000bondi ssuedbef or
    e1860andpay i
    nginterestat
    fi
    vepercent ,hereceivedfif
    tydollarsay earfr
    om it
    .Bef orethewareachdol l
    arwoul dbuya
    bushel ofwheat ;i
    n1865i twouldonl ybuyhalfabushel .Whenpr ices—thati s,thecostof
    l
    iving—begant ogodown, credit
    orsthereforegenerall
    yregar dedthechangewi t
    hsat i
    sfacti
    on
    asar eturntonormal conditi
    ons.

    TheCauseofFal li
    ngPr i
    ces.—Thef alli
    npr iceswasdue, nodoubt ,t
    omanyf actors.Among
    them mustber eckonedt hedi scont i
    nuanceofgov ernmentbuy i
    ngforwarpur poses, l
    abor-
    sav ingf arm machi nery ,
    immi grat i
    on,andt heopeni ngofnewwheat -growi ngregi ons.The
    curr ency ,
    too,wasanel ementi nt hesituation.What evert hecause,thedi scont entedfarmers
    believ edthatthewayt oraisepr iceswast oi ssuemor emoney .Theyv i
    ewedi tasacaseof
    suppl yanddemand.I ftherewasasmal lvolumeofcur rencyincirculat
    ion, pri
    ceswoul dbelow;
    i
    ft her ewasal argev olume, priceswoul dbehi gh.Hencet heylookedwi thf avoruponal l
    plans
    toincr easet heamountofmoneyi ncircul
    at i
    on.Firsttheyadv ocatedmor epaper
    not es—gr eenbacks—andt hent heyt urnedt osilverast her emedy.Thecr edi t
    ors,ont heother
    hand, natural
    lyappr ov edther educt i
    onoft hev olumeofcur r
    ency.Theywi shedt oseet he
    greenbackswi t
    hdr awnf r
    om ci r
    culationandgol d—amet almorelimit
    edi nv olumet han
    sil
    v er—madet hesol ebasi soft henat i
    onal monet arysy stem.

    TheBat tl
    eov ert
    heGr eenbacks.—Thecontestbet
    weent hesefacti
    onsbeganasear l
    yas1866.
    I
    nt hatyear,Congressenactedal awauthori
    zi
    ngtheTr easuryt
    owi thdrawt
    hegr eenbacks
    fr
    om circulat
    ion.Thepapermoneypar t
    ysetupashr i
    llcryofprot
    est ,
    andkeptupt hefight
    unti
    l,i
    n1878, itf
    orcedCongr esstoprovi
    deforthecontinuousre-i
    ssueofthelegaltender
    notesast heycamei ntotheTreasuryinpaymentoftaxesandot herdues.Thencoul dthe
    f
    ri
    endsofeasymoneyr
    ejoi
    ce:
    "Thou,
    Greenback,
    '
    tisoft hee
    Fair
    moneyof
    thef r
    ee,
    Oft heewe
    sing."

    Resumpt i
    onofSpeci ePay ment.—Ther ewas, howev er,anothersidet othi sv ictory.The
    opponent soft hegreenbacks, unabl etost opt heci rcul
    ationofpaper ,i
    nducedCongr esst o
    passal awi n1875pr ov i
    dingt hatonandaf terJanuar y1, 1879,"theSecr etaryoft heTreasur y
    shallr
    edeem i ncointheUni tedStat eslegal tendernot est henoutstandi ngont heirpresentati
    on
    attheof fi
    ceoft heAssistantTr easur eroft heUni t
    edSt atesintheCi tyofNewYor kinsumsof
    notlesst hanf i
    ftydol
    lars.""Thewayt or esume, "JohnSher manhadsai d, "istor esume. "When
    thehourf orr edempti
    onar r
    ived,theTr easur ywaspr eparedwi thal argehoar dofgol d."Ont he
    appointedday ,
    "wrotetheassi stantsecr etary, "anxietyreignedint heof ficeoft heTr easury.
    Houraf terhourpassed; nonewsf rom NewYor k.Inquirybywi reshowedt hatal lwasqui et
    .At
    thecloseoft hedaythismessagecame: '
    $135, 000ofnot espresent edf orcoi n—$400, 000of
    goldfornot es.'Thatwasal l.Resumpt i
    onwasaccompl i
    shedwi thnodi st ur bance.Byf i
    ve
    o'cl
    ockt henewswasal loverthel and,andt heNewYor kbanker swer esi ppingt heirteain
    absolutesaf ety.
    "

    TheSpeci ePr oblem—t hePar i


    tyofGol dandSi l
    ver.
    —Def eat edintheiref fortstost op" t
    he
    presentsui cidal anddest ruct i
    v epol i
    cyofcont r
    action,
    "theadv ocatesofanabundantcur r
    ency
    demandedani ncr easei nt hev ol umeofsi lverincirculati
    on.Thi sprecipitatedoneoft he
    sharpestpol iticalbat tlesinAmer i
    canhi st ory.Thei ssuet urnedonl egal aswel laseconomi c
    points.TheConst itutiongav eCongr esst hepowert ocoinmoneyandi tforbadet hest atesto
    makeany thingbutgol dandsi l
    v erl egaltenderi nthepay mentofdebt s.I tev i
    dent l
    y
    contempl atedt heuseofbot hmet alsint hecur rencysy st em.Such, atleast ,wast heviewof
    manyemi nentst at esmen, includi ngnol essaper sonaget hanJamesG.Bl aine.Thedi f fi
    cult
    y,
    howev er,l
    ayi nmai ntaininggol dandsi lvercoi nsonal ev elwhichwoul dper mi tthem to
    cir
    culatewi thequal facil
    ity.Obv iously ,
    ifthegol dinagol ddollarexceedst hev alueoft hesil
    ver
    i
    nasi l
    verdol laront heopenmar ket ,menwi l
    lhoardgol dmoneyandl eav esilvermoneyi n
    cir
    culati
    on.When, forexampl e,Congr essi n1792f i
    xedt her at
    iooft het womet alsatonet o
    fi
    fteen—oneounceofgol ddecl ar edwor thf i
    fteenofsi lv
    er —itwassoonf oundt hatgoldhad
    beenunder valued.Whenagai ni n1834t her atiowasputatonet osixteen, itwasf oundt hat
    sil
    verwasunder valued.Consequent lythel attermet alwasnotbr oughti nf orcoi nageandsi lver
    almostdr oppedoutofci rculation.Manyasi l
    verdol l
    arwasmel t
    eddownbysi lverware
    factori
    es.

    SilverDemonet izedin1873.
    —Sot hingsst oodin1873.Att hatt i
    me, Congress,inenactinga
    mi ntagelaw,disconti
    nuedthecoinageoft hestandardsilv
    erdol l
    ar,thenpracti
    call
    youtof
    circulat
    ion.Thi
    sactwasdenouncedl aterbyt hefr i
    endsofsilveras"t hecri
    meof' 73,
    "a
    conspi r
    acydev i
    sedbyt hemoneypowerandsecr etl
    ycarri
    edout .Thiscontentionthedebat es
    i
    nCongr essdonotseem t osustain.Inthecour seoft heargumentont hemi ntlawitwas
    distinct
    lysaidbyonespeakeratl east:"
    Thi sbil
    lprov i
    desforthemaki ngofchangesi nthelegal
    tendercoi nofthecountryandforsubstitutingasl egalt
    ender,coinofonl yonemet alinstead
    oft woasher etofore.
    "

    TheDecli
    nei nt
    heValueofSil
    ver.
    —Absorbedinthegreenbackcontr
    oversy
    ,thepeopl
    eapparent
    ly
    didnotappreci
    ate,
    attheti
    me,thesi
    gnif
    icanceofthe"demoneti
    zati
    on"ofsil
    ver
    ;butwit
    hinafew
    year
    ssev er
    alevent
    sunitedi
    nmakingitthecenterofapoli
    ti
    calst
    orm.Germany,havi
    ng
    abandonedsil
    verin1871, steadil
    yincr
    easedherdemandforgold.Threeyear
    slater
    ,thecountr
    ies
    oftheLati
    nUnionfollowedt hisexample,t
    hushelpi
    ngtoenhancethepriceoftheyel
    lowmet al
    .All
    thewhil
    e,newsilv
    erl odes,discover
    edintheFarWest,
    werepour i
    ngintothemarketgreatst
    reams
    ofthewhitemetal
    , beari
    ngdown
    thepr
    ice.Thencamether
    esumpti
    onofspeci
    epay ment
    ,which,i
    neffect,
    placedthepaper
    moneyonagol dbasi
    s.Wi
    thi
    ntwentyy
    earssi
    lverwaswort
    hi ngoldonlyabouthalft
    he
    pri
    ceof1870.

    Thatt herehadbeenar ealdeclineinsi l


    verwasdeni edbyt hefri
    endsoft hatmet al
    .Theyal l
    eged
    thatgol dhadgoneupbecausei thadbeengi venamonopol yinthecoinagemar ketsofci vil
    i
    zed
    gov ernments.Thismonopol y
    , t
    heycont inued,wast hefrui
    tofaconspi racyagainstthepeopl e
    concei vedbythebanker soft hewor ld.Mor eover
    ,theywenton, theplacingofthegr eenbacks
    onagol dbasishaditselfwor kedacont ract
    ionofthecur r
    ency;itl
    oweredt hepricesofl abor
    andpr oducetotheadvant ageoft hehol dersoflong-t
    ermi nvest
    ment sbearingaf i
    xedr ateof
    i
    nter est.Whenwheatsol datsixty-f
    ourcent sabushel ,
    theirsearchforreli
    efbecamedesper ate,
    andt heyatlastconcent rat
    edt heireffor
    tsonopeni ngthemi ntsofthegov ernmentf orthef r
    ee
    coinageofsi l
    veratther ati
    oofsi xteentoone.

    RepublicansandDemocr atsDivided.—Ont hisquestionbot hRepubl i


    cansandDemocr atswere
    divi
    ded, t
    hel i
    nebei ngdr awnbet weent heEastont heonehandandt heSout handWestont he
    other,
    rathert hanbet weent hetwol eadingpar ti
    es.Sot r
    ust edal eaderasJamesG.Bl aineav owed,
    i
    naspeechdel iveredint heSenat ein1878, that,
    ast heConst itutionrequi redCongr esst omake
    bothgol dandsi lverthemoneyoft hel and,theonlyquest i
    onl ef twast hatoff i
    xingt her ati
    o
    betweent hem.Heaf fi
    rmed, moreover, t
    hemai ncontenti
    onoft hesi l
    v erf acti
    ont hatar eopeningof
    thegov ernmentmi ntsoft hewor ldtosi lv
    erwoul dbringitupt oitsoldr el
    at i
    onwi thgol d.He
    admittedal sothatt hei
    rmostomi nouswar ningswer ewellf ounded, say i
    ng: "
    Ibelievet hestruggle
    nowgoi ngoni nthiscount r
    yandi not hercount ri
    esforasi nglegol dstandar dwoul d,ifsuccessful,
    producewi despr eaddi sast erthroughoutt hecommer ci
    alwor ld.Thedest ructi
    onofsi l
    v erasmoney
    andtheest abli
    shmentofgol dast hesol eunitofv al
    uemusthav ear uinousef fectonal lformsof
    property,exceptt hosei nv estmentswhi chy i
    eldaf i
    xedretur n.
    "

    Thiswasexact l
    yt heconcessionthatthesi l
    verpar t
    ywant ed."Three-f
    ourthsoft hebusiness
    enterpr
    isesoft hiscountryareconductedonbor rowedcapi tal,
    "saidSenat orJones, ofNevada.
    "Three-
    fourthsoft hehomesandf armst hatst andi nthenamesoft heactual occupantshav e
    beenboughtont imeandav er
    ylargepropor t
    ionoft hem ar emor t
    gagedf orthepay mentof
    somepar toft hepur chasemoney .Undert heoper ati
    onofashr i
    nkagei nthev olumeofmoney ,
    thi
    senor mousmassofbor r
    owers,atthemat urit
    yoft heirrespectivedebts,thoughnomi nally
    payingnomor ethant heamountbor rowed, wi thinterest,areinr eal
    ity
    ,intheamountoft he
    pri
    ncipalalone,returni
    ngaper centageofv aluegr eatert hant heyreceived—mor einequit
    ythan
    theycontractedtopay .
    ..
    .Inalldi
    scussi
    onsoft hesubj ectthecr edit
    orsattemptt obrushaside
    theequiti
    esi nvol
    v edbysneer i
    ngatthedebt or s."

    TheSi lv
    erPur chaseAct(1878) .
    —Evenbeforetheactual r
    esumpt ionofspeci epayment ,the
    adv ocatesoffreesilv
    erwer eapowert obereckonedwi th, part
    icularl
    yintheDemocr ati
    cparty.
    Theyhadamaj ori
    tyintheHouseofRepr esentati
    vesin1878andt heycarriedasi l
    verbil
    l
    throught hatchamber .Bl
    ockedbyt heRepubli
    canSenat et heyaccept edacompr omisei nthe
    Bland-Alli
    sonbill
    ,whichprovidedforhugemont hl
    ypur chasesofsi lv
    erbyt hegovernmentf or
    coinagei ntodoll
    ars.Sostrongwast hesenti
    mentt hatat wo- t
    hirdsmaj or
    itywasmust eredaft
    er
    PresidentHay esvetoedthemeasur e.

    Theef fectofthisact,assomehadant i
    cipated,wasdi sappointi
    ng.Itdidnotstaysilv
    eronits
    downwar dcourse.Ther euponthesil
    verfacti
    onpr essedt hr
    oughCongr essin1886abi ll
    providi
    ngf ort
    hei ssueofpapercer ti
    fi
    catesbasedont hesilveraccumul at
    edintheTr easur
    y.
    Sti
    llsil
    vercontinuedtof all
    .Thentheadvocat esofinfl
    ationdeclaredthattheywoul dbecontent
    withnot hi
    ngshor toffreecoinageatther at
    ioofsixteent oone.Iftheissuehadbeensquar ely
    presentedin1890, thereisgoodr easonforbeliev
    ingt hatfr
    eesi l
    verwoul dhavereceiveda
    major i
    tyinbothhousesofCongr ess;butitwasnotpr esented.
    TheSher manSil
    v erPurchaseActandt heBondSales.—Republi
    canleader
    s,part
    icul
    arl
    yfrom t
    he
    East,st
    emmedt hesi l
    vertidebyadi ver
    sionoff
    orces.TheypassedtheShermanActof1890
    provi
    dingforl
    argemont hl
    ypurchasesofsilv
    erandfortheissueofnotesredeemableingol
    dor
    si
    lveratthedi
    scretionoftheSecretaryoftheTr
    easury.Inaclauseofsuperbambiguit
    ythey
    announcedthatitwas" theestabl
    ished
    poli
    cyoft heUni tedSt atestomai ntaint hetwomet alsonapar itywi t
    heachot herupont he
    presentl egalrati
    oorsuchot herratioasmaybepr ov idedbyl aw. "Forawhi l
    esi l
    verwasbuoy ed
    up.Theni tturnedoncemor eoni tsdownwar dcour se.Int hemeant imet heTr easurywasi na
    sadpl ight.Tomai ntainthegol dreser ve,PresidentCl evelandf eltcompel ledtosel lgov ernment
    bonds; andtohi sdi smayhef oundt hatassoonast hegol dwasbr oughti natt hefrontdoorof
    theTr easur y,
    not eswer epresent edf orredempt i
    onandt hegol dwasqui cklycar ri
    edoutatt he
    backdoor .Alarmedatt hev i
    ciousci rclethuscr eated, heur geduponCongr esst her epeal oft
    he
    Sher manSi l
    verPur chaseAct .Fort hishewasr oundl ycondemnedbymanyofhi sownf ollowers
    whobr andedhi sconductas" tr
    easont othepar ty"
    ; butt heRepubl i
    cans,especi all
    yfr om t he
    East,camet ohi srescueandi n1893sweptt hetroubl esomesect i
    onsoft helawf r
    om t he
    statutebook.Theangeroft hesi l
    verf acti
    onknewnobounds, andt heleadersmader eadyf or
    theappr oachingpr esidenti
    alcampai gn.

    ThePr
    otect
    iveTar
    if
    fandTaxat
    ion

    FluctuationinTar iffPolicy.
    —Aseachoft heol dpar ti
    eswasdi v
    idedont hecur rencyquest i
    on,i
    t
    i
    snotsur prisi
    ngt hatt herewassomeconf usionint heirranksovert hetarif
    f.Liket hesil
    ver
    i
    ssue, t
    het ari
    fft endedt oal i
    gnthemanuf acturingEastagai nsttheagr i
    cultural WestandSout h
    ratherthant ocutdi r
    ectlybetweent het wopar ti
    es.Stillt
    heRepubl icansont hewhol estood
    fi
    rml ybyt herat esi mposeddur ingt heCi vilWar .I
    fweexceptt her eductionsof1872whi ch
    wer esoonof f
    setbyi ncreases,
    wemaysayt hatthoser ateswer esubst anti
    allyunchangedf or
    nearlytwent yy ear s.Whenar evisi
    onwasbr oughtabout ,however,itwasi nit
    iatedby
    Republ i
    canl eader s.Seei ngahugesur plusofr evenuei ntheTreasur yin1883, theyanti
    cipated
    popul arclamorbyr ev i
    singthetari
    ffont het heor ythatitoughttober eformedbyi tsfri
    ends
    ratherthanbyi tsenemi es.Ont heot herhand, i
    twast heRepublicansal sowhoenact edthe
    McKi nleytarif
    fbi l
    lof1890, whi
    chcar r
    iedpr otecti
    ont oi t
    shighestpoi ntupt ot hattime.

    TheDemocr atsont heirpar twer enotal l confi


    rmedf r
    eet r
    ader sorev enadv ocat esoftarif
    ffor
    revenueonl y.InCl eveland'sfirstadmi nistrati
    ontheydi datt
    ackt heprot
    ect i
    vesy stem intheHouse,
    wher etheyhadamaj orit
    y,andi nthist heywer evigorouslysuppor t
    edbyt hePr esident
    .Theassaul t,
    howev er,prov edt obeaf ut
    ilegest urefori twasblockedbyt heRepubl i
    cansi nt heSenat e.When,
    aft
    ert hesweepi ngv i
    ctoryof1892, t
    heDemocr at
    sint heHouseagai nattempt edt obringdownt he
    tar
    iffbytheWi l
    sonbi l
    l of1894, theywer echeckmat edbyt heirownpar tycol l
    eaguesi ntheupper
    chamber .Int heendt heywer edrivenintoacompr omi sethatlookedmor elikeaMcKi nleythana
    Calhount ari
    f f
    .TheRepubl i
    canst auntedt hem wit
    hbei ng"babesi nthewoods. "Pr esi
    dentCl ev
    eland
    wassodi ssat i
    sfiedwi ththebi l
    lthather efusedtosigni t
    ,all
    owi ngittobecomeal aw,ont helapse
    oftenday s,wi thouthi sappr oval.

    TheI ncomeTaxof1894. —Theadv ocatesoft arif


    freducti
    onusual lyassociatedwi t
    ht heir
    proposal ataxoni ncomes.Thear gumentwhi chtheyadvancedi nsuppor toftheirprogr am was
    si
    mpl e.Mostoft hei ndustr
    ies,theysaid, areintheEastandt heprotectiv
    et ari
    ffwhicht axes
    consumer sf orthebenef itofmanuf acturersis,i
    nef f
    ect,atri
    butelaidupont herestoft he
    count ry.Asanof fsettheyof f
    eredat axonl argeincomes; t
    hisowi ngt otheheav yconcent rati
    on
    ofrichpeopl ei ntheEast ,woul dfallmai nlyupont hebenefici
    ariesofpr otecti
    on."Wepr opose,
    "
    saidoneoft hem, "toplaceapar toft hebur denupont heaccumul atedweal thofthecount ry
    i
    nst eadofpl acingi tallupont heconsumpt i
    onoft hepeople."Inthisspiri
    tthesponsor softhe
    Wilsont ar
    if
    fbi l
    llaidat axuponal lincomesof$4000ay earormor e.

    I
    nt akingthi
    sstep,theDemocr at
    sencounteredoppositi
    onintheirownparty.SenatorHill
    ,ofNew
    York,turnedfi
    ercel
    yupont hem,exclai
    ming:
    " Theprof
    essorswi t
    hthei
    rbooks, t
    hesoci al
    ist
    swi th
    theirschemes,theanarchi
    stswiththei
    rbombsar ealli
    nstr
    uctingthepeopl
    ei nthe...pri
    nciplesof
    taxati
    on."EventheEasternRepubli
    canswerehar dl
    yassav ageinthei
    rdenunciati
    onoft het ax.But
    allt
    hislaborwaswast ed.ThenextyeartheSupremeCour toftheUnitedStatesdeclaredthe
    i
    ncometaxtobeadirectt
    ax,andtheref
    orenull
    andvoi
    dbecauseitwaslai
    donincomeswherev
    er
    f
    oundandnotapport
    ionedamongt hestat
    esaccor
    dingtopopul
    ati
    on.Thefactt
    hatf
    ouroft
    henine
    j
    udgesdi
    ssent
    edfrom thi
    sdecisi
    onwasal so
    ani
    ndext
    othedi
    ver
    sit
    yofopi
    niont
    hatdi
    vi
    dedbot
    hpar
    ti
    es.

    TheRai
    l
    way
    sandTr
    ust
    s

    TheGr anger sandSt at


    eRegul ation.—Thesameuncer tai
    ntyaboutt her ailwaysandt rusts
    pervadedt her anksoftheRepubl icansandDemocr ats.Astot herailway s,t
    hef ir
    stfi
    r m and
    consistentdemandf orthei
    rregul at
    ioncamef rom theWest .Theret hef armer s,i
    ntheear ly
    seventi
    es, havinggotcont r
    olinst atel
    egislat
    ures,
    par ti
    cular
    lyinIowa, Wi sconsin,andI l
    li
    nois,
    enacteddr asti
    cl awsprescri
    bingt hemaxi mum char geswhichcompani escoul dmakef or
    carr
    y i
    ngf rei
    ghtandpassenger s.Theappl i
    cati
    onoft hesemeasur es,howev er
    , wasli
    mi ted
    becauset hest atecouldnotfixther at
    esf ortr
    anspor t
    inggoodsandpassenger sbey ondits
    ownbor ders.Thepowerofr egul ati
    ngint
    er st
    atecommer ce,undert heConst i
    tuti
    on,belonged
    toCongr ess.

    TheI nter stateCommer ceActof1887. —Wit


    hinaf ewy ears,t
    hemov ementwhi chhadbeenso
    effecti
    vei nwest ernlegisl
    aturesappearedatWashi ngtoni ntheform ofdemandsf ort he
    federalr egulationofi nter
    staterates.I
    n1887,thepressur ebecamesost rongthatCongr ess
    createdt hei nterst
    at ecommer cecommi ssi
    onandf orbademanyabusesont hepartof
    rai
    lway s; suchasdi scri
    minatinginchargesbetweenoneshi pperandanot herandgr anti
    ng
    secretr ebat estofav oredper sons.Thi
    slawwasasi gnif
    icantbeginning;butitl
    eftt
    hemai n
    quest i
    onofr at
    e-fi
    xingunt ouched,mucht ot
    hedi scontentoff ar
    mersandshi ppers.

    TheSher manAnt i-
    TrustLawof1890. —Asi nt hecaseoft herail
    way s, att
    acksupont hetrusts
    wer ef i
    rstmadei nstatelegisl atures,wher eitbecamet hefashiont opr ovi
    desev erepenal ti
    es
    forthosewhof ormedmonopol i
    esand" conspi redtoenhancepr ices."Republ icansand
    Democr at sunitedi
    nt hepr omot ionofmeasur esoft hiskind.Asi nt hecaseoft her ail
    way salso,
    themov ementt ocurbt hetrust ssoonhadspokesmenatWashi ngton.ThoughBl ainehad
    declar edt hat"t
    rustswer elar gelyapr ivateaffai rwithwhichnei thert hePr esidentnorany
    pri
    v ateci ti
    zenhadanypar ticul arrighttoi nt
    erfer e,
    "itwasaRepubl icanCongr esst hatenact ed
    i
    n1890t hefir
    stmeasur e—t heSher manAnt i
    -Tr ustLaw—di r
    ectedagai nstgreatcombi nationsin
    business.Thi sactdeclaredi llegal "ev
    erycont r act,combinationint hef or
    m oft rustor
    other wise, orconspir
    acyi nr est rai
    ntoft radeandcommer ceamongt hesev eralstat esorwi th
    foreignnat i
    ons."

    TheFut il
    i
    tyoft heAnt i
    -Tr
    ustLaw. —Whet hertheSher manl awwasdi rectedagai nstall
    combi nati
    onsormer elythosewhi chplacedan" unreasonabl er estraint"ont radeand
    compet it
    ionwasnotappar ent.SenatorPl attofConnect icut ,
    acar efulstatesmanoft heol d
    school ,averred:"Thequest ionsofwhet herthebi l
    lwoul dbeoper ati
    v e,ofhowi twouldoper ate,
    orwhet heritwaswi t
    hinthepowerofCongr esst oenacti t,havebeenwhi stleddownt hewi ndin
    thisSenat easi dletalkandt hewhol eef forthasbeent ogetsomebi llheaded: 'Abil
    ltopuni sh
    trusts,'withwhicht ogot ot hecount r
    y."What everi
    tspur pose, itseff ectuponexi sti
    ngt rusts
    andupont heformat i
    onofnewcombi nat i
    onswasnegl igible.Itwaspr acti
    cal l
    yunenf orcedby
    Pr esidentHar r
    isonandPr esidentCleveland, inspit
    eoft heconst antdemandf orharshact i
    on
    agai nst"monopol ies.
    "Itwaspat entthatnei thertheRepubl i
    cansnort heDemocr atswer e
    prepar edf orawaront het r
    ustst othebi tt
    erend.

    TheMi
    norPar
    ti
    esandUnr
    est

    TheDemandsofDi ssentingPart
    ies.—Fr
    om t heelect
    ionof1872,whenHor aceGr eel
    eymade
    hi
    sil
    l-f
    atedexcur
    sioni ntopoli
    ti
    cs,onward, t
    hereappearedineachpresidenti
    alcampai gnone,
    andsomet i
    mestwoormor eparti
    es,str
    essingissuesthatappeal
    edmai nlytowage- earner
    s
    andfarmers.Whethert heychosetocallthemselvesLaborReformers,Greenbackers,orAnti-
    monopolist
    s,t
    heirslogansandt heirpl
    atformsallpoint
    edinonedirect
    ion.Eventhe
    Prohi
    bit
    ioni
    sts,whoin1872star
    tedontheircar
    eerwi
    thasingl
    eissue,t
    heabol
    i
    tionoft
    he
    l
    iquort
    raffi
    c,foundt
    hemselv
    esmaki ngdeclar
    ati
    onsoff
    ait
    honot her
    mat
    ter
    sandhopel
    essl
    yspl
    i
    tov
    ert
    hemoneyquest
    ioni
    n1896.

    Acomposi t
    ev iewofthepl atformsputf orthbyt hedi ssentingpar t
    iesf r
    om t headmi nistration
    ofGranttothecloseofCl eveland'ssecondt ermr evealscer t
    ainnot i
    onscommont ot hem al l
    .
    Theseincl
    udedamongmanyot hers:theear l
    iestpossi blepay mentoft henat ional debt ;
    regul
    ati
    onoft heratesofrailway sandt elegraphcompani es;repeal ofthespeci eresumpt ion
    actof1875;theissueoflegal t
    endernot esbyt hegov er
    nmentconv erti
    bleintoi nterest-bear i
    ng
    obli
    gati
    onsondemand; unlimi t
    edcoi nageofsi l
    v eraswel lasgol d;agr aduat edi nheritancet ax;
    l
    egisl
    ati
    ontot akefrom "l
    and, rail
    road, money ,andot hergigant i
    ccor poratemonopol i
    es. ..the
    powerstheyhav esocor r
    upt l
    yandunj ustlyusur ped";popularordi rectelect i
    onofUni tedSt at es
    Senator
    s;womansuf fr
    age; andagr aduatedi ncomet ax,"placingthebur denofgov ernmenton
    thosewhocanbestaf f
    ordt opayi nsteadofl ay i
    ngi tont hef armersandpr oducer s."

    Criti
    cism oft heOl dParti
    es.—Tot hislongprogram ofmeasur esther eformer saddedhar shand
    acr i
    dcr i
    tici
    sm oft heoldpartiesandsomet i
    mes, i
    tmustbesai d,ofest abli
    shedi nsti
    tutionsof
    gov ernment ."Wedenounce, "excl aimedt heLaborpar t
    yin1888, "
    theDemocr ati
    cand
    Republ icanpar t
    iesashopel esslyandshamel esslycorruptandbyr easonoft heiraff
    il
    iationwit
    h
    monopol iesequallyunworthyoft hesuf f
    ragesofthosewhodonotl iveuponpubl i
    cplunder .
    "
    "TheUni t
    edSt atesSenate,"insistedt heGreenbackers,"i
    sabodycomposedl argelyof
    aristocraticmill
    ionair
    eswhoaccor dingtotheirownpar typapersgener all
    ypur chasedt heir
    electionsi nordertoprotectt hegr eatmonopol i
    eswhi chtheyrepresent."Indeed, i
    ftheir
    platformsar et obeaccept edatf acev al
    ue,t
    heGr eenbackersbeli
    ev edt hattheent i
    re
    gov ernmenthadpassedoutoft hehandsoft hepeopl e.

    TheGr angers.—Thi sunspar i


    ng, nott osayr evolutionary,cr
    iti
    cism ofAmer i
    canpol it
    icalli
    fe,
    appealed,itseems, mai nl
    yt ofar mersi ntheMi ddleWest .Alway sactiv
    ei npolit
    ics,theyhad,
    befor
    et heCi vi
    lWar ,casttheirlotasar ulewi t
    honeort heotheroft heleadingpar ti
    es.I n1867,
    howev er,
    theregr ewupamongt hem anassoci ati
    onknownast he"Pat r
    onsofHusbandr y,"
    whichwasdest i
    nedt oplayal arger ôleinthepar t
    isancont estsofthesucceedi ngdecades.
    Thissociety,whichor ganizedl ocallodgesor" granges"onpr i
    ncipl
    esofsecr ecyandf raterni
    ty,
    wasor igi
    nall
    ydesi gnedt opr omot einagener al wayt heinterestsofthef ar
    mer s.Itspol i
    ti
    cal
    beari
    ngswer eappar entl
    ynotgr aspedatf irstbyi tspromot ers.Yet,appeali
    ngasi tdidtot he
    mostact i
    veandi ndependentspi r
    itsamongt hef ar mersandgat heringtoi t
    selfthest rengththat
    al
    way scomesf rom or ganizati
    on, i
    tsoonf oundi tselfi
    nt hehandsofl eader smor eorl ess
    i
    nvolvedinpol i
    ti
    cs.Wher eaf ewv otesaremar shal edtogetherinademocr acy ,
    therei spower .

    TheGr eenbackPar ty.—Thef i


    rstext ensiv
    eact i
    vi
    tyoft heGranger swasconnect edwiththe
    attackont herail
    way sintheMi ddl
    eWestwhi chf orcedsev eral st
    atelegislaturestoreduce
    freightandpassengerr atesbyl aw.Att hesamet ime, somel eadersint hemov ement,nodoubt
    embol denedbyt hi
    ssuccess, launchedi n1876anewpol iti
    cal part
    y,popul arlyknownast he
    Gr eenbacker s,f
    avor i
    ngacont inuedr e-i
    ssueoft helegal tenders.Thebegi nningswere
    disappoi nt
    ing;butt woyear sl
    at er,
    int hecongressional el
    ections,theGr eenbacker sswept
    whol esect ionsofthecount ry.Thei rcandidat
    espol ledmor et hanami l
    l
    ionv otesandfourteen
    oft hem wer er
    eturnedtot heHouseofRepr esentatives.Toal loutwardsi gnsanewand
    formi dablepartyhadent eredt helists.

    Thesanguinehopesoft heleader sprovedtobei l


    lusory.Thequi etoperationsofthe
    resumptionactthefoll
    owi ngy ear,arevi
    valofindust ryfrom asev erepanicwhi chhadseti n
    during1873,theSil
    verPur chaseAct ,andthere- i
    ssueofGr eenbackscutawaysomeoft he
    groundsofagi t
    ati
    on.Ther ewasal soadi ver
    sionoff orcest othesilverf
    act i
    onwhi chhada
    substanti
    alsupporti
    nt hesilvermi neownersoft heWest .AtalleventstheGr eenbackvotefel
    l
    toabout300,000int heelecti
    onof1880.Ast il
    l greaterdr opcamef ouryearslaterandthepart
    y
    gaveupt heghost,it
    ssponsor sretur
    ningtothei rformeral l
    egianceorsul kingintheirt
    ents.
    TheRiseofthePopul
    istParty.
    —Thoseleader
    softheoldpar
    ti
    eswhonowlookedforahappy
    fut
    ureunvexedbynewf act
    ionsweredoomedt odi
    sappoi
    ntment
    .Thef
    uneral
    oftheGreenback
    part
    ywashar dl
    y
    overbef oret her earoset woot herpol it
    ical specter sintheagr ari
    ansect i
    ons: theNat ional Far mers'
    All
    ianceandI ndust r
    ialUnion, particularlyst rongint heSout handWest ;andt heFar mer s' All
    iance,
    operatingi ntheNor th.By1890t het woor der sclaimedov erthreemi ll
    ionmember s.Asi nt hecase
    oftheGr anger smanyy ear sbef ore, t
    hel eader samongt hem f oundaneasywayi ntopol iti
    cs.I n
    1892t heyhel daconv ention,nomi natedacandi dat eforPr esident ,andadopt edt henameof
    "People'sPar ty ,
    "from whi cht heywer eknownasPopul i
    sts.Thei rplatform, i
    nev eryline,br eatheda
    spiri
    tofr adical i
    sm.Theydecl aredt hat" thenewspaper sar elargel ysubsidizedormuzz led; publi
    c
    opinionsi l
    enced; businesspr ost rate;ourhomescov er
    edwi thmor tgages; andt hel and
    concent rati
    ngi nthehandsofcapi tal
    ists....Thef ruit
    soft het oilof
    milli
    onsar ebol dl
    yst olent obui ldupcol ossal fortunesf oraf ew. "Hav i
    ngdel iveredt hi s
    sweepi ngi ndi ctment ,thePopul istsputf or wardt heirremedi es: thef r
    eecoi nageofsi lver,a
    graduat edi ncomet ax,post al savingsbanks, andgov ernmentowner shipofr ail
    way sand
    tel
    egr aphs.Att hesamet i
    met heyappr ov edthei niti
    ative, r
    efer endum, andpopul arel ectionof
    Senat ors,andcondemnedt heuseoff eder altroopsi nlabordi sput es.Ont hispl atform, the
    Popul i
    stspol ledov erami ll
    ionv otes,capt uredt went y-
    twopr esi dent i
    alelect ors, andsenta
    power ful delegat iontoCongr ess.

    Indust ri
    alDi st r
    essAugment sUnr est.—Thef oury ear sint er
    veningbet weent hecampai gnof
    1892andt henextpr esidential electi
    onbr oughtf orthmanyev entswhi chaggr av atedt hei ll
    -
    feel ingexpr essedi nt hepor tent ouspl at form ofPopul ism.Cl eveland, aconsi stentenemyof
    freesi l
    ver, gav ehispower ful suppor tt ot hegol dst andar dandi nsistedont herepeal oft he
    Silv erPur chaseAct ,thusal i
    enat ingani ncr easingnumberofhi sownpar ty.In1893agr ave
    i
    ndust ri
    alcr isisfell upont hel and: banksandbusi nesshouseswenti ntobankr uptcywi th
    star tli
    ngr api dity;fact ori
    eswer eclosed; i
    dl ement hrongedt hest reetshunt ingf orwor k; andt he
    pricesofwheatandcor ndr oppedt oar ui nousl ev el.Labordi sput esal sofil
    ledt hecr owded
    recor d.Ast rikeatt hePul lmancarwor ksi nChi cagospr eadtot her ailways.Disor dersensued.
    Pr esi dentCl ev eland, againstt hepr otest soft hegov ernorofI ll
    inois, JohnP.Al tgel d,dispat ched
    troopst ot hesceneofact ion.TheUni tedSt atesdi stri
    ctcour tatChi cagoi ssuedani njunct i
    on
    for biddingt hepr esi dentoft heRai lwayUni on,EugeneV.Debs, orhi sassi stantst ointer fere
    wi tht het ransmi ssionoft hemai l
    sori nt erstatecommer ceinanyf orm.Forr ef
    usi ngt oobeyt he
    order ,Debswasar r estedandi mpr i
    soned.Wi thf eder al troopsinpossessi onoft hef i
    el d,with
    thei rleaderi njail,thest ri
    ker sgav eupt hebat tle, def eatedbutnotsubdued.Tocapt hecl i
    max
    theSupr emeCour toft heUni tedSt ates, thef ollowi ngy ear(1895)decl arednul landv oidt he
    i
    ncomet axl awj ustenact edbyCongr ess, t
    husf anni ngt hef l
    amesofPopul i
    stdi scont ental l
    ov ert heWestandSout h.

    TheSoundMoneyBat
    tl
    eof1896

    Conser v ativ
    eMenAl armed. —Menofconser vativet houghtandl eani ngi nbot hpar ti
    eswer eby
    thist imet horoughl ydi stur
    bed.Theyl ookedupont her i
    seofPopul ism andt hegr owt hoflabor
    disput esast hesignsofar evoluti
    onar yspiri
    t,indeednot hingshor tofamenacet oAmer i
    can
    i
    nst itutionsandi deal s.Thei ncomet axlawof1894, exclaimedt hedi sti
    nguishedNewYor k
    adv ocat e, JosephH.Choat e,inanimpassi onedspeechbef oretheSupr emeCour t,
    "is
    communi sticinitspur posesandt endenci esandi sdef endedher euponpr inci plesas
    communi stic,socialistic—whatshal lIcallthem—popul isticasev erhav ebeenaddr essedt oany
    political assembl yint hewor l
    d."Mr.Just i
    ceFi eldint henameoft heCour trepl ied: "
    Thepr esent
    assaul tuponcapi t
    al isbutt hebeginni ng.I
    twi l
    l bebutt hest eppingst onetoot her slargerand
    mor esweepi ngtillourpol i
    ticalconditionswi l
    lbecomeawaroft hepooragai nstt her i
    ch.
    "In
    declar ingt hei ncomet axunconst i
    tutional,hebel i
    ev edt hathewasbutav ertinggr eaterevi
    ls
    l
    ur kingunderi tsgui se.Asf orf r
    eesilver,nearlyallconser vat iv
    emenwer euni tedi ncalli
    ngi ta
    measur eofconf iscat i
    onandr epudiation;anef fortoft hedebt orst opayt hei robl i
    gat i
    onswi th
    moneywor t
    hf ift
    ycent sont hedollar;thecl i
    maxofv il
    lainiesopenl ydef ended; achal l
    enget o
    l
    aw,
    order
    ,andhonor
    .

    TheRepubl
    icansComeOutf ortheGol
    dStandar
    d.—I
    twasamongt heRepubli
    canst
    hatthis
    opi
    nionwasmostwidelysharedandfi
    rml
    yheld.I
    twastheywhopickedupthegaugethrown
    downbythePopuli
    sts,
    thoughahostofDemocrats,
    li
    keClev
    elandandHil
    lofNewYork,also
    bat
    tl
    edagainstt
    he
    growi ngPopul i
    stdef ecti
    oni nDemocr ati
    cr anks.Whent heRepubl i
    cannat i
    onal conv ention
    assembl edi n1896, t
    hedi ewassooncast ;adecl arationofopposi ti
    ont of reesi l
    v ersav eby
    i
    nt ernat i
    onal agreementwascar riedbyav oteofei ghtt oone.TheRepubl icanpar ty,touset he
    vigor ousl anguageofMr .Lodge, arrayedi t
    sel fagai nst" notonl ythatorgani zedf ailure, t
    he
    Democr aticpar ty,butallthewander ingf orcesofpol itical chaosandsoci al disor der. ..i
    nt hese
    bittert i
    meswhent hef orcesofdi sor derarel ooseandt hewr eckerswi ththei rf alsel i
    ght sgat herat
    theshor et ol uretheshi pofst ateupont her ocks. "Yeti tisduet ohistorictrut ht ost at ethat
    McKi nley,whom t heRepubl icansnomi nated, hadv otedi nCongr essf orthef reecoi nageofsi lver,
    waswi delyknownasabi met alli
    st,andwasonl ywi thdi ffi
    cultypersuadedt oacceptt heunequi vocal
    i
    ndor sementoft hegol dst andar dwhi chwaspr esseduponhi m byhi scounsel ors.Hav i
    ngaccept ed
    i
    t, howev er,hepr ov edtobeav al
    iantchampi on, thoughhi smaj orinterestwasundoubt edlyint he
    prot ectivet arif
    f.Tohi m not hingwasmor er eprehensi blethanat tempt s"toar r aycl assagai nstcl ass,
    '
    thecl assesagai nstt hemasses, ' sectionagai nstsect ion, l
    aboragai nstcapi tal, '
    thepooragai nstt he
    ri
    ch, 'orinter estagai nsti
    nt erest .
    "Suchwast hel anguageofhi saccept ancespeech.Thewhol e
    progr am ofPopul i
    sm henowv i
    ewedasa" sudden, danger ous,andr evolutionar yassaul tuponl aw
    andor der .
    "

    TheDemocr ati
    cConv entionatChi cago. —Nev er,sav eatt hegr eatdi srupti
    onont heev eoft he
    Civi
    lWar ,didaDemocr ati
    cnat i
    onal conv ent i
    ondi spl
    aymor efeel ingt hanatChi cagoi n1896.
    From theopeni ngpray ertot helastmot ionbef or ethehouse, ev eryact ,everyspeech, ev er
    y
    scene, everyr esolutionev okedpassi onsandsoweddi ssensi ons.Depar ti
    ngf rom longpar ty
    custom, i
    tv oteddowni nangerapr oposal t
    opr aisetheadmi nist rationoft heDemocr ati
    c
    President, Cleveland.Whent hepl atform wi thitsradical planks, incl udingf reesi l
    ver,was
    reported,av eri
    tablest orm broke.Senat orHi ll
    ,trembl i
    ngwi themot ion, protestedagai nstthe
    depar t
    uref rom ol dtest sofDemocr at i
    cal legiance; againstpr inci plest hatmustdr iveoutof
    thepar tymenwhohadgr owngr ayi ni tsser vi
    ce; againstrev olut i
    onar y,unwi se,and
    unprecedent edst epsi nthehi st
    or yoft hepar ty
    .Senat orVi lasofWi sconsi n,ingreatfer v
    or,
    avowedt hatt herewasnodi ffer
    encei npr inciplebet weent hef reecoi nageofsi lv
    er—" t
    he
    confiscationofone- hal fofthecr editsoft henat i
    onf orthebenef i
    tofdebt or s"—and
    communi sm i tself—"auni versaldist ri
    but ionofpr operty.
    "Int het riumphoft hatcausehesaw
    thebegi nningof" theov erthr
    owofal l l
    aw, allj
    ustice,allsecur ityandr eposei nthesoci al
    order."

    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    Wi
    l
    li
    am J.Br
    yani
    n1898

    TheCr ownofThor nsSpeech. —Thechampi onsoffreesilv


    errepli
    edinstri
    denttones.Theyaccused
    thegol dadv ocatesofbei ngtheaggr essorswhohadassai l
    edthelaborandthehomesoft he
    people.Wi ll
    iam JenningsBr yan,ofNebr aska,voi
    cedtheirsenti
    ment si
    namemor ableorati
    on.He
    decl
    ar edt hattheircause" wasashol yast hecauseofliberty
    —t hecauseofhumani ty
    ."He
    excl
    aimedt hatthecont estwasbet weent heidl
    eholdersofidlecapit
    alandthetoil
    ingmill
    ions.
    Thenhenamedt hosef orwhom hespoke—t hewage-earner,
    thecountrylawyer
    , t
    hesmal l
    mer chant
    ,
    thefarmer ,andt hemi ner."Themanwhoi semployedforwagesi sasmuchabusi nessmanashi s
    employ er.Theat torneyinacount rytowni sasmuchabusi nessmanast hecorporat
    ioncounselin
    agreatmetropol
    i
    s.Themerchantatthecrossroadsst
    oreisasmuchabusi nessmanasthe
    merchantofNewYork.Thefar
    mer...isasmuchabusi nessmanasthemanwhogoesupont he
    boardoftr
    adeandbetsuponthepriceofgrai
    n.Theminerswhogoat housandfeeti
    nto
    theearthorclimbt wot housandfeetupont hecl
    iff
    s. .
    .areasmuchbusi nessmenast hefew
    fi
    nancialmagnat eswhoi nabackr oom cornert
    hemoneyoft heworld.
    ..
    .Iti
    sforthesethatwe
    speak.Wedonot
    comeasaggr essors.Our si
    snotawarofconquest .Wear efight
    ingindefenseofourhomes, our
    famil
    ies,andourpost erit
    y.Wehav epet i
    ti
    onedandourpet it
    ionshavebeenscorned.Wehav e
    entr
    eatedandourent reati
    eshav ebeendisregar
    ded.Wehav ebeggedandt heyhavemocked
    whenourcal amitycame.Webegnol onger;weentreatnomor e;
    wepet i
    ti
    onnomor e.Wedef y
    them...
    .Weshal lanswert heirdemands
    foragol dstandardbysay ingtothem, '
    Youshal lnotpressupont hebrowofl aborthis
    crownoft horns.Youshal lnotcrucif
    ymanki nduponacr ossofgold.'
    "

    BryanNomi nated.—I nallthehi st


    oryofnat ional conv ent i
    onsnev erhadanor atorsocompl et
    ely
    sway edamul ti
    tude; notev enYanceyi nhi smemor ablepleaint heChar l
    estonconv enti
    onof
    1860when, wit
    hgr av eandmov i
    ngeloquence, heespousedt heSout herncauseagai nstt he
    i
    mpendi ngf ates.Thedel egates,aftercheer ingMr .Bryanunt i
    l t
    heycoul dcheernomor e,tor
    e
    thestandar dsfrom t hefloorandgat heredar oundt heNebr askadel egati
    ont or enewt he
    deafeningappl ause.Thepl atform asrepor tedwascar riedbyav ot
    eoft wot ooneandt he
    youngor atorfrom t heWest ,hail
    edasAmer ica'sTi beri
    usGr acchus, wasnomi natedast he
    Democr ati
    ccandi dateforPr esident.TheSout handWesthadt ri
    umphedov ert heEast .The
    divi
    sionwassect ional,admi ttedl
    ysect ional—t heol dcombi nationofpowerwhi chCal hounhad
    soanxiousl ylaboredt obui ldupacent uryear li
    er .TheGol dDemocr atswer erepudiatedi n
    ter
    mswhi chwer ecleartoal l.Afew, unablet oendur et hethoughtofv ot
    ingtheRepubl ican
    ti
    cket,heldaconv ent i
    onatI ndianapoliswher e,wi tht hesanctionofCl eveland, theynomi nat
    ed
    candidatesoft heirownandendor sedt hegol dst andar dinaf orlor
    nhope.

    TheDemocr ati
    cPl at
    for
    m. —Itwast othecal lfrom Chi cagot hattheDemocr atsgav eheedand
    theRepubl i
    cansmadeanswer .Theplatf orm onwhi chMr .Bryanstood, unli
    kemostpar ty
    mani festoes,wasexpl i
    citi
    ni t
    slanguageandi t
    sappeal .Itdenouncedt hepr acti
    ceofallowing
    national bankstoissuenot esintendedt oci rculateasmoneyont hegr oundt hati
    twas" in
    derogat i
    onoft heConst i
    tuti
    on,"recal
    li
    ngJackson' sf amousat tackont heBanki n1832.I t
    declaredt hattar
    iffduti
    esshoul dbelaid" forthepur poseofr evenue"—Cal houn'sdoctri
    ne.In
    demandi ngthefreecoinageofsi lver
    ,itr ecurredt ot hepr acticeabandonedi n1873.The
    i
    ncomet axcamenextont hepr ogram.Thepl atform al legedt hatthelawof1894, passedbya
    Democr ati
    cCongr ess,was" i
    nst ri
    ctpur suanceoft heuni form decisionsoft heSupr emeCour t
    fornear l
    yahundr edy ears,
    "andt henhi nt edthatt hedeci sionannul l
    i
    ngt helawmi ghtbe
    reversedbyt hesamebody" asitmayher eafterbeconst i
    tuted."

    Theappeal t
    olaborv oi
    cedbyMr .Bryaninhis" crownoft hor ns"speechwasr einforcedi nthe
    platform." Aslaborcr eat est heweal thofthecount ry ,
    "ranonepl ank,"wedemandt hepassage
    ofsuchl awsasmaybenecessar ytoprotectitinall i
    tsrights."Referr
    ingtot her ecentPul lman
    strike,thepassionsofwhi chhadnoty etdiedaway ,thepl atform denounced" ar
    bitrary
    i
    nt erferencebyf ederal aut hor i
    ti
    esi nlocalaffairsasav iolat
    ionoft heConst ituti
    onoft heUnited
    Stat esandacr i
    meagai nstf reeinst i
    tut
    ions."Aspeci alobject i
    onwasl odgedagai nst
    "gov ernmentbyi njunct i
    onasanewandhi ghlydanger ousf or m ofoppressionbywhi chfederal
    j
    udges, incontemptoft hel awsofst atesandr i
    ghtsofci t
    izens, becomeatoncel egislat
    ors,
    j
    udges, andexecut ioner s."Ther emedyadv ancedwasaf eder all
    awassur ingt ri
    albyj uryinall
    casesofcont empti nlabordi sput es.Havingmadet hisdecl arati
    onoff ai
    th,theDemocr ats,wit
    h
    Mr .Br yanatthehead, raisedt heirstandardofbat t
    le.

    TheHeatedCampaign.
    —Thecampai gnwhi chensuedout r
    ivaledint
    her angeofi t
    seducational
    acti
    vi
    ti
    esandthebit
    ter
    nessofitstoneallotherpol
    it
    ical
    conf l
    ictsi
    nAmer i
    canhistor
    y,not
    except
    ingt
    hefatef
    ulst
    ruggleof1860.I
    mmensesumsofmoneywer econtri
    butedtothef unds
    ofbothpar
    ti
    es.Rai
    lway,banki
    ng,andothercorporat
    ionsgav egenerouslytotheRepublicans;
    thesi
    lverminers,l
    esslavi
    shl
    ybutwit
    ht hesameanxi ety,
    supportedtheDemocrats.The
    countr
    ywasf loodedwithpamphl
    ets,posters,andhandbil
    ls.Ev
    erypubli
    cfor
    um, fr
    om thegreat
    audi
    toriumsoft heci
    ti
    estothe"
    redschool houses"onthecountrysi
    de,wasoccupiedbythe
    opposingfor
    ces.
    Mr .Bryant ookt hest umphi msel f, vi
    sit
    ingal lpar tsoft hecount r
    yinspeci al t
    rainsand
    addressi ngl i
    terall
    ymi l
    lionsofpeopl eint heopenai r.Mr .McKi nl
    eychoset heol derandmor e
    formal plan.Her eceiveddel egat ionsathi shomei nCant onanddi scussedt heissuesoft he
    campai gnf rom hi sfrontpor ch, l
    eav i
    ngt oanar myofwel l
    -organi zedor atorst het askof
    reachingt hepeopl eintheirhomet owns.Par ades, pr ocessi ons,andmonst erdemonst rations
    fi
    ll
    edt hel andwi thpoli
    tics.Whol est ateswer epol ledi nadv ancebyt heRepubl icansandt he
    doubt f
    ul votersper sonal l
    yv isitedbymenequi ppedwi thar gument sandl iterature.
    Manuf act urers,fri
    ghtenedatt hepossi bil
    ityofdi sor der edpubl iccr edit
    ,announcedt hatthey
    woul dcloset hei rdoorsi ftheDemocr atswont heel ect ion.Menwer edi smi ssedf rom publ ic
    andpr ivatepl acesonaccountoft heirpoliti
    cal views, oneemi nentcol l
    egepr esidentbeing
    forcedoutf oradv ocatingf reesi lver.Thel anguageempl oy edbyi mpassi onedandembi ttered
    speaker sonbot hsidesr ousedt hepubl ict oast at eoff renzy ,oncemor eshowi ngt helengt hs
    towhi chmencoul dgoi nper sonal andpol iti
    cal abuse.

    TheRepubl i
    canVictory.—Thev erdictoft henationwasdeci si ve.McKi nl
    eyr eceived271oft he447
    electoral vot
    es,and7, 111,000popul arv otesasagainstBr yan's6,509,000.Thecongr essional
    electionswer eequallyposi t
    ivealthough, onaccountoft hecomposi ti
    onoft heSenate,the"hold-
    ov er"Democr atsandPopul i
    stsstillenj
    oy edapoweroutofpr oport
    iont othei rstr
    engthas
    measur edatt hepoll
    s.Ev enasi twas, theRepubl i
    cansgotf ullcont
    rol ofbot hhouses—a
    domi ni
    onoft heentiregov ernmentwhi cht heyweretohol df orfourteeny ears—unt i
    lthesecond
    hal fofMr .Taft'
    sadmi nistr
    ation,whent heyl ostpossessionoft heHouseofRepr esentati
    ves.The
    yokeofi ndecisi
    onwasbr oken.Thepar tyofsoundf inanceandpr otect i
    vetar i
    ffssetoutuponi t
    s
    l
    easeofpowerwi t
    hunt roubledassur ance.

    Republ
    i
    canMeasur
    esandResul
    ts

    TheGol dSt andar dandt heTar i


    ff.—Yetstrangeasi tmayseem, t
    heRepubl icansdi dnotat
    onceenactl egislat i
    onmaki ngthegol ddol l
    art hestandardfort henat ional currency.Notunt i
    l
    1900di dtheyt aket hatpositiv
    est ep.Inhisf i
    rstinauguralPresidentMcKi nley ,
    asi fst il
    l
    uncertai
    ninhi sownmi ndorf earingar evi
    v alofthecontestjustcl osed, placedt het ariff,
    not
    themoneyquest ion, i
    nt heforefront."Thepeopl ehav edecided,"hesai d,"t
    hatsuchl egi sl
    ati
    on
    shouldbehadaswi ll
    giveampl epr otecti
    onandencour agementt ot hei ndustriesand
    developmentofourcount r
    y."Protecti
    onf orAmer i
    canindustri
    es, therefore, heur ged, isthe
    taskbeforeCongr ess."Wi t
    hadequat erevenuesecur ed,butnotunt ilt
    hen, wecanent erupon
    changesi nourf iscal laws."Ast heRepubl icanshadonl yfor t
    y-sixoft heni netySenat ors,and
    atleastfouroft hem wer eknownadv ocatesoff reesilv
    er,thedi screti
    onexer cisedbyt he
    Presidentinselect ingt hetarif
    fforcongr essional debat
    ewast hebet t
    erpar tofvalor.

    Congressgav eheedtothewar ning.Undert hedirect


    ionofNelsonP.Di ngley,whosenamewas
    giventothebi ll
    ,atari
    ffmeasurelev y
    ingthehi ghestr
    atesyetl
    aidinthehi storyofAmerican
    i
    mpost swaspr eparedanddr i
    vent hroughtheHouseofRepr esentati
    ves.Theopposi ti
    on
    encounteredi ntheSenate,especiall
    yfrom theWest ,wasovercomebyconcessi onsinfavorof
    thatsecti
    on; buttheduti
    esonsugar ,ti
    n,st
    eel, l
    umber,hemp,andinfactal loftheessenti
    al
    commodi tieshandledbycombi nati
    onsandt r
    usts,weremateri
    all
    yraised.
    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    Pr
    esi
    dentMcKi
    nleyandHi
    sCabi
    net

    Growt hofCombi nations.—They ear sthatfollowedt heenact mentoft heDi ngl


    eyl awwer e,what ever
    thecause, t
    hemostpr osper oust hecount ryhadwi t
    nessedformanyadecade.I ndustr i
    esofev ery
    kindwer esoonr unningf ullbl
    ast; l
    aborwasempl oyed;commer cespr eadmor eswi ftl
    yt hanev ert o
    themar ketsofthewor ld.Coi ncidentwi ththispr ogresswast heor ganizationoft hegr eatest
    combi nat i
    onsandt rustst hewor ldhady etseen.I n1899t hesmel tersf ormedat rustwithacapi tal
    of$65, 000,000;inthesamey eart heSt andardOi l Companywi thacapi tal ofov eronehundr ed
    mi l
    li
    onst ookt heplaceoft heoldt rust;andt heCopperTr ustwasi ncorpor atedundert hel awsof
    NewJer sey ,i
    tsparvaluecapi t
    al beingf i
    xedshor tl
    yafter
    war dat$175, 000,000.Ay earlaterthe
    Nat i
    onal SugarRef i
    ningCompany ,ofNewJer sey,star
    tedwithacapi tal of$90, 000,000, adopting
    thepolicyofi ssuingtot hest ockhol dersnopubl i
    cst at
    ementofi tsear ningsorf inanci
    al condition.
    Beforeanot hert
    wel vemont hhadel apsedal lpr evi
    ouscor porat
    efinanci ngwasr educedt osmal l
    proportionsbyt hef l
    otationoft heUni t
    edSt atesSt eelCorporati
    onwi thacapi tal ofmor et hana
    bill
    i
    ondol l
    ars,anenterpr i
    seseti nmot ionbyt hef amousMor ganbanki nghouseofNewYor k.

    I
    nnear l
    yal lthesegigant icunder t
    aki
    ngs, thesamegreatl eadersi nfi
    nancewer emor eorless
    i
    nt i
    mat elyassoci at
    ed.Touset helanguageofanemi nentaut horit
    y:"Theyar eal lall
    iedand
    i
    nt ert
    winedbyt heirvariousmut uali
    nterests.Fori
    nstance,thePennsy l
    v ani
    aRai lroadi nterest
    sar e
    ont heonehandal l
    iedwi t
    ht heVander bi
    lt
    sandont heot herwi ththeRockef ellers.TheVander bi
    lt
    s
    areclosel yalli
    edwi ththeMor gangr oup..
    ..Viewedasawhol ewef i
    ndt hedomi natingi nfl
    uencesin
    thet r
    ustst obemadeupofanet workof
    l
    ar geandsmal lcapi t
    alists,manyal li
    edt ooneanot herbyt iesofmor eorl essi mpor t
    ance,but
    allbeingappendagest oorpar tsofthegr eatergr
    oupswhi char ethemsel vesdependentonand
    all
    iedwi tht het womammot horRockef ellerandMor gangr oups.Theset womammot hgr oups
    j
    oint l
    y...const it
    utet hehear toft hebusi nessandcommer cialli
    feoft henat ion."Suchwast he
    pictureoft riumphantbusi nessent er pr
    isedr awnbyaf inanci erwithi
    naf ewy earsaf t
    erthe
    memor abl ecampai gnof1896.

    Amer i
    cahadbecomeoneoft hefi
    rstworkshopsoft heworld.I
    twas,byv ir
    tueoft heclosely
    knitor
    gani
    zat
    ionofitsbusinessandfinance,oneoft hemostpower f
    ul andener geti
    cleadersi
    n
    thestr
    uggl
    eoft hegiant
    sforthebusinessoftheear t
    h.Thecapital
    oftheSt eelCor porat
    ion
    alonewasmor ethantenti
    mest hetotalnat
    ionaldebtwhichtheapostlesofcal ami t
    yinthe
    daysofWashingtonandHami lt
    ondecl ar
    edthenationcouldneverpay.Amer icani ndust
    ry,
    f
    il
    li
    ngdomest
    icmar
    ket
    stoov
    erf
    lowi
    ng,
    wasr
    eadyf
    ornewwor
    ldst
    oconquer
    .
    Ref
    erences

    F.
    W.Taussi
    g,Tar
    if
    fHi
    stor
    yoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    J.
    L.Laughl
    i
    n,Bi
    met
    all
    i
    sm i
    ntheUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    A.
    B.Hepbur
    n,Hi
    stor
    yofCoi
    nageandCur
    rencyi
    ntheUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    E.
    R.A.Sel
    i TheI
    gman, ncomeTax.

    S. TheGr
    J.Buck, angerMov
    ement(
    Har
    var
    dSt
    udi
    es)
    .

    F.
    H.Di St
    xon, at
    eRai
    l
    roadCont
    rol
    .

    H.
    R.Mey
    erGov
    , ernmentRegul
    ati
    onofRai
    l
    wayRat
    es.

    W.
    Z.Ri
    pley(
    edi
    tor
    ),Tr
    ust
    s,Pool
    s,andCor
    por
    ati
    ons.

    R.
    T.El
    y,Monopol
    i
    esandTr
    ust
    s.

    J.
    B.Cl
    ar TheCont
    k, rolofTr
    ust
    s.

    Quest
    ions

    1.Whatpr
    oofhav
    ewet hatt
    hepol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    eswer
    enotcl
    ear
    lydi
    vi
    dedov
    eri
    ssues
    bet
    ween1865and1896?

    2.
    Whyi
    saf
    all
    inpr
    icesal
    osst
    ofar
    mer
    sandagai
    ntohol
    der
    soff
    ixedi
    nvest
    ment
    s?

    3.
    Expl
    aint
    het
    heor
    ythatt
    hequant
    it
    yofmoneydet
    ermi
    nest
    hepr
    icesofcommodi
    ti
    es.

    4.
    Whywasi
    tdi
    ff
    icul
    t,i
    fnoti
    mpossi
    ble,
    tokeepgol
    dandsi
    l
    veratapar
    it
    y?

    5.
    Whatspeci
    alcondi
    ti
    onsf
    avor
    edaf
    all
    insi
    l
    verbet
    ween1870and1896?

    6.
    Descr
    ibesomeoft
    hemeasur
    est
    akent
    orai
    set
    hev
    alueofsi
    l
    ver
    .

    7.
    Expl
    aint
    her
    elat
    ionbet
    weent
    het
    ari
    ffandt
    hei
    ncomet
    axi
    n1894.

    8.
    Howdi
    dithappent
    hatt
    hef
    armer
    sledi
    nregul
    ati
    ngr
    ail
    wayr
    ates?

    9.
    Giv
    ethet
    ermsoft
    heSher
    manAnt
    i-
    TrustAct
    .Whatwasi
    tsi
    mmedi
    ateef
    fect
    ?

    10.
    Namesomeoft
    hemi
    norpar
    ti
    es.Enumer
    atet
    her
    efor
    mst
    heyadv
    ocat
    ed.

    11.
    Descr
    ibebr
    ief
    lyt
    heexper
    iment
    soft
    hef
    armer
    sinpol
    i
    tics.

    12.
    Howdi
    dindust
    ri
    alcondi
    ti
    onsi
    ncr
    easeunr
    est
    ?

    13.
    Whywer
    econser
    vat
    ivemendi
    stur
    bedi
    ntheear
    lyni
    net
    ies?

    14.
    Expl
    aint
    heRepubl
    i
    canposi
    ti
    oni
    n1896.
    15.
    GiveMr.Br
    yan'
    sdoct
    ri
    nesi
    n1896.Enumer
    atet
    hechi
    eff
    eat
    uresoft
    heDemocr
    ati
    c
    plat
    for
    m.

    16.
    Whatwer
    ethel
    eadi
    ngmeasur
    esadopt
    edbyt
    heRepubl
    i
    cansaf
    tert
    hei
    rvi
    ctor
    yin1896?

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    GreenbacksandResumpt i
    on.—Dewey,FinancialHist
    oryoftheUnit
    edStates(
    6thed.)
    ,
    Secti
    ons122-125,154,
    and378; MacDonal d,DocumentarySourceBookofAmericanHist
    ory,
    pp.446,566;Hart
    ,AmericanHistor
    yToldbyCont emporar
    ies,
    Vol.I
    V,pp.531-
    533;Rhodes,
    Hist
    oryoftheUnitedSt
    ates,Vol.VI
    II
    ,pp.97-101.

    Demoneti
    zat
    ionandCoinageofSilv
    er.—Dewey,Financi
    alHist
    ory,Sect
    ions170-173,
    186,189,
    194;
    MacDonald,DocumentarySourceBook,pp.174,573,593,595;Hart
    ,Contemporar
    ies,
    Vol.
    I
    V,pp.529-
    531; Hi
    Rhodes, story
    ,Vol.VII
    I,
    pp.93-97.

    FreeSil
    verandtheCampai
    gnof1896.
    —Dewey Nat
    , ionalPr
    oblems(Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    ,
    pp.220-237,314-
    328;
    Hart
    ,Cont
    emporar
    ies,
    Vol.I
    V,pp.533-538.

    Tari
    ffRev
    ision.
    —Dewey Fi
    , nancialHist
    ory,Sect
    ions167,
    180,181,187,192,
    196;Hart
    ,
    Contemporari
    es,Vol
    .IV,pp.518-525;Rhodes,Hist
    ory
    ,Vol.VI
    II
    ,pp.168-
    179,346-
    351,418-
    422.

    FederalRegul at
    ion ofRailways.
    —Dewey,Nat i
    onalProbl
    ems,pp.91- 111;MacDonald,
    Document arySourceBook,pp.581-
    590;Har
    t,Contempor
    ari
    es,Vol
    .IV,
    pp.521-
    523;Rhodes,
    Hist
    ory,Vol.VI
    II,
    pp.288-
    292.

    TheRi
    seandRegulat
    ionofTr
    usts.
    —Dewey,Nati
    onalPr
    obl
    ems,
    pp.188-
    202;
    MacDonal
    d,Documentar
    ySour
    ceBook,pp.591-
    593.

    TheGranger
    sandPopul
    i
    sm. TheNewNat
    —Paxson, ion(
    Riv
    ersi
    deSer
    ies)
    ,pp.20-
    37,
    177-
    191,
    208-223.

    Gener
    alAnal
    ysi
    sofDomest
    icPr
    obl —Sy
    ems. ll
    abusi
    nHi
    stor
    y(NewYor
    kSt
    ate,
    1920)
    ,pp.137-
    142.

    CHAPTERXX
    AMERI
    CAAWORLDPOWER(
    1865-
    1900)

    Ithasnowbecomeaf ashion,sanct
    ionedbywi deusageandbyemi nenthi st
    orians,tospeakof
    Amer i
    ca, t
    ri
    umphantoverSpainandpossessedofnewcol onies,asenteringthet wentiet
    hcentury
    i
    nt herôleof"aworl
    dpower ,"f
    orthefir
    stt i
    me.Per hapsatthislateday,i
    ti suselesstopr ot
    est
    againstthecurr
    encyoftheidea.Nevertheless,thet r
    uthi
    st hatfrom thefatefulmomenti nMar ch,
    1775,whenEdmundBur keunfoldedtohiscol leaguesintheBr i
    tishParli
    amentt heresourcesofan
    i
    nv i
    ncibl
    eAmer i
    ca,downtot hesett
    lementatVer saill
    esi
    n1919cl osingthedr amaoft heWor l
    d
    War ,t
    hisnati
    onhasbeenawor ldpower ,
    influencingbyitsexampl e,byit
    si nstit
    uti
    ons,byi t
    s
    weal
    th,
    trade,
    andar
    mst hecourseofi
    nternat
    ional
    aff
    air
    s.Andi
    tshoul
    dbesai
    dal
    sot
    hatnei
    ther
    i
    nthefi
    eldofcommerci
    alent
    erpri
    senorinthatof
    di
    plomacyhasi
    tbeenwant
    ingi
    nspi
    ri
    tori
    ngenui
    ty.

    WhenJohnHay ,Secr etaryofSt at


    e, heardthatanAmer icanci t
    izen,
    Perdicari
    s, hadbeensei zed
    byRai suli
    ,aMor occanbandi t,i
    n1904, hewiredhi sbr usquemessage: "WewantPer dicar i
    s
    ali
    veorRai sulidead. "Thi swasbutanechoofCommodor eDecat ur'
    sequallychar acteristic
    answer ,"Notami nute,"givennear lyahundr edy earsbef oretothepirat
    esofAl gi
    er sbeggi ngf or
    ti
    met oconsi derwhet hert heywoul dceasepr eyi
    nguponAmer icanmer chantmen.Wasi tnotas
    earl
    yas1844t hatt heAmer icancommi ssioner,CalebCushi ng, t
    aki
    ngadv antageoft heBr iti
    sh
    Opium WaronChi na, negot i
    atedwi ththeCel esti
    al Empi reasuccessf ulcommer cialtreat y?Did
    henott henexul tant l
    yexcl ai
    m: "Thel awsoft heUni onf ollowitsciti
    zensandi tsbannerpr otects
    them ev enwithint hedomai noft heChi neseEmpi r
    e" ?Wasi tnotalmosthalfacent urybef ore
    thebat t
    leofMani laBayi n1898, t
    hatCommodor ePer rywi thanadequat enav alforce" gent l
    y
    coercedJapani ntof riendshipwi t
    hus, "leadi
    ngal lthenat i
    onsoft heearthintheopeni ngoft hat
    empiret othetr adeoft heOcci dent?Nori sitinappr opri
    at einthisconnecti
    ont or ecallthef act
    thattheMonr oeDoct rinecelebratesin1923i tshundr edth

    anni
    ver
    sar
    y.

    Amer
    icanFor
    eignRel
    ati
    ons(
    1865-
    98)

    FrenchIntr
    iguesi nMexi coBlocked.—Betweent hewarf ortheunionandt hewarwi thSpain,the
    DepartmentofSt at
    ehadmanyanoccasi ont opr esentther i
    ght
    sofAmer i
    caamongt hepower s
    ofthewor l
    d.Onl yalittl
    ewhil
    eaf tertheci
    v i
    lconf l
    ictcamet oaclose,itwascal l
    edupont odeal
    withadanger oussit
    uationcreatedinMexi cobyt heambi t
    ionsofNapoleonI I
    I.Duri
    ngthe
    administr
    ationofBuchanan, Mexi cohadf all
    eni ntodisorderthr
    ought hestri
    feoftheLiberaland
    theCleri
    calpar ti
    es;t
    hePr esi
    dentaskedf oraut horit
    ytouseAmer icantroopstobr i
    ngtoa
    peacefulhav en"awr eckupont heocean,dr i
    ft
    ingaboutasshei simpel l
    edbydi ff
    erentf
    actions.
    "
    Ourowndomest iccrisi
    sthenintervened.

    Observi
    ngt heUnitedSt atesheavil
    yinvol
    vedi nitsownpr oblems,thegr eatpowers,England,
    France,andSpain,deci dedintheautumnof1861t otakeahandt hemsel v
    esinrestor
    ingor der
    i
    nMexi co.Theyent eredi ntoanagreementtoenf orcet hecl
    aimsoft heirciti
    zensagainst
    Mexicoandt opr
    otectt heirsubj
    ectsresi
    dingint hatr epubl
    ic.Theyinv i
    tedtheUnitedStatesto
    j
    ointhem, and,onmeet ingapolit
    erefusal,t
    heypr eparedforacombi nedmi l
    it
    aryandnav al
    demonst r
    ationont heirownaccount .Int
    hemi dstoft hisacti
    onEngl andandSpai n,di
    scov eri
    ng
    thesini
    sterpurposesofNapol eon,wit
    hdrewt heirt r
    oopsandl eftt
    hef i
    eldtohim.

    TheFr enchEmper or,i


    twaswel lknown, l
    ookedwi t
    hjealousyuponthegrowt hoftheUni
    ted
    Statesanddr eamedofest abli
    shingintheWest er
    nhemi sphereanimperialpowertooff
    set
    theAmer i
    canrepubli
    c.Interventi
    ontocollectdebtswasonl yacloakforhisdeeperdesi
    gns.
    Throwingof fthatgui
    sei nduet ime,hemadet heAr chdukeMaximi l
    i
    an,abr ot
    heroftherul
    er
    ofAust ri
    a,emperorinMexi co,andsur r
    oundedhi sthronebyFrenchsoldi
    ers,inspit
    eofall
    protests.

    Thisinsolentattackupont heMexi canrepubl i


    c,deeplyresentedint heUnit
    edSt at
    es, was
    all
    owedt odr if
    tini tscourseuntil
    1865.Att hatjunctur
    eGener alSher i
    danwasdi spatchedto
    theMexi canbor derwi thal ar
    gearmedf orce;GeneralGranturgedt heuseoft heAmer i
    can
    armyt oexpel theFr enchf r
    om thi
    scont inent.TheSecr etar
    yofSt ate,Seward,counseled
    negotiat
    ionf i
    rst,and, appl
    y i
    ngtheMonr oeDoct ri
    ne,wasabl etopr evai
    luponNapol eonIIIto
    withdrawhi stroops.Wi thoutthesuppor tofFrenchar ms, t
    hesham empi rei
    nMexi cocol l
    apsed
    l
    ikeahouseofcar dsandt heunhappyMaxi mili
    an, t
    hev i
    cti
    m ofFr enchambi t
    ionandi ntr
    igue,
    methi sdeat hatt hehandsofaMexi canfiri
    ngsquad.
    AlaskaPurchased.
    —TheMexicanaf
    fai
    rhadnotbeenbr
    oughttoacl
    osebef
    oret
    heDepar t
    mentof
    Statewasbusywi t
    hnegot
    iat
    ionswhi
    chresul
    tedi
    nthepur
    chaseofAl
    askaf
    rom Russi
    a.The
    tr
    eatyofcession,
    signedonMar ch30, 1867,addedt ot heUni t
    edSt at
    esadomai nofnear l
    ysixhundr edthousand
    squaremi l
    es,aterri
    toryl
    argerthanTexasandnear lyt
    hree-
    fourt
    hst hesi zeoft heLouisiana
    purchase.Thoughi twasadi st
    antcol onyseparatedfr
    om ourconti
    nent al domai nbya
    thousandmi l
    esofwat er,noquest ionof" i
    mper i
    ali
    sm"or"coloni
    zati
    onf orei
    gnt oAmer ican
    doctri
    nes"seemst ohav ebeenr aisedatt hetime.Thetreat
    ywasr at i
    fi
    edpr ompt l
    ybythe
    Senate.Thepurchasepr i
    ce,$7,200, 000,wasv otedbytheHouseofRepr esentati
    vesaf t
    erthe
    displ
    ayofsomer esentmentagai nstasy stem thatcompell
    edittoappr opr i
    atemoneyt ofulf
    il
    l
    anobligati
    onwhichi thadnopar tinmaki ng.Seward,whoformulatedt het r
    eaty ,
    rejoi
    ced,ashe
    after
    wardssaid,thathehadkeptAl askaoutoft hehandsofEngland.

    Amer i
    canI nt
    eresti
    ntheCar ibbean.
    —Hav i
    ngachiev edt hi
    sdi pl
    omat ictr
    iumph,Sewar dturned
    tot heincreaseofAmer icanpowerinanotherdirection.Henegot iated,wit
    hDenmar k,atreat
    y
    prov i
    dingforthepurchaseoft heisl
    andsofSt.JohnandSt .Thomasi ntheWestI ndies,
    strategicpointsint
    heCar ibbeanforseapower.Thi spr oj
    ect, l
    ongaf t
    erwardbroughtt ofrui
    ti
    on
    byot hermen, wasdef eatedont hi
    soccasionbyt her ef
    usal oftheSenat etorati
    fythet r
    eaty.
    Evidentlyitwasnoty etpreparedtoexerci
    secolonial dominionov erotherraces.

    Undaunt edbyt hemi sadv enturei


    nCaribbeanpol ici
    es, Presi
    dentGr antwarmlyadvocat edthe
    acquisit
    ionofSant oDomi ngo.Thisli
    ttl
    er epubli
    chadl ongbeeni nast at
    eofgeneraldisorder.
    In1869at reatyofannexat ionwasconcl udedwi thitspresident.ThedocumentGr ant
    transmittedt otheSenat ewi t
    hhiscordialapproval,onlytohav eitrej
    ected.Notatallchanged
    i
    nhi sopini onbyt heout comeofhi seffort,hecont i
    nuedt ourgethesubjectofannexation.Even
    i
    nhi slastmessaget oCongr esshereferredtoit,sayingthattimehadonl yprovedthewi sdom
    ofhisear lycour se.Theaddi t
    ionofSantoDomi ngotot heAmer i
    canspher eofprot
    ectionwas
    thewor kofal atergener ati
    on.TheStateDepar tment ,tempor ar
    ilychecked,hadtobidei t
    stime.

    TheAl abamaCl aimsAr bit


    rated. —Indeed, i
    thadi nhandaf armor eser i
    ousmat ter,avexing
    i
    ssuet hatgr ewoutofCi vi
    lWardi plomacy .TheBr i
    tishgov ernment ,asalreadypoi ntedouti n
    otherconnect ions,hadper mittedConf ederatecr uiser s,i
    ncludingt hef amousAl abama, builti
    n
    Briti
    shpor t
    s, t
    oescapeandpr eyupont hecommer ceoft heNor t
    her nstates.Thi saction,
    denouncedatt het i
    mebyourgov ernmentasagr av ebreachofneut ral
    it
    yaswel lasagr ievous
    i
    njurytoAmer icanci t
    izens, l
    edf irsttoremonst rancesandf i
    nal l
    ytor epeat edclaimsf or
    damagesdonet oAmer i
    canshi psandgoods.Foral ongtimeGr eatBr i
    tai
    nwasf i
    rm.Her
    forei
    gnsecr etarydeni edal lobligationsi nthepr emi ses,addingsomewhatcur t
    lythat"he
    wishedt osayoncef orallthatHerMaj esty'
    sgov ernmentdi sclaimedanyr esponsibil
    it
    yf ort he
    l
    ossesandhopedt hatt heyhadmadet heirposi ti
    onper fectl
    ycl ear."Stil
    lPr esi
    dentGr antwas
    notper suadedt hatthedoorofdi pl
    omacy ,thoughcl osed, wasbar r
    ed.Hami l
    tonFish,his
    SecretaryofSt ate,renewedt hedemand.Fi nallyhesecur edfrom t heBr i
    tishgov ernmenti n
    1871t het r
    eatyofWashi ngtonpr ovidi
    ngf orthear bitrat
    ionnotmer elyoftheAl abamaand
    otherclaimsbutal soal l pointsofser i
    ouscont r
    ov er sybet weent het wocount ri
    es.

    Thet ri
    bunalofarbit
    rationthusaut hori
    zedsatatGenev ainSwi tzer
    land,andaf t
    eralongand
    carefulrevi
    ewoft hear gumentsonbot hsi
    desawar dedt otheUni t
    edSt atesthelumpsum of
    $15,500,000tobedi stri
    butedamongt heAmer i
    cancl aimant s.Thedamagest husallowedwer e
    l
    arge, unquest
    ionablylargerthanst r
    ictj
    usti
    cerequir
    edandi tisnotsurpri
    singthatthedecision
    excit
    edmuchadv ersecommenti nEngland.Nevert
    hel ess,thepr omptpay mentbyt heBr i
    ti
    sh
    governmentsweptawayatonceagr eatcl
    oudofill
    -feelinginAmer i
    ca.Mor eover,t
    hespect acl
    e
    oftwopower f
    ulnati
    onschoosi ngthewayofpeacef ul arbit
    rat i
    ontosettleanangr ydispute
    seemedahappy ,ifi
    llusory,omenofamoder nmet hodf orav oi
    dingthearbitr
    amentofwar .

    Samoa.
    —IftheSenatehadit
    sdoubtsatfi
    rstaboutt
    hewisdom ofacqui
    ri
    ngstr
    ategi
    cpointsfor
    nav
    alpowerindi
    stantseas,
    thesamecouldnotbesaidoftheStat
    eDepartmentornavaloff
    icers.
    I
    n1872CommanderMeade, oft
    heUnit
    edSt at
    esnavy,
    ali
    vetotheimport
    anceofcoali
    ngstations
    eveninmid-
    ocean,
    madeacommer
    cial
    agr
    eementwi
    tht
    hechi
    efofTut
    uil
    a,oneoft
    heSamoan
    Isl
    ands,
    farbel
    owthe
    equator,
    inthesouther
    nPacifi
    c,nearert
    oAustral
    i
    at hantoCal
    ifor
    nia.Thi
    sagr
    eement,
    provi
    dingamongot herthi
    ngsforouruseoftheharborofPagoPagoasanav albase,
    wassi
    x
    year
    sl at
    erchangedintoaformaltr
    eatyrat
    if
    iedbytheSenate.

    Suchenterpri
    secoul dnotescapet hevigil
    anteyesofEngl andandGer many ,bot
    hmi ndful ofthe
    courseoftheseapoweri nhi st
    ory.TheGer manemper or,
    seizingasapr etextaquarrelbetween
    hi
    sconsul intheislandsandanat iveki
    ng, l
    aidclai
    mt oani nt
    er esti
    ntheSamoangr oup.Engl and,
    awareofthedanger sari
    singf r
    om Ger manout postsinthesout hernseassoneart oAustralia,was
    notcontenttostandasi de.Soi thappenedt hatall
    t hr
    eecountriessentbattl
    eshi
    pst otheSamoan
    waters,
    threateni
    ngacr i
    sisthatwasf ortunatel
    yav ert
    edbyf r
    iendlysett
    lement.I
    f,asisalleged,
    Germanyent ert
    ainedanot i
    onofchal l
    engingAmer icanseapowert henandt her
    e,thepresenceof
    Bri
    ti
    shshipsmusthav edispell
    edthatdr eam.

    Theresultoftheaffairwasat r
    ipartit
    eagreementbywhi cht hethreepower sin1889undertook
    aprotector
    ateoverthei slands.Butj oi
    ntcontr
    olprovedunsat i
    sfactor
    y .Therewasconstant
    fr
    ict
    ionbetweent heGer mansandt heEngli
    sh.Thespheresofaut hor
    itybeingvagueandopen
    todi
    sput e,
    theplanhadt obeabandonedatt heendoft eny ears.Englandwi t
    hdrewal
    together,
    l
    eavingtoGermanyal lt
    hei sl
    andsexceptTut uil
    a,whichwascededout ri
    ghttotheUnit
    ed
    Stat
    es.Thusoneoft hef i
    nesthar borsinthePacif
    ic,
    tothei ntensedelightoftheAmerican
    navy,passedpermanent lyunderAmer i
    candomini
    on.Anot hertri
    umphi ndipl
    omacywasset
    downt othecreditoftheSt ateDepar tment.

    Clevelandandt heVenezuel aAf f


    air.
    —I ntherelati
    onswi thSout hAmer i
    ca, aswellasi nt hosewi th
    thedistantPacifi
    c, thedi plomacyoft hegov ernmentatWashi ngtonwasputt othet est.Forsome
    ti
    mei thadbeenwat chingadi sputebet weenEngl andandVenezuel aov erthewest ernboundar yof
    Brit
    ishGuianaand, onanappeal from Venezuel a, i
    thadt akenal ivelyinteresti
    nt hecont est.I
    n
    1895Pr esidentClev elandsawt hatGr eatBr i
    tainwoul dyieldnoneofhercl aims.Afterhear i
    ngt he
    argument sofVenez uela, hisSecretaryofSt ate,RichardT.Ol ney, i
    nanot enonet ooconci li
    atory,
    askedt heBriti
    shgov ernmentwhet heri twaswi ll
    ingtoar bit
    ratet hepoi ntsincont r
    ov ersy.This
    i
    nqui r
    yheaccompani edbyawar ningt ot heeffectthattheUni tedSt atescoul dnotper mi tany
    Europeanpowert ocont estitsmast eryi nthi
    shemi sphere."TheUni t
    edSt ates,"sai
    dt heSecr etar
    y,
    "i
    spr acti
    call
    ysov ereignont hiscontinentandi t
    sf i
    atislawupont hesubj ectstowhi chi tconf i
    nes
    i
    tsinterposit
    ion..
    ..Itsinfiniteresources, combinedwi t
    hits
    i
    solat edpositi
    on, renderi tmast eroft hesituationandpr acticallyinvulnerableagai nstany
    orall ot
    herpower s."

    Ther eplyev okedf rom theBr i


    ti
    shgov ernmentbyt hisst rongst at ementwasf ir
    m andcl ear.The
    Monr oeDoct rine, itsaid,eveni fnotsowi delystretchedbyi nter pretation,wasnotbi ndingi n
    i
    nternat i
    onal law; thedisputewi thVenezuel awasamat terofi nt erestmer elytot hepar ti
    es
    i
    nv olved; andar bi t
    rationoft hequest i
    onwasi mpossi ble.Thi sr esponsecal ledfor t
    hPr esident
    Cleveland' sstartlingmessageof1895.HeaskedCongr esst ocr eateacommi ssionaut hor i
    zed
    toascer tainbyr esear chest het rueboundar ybet weenVenezuel aandBr i
    ti
    shGui ana.Headded
    thatitwoul dbet hedut yoft hiscount ry"toresistbyev erymeansi nitspower ,asawi l
    lful
    aggressi onuponi tsr i
    ghtsandi nterests, t
    heappr opr i
    ationbyGr eatBr itai
    nofanyl andsort he
    exerciseofgov ernment alj
    ur i
    sdictionov eranyt err
    itorywhi ch, af terinvesti
    gat i
    on, wehav e
    determi nedofr ightbel ongst oVenezuel a."Theser iouschar act eroft hisstatementhe
    thoroughl yunder stood.Hedecl aredthathewasconsci ousofhi sresponsi bil
    it
    ies,inti
    mat ing
    thatwar ,muchasi twast obedepl ored, wasnotcompar ablet o" asupi nesubmi ssiont owr ong
    andi njusticeandt heconsequentl ossofnat i
    onal self-
    respectandhonor ."
    Gr
    overCl
    evel
    and

    Thenot eofdef iancewhi chr ant hrought hismessage, greetedbyshr il


    l criesofent husiasm in
    manyci rcles, wasv iewedi not herquar t
    er sasapor t
    entofwar .Responsi blenewspaper sin
    bothcount ri
    esspokeofanar medset tl
    ementoft hedisputeasi nevitabl e.Congr esscreat edthe
    commi ssi onandappr opri
    atedmoneyf ort heinvesti
    gati
    on;abodyofl ear nedmenwas
    appoint
    edt odet er mi nethemer itsoftheconf l
    icti
    ngboundar yclaims.TheBr i
    tishgov er nment ,
    deaftothecl amoroft hebel l
    icosesect ionoft heLondonpr ess,deplor edt heinci dent,
    court
    eousl yrepliedi nt heaffi
    rmat i
    vetoar equestforassistanceint hesear chf orev i
    dence, and
    fi
    nall
    yagr eedt ot hepr opositiont hattheissuebesubmi t
    tedtoar bitr
    at i
    on.Theout comeoft his
    somewhatper il
    ousdi sput econt ri
    butednotal itt
    letoClevel
    and'sr eputat ionas" ast erl
    ing
    repr
    esent at i
    veoft het rueAmer i
    canspi ri
    t."Thiswasnotdi minishedwhent het ribunalof
    arbi
    tr
    ationf oundt hatGr eatBr i
    tainwasont hewhol eri
    ghtinhert erri
    tor ialclaimsagai nst
    Venezuel a.

    TheAnnexat i
    onofHawai i
    .—Whileengagedi nthedanger ousVenezuelacontr
    ov ersy,Presi
    dent
    Clev
    elandwascompel ledbyast rangeturninev entstoconsidert
    heannexationoft he
    HawaiianIsl
    andsi
    nt hemid-Pacifi
    c.Formor ethanhal facenturyAmer i
    canmissionarieshad
    beenactiv
    einconv erti
    ngthenat i
    v estotheChristi
    anf ai
    thandenterpr
    isingAmer i
    canbusi ness
    menhadbeendev elopingthefertil
    esugarplantations.BoththeDepartmentofSt at
    eandt he
    NavyDepar t
    mentwer eful
    lyconsci ousoft
    hest rategi
    crelati
    onoftheisl
    andst othegr owthof
    seapowerandwat chedwi thanxi
    et yanydevelopment sli
    kelytobri
    ngthem undersomeot her
    Dominion.

    Thecount ryatlargewasi ndif


    ferent,howev er ,
    until1893, whenar ev ol
    uti
    on, headedby
    Amer i
    cans, br
    okeout ,endingintheov erthr
    owoft henativegov ernment ,t
    heabol i
    tionofthe
    pri
    mitivemonar chy,andther eti
    rementofQueenLi l
    iuokalanitoprivateli
    fe.Thiscrisi
    s,a
    repeti
    ti
    onoft heTexasaf fairi
    nasmal ltheat er,wasi mmedi atel
    yf oll
    owedbyademandf rom
    thenewHawai iangovernmentf orannexat i
    ont otheUni tedSt at
    es.Pr esi
    dentHar ri
    sonlooked
    withfavoront heproposal,negot i
    atedthetr eatyofannexat i
    on,andl aidi
    tbef oretheSenatefor
    approval.Thereitsti
    llr
    estedwhenhi sterm ofof f
    icewasbr oughtt oaclose.

    Harri
    son' ssuccessor ,Cl
    ev el
    and,itwaswel l
    known, haddoubtsaboutthepropri
    etyofAmerican
    acti
    oni nHawai i
    .Forthepur poseofmaki ngani nquiryi
    ntothematter,hesentaspecial
    commi ssionertotheislands.Ont hebasi soft hereportofhi
    sagent,Clevel
    andcamet othe
    conclusiont hat"t
    her evol
    ut i
    oninthei sl
    andki ngdom hadbeenaccompl i
    shedbytheimproper
    useoft hear medf orcesoft heUni tedStatesandt hatthewrongshoul dberi
    ghtedbya
    rest
    orat i
    onoft hequeent oherthrone."Suchbei nghi smaturedconvicti
    on,
    thoughthefact
    s
    uponwhi chher esteditwer ewarml ycontroverted,hecoulddonothingbutwithdrawthetr
    eaty
    from theSenat eandcl oset heincident.

    TotheRepubl
    i
    canst hissharpandcavali
    erdisposaloftheirplans,
    carri
    edoutinawayt hat
    i
    mpugnedthemot ivesofaRepublicanPresi
    dent,wasnot hinglessthan"abetrayalofAmerican
    i
    nter
    est
    s."I
    ntheirplat
    form of1896theymadecl earthei
    rposit i
    on:"
    Ourforei
    gnpol i
    cyshouldbeat
    al
    lti
    mesfir
    m,vigorous,anddigni
    fi
    edandal l
    ourinterestsintheWest er
    nhemi spherecaref
    ully
    watchedandguarded.TheHawaii
    anIslandsshoul
    dbecontr
    oll
    edbyt
    heUni
    tedStat
    esandno
    f
    oreignpowershouldbepermit
    tedtointer
    fer
    ewiththem.
    "Ther
    ewasnomistaki
    ngt
    hisvi
    ewoft
    he
    i
    ssue.Asthevoteintheel
    ecti
    ongave
    popularsanct
    iontoRepubl
    i
    canpoli
    cies,Congressbyajoi
    ntr
    esol
    ution,
    passedonJuly6,1898,
    annexedtheislandstot
    heUni
    tedStatesandlaterconf
    err
    eduponthem theor
    dinar
    yter
    ri
    tori
    al
    for
    m ofgov er
    nment .

    Cubaandt
    heSpani
    shWar

    Ear
    ly American Relat
    ions wit
    h Cuba.—The y
    eart hatbroughtHawai
    ifi
    nall
    y undert he
    Ameri
    canflagl i
    kewi
    sedr ewtoaconclusi
    onanotherlongcontr
    over
    syov
    erasimil
    aroutpost
    i
    ntheAtlantic,oneofthelastremnant
    softheoncegl ori
    ousSpani
    shempi
    re—theisl
    andof
    Cuba.

    Foracent uryt heDepartmentofSt atehadkeptananxi ousey eupont hisbaseofpower ,


    knowingfull wellthatbot
    hFranceandEngl and, alr
    eadywel lestabli
    shedi ntheWestIndies,
    hadtheirattent i
    onalsofi
    xeduponCuba.I nt headmi nistrat
    ionofPr esidentFil
    lmoret
    heyhad
    uni
    tedinpr oposi ngtotheUnit
    edSt at
    esat r
    ipar t
    itetr
    eat yguar anteeingSpai ni
    nhernonet oo
    cert
    ainowner ship.Thi
    sproposal,squarel
    yr ejected,f
    ur ni
    shedt heoccasi onforastat
    ementof
    Amer i
    canpol icywhi chst
    oodthet estofallthey earsthatf oll
    owed; namel y
    ,thatt
    heaffai
    rwas
    onebetweenSpai nandtheUnitedSt at
    esalone.

    Inthatl
    ongcont estintheUni t
    edSt atesforthebal anceofpowerbet weent heNor thandSout h,
    l
    eadersi nthel attersectionof tent houghtofbr ingingCubai ntot heuni ont ooffsetthef reestat es.
    Anoppor tunityt oannouncet heirpur posespubliclywasaf fordedi n1854byacont r
    ov ersyov ert he
    sei
    z ur
    eofanAmer icanshi pbyCubanaut hori
    ti
    es.Ont hatoccasi ont hreeAmer icanmi nisters
    abroad,stati
    onedatMadr id,Paris,andLondonr espect ively,heldaconf erenceandi ssuedt he
    cel
    ebrated" Ost endMani festo."Theyuni t
    edindecl ar i
    ngt hatCuba, byhergeogr aphi cal positi
    on,
    for
    medapar toft heUni tedSt ates, thatpossessi onbyaf oreignpowerwasi nimi caltoAmer i
    can
    i
    nterests,andt hatanef f ortshoul dbemadet opur chaset hei sl
    andf r
    om Spai n.Incaset heowner
    ref
    usedt osel l
    , theyconcl uded, withamenaci ngf l
    ourish, "byev erylaw, humananddi vine,weshal l
    bejusti
    fiedinwr estingitfrom Spai ni fwepossesst hepower .
    "Thi sstartl
    ingprocl amat iont ot he
    worldwaspr ompt l
    ydisownedbyt heUni tedStatesgov ernment .

    Revolut
    ionsi
    nCuba.—Fornear
    lytwent
    yyearsaft
    erwardstheCubanquesti
    onrest
    ed.Theni
    twas
    rev
    ivedinanot
    herfor
    m duri
    ngPresi
    dentGrant
    'sadminist
    rat
    ions,
    whenthenat
    ivesbecame
    engagedinadestr
    ucti
    verevol
    tagai
    nstSpani
    shoffi
    cial
    s.Fortenyear
    s—1868-
    78—aguerri
    ll
    a
    warf
    areragedi
    nt heisl
    and.Americancit
    izens,byvi
    rt
    ueoft
    heiranci
    entt
    radi
    ti
    onsofdemocracy,
    nat
    urall
    ysympathizedwit
    hawarf orindependenceandsel
    f-
    government
    .Expedi
    ti
    onstohel
    pt he
    i
    nsurgentswer
    ef i
    ttedoutsecr
    etl
    yin
    Amer i
    canpor t
    s.Armsandsuppl iesweresmuggl edintoCuba.Ameri
    cansoldiersoffort
    une
    j
    oinedtheirranks.Theenfor
    cementofneut rali
    tyagainstt
    hefri
    endsofCubani ndependence,
    nopleasi
    ngt askforasy mpatheti
    cPresident,
    theprotecti
    onofAmericanli
    vesandpr opert
    yin
    therevol
    utionaryarea,
    andsimilarmatterskeptourgov er
    nmentbusywithCubaf orawhol e
    decade.

    Abr ieflullinCubandi sor der swasf oll


    owedi n1895byar enewal ofther evoluti
    onar y
    mov ement .Thecont estbet weent her ebel sandt heSpani shtroops, mar kedbyext remecr uelty
    andat otal di
    sregardforl ifeandpr oper ty,
    exceededal lboundsofdecency ,andoncemor e
    rai
    sedt heol dquestionst hathadt or ment edGr ant'sadmi nistr
    ation.Gomez, t
    hel eaderoft he
    revolt,intentuponpr ov okingAmer icani nt
    er f
    er ence, l
    ai dwast ethel andwi t
    hf i
    reandswor d.By
    apr oclamat i
    onofNov ember6, 1895, heor deredt hedest ructi
    onofsugarpl antationsand
    rai
    lwayconnect i
    onsandt hecl osureofal lsugarf act ories.Thewor kofr uinwascompl etedby
    ther uthlessSpani shgener al,Wey l
    er ,whoconcent rat edt heinhabi t
    ant sfrom rural r
    egionsi nto
    mili
    tar ycamps, wheret heydi edbyt hehundr edsofdi seaseandst arvati
    on.St ori
    esoft he
    atr
    oci ti
    es, badenoughi nsi mpl efor m, becamel ur
    idwhent r
    ansmut edintoAmer icannewsand
    deepl ymov edthesy mpat hiesoft heAmer icanpeopl e.Ser monswer epr eachedaboutSpani sh
    misdeeds; oratorsdemandedt hattheCubansbesust ained"intheirher oicstrugglef or
    i
    ndependence" ;newspaper s,scout i
    ngt heor dinaryf or msofdi plomat icnegot i
    ati
    on, spurned
    medi ationanddemandedi nterventionandwari fnecessar y.

    Under
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    CubanRev
    olut
    ioni
    sts

    Presi
    dentCleveland'sPolicy.
    —Cl ev elandchoset hewayofpeace.Heor deredt heobservanceofthe
    rul
    eofneut r
    ali
    ty.Hedecl i
    nedt oactonar esoluti
    onofCongr essinfavorofgi vi
    ngtot heCubans
    theri
    ghtsofbelligerent
    s.Anxi oust obr ingor dertot hedist
    ractedisl
    and, hetenderedtoSpainthe
    goodoffi
    cesoft heUni tedStat esasmedi atorinthecont est—atenderr ej
    ectedbyt heSpanish
    governmentwitht hebroadhi ntt hatPr esidentClev elandmightbemor ev i
    gorousinputti
    ngast op
    totheunlawfulaidinmoney ,arms, andsuppl ies,affordedtotheinsurgentsbyAmer i
    can
    sympathizer
    s.Ther eupont hePr esidentr eturnedt othecoursehehadmar kedoutf orhimself
    ,
    l
    eav i
    ng"t
    hepubl icnuisance"t ohi ssuccessor ,PresidentMcKinley.

    Republ i
    canPol i
    cies.
    —TheRepubl i
    cansin1897foundt hemselvesinaposi ti
    ont oemploythat" f
    ir
    m,
    vigorous,anddignifi
    ed"for
    eignpoli
    cywhichtheyhadappr ovedinthei rpl
    atfor
    m.Theyhad
    declared:"Thegov er
    nmentofSpai nhavi
    nglostcontrolofCubaandbei ngunabletoprotectt
    he
    propertyorliv
    esofr esi
    dentAmer i
    canciti
    zensortocompl ywithit
    st reatyobli
    gati
    ons,webelieve
    thatthegov ernmentoftheUnitedStatesshoul
    dact i
    velyuseit
    sinfluenceandgoodof f
    icesto
    restorepeaceandgi veindependencetotheisl
    and."TheAmer i
    canpr oper t
    yinCubat owhicht he
    Republ
    i
    cansr
    eferr
    edinthei
    rplat
    for
    m amount
    edbyt
    hist
    imet
    omor
    ethanf
    if
    tymi
    l
    li
    ondol
    l
    ars;
    the
    commercewi
    ththeisl
    andreachedmoret
    hanone
    hundredmi l
    li
    onsannuall
    y;andtheclai
    msofAmer icanci
    ti
    zensagai
    nstSpainforpr
    operty
    destroy
    edt ot
    aledsixt
    eenmi l
    l
    ions.Tothepleasofhumanitywhichmadesuchanef fect
    ive
    appealtotheheartsoftheAmer i
    canpeople,ther
    ewer et
    husaddedpracti
    calconsi
    derat
    ionsof
    greatweight.

    PresidentMcKi nl
    eyNegot i
    ates.—Int hefaceoft heswel li
    ngtideofpopul aropinioninfavorof
    quick,drastic,andpositi
    veact i
    on, McKinleychosef i
    rstthewayofdi plomacy .Ashor tt
    imeaf t
    er
    hisinaugur ati
    onhel odgedwi t
    ht heSpani shgov ernmentadi gnifi
    edpr otestagainstit
    spolici
    es
    i
    nCuba, thusopeni ngagameoft hrustandpar rywi ththesuav emi nistersatMadr i
    d.The
    resultsoftheexchangeofnot eswer etherecalloft heobnoxi ousGener alWeyler,t
    he
    appointmentofagov er
    nor-general l
    essbloodthirstyinhi smet hods,achangei nthepoli
    cyof
    concent r
    atingci v
    il
    iansinmi l
    i
    tarycamps, andfinallyapr omiseof" homer ule"f
    orCuba.Ther eis
    nodoubtt hattheSpanishgov ernmentwaseagert oav oidawart hatcoul dhav ebutone
    outcome.TheAmer i
    canmi ni
    steratMadr i
    d,Gener al Woodford, wasconv i
    ncedt hatfi
    rm and
    patientpressur ewouldhaver esultedinthefinal surrenderofCubabyt heSpani shgovernment.

    TheDeLomeandt heMai neInci


    dents.
    —Suchapol icywasdef eat
    edbyev ents.InFebr uary,
    1898,a
    pri
    vatelet
    terwr it
    tenbySeñordeLome, theSpanishambassadoratWashi ngton,expressing
    contemptf ort hePr esidentoftheUnitedStat
    es,wasf i
    lchedfrom themai l
    sandpassedi ntothe
    handsofaj ournalist,Will
    iam R.Hearst,
    whopubl i
    shedittothewor ld.I
    ntheexci tedst ateof
    Amer i
    canopi nion,fewgav eheedtothegravebreachofdi pl
    omaticcourtesycommi ttedby
    breaki
    ngopenpr ivatecorrespondence.TheSpanishgov ernmentwascompel l
    edt orecallDeLome,
    thusoffi
    ciallycondemni nghi sconduct.

    Atthispointaf armor eseri


    ouscr i
    sisputthepacificrel
    ati
    onsoft het wonegoti
    atingcount r
    ies
    i
    ndi reperil
    .OnFebr uary15,thebattl pMai
    eshi ne,ri
    dingi
    nt heharborofHav ana,wasbl ownup
    andsunk, carryi
    ngtodeat htwoof fi
    cersandt wohundr edandf if
    ty-
    eightmember soft hecrew.
    Thist r
    agedy,ascri
    bedbyt heAmer i
    canpubl i
    ctothemal evolenceofSpanishof f
    icial
    s,
    profoundlystir
    redanal r
    eadyf ur
    iousnat i
    on.When, onMar ch21, acommi ssi
    onofi nquiry
    reportedthattheil
    l-
    fatedshiphadbeenbl ownupbyasubmar i
    nemi newhichhadi nturnset
    offsomeoft heship'smagazines,thewor stsuspici
    onsseemedconf i
    rmed.I
    fanyonewas
    i
    nclinedtobei ndif
    ferenttotheCubanwarf orindependence, hewasnowmetbyt hev ehement
    cry:"Remembert heMai ne!"

    Spani shConcessi ons.—Stil


    ltheSt at
    eDepar tment ,underMcKi nley
    'ssteadyhand, pursuedt he
    pathofnegot i
    at i
    on, Spainprov i
    ngmor epliableandmor ereadywithpromi sesofr eformi nthe
    i
    sland.Ear lyinApr il
    ,howev er,therecameadeci dedchangei nthetenorofAmer icandi plomacy.
    Ont he4t h,McKi nley,evidentl
    yconv incedt hatpromi sesdi dnotmeanper formances, i
    nstruct
    ed
    ourmi nisteratMadr idtowar nt heSpani shgov ernmentt hatasnoef f
    ectivearmi st i
    cehadbeen
    offeredt otheCubans, hewoul dlaythewhol emat terbef oreCongress.Thisdeci sion, everyone
    knew, from thet emperofCongr ess,meantwar —apr ospectwhichexci t
    edal ltheEur opean
    power s.ThePopet ookanact iveint
    erestint hecr i
    sis.FranceandGer many ,f
    or eseeingf rom
    l
    ongexper iencei nwor l
    dpol i
    ticsani ncreaseofAmer icanpowerandpr esti
    get hroughwar ,
    soughtt opr eventi t
    .Spain,hopel essandconsci ousofherweakness, atlastdispat chedt othe
    Presidentanot epr omisingtosuspendhost il
    it
    ies,tocal laCubanpar l
    iament ,andt ogr antall
    theaut onomyt hatcoul dbereasonabl yasked.

    Presi
    dentMcKi nleyCallsforWar .
    —Forr easonsofhi sown—r easonswhi chhav enevery etbeen
    ful
    lyexplai
    ned—McKi nleyignoredt hefi
    nal pr
    ogram ofconcessi
    onspr esentedbySpai n.Atthe
    verymomentwhenhi spatientnegotiat
    ionsseemedt obearfullf
    ruit,
    hev eeredsharplyfrom
    hiscourseandl aunchedthecount ryint
    ot hewarbysendingt oCongr esshismi l
    it
    antmessage
    ofApril11,1898.Wi t
    houtmaki ngpubl i
    ct helastnotehehadr ecei
    v edfrom Spain,hedeclared
    thathewasbr oughtt otheendofhi seffortandthecausewasi nt hehandsofCongr ess.
    Humani ty,
    thepr ot
    ecti
    onofAmer icancitizensandpr oper
    ty,t
    heinjuri
    est oAmer i
    can
    commer ceandbusiness,
    theinabi
    li
    tyofSpaint
    obringaboutper
    manentpeaceinthe
    i
    sland—thesewerethegroundsforacti
    onthati
    nducedhimtoaskforauthor
    it
    ytoemploy
    mili
    tar
    yandnav al
    forcesi
    nestabli
    shingastabl
    egov er
    nmentinCuba.Theyweresuf
    fi
    cientf
    or
    apubli
    calready
    st
    rai
    ningatt
    hel
    eash.

    TheResol utionofCongr ess. —Ther ewasnodoubtoft heoutcomewhent hei ssuewas


    wi thdrawnf rom dipl
    omacyandpl acedinchar geofCongr ess.Resol uti
    onswer esoon
    i
    nt roducedi ntotheHouseofRepr esentativesaut hor i
    zingthePr esi
    dentt oempl oyar medf orce
    i
    nsecur i
    ngpeaceandor derint heislandand" establishingbyt hefreeact ionoft hepeopl e
    ther eofast ableandindependentgov ernmentoft hei rown. "Tothef orm andspi ritoft his
    pr oposal theDemocr atsandPopul iststookexcept i
    on.I ntheSenat e,wher etheywer est ronger,
    thei rpositi
    onhadt ober eckonedwi thbyt henar r
    owRepubl i
    canmaj orit
    y.Ast her esol uti
    on
    finallyread,theindependenceofCubawasr ecogni zed; Spainwascal ledupont or eli
    nquishher
    aut horityandwi t
    hdrawf r om theisland; andthePr esidentwasempower edt ousef orcetot he
    ext entnecessar ytocarryt her esoluti
    onsi ntoeffect .FurthermoretheUni tedSt atesdi scl
    aimed
    "anydi sposi t
    ionorint
    ent iontoexer ci
    sesov ereignt y,j
    ur i
    sdicti
    on,orcont rol oversai di sl
    and
    exceptf orthepacifi
    cationt hereof."Finalactionwast akenbyCongr essonApr il19, 1898, and
    appr ovedbyt hePresidentont hef oll
    owingday .

    WarandVi ctor y.
    —St artl
    ingeventsthenfoll
    owedinswi ftsuccession.Thenav y,asaresulti
    nno
    smallmeasur eoft healert
    nessofTheodor eRoosev el
    t,AssistantSecretaryoft heDepartment,
    wasreadyf ort het ri
    albybattl
    e.OnMay1, Commodor eDeweyatMani l
    aBayshat t
    eredthe
    Spani
    shf l
    eet ,mar kingthedoom ofSpani shdominionint hePhili
    ppines.OnJul y3,t
    heSpani sh
    fl
    eetunderAdmi r
    al Cerver
    a,i
    nat t
    empt i
    ngtoescapef rom Hav ana,wasut t
    erl
    ydest r
    oyedby
    Americanfor cesunderCommodor eSchley.OnJuly17, Sant i
    ago,investedbyAmer i
    cant r
    oops
    underGener al ShafterandshelledbytheAmer i
    canshi ps,gaveupt hest ruggle.OnJuly25
    GeneralMil
    esl andedi nPortoRico.OnAugust13, Gener alMer r
    it
    tandAdmi ralDeweycar ri
    ed
    Manil
    abyst or m.Thewarwasov er
    .

    ThePeacePr otocol.
    —Spai nhadalr
    eadyt akencogni zanceofsternfact
    s.Asearl
    yasJul y26,
    1898, acti
    ngt hr
    ought heFrenchambassador ,M.Cambon, theMadri
    dgov er
    nmentapproached
    PresidentMcKi nl
    eyforast atementofthet er
    msonwhi chhosti
    li
    ti
    escouldbebroughttoa
    close.Af t
    ersomeski rmishingSpai
    nyieldedreluctantlytotheult
    imatum.OnAugust12, the
    preli
    mi narypeaceprotocolwassigned,stipul
    atingthatCubashoul dbefree,Por
    toRicoceded
    totheUni tedStates,andMani l
    aoccupiedbyAmer icant r
    oopspendingtheformalt
    reatyof
    peace.OnOct ober1, t
    hecommi ssi
    onersoft het wocount ri
    esmetatPar i
    stobri
    ngaboutt he
    fi
    nal settl
    ement.

    PeaceNegot i
    ati
    ons.—Whent hedayforthefi
    rstsessi
    onoftheconf erencear ri
    ved, the
    governmentatWashi ngt
    onapparentl
    yhadnotmadeupi tsmindont hef inaldisposi t
    ionoft
    he
    Phil
    ippi
    nes.Perhaps,bef
    orethebatt
    leofMani l
    aBay ,
    nottenthousandpeopl ei nt heUni t
    ed
    Stat
    eskneworcar edwherethePhil
    i
    ppineswer e.Cer
    tai
    nlyt
    herewasi ntheaut umnof1898no
    deci
    dedopi ni
    onast owhatshouldbedonewi ththefrui
    tsofDewey '
    sv ict
    ory.Pr esident
    McKi nl
    eydoubtl
    essv oi
    cedthesenti
    mentoft hepeoplewhenhest atedt othepeace
    commi ssi
    onersont heeveofthei
    rdepartur
    ethattherehadori
    ginal
    lybeennot houghtof
    conquestinthePacifi
    c.

    Themar chofev ent s,headded, hadi mposednewdut iesont hecountry."


    Inci
    dent alt
    oour
    tenureint hePhil
    ippi nes,"hesai d,"i
    st hecommer cial opportunit
    ytowhi chAmer ican
    statesmanshi pcannotbei ndif
    ferent.Itisj
    ustt ouseev er
    ylegiti
    mat emeansf orthe
    enlargementofAmer icantrade."Ont hisgroundhedi rect
    edt hecommi ssionerstoacceptnot
    l
    esst hant hecessi onoft heisl
    andofLuzon, t
    hechi efofthePhi li
    ppinegroup,withitsharborof
    Mani l
    a.Itwasnotunt ilthelatt
    erpar tofOct oberthathedef init
    elyinst
    ructedthem todemand
    theent i
    rearchipelago, onthetheor ythattheoccupat ionofLuzonal onecouldnotbej ust
    if
    ied
    "onpol i
    ti
    cal,commer cial,
    orhumani t
    ar i
    angrounds."Thi sdepar t
    urefrom thelet
    teroft hepeace
    protocol wasbitterlyr esentedbyt heSpani shagent s.Itwaswi thheav i
    nessofhear tthatthey
    sur
    render
    edt
    hel
    astsi
    gnofSpai
    n'
    sanci
    entdomi
    nioni
    nthef
    arPaci
    fi
    c.

    TheFi nalTer
    msofPeace.—Thetr
    eatyofpeace,
    asf i
    nall
    yagreedupon,
    embr acedt
    hefol
    lowing
    terms:
    theindependenceofCuba;t
    hecessi
    onofPortoRico,Guam,andthePhil
    ippi
    nestotheUnit
    ed
    States;the
    sett
    lementofclaimsf i
    l
    edbyt heci t
    izensofbothcount r
    ies;t
    hepay mentoftwentymill
    i
    on
    doll
    arstoSpainbyt heUnitedStatesf ort
    hePhil
    ippines;andthedeterminati
    onofthestat
    usof
    theinhabi
    tant
    soft hecededt er
    rit
    oriesbyCongr ess.Thegreatdecisi
    onhadbeenmade.I ts
    i
    ssuewasi nthehandsoft heSenatewher etheDemocr at
    sandt hePopulist
    shel
    dt hebal
    ance
    ofpowerundert herequir
    ementoft hetwo-t
    hir
    dsv oteforrat
    ifi
    cati
    on.

    TheCont estinAmer i
    caov ertheTr eatyofPeace. —Thepubl icationoft het r
    eatycommi tt
    ingt he
    UnitedSt atest otheadmi ni str
    ati
    onofdi stantcol oni
    esdi rectedt heshi f
    tingtidesofpubl icopi nion
    i
    nt otwodi stinctchannels: suppor tofthepol icyandopposi ti
    ont oit.Thet rendinRepubl ican
    l
    eader ship,longi nthedirect i
    onmar kedoutbyt hetreaty
    , nowcamei ntot heopen.Per hapsa
    maj ori
    tyoft hemenhi ghesti nthecounci l
    soft hatpar tyhadunder gonet hechangeofhear t
    refl
    ectedi nthel ett
    ersofJohnHay ,SecretaryofSt ate.InAugustof1898hehadhi nted,inaf riendl
    y
    l
    et t
    ertoAndr ewCar negie, thathesy mpat hizedwi t
    ht helatter'sopposi t
    iont o"imperiali
    sm" ;buthe
    hadaddedqui ckly:"
    Theonl yquest i
    oni nmymi ndishowf ari tisnowpossi bleforust owi thdraw
    from thePhi li
    ppines."InNov emberoft hesamey earhewr otet oWhi tel
    awRei d,oneoft hepeace
    commi ssionersatPar is:"
    Ther eisawi ldandf rant i
    cat t
    acknowgoi ngoni nthepr essagai nstt he
    whol ePhi l
    ippinetransaction.Andr ewCar negier eall
    yseemst obeof fhishead. .
    ..
    Butal lthisconf usionoft ongueswi l
    lgoi tsway .Thecount rywillapplaudt her esoluti
    ont hat
    hasbeenr eachedandy ouwi l
    lreturnint her ôleofconquer ingher oeswi thy our'brows
    boundwi thoak. '"

    Senat orBev eri


    dgeofI ndianaandSenat orPlattofConnect i
    cut,accepti
    ngthev erdi
    ctofhi story
    asthepr oofofmani festdest i
    ny ,
    call
    edforunquestioningsupportoftheadmi nistr
    ationini ts
    fi
    nalst ep."Everyexpansi onofourt err
    it
    ory,
    "saidthelatter,
    "hasbeeni naccordancewi ththe
    i
    rresistibl
    el awofgr owth.Wecoul dnomor eresistthesuccessiveexpansionsbywhi chwe
    havegr ownt obet hestrongestnat i
    ononear t
    ht hanat reecanresisti
    tsgrowth.Thehi stor yof
    terr
    it
    or i
    al expansionisthehi storyofournati
    on'sprogressandgl ory.I
    tisamat tertobepr oud
    of,nott olament .Weshoul dr ejoi
    cethatProvi
    dencehasgi venust heopport
    unitytoex tendour
    i
    nfluence, ourinstit
    uti
    ons, andourci vi
    li
    zati
    onintoregionshithert
    oclosedtous, ratherthan
    contrivehowwecant hwartitsdesigns."

    Thisdoct r
    inewassav agel yat t
    ackedbyopponent sofMcKi nley'spol icy ,manyast anch
    Republ icanjoiningwi tht hemaj ori
    tyofDemocr atsindenounci ngt het reatyasadepar turefrom
    theideal soft her epubl i
    c.Senat orVesti ntroducedi ntheSenat ear esol uti
    ont hat"underthe
    Const it
    utionoft heUni tedSt ates,nopoweri sgi ventot hef eder al Gov ernmentt oacquire
    terr
    itorytobehel dandgov er nedper manent lyascol onies."Senat orHoar , ofMassachuset t
    s,
    whosel ongandhonor abl ecar eergav ewei ghtt ohisli
    ght estwor ds, i
    nv eighedagai nstthewhol e
    procedur eandt ot heendofhi sday sbelievedt hatthenewdr iftint or ivalrywi t
    hEur opean
    nationsasacol onialpowerwasf raughtwi thgenui nedanger ."Ouri mper iali
    sti
    cf r
    iends,"hesaid,
    "seem t ohav ef orgottent heuseoft hev ocabul aryofliberty.Theyt alkaboutgi vi
    nggood
    gover nment .'Weshal lgivet hem suchagov ernmentaswet hinkt heyar ef it
    tedfor.''
    Weshal l
    givet hem abet t
    ergov ernmentt hantheyhadbef ore.
    'Why ,Mr .Pr esi dent ,thatonephr ase
    conv eyst oaf reemanandaf r
    eepeopl et hemostst i
    ngi ngofi nsul t
    s.I nt hatlitt
    lephrase, asina
    seed, iscontai nedt heger m ofal ldespot i
    sm andofal lty r
    anny .Gov ernmenti snotagi f
    t.Free
    gover nmenti snott obegi venbyal l
    thebl endedpower sofear t
    handheav en.I
    tisabi rt
    hright.I
    t
    belongs, asourf atherssai d, andast hei
    rchi ldrensaid, asJef fersonsai d,andasPr esi
    dent
    McKi nleysai d,tohumannat ureitself
    ."

    TheSenat e,moreconservativeont hequestionofannexati


    ont hantheHouseofRepr esentati
    ves
    composedofmenf r
    eshl
    yel ectedinthest i
    rr
    ingcampaignof1896, wasdel i
    berat
    eaboutr ati
    fi
    cat
    ion
    ofthetr
    eat y
    .TheDemocr atsandPopul i
    st swereespeci
    all
    yrecalcit
    rant.Mr.Br
    yanhurriedto
    Washingtonandbr oughthisper sonali
    nfluencetobearinfavorofspeedyact i
    on.Pat
    rioti
    sm
    requi
    redrati
    ficat
    ion,
    itwassai di nonequar t
    er.Thecountr
    ydesi r
    espeaceandt heSenat eoughtnot
    todelay
    ,itwasur gedinanot her.Fi
    nall
    y,onFebr uar
    y6,1899,therequisit
    emajori
    tyoftwo-thir
    ds
    wasmustered,
    manyaSenat orwhov ot
    edf ort
    hetreaty,
    however
    ,shari
    ngthemisgi
    vi
    ngsofSenat
    or
    Hoarastothe"dangersofi
    mper i
    ali
    sm."Indeedatthetime,
    theSenator
    spassedaresol
    uti
    on
    decl
    ari
    ngthatt
    hepol i
    cytobeadoptedint hePhil
    i
    ppineswasstil
    lanopenquest
    ion,
    leav
    ingtot
    he
    fut
    ure,
    inthi
    sway ,t
    hepossibil
    i
    tyofretr
    acingthei
    rsteps.
    TheAt ti
    tudeofEngl and.—TheSpani shwar ,
    whi l
    eaccompl ishi
    ngt hesimpl eobjectsofthose
    whol aunchedt henat i
    onont hatcour se,l
    ikeallotherwar s,producedr esultswholly
    unforeseen.Inthef i
    rstplace,itexerci
    sedapr ofoundi nfluenceont hedr i
    ftofopinionamong
    Europeanpower s.I
    nEngl and, sympat hywit
    ht heUnitedSt ateswasf rom thef i
    rstpositi
    veand
    outspoken."Thest ateoff eel
    ingher e,
    "wroteMr .Hay ,thenambassadori nLondon, "
    isthebest
    Ihaveev erknown.Fr om ev er
    yquar t
    ertheevidencesofi tcomet ome.Ther oy
    alfami l
    yby
    habitandt r
    adit
    ionar emostcar efulnottobreakther ulesofst ri
    ctneutrali
    ty,butevenamong
    them Ifindnothingbuthear tykindnessand—sof arasi sconsi st
    entwi thpropriet
    y—sy mpathy.
    Amongt hepoli
    t i
    calleadersonbot hsidesIfi
    ndnotonl ysy mpathybutasomewhateager
    desirethat'
    theot herfell
    ows' shallnotseem mor efri
    endl y."

    JosephChamber lai
    n,t hedi sti
    nguishedLi beralst at
    esman,t hinkingnodoubtoft hecont i
    nent al
    sit
    uat i
    on,sai di napol iti
    caladdr essatt hev eryopeni ng oft hewart hatt henextdut yof
    Engl i
    shmen" ist oest ablishandmai ntai
    nbondsofper manentuni tywi t
    hourki nsmenacr osst he
    Atlanti
    c. .
    ..Iev engosof arast osay
    that,terribleaswarmaybe, evenwarwoul dbecheapl ypur chasedi f,i
    nagr eatandnobl e
    cause, t
    heSt arsandSt ri
    pesandt heUnionJackshoul dwav etogetherov eranAngl o-Saxon
    all
    iance. "Tot heAmer i
    canambassadorheaddedsi gnificantlythathedi dnot" careahang
    whatt heysayabouti tont hecont i
    nent,
    "whi chwasanot herwayofexpr essingt hehopet hat
    thewar ningt oGer manyandFr ancewassuf fi
    ci ent
    .Thi sfri
    endlyEngl ishopi nion,sousef ulto
    theUni t
    edSt ateswhenacombi nati
    onofpower stosuppor tSpainwasmor ethanpossi ble,
    remov edal lfear sast ot heconsequencesoft hewar .HenryAdams, recalli
    ngday sof
    humi li
    at i
    oni nLondondur ingt heCivilWar ,whenhi sf atherwast heAmer i
    canambassador ,
    cool l
    yr emar kedt hatitwas" thesuddenappear anceofGer manyast hegr i
    zzlyterr
    or"that
    "fr
    ightenedEngl andi nt oAmer ica'
    sarms" ;butt henetr esultinkeepi ngt hef i
    eldf r
    eeforan
    easyt riumphofAmer icanar mswasnonet hel essappr eciatedi nWashi ngtonwher e,despi t
    e
    out war dcal m, fearsofEur opeancompl icationswer enev erabsent .

    Amer
    icanPol
    i
    ciesi
    nthePhi
    l
    ippi
    nesandt
    heOr
    ient

    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    APhi
    l
    ippi
    neHome

    TheFi l
    i
    pinoRev oltagainstAmer i
    canRule.
    —Inthespher eofdomest icpolit
    ics,aswel lasint hefi
    eld
    offorei
    gnr elati
    ons,theoutcomeoft heSpanishwarexer cisedamar kedinfluence.Itint
    roducedat
    oncepr oblemsofcol onialadmini
    str
    ati
    onanddi f
    ficulti
    esi nadj ust
    ingtrader el
    ati
    onswi t
    ht he
    outl
    yingdomi ni
    ons.Thesewer efurt
    hermorecompl icatedi nthev erybeginningbyt heout breakof
    aninsurrecti
    onagai nstAmer i
    cansoverei
    gntyinthePhi li
    ppi nes.Theleaderoft herev olt
    ,Agui nal
    do,
    hadbeeni nvitedtojointheAmer i
    canforcesinoverthrowi ngSpani shdomi nion,andhehad
    assumed,
    appar
    entlywit
    houtwarr
    ant
    ,thati
    ndependencewoul
    dbet
    her
    esul
    toft
    hej
    ointoper
    ati
    ons.
    Whenthenewsreachedhimthatt
    he
    Amer i
    canf l
    aghadbeensubst it
    utedfortheSpani shflag, hi
    sr esentmentwaskeen.I nFebr uary,
    1899,thereoccur redasl ightcoll
    isi
    onbet weenhi smenandsomeAmer i
    cansol diers.Theconf l
    ict
    thusbegunwasf oll
    owedbyser i
    ousf i
    ghti
    ngwhi chf i
    nal l
    ydwi ndledintoav exati
    ousguer ri
    ll
    a
    warfarelasti
    ngthr eey earsandcost ingheavilyinmenandmoney .Atrocit
    ieswer ecommi ttedby
    thenativ
    ei nsurr
    ect i
    onistsand, sadtor el
    ate,theywer er epaidinkind; i
    twasar guedi ndef enseof
    thearmyt hattheor dinaryrulesofwar far
    ewer ewithoutt errortomenaccust omedt ofightingli
    ke
    savages.Inv ai
    ndi dMcKi nl
    eyassur etheFili
    pinosthatt hei nsti
    tuti
    onsandl awsest ablishedi nthe
    i
    slandswoul dbedesi gned" notforoursatisfacti
    onorf ortheex pressionofourt heoreticalv i
    ews,
    butforthehappi ness, peace, andprosperi
    tyoft hepeopl eoft hePhi l
    ippineI sl
    ands."Not hi
    ngshor t
    ofmi l
    i
    tarypressur ecoul dbringthewar ri
    ngrev olut
    ioniststot erms.

    AttacksonRepubl ican" Imperialism. "


    —TheFi li
    pinoi nsur rect i
    on, fol
    lowi ngsoqui ckl yupont he
    rati
    fi
    cat i
    onoft het r
    eat ywithSpai n,mov edt heAmer icanopponent sofMcKi nley 'scol onialpoli
    cies
    toredoubl et heirdenunci ationofwhatt heywer epl easedt ocal l"i
    mper iali
    sm."Senat orHoarwas
    mor ethanusual lycaust icinhi sindictmentoft henewcour se.Ther ev oltagainstAmer icanruledid
    butconv i
    ncehi m oft hef oll
    yhi ddeni nthef irstfateful measur es.Ev erywher ehesawaconspi racy
    ofsilenceandi njustice."Ihavef ail
    edtodi scov erint hespeeches, publ icorpriv at e,oft he
    advocat esoft hiswar ,
    "hecont endedi nt heSenat e,"ori nthepr esswhi chsuppor t sitandt hem, a
    singl
    eexpr essionany wher eofadesi retodoj ust i
    cet ot hepeopl eoft hePhi li
    ppi neI slands,orofa
    desiretomakeknownt othepeopl eoftheUni tedSt atest het ruthoft hecase. ...Thecat chwor ds,
    thecr i
    es, t
    hepi thyandpr egnantphr asesofwhi cht heir
    speechi sfull,allmeandomi nion.Theymeanper pet ual domi nion. ..
    .Ther ei snotoneoft hese
    gentlemen
    whowi llri
    sei nhi spl aceandaf fi
    rmt hati fhewer eaFi l
    ipinohewoul dnotdoexact l
    yast he
    Fili
    pinosar edoi ng;thathewoul dnotdespi set hem i ft heywer et odoot herwi se.Somuchat
    l
    eastt heyoweofr espectt ot hedeadandbur iedhi story—t hedeadandbur iedhi st orysof aras
    theycansl ayandbur yi t
    —oft heircount ry."Int hewayofpr actical suggest ions, t
    heSenat or
    offeredasasol ut i
    onoft hepr obl em: t
    her ecogni tionofi ndependence, assist ancei n
    establishingsel f -
    gov ernment ,andani nv itati
    ont oal lpower st oj oini naguar ant eeoff r
    eedom
    tothei slands.

    TheRepubl i
    canAnswer .—ToMcKi nl
    eyandhi ssuppor t
    er s, engagedinasangui naryst rugglet
    o
    mai ntainAmer i
    cansupr emacy ,
    suchtalkwasmor ethanqui xoti
    c;i
    twasscar celyshor tof
    treasonabl e.Theypoi ntedoutt hepracticalobstacl esint hewayofuni f
    orm self
    -gov ernment
    foracol l
    ectionofsev enmi l
    li
    onpeopler anginginci vil
    izat ionf r
    om themosti gnoranthi ll
    men
    tot hehi ghlycul t
    ivat
    edi nhabitantsofMani l
    a.Thei ncident soft herevol
    tandi t
    srepr ession,
    theyadmi tted, werepainf ulenough;butst il
    lnothingascompar edwiththechaost hatwoul d
    foll
    owt heat temptofapeopl ewhohadnev erhadexper iencei nsuchmat terstosetupand
    sust aindemocr aticinsti
    tutions.Theypref err
    edr athert hegr adualprocessoffit
    tingt he
    i
    nhabi t
    antsoft heislandsf orself-
    government .Thi scour se, i
    ntheireyes,t
    houghl esspoet i
    c,
    wasmor ei nhar monywi ththeidealsofhumani ty.Hav ingsetoutuponi t,
    theypur suedi t
    steadf astlytot heend.Fi rst,t
    heyappliedf orcewi thoutst i
    ntt othesuppressionoft her evol
    t.
    Thent heydev otedsuchgeni usforcolonialadmi nistrationast heycouldcommandt ot he
    dev elopmentofci v i
    lgov ernment,commer ce,andi ndust r y.

    TheBoxerRebel l
    i
    oni nChi na.
    —Foranat ionwithawor ld-widet r
    ade, st eadil
    ygr owing, ast he
    progressofhomei ndust r
    iesredoubl edt hezealfornewmar kets, i
    sol ationwasobv iously
    i
    mpossi ble.Nev erwast hiscl
    ear erthani n1900whenanat i
    v erev oltagai nstforeignersi nChina,
    knownast heBoxerupr ising,compel ledt heUnit
    edSt atest oj oi
    nwi tht hepower sofEur opei na
    mili
    taryexpedi t
    ionandadi pl
    omat icset t
    lement.TheBoxer s, aChi neseassoci ation,hadf or
    somet imecar r
    iedonacampai gnofhat redagainstallaliensi nt heCel esti
    alempi re,calli
    ng
    upont henat i
    vest oriseinpat ri
    oticwr athanddr i
    v eoutthef oreigner swho, t
    heysai d,"wer e
    l
    aceratingChi naliketigers."I
    nt hesummerof1900t her evol tfl
    amedupi ndeedsofcr uelty.
    Missionariesandt r
    aderswer emur der edintheprovinces; foreignl egat ionswer estoned; the
    Germanambassador,oneofthemostcor
    diall
    ydespisedfor
    eigner
    s, waskil
    ledinthestr
    eetsof
    Peki
    ng;andtoal
    lappearancesaf
    ri
    ghtf
    ulwarofext er
    minati
    onhadbegun.I nthemont hofJune
    near
    lyf
    ivehundr
    edmen, women,andchil
    dren,r
    epresenti
    ngallnat
    ions,werebesiegedinthe
    Bri
    ti
    shquart
    ersi
    nPekingunderconst
    antfi
    reofChinesegunsandi nperil
    ofat err
    ibl
    edeath.
    I
    nt ervent i
    oninChi na.—Not hi
    ngbutt hear ri
    val ofarmedf or ces,madeupofJapanese, Russian,
    Briti
    sh, Amer ican, French, andGer mansol diersandmar i
    nes, preventedthedestruct
    ionofthe
    beleaguer edal i
    ens.Whenoncet hef oreignt roopswer einpossessi onoftheChinesecapital,
    diplomat i
    cquest i
    onsoft hemostdel icatechar acterarose.Formor ethanhalfacentury,t
    he
    i
    mper ialpower sofEur opehadbeencar vi
    ngupt heChi neseempi re,t
    akingtothemselvesterr
    itor
    y,
    rail
    wayconcessi ons, mi ningrights,ports, andcommer ci
    al pri
    vil
    egesatt heexpenseoft hehuge
    buthel plessv ictim.TheUni t
    edSt atesal oneamongt hegr eatnations,whileaszealousasanyi n
    thepur suitofpeacef ultrade,hadr efrainedf rom seizingChi neset er
    rit
    oryorports.Moreover,t
    he
    Depar tmentofSt atehadbeenur gingEur opeancount ri
    est otreatChinawi t
    hfair
    ness,torespect
    hert errit
    orialintegri
    ty ,
    andt ogiveherequal tradingprivi
    legeswi t
    hal lnati
    ons.

    TheAmer i
    canPol i
    cyofthe" OpenDoor .
    "—Intheaut umnof1899, SecretaryHayhadaddr essed
    toLondon, Berli
    n,Rome,Paris,Tokyo,andSt.Pet er
    sburghisf amousnot eonthe" opendoor "
    policyinChi na.Inthi
    sdocumenthepr oposedt hatexi
    stingtreatyport
    sandv estedinterestsof
    thesev er
    alforei
    gncountriesshouldber espected;t
    hatt heChinesegov ernmentshoul dbe
    permi ttedtoextenditst
    ariff
    st oallport
    sheldbyal i
    enpower sexceptthef ewfreepor ts;and
    thatt hereshouldbenodi scriminat
    ioninrail
    wayandpor tchargesamongt hecitizensof
    foreigncount ri
    esoperat
    ingi ntheempi r
    e.Tot heseprincipl
    est hegovernment saddr essedby
    Mr .Hay ,fi
    nall
    yaccededwi thev i
    dentrel
    uctance.

    Amer
    icanDomi
    nionsi
    nthePaci
    fi
    c

    Onthisbasishet henpr oposedtheset t


    lementthathadt ofoll
    owt heBoxerupr i
    sing."Thepol i
    cyof
    theGovernmentoft heUnitedStates,
    "hesaidtot hegr eatpower s,i
    nt hesummerof1900, "i
    sto
    seekasol ut
    ionwhi chmaybr i
    ngaboutper manentsaf etyandpeacet oChi na, preserveChi nese
    ter
    ri
    tori
    alandadmi ni st
    rat
    iveenti
    ty,prot
    ectallr
    ightsguar anteedt ofr
    iendl ypower sbyt reatyand
    i
    nternat
    ionallaw,andsaf eguardforthewor l
    dthepr i
    nci pl
    eofequal andi mpar ti
    altradewi thall
    part
    soft heChineseempi r
    e."Thiswasaf ri
    endlywar ningtot heworldt hatt heUni t
    edSt ateswould
    notjoi
    ninascr ambl etopunishtheChi nesebycar vi
    ngoutmor eter
    ri
    tor y."Themomentweact ed,
    "
    sai
    dMr
    .Hay
    ,"t
    her
    estoft
    hewor
    ld
    pausedandfi
    nal
    lycameov ert
    oourgr
    ound;andt
    heGermangovernment
    , whi
    chi
    sgener
    all
    y
    brut
    albutsel
    dom si
    l
    ly,
    recover
    edi
    tssenses,
    andcl
    imbeddownoffit
    sperch."

    Intakingt hisposi ti
    on, t
    heSecr et
    aryofSt atedi dbutr efl
    ectthecommonsenseofAmer i
    ca.
    "Wear e, ofcour se,"heexpl ai
    ned, "opposedt ot hedi smember mentoft hatempi reandwedo
    notthinkt hatt hepubl icopinionoft heUni tedSt ateswoul djusti
    fythi
    sgov ernmenti ntaking
    partint hegr eatgameofspol iati
    onnowgoi ngon. "Heav ydamageswer ecollectedbyt he
    Europeanpower sfrom Chinaf orthei nj
    uriesi nflictedupontheirciti
    zensbyt heBoxer s;butthe
    UnitedSt ates, fi
    ndingt hesum awar dedinexcessoft helegiti
    mateclaims, r
    eturnedt he
    balancei nthef orm ofaf undt obeappl i
    edt ot heeducat i
    onofChi nesestudent sinAmer ican
    universiti
    es." Iwouldr atherbe, It
    hink,"saidMr .Hay ,"
    thedupeofChi nathant hechum oft he
    Kaiser."Bypur suingal iber
    alpol i
    cy,hest rengt henedt heholdoft heUnitedSt atesupont he
    affect
    ionsoft heChi nesepeopl eand, inthel ongr un,asher emarkedhimsel f,safeguarded"our
    greatcommer ci
    al i
    nterestsinthatEmpi r
    e."

    Imper i
    ali
    sm i nt hePr esident i
    al Campai gnof1900. —Itisnotst ranget hatt hepol icypur suedby
    theRepubl i
    canadmi nistrationi ndisposingoft hequest i
    onsr aisedbyt heSpani shWarbecame
    oneoft hef ir
    sti ssuesi nt hepr esidenti
    al campai gnof1900.Ant icipatingat tacksf r
    om ev ery
    quarter,theRepubl icans, inr enomi nati
    ngMcKi nley,setf or t
    ht heirposi t
    ioni nclearandr inging
    phrases: "I
    naccept ingbyt het r
    eatyofPar i
    st hej ustresponsi bili
    tyofourv ictori
    esi nthe
    SpanishWart hePr esi dentandSenat ewont heundoubt edappr oval oft heAmer i
    canpeopl e.
    Noot hercour sewaspossi blet hantodest roySpai n'ssov ereignt yt hroughoutt heWestI ndi es
    andi nthePhi lippineI slands.Thatcour secr eatedourr esponsi bili
    ty,bef oret hewor l
    dandwi t
    h
    theunor ganizedpopul ationwhom ouri ntervent ionhadf reedf rom Spai n,topr ov ideforthe
    maintenanceofl awandor der,andf ortheest ablishmentofgoodgov er nmentandf orthe
    performanceofi nternat i
    onal obli
    gations.Ouraut hori
    tycoul dnotbel esst hanourr esponsi bil
    ity
    ,
    andwher eversov ereignr ightswer eextendedi tbecamet hehi ghdut yoft hegov ernmentt o
    maintaini t
    saut hority,toputdownar medi nsur rection,andt oconf ert hebl essingsofl iber t
    y
    andci vi
    li
    zat i
    onuponal lther escuedpeopl es.Thel argestmeasur eofsel f
    -gov ernment
    consistentwi tht heirwel far eandourdut iesshal lbesecur edt ot hem byl aw. "Togi vemor e
    str
    engt ht otheirt i
    cket ,theRepubl icanconv ent ion,inawhi r
    lwindofent husi asm, nomi nat edfor
    thev i
    cepr esidency , againsthi sprotest,Theodor eRoosev el
    t,thegov er norofNewYor kandt he
    herooft heRoughRi ders, sopopul aronaccountoft heirCubancampai gn.

    TheDemocr ats,asexpect ed, pi


    ckedupt hegaunt letthrowndownwi thsuchdef i
    ancebyt he
    Republ i
    cans.Mr .Bry an,whom t heysel ect edast heircandi dat e,still
    clungt ot hecur r
    encyi ssue;but
    themai nemphasi s, bot hoft hepl atf
    orm andt heappeal forv otes, wasont he" i
    mper iali
    stic
    progr am"oft heRepubl i
    canadmi nistr
    ation.TheDemocr atsdenouncedt het reatmentofCubaand
    PortoRi coandcondemnedt hePhi l
    ippinepol icyi nshar pandv i
    gor oust erms." Aswear enot
    will
    ing,"r ant heplatfor m, "
    tosur renderourci vi
    lizationort oconv er ttheRepubl icintoanempi re,we
    favorani mmedi atedecl arat
    ionoft heNat ion'
    spur poset ogi vet ot heFilipinos, fi
    rst,ast ableform
    ofgov ernment ;second, i
    ndependence; third,protect i
    onf rom out sideinter f
    erence. ..
    .Thegr eedy
    commer ciali
    sm whi chdi ctatedthePhi li
    ppi nepol icyoft he
    Republ i
    canadmi nist rati
    onat tempt stoj ustif
    yi twi ththepl eat hati twill
    pay ,butev ent hissordid
    andunwor t
    hypleaf ailswhenbr oughtt ot hetestoff acts.Thewarof' criminal aggr ession'against
    theFi li
    pinosent aili
    nganannual expenseofmanymi ll
    ionshasal readycostmor ethananypossi ble
    profitthatcoul daccr uef rom theent ir
    ePhi li
    ppinet r
    adef ory earst ocome. .
    ..Weopposemi lit
    ari
    sm.
    Itmeansconquest
    abroadandi nti
    mi dat ionandoppr essionathome.I tmeanst hest rongar m whi chhasev er
    beenf atal tofreei nst it
    utions.Itiswhatmi ll
    ionsofourci ti
    zenshav ef ledf rom i nEur ope.Itwill
    i
    mposeuponourpeace- l
    ovingpeopl eal ar
    gest andi ngar my ,anunnecessar ybur denof
    taxation, andwoul dbeaconst antmenacet ot heirliberties."Suchwast het enoroft heirappeal
    tothev ot ers.
    Witht he i
    ssues clearl
    yjoined,the countr
    yr ej
    ected the Democr
    ati
    c candidate ev
    en more
    posit
    ivel
    ythanfoury ear
    sbefore.ThepopularvotecastforMcKinl
    eywaslargerandthatcastf
    or
    Bryansmal l
    ert hanint hesil
    verelect
    ion.Thusv i
    ndicatedatthepoll
    s,McKi nleytur
    nedwith
    renewedconfidencet ot
    he
    developmentoft hepolici
    eshehadsof aradvanced.Butf atecutshorthisdesigns.Inthe
    Septemberf ollowinghissecondi naugur ati
    on,hewasshotbyananar chistwhil
    eat t
    endingthe
    Buffaloexposition."Whatast r
    angeandt r
    agicfat
    ei thasbeenofmi ne,"wr ot
    etheSecr etar
    yof
    State,JohnHay ,onthedayoft hePresident '
    sdeat h,"
    tostandbyt hebierofthreeofmydear est
    fr
    iends,Lincoln,Garfi
    eld,andMcKi nl
    ey ,threeofthegent l
    estofmen, allr
    isentotheheadoft he
    stat
    eandal ldonet odeathbyassassi ns."OnSept ember14, 1901,t
    heVi cePresident,
    Theodor e
    Roosev el
    t,tookupt helinesofpowert hathadf al
    lenfrom thehandsofhi sdisti
    nguishedchief,
    promisingtocont i
    nue"absolut
    elyunbr oken"thepol i
    cieshehadi nheri
    ted.

    Summar
    yofNat
    ional
    Growt
    handWor
    ldPol
    i
    tics

    Theeconomi caspectsoft heper iodbet ween1865and1900mayber eadi


    lysummedup: t
    he
    recov eryoftheSout hf r
    om t heruinoft heCi vilWar ,
    theext ensi
    onoft herailways,the
    dev el
    opmentoft heGr eatWest ,andt het ri
    umphofi ndustryandbusi nessent erpri
    se.Inthe
    Sout hmanyoft hegreatpl antati
    onswer ebr okenupandsol dinsmal l far
    ms, cropswer e
    diversifi
    ed,thesmal lfarmingclasswasr ai
    sedi nt hescal eofsocialimpor tance,thecotton
    i
    ndust r
    ywasl aunched, andt hecoal ,i
    ron, t
    imber ,andot herresourceswer ebroughtintouse.In
    theWestt hef r
    eearabl elandwaspr actical
    lyexhaust edby1890undert het er
    msoft he
    Homest eadAct ;gol
    d, sil
    ver,copper ,
    coal andot hermi neral
    swer ediscov eredinabundance;
    numer ousrailconnectionswer efor medwi t
    ht heAt lanti
    cseaboar d;thecowboyandt heIndi
    an
    wer esweptawaybef oreast andar di
    zedci vi
    lizati
    onofel ect
    ricl
    ightsandbat htubs.Bytheendof
    thecent urytheAmer icanf ronti
    erhaddi sappear ed.Thewi l
    d,pr
    imitivel i
    fesolongassoci at
    ed
    withAmer i
    cawasgone.Theuni tyoft henat i
    onwasest abli
    shed.

    Inthefieldofbusinessent erprise,progresswasmostmar ked.Theindustri


    alsy st
    em, which
    hadrisenandf l
    ourishedbefor etheCi vil
    War ,grewi ntoimmensepr oporti
    onsandt heindustri
    al
    areawasext endedf rom t
    heNor theastintoallpar t
    soft hecount r
    y.Small businessconcer ns
    weretransf ormedi ntohugecor por at
    ions.Individualplantswer emergedundert he
    managementofgi gantict
    rusts.Shor trail
    wayl ineswer econsol i
    datedintonat i
    onalsystems.
    Theindust ri
    alpopul ati
    onofwage- earnersrosei ntothet ensofmi l
    li
    ons.Thei mmi grati
    onof
    ali
    ensincr easedbyl eapsandbounds.Theci tiesov ershadowedt hecount ry.Thenat i
    onthat
    hadoncedependeduponEur opef ormostofi tsmanuf act ur
    edgoodsbecameacompet i
    torof
    Europei nthemar ket soft
    heear th.

    Inthespher eofpol i
    tics,theperiodwi tnessedther ecover
    yofwhi t
    esupr emacyintheSout h;
    thecontinueddi scussionoft heol dquest i
    ons,suchast hecurrency,
    thet ari
    ff
    ,andnational
    banking;andt heinjectionofnewi ssueslikethetrustsandlaborproblems.Asofol d,f
    or eign
    aff
    airswer ekeptwel l atthefront.Alaskawaspur chasedf rom Russi
    a; att
    emptswer emadet o
    extendAmer i
    cani nfl
    uencei ntheCar ibbeanregion; aSamoani sl
    andwasbr oughtundert he
    fl
    ag;andt heHawai i
    ani sl
    andswer eannexed.TheMonr oeDoctri
    newasappl i
    edwithvigori n
    thedisputebet weenVenezuel aandGr eatBri
    tain.

    Assistancewasgi ventotheCubansintheirr
    ev ol
    uti
    onarystr
    uggleagainstSpainandt husthere
    waspr eci
    pi t
    atedawarwhi chendedintheannexat i
    onofPortoRicoandt hePhilippi
    nes.
    Amer icani nfl
    uenceinthePacif
    icandtheOr i
    entwassoenl argedastobeaf actorofgreat
    weighti nwor ldaff
    air
    s.Thusquesti
    onsconnect edwi t
    hfor
    eignand" i
    mper i
    al"polici
    eswere
    unit
    edwi thdomest i
    cissuestomakeupt hewar pandwoofofpol i
    ti
    cs.I
    nt hedirecti
    onof
    aff
    airs, t
    heRepubl i
    canstooktheleader
    ship,fortheyheldt
    hepr esi
    dencyduringal lt
    heyears,
    exceptei ght,between1865and1900.

    Ref
    erences
    J.
    W.Fost
    erACent
    , uryofAmer
    icanDi
    plomacy
    ;Amer
    icanDi
    plomacyi
    ntheOr
    ient
    .

    W.
    F.Reddaway
    ,TheMonr
    oeDoct
    ri
    ne.
    J.
    H.Lat TheUni
    ané, tedSt
    atesandSpani
    shAmer
    ica.

    A.
    C.Cool
    i Uni
    dge, tedSt
    atesasaWor
    ldPower
    .

    A. I
    T.Mahan,nt
    erestoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    atesi
    ntheSeaPower
    .

    F.
    E.Chadwi Spani
    ck, sh-
    Amer
    icanWar
    .

    D.
    C.Wor
    cest
    erThePhi
    , l
    ippi
    neI
    slandsandThei
    rPeopl
    e.

    M.
    M.Kal Sel
    aw, f-
    Gov
    ernmenti
    nthe

    Phi
    l
    ippi
    nes.L. TheUni
    S.Rowe, tedSt
    atesand

    Por
    toRi
    co.

    F.
    E.Chadwi TheRel
    ck, ati
    onsoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    atesand

    Spai
    n.W.
    R.Shepher
    d,Lat
    inAmer
    ica;
    Cent
    ralandSout
    h

    Amer
    ica.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Tel
    lthestor
    yoft
    hei
    nter
    nat
    ional
    cri
    sist
    hatdev
    elopedsoonaf
    tert
    heCi
    vi
    lWarwi
    thr
    egar
    dto
    Mexico.

    2.
    Giv
    etheessent
    ial
    fact
    srel
    ati
    ngt
    othepur
    chaseofAl
    aska.

    3.
    Rev
    iewt
    heear
    lyhi
    stor
    yofouri
    nter
    esti
    ntheCar
    ibbean.

    4.
    Ami
    dwhatci
    rcumst
    anceswast
    heMonr
    oeDoct
    ri
    neappl
    i
    edi
    nCl
    evel
    and'
    sadmi
    nist
    rat
    ion?

    5.
    Giv
    ethecausest
    hatl
    edt
    othewarwi
    thSpai
    n.

    6.
    Tel
    lthel
    eadi
    ngev
    ent
    sint
    hatwar
    .

    7.
    Whatwast
    heout
    comeasf
    arasCubawasconcer
    ned?Theout
    comef
    ort
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates?

    8.
    Discusst
    heat
    ti
    tudeoft
    heFi
    l
    ipi
    nost
    owar
    dAmer
    icansov
    erei
    gnt
    yint
    hei
    slands.

    9.
    Descr
    ibeMcKi
    nley
    'scol
    oni
    alpol
    i
    cy.

    10.
    Howwast
    heSpani
    shWarv
    iewedi
    nEngl
    and?Ont
    heCont
    inent
    ?

    11.
    Wast
    her
    eauni
    fi
    edAmer
    icanopi
    niononAmer
    icanexpansi
    on?

    12.
    Wast
    hisexpansi
    onadepar
    tur
    efr
    om ourt
    radi
    ti
    ons?

    13.
    Whatev
    ent
    sledt
    ofor
    eigni
    nter
    vent
    ioni
    nChi
    na?

    14.
    Expl
    aint
    hepol
    i
    cyoft
    he"
    opendoor
    ."

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs
    Hawaii
    andVenezuel
    a.—Dewey
    ,Nat
    ionalProbl
    ems(AmericanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    ,pp.279-
    313;
    Macdonal
    d,Documentar
    ySour
    ceBook,pp.600-
    602;Har
    t,Ameri
    canHist
    oryTol
    dby
    Cont
    emporari
    es,Vol
    .IV,
    pp.
    612-
    616.

    I
    nter
    venti
    oninCuba.
    —Latané,Amer
    icaasaWor l
    dPower( AmericanNationSeri
    es),pp.3-
    28;
    Macdonal
    d,Documentar
    ySourceBook,pp.597-598;Roosevel
    t,Aut
    obiography,pp.223-
    277;
    Hawort
    h,TheUnit
    edStatesi
    nOurOwnTi me, pp.232-256;
    Hart,Cont
    empor ari
    es,Vol.I
    V,pp.573-
    578.

    TheWarwi
    thSpai
    n.—El Hi
    son, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.889-
    896.

    Ter
    msofPeacewit
    hSpai
    n.—Lat
    ané,
    pp.63-
    81;
    Macdonal
    d,pp.602-
    608;
    Har
    t,Cont
    empor
    ari
    es,
    Vol
    .
    I
    V,pp.588-
    590.

    ThePhi
    l
    ippi
    neI
    nsur
    rect
    ion.
    —Lat
    ané,
    pp.82-
    99.

    I
    mperial
    i
    sm asaCampaignI
    ssue.—Latané,
    pp.120-
    132;
    Hawor
    th,
    pp.257-
    277;
    Har
    t,
    Cont
    emporari
    es,
    Vol
    .IV,
    pp.604-611.

    Biogr
    aphi
    calSt
    udies.
    —Will
    i
    am McKinl
    ey,M.A.Hanna,JohnHay;Admi
    ral
    s,Geor
    geDewey,
    W.T.
    Sampson,andW.S.Schl
    ey;andGener
    als,
    W.R.Shafter
    ,JosephWheel
    er,
    andH.W.Lawt
    on.

    Gener
    alAnal
    ysi
    sofAmer
    icanExpansi —Sy
    on. ll
    abusi
    nHi
    stor
    y(NewYor
    kSt
    ate,
    1920)
    ,pp.142-
    147.

    PARTVI
    I.PROGRESSI
    VEDEMOCRACYANDTHE
    WORLDWAR

    CHAPTERXXI
    THEEVOLUTI
    ONOFREPUBLI
    CANPOLI
    CIES(
    1901-
    13)

    ThePer sonali
    tyandEarlyCar eerofRoosev elt.
    —OnSept ember14, 1901, whenTheodor eRoosev el
    t
    tookt heoat hofoffi
    ce,thepresidencypassedt oanewgener at i
    onandal eaderofanewt ype
    recalli
    ng, i
    fcompar i
    sonsmustbemade, Andr ewJacksonr athert hananyRepubl i
    canpredecessor .
    Roosev el
    twasbr usque,hearty,restless,andf ondofact i
    on—" ay oungf el
    lowofi nfi
    nit
    edashand
    originali
    ty,
    "asJohnHayr emar kedofhi m; combi ningthespiritofhi soldcollege,Harvar
    d, wi t
    hthe
    breezyf reedom oftheplains;interestedinev eryt
    hing—anewspeci esofgame, anewbook, a
    diplomat icri
    ddle,
    oranov el t
    heor yofhi storyorbi ology.Thoughonl yforty-
    threeyearsoldhewas
    wel lversedintheartofpr act
    ical polit
    ics.Comi ngupont hepol i
    ti
    cal scenei ntheearlyeighties,he
    hadassoci at
    edhimselfwi thther eformer si ntheRepubl i
    canpar ty ;
    buthewasnoMugwump.Fr om
    thef ir
    sthev ehementlypreachedt hedoct rineofpar tyloyal
    ty;ifbeat enintheconv enti
    on,hev oted
    thestr
    aightt
    icketi
    ntheel
    ecti
    on.Fort
    wentyyear
    sheadheredt
    othi
    srul
    eanddur
    ingaconsi
    der
    abl
    e
    port
    ionofthatperi
    odheheldoff
    iceasaspokesmanofhi
    spart
    y.He
    servedintheNewYor kl
    egisl
    ature,asheadofthemetropol
    it
    anpoliceforce,asfeder
    alci
    vil
    servi
    cecommi ssi
    onerunderPresidentHarr
    ison,
    asassist
    antsecretar
    yoft henavyunder
    PresidentMcKinley
    ,andasgov ernoroftheEmpirest
    ate.Poli
    ti
    calmanager softheoldschool
    spokeofhi m as"bri
    l
    li
    antbuterrati
    c";t
    heysoonfoundhim equalt
    ot heshrewdestin
    negotiati
    onandact i
    on.

    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    Roosev
    eltTal
    ki
    ngt
    otheEngi
    neerofaRai
    l
    roadTr
    ain

    For
    eignAf
    fai
    rs

    ThePanamaCanal .
    —Themosti mpor tantforeignquestionconfronti
    ngPr esidentRoosevelton
    thedayofhi si naugurati
    on, thatoft hePanamaCanal ,
    wasaher itagefr
    om hi spredecessor .
    Thei deaofawat errouteacr osst heisthmus, longadr eam ofnav i
    gat
    ors, hadbecomeal ivi
    ng
    i
    ssueaf t
    ert hehi st
    oricvoy ageoft hebat t
    leshipOr egonaroundSout hAmer i
    caduringthe
    Spani shWar .Butbeforet heUni tedStatescoul dactithadtoundot heClay t
    on-Bulwertr
    eat y
    ,
    madewi thGr eatBri
    tainin1850, provi
    dingfort heconstruct
    ionoft hecanal underjoi
    nt
    super vi
    sion.Thi swasf inallyeffectedbyt heHay -Pauncefot
    et r
    eatyof1901aut hori
    zingthe
    UnitedSt atest oproceedal one,oncondi ti
    ont hatthereshouldbenodi scriminati
    onsagai nst
    othernat i
    onsi nthemat terofr atesandchar ges.

    Thisaccompl ished, itwasnecessar ytodeci dejustwher ethecanal shouldbebui lt


    .Onegr oup
    i
    nCongr essf avor edt her outet hr
    oughNi caragua; i
    nfact, twoof ficialcommi ssi
    onshadal ready
    approv edthatl ocat i
    on.Anot hergroupf av oredcut t
    ingthewayt hroughPanamaaf t
    er
    purchasingt her ightsoft heol dFrenchcompanywhi ch,undert hedi recti
    onofDeLesseps, the
    herooft heSuezCanal ,hadmadeacost lyfai l
    uresomet went yy earsbef ore.Afteraheat ed
    argumentov ert hemer i
    tsoft hetwopl ans, pr eferencewasgi vent othePanamar oute.Ast he
    i
    sthmuswast henapar tofCol ombi a,PresidentRoosev el tproceededt onegot i
    atewiththe
    governmentatBogot aat reatyauthorizi
    ngt heUni t
    edSt atest ocutacanal throughitsterritory.
    Thet reatywaseasi l
    yf ramed, butitwasr eject edbyt heCol ombi ansenat e,mucht othe
    President'sexasper ation."Youcoul dnomor emakeanagr eementwi ththeCol ombianrul ers,"
    heexcl ai
    med, "thany oucoul dnailjell
    ytoawal l
    ."Hewasspar edt henecessi tybyatimel y
    revol
    ut i
    on.OnNov ember3, 1903, Panamar enouncedi t
    sal legiancet oColombi aandt hreeday s
    l
    atert
    heUni
    tedSt
    atesr
    ecogni
    zedi
    tsi
    ndependence.
    Cour
    tesyofPanamaCanal
    ,Washi
    ngt
    on,
    D.C.
    DeepestEx
    cav
    atedPor
    ti
    onofPanamaCanal,
    ShowingGol
    dHi
    l
    lonRi
    ghtandCont
    ract
    or'
    sHi
    l
    l
    onLef
    t.June,
    1913

    Thisamazi nginci dentwasf ol


    lowedshor tlybyt hesi gnat ureofat reat ybet weenPanamaand
    theUni tedSt at esi nwhi cht helattersecur edt her ighttoconst r
    uctt hel ong-discussedcanal ,i
    n
    returnforaguar ant eeofi ndependenceandcer taincashpay ment s.Ther ightsandpr opert
    yof
    theFr enchconcer nwer ethenbought , andt hef inaldet ail
    sset tled.Al ockr atherthanasea-
    l
    ev elcanal wasagr eedupon.Const r
    uct ionbyt hegov er nmentdi rect lyinsteadofbypr i
    vate
    cont r
    act orswasadopt ed.Sci enti
    ficmedi cinewassummonedt ost ampoutt hetropical
    diseasest hathadmadePanamaapl aguespot .Finally,in1904, ast hePr esidentsaid, "t
    hedir
    t
    begant of l
    y .
    "Af tersurmount i
    ngf ormidabl edifficult
    ies—engi neer ing, labor,andsani tary—the
    Amer icanf orcesi n1913j oinedt hewat ersoft heAt lant i
    candt hePaci fic.Nearlyeight
    thousandmi leswer ecutof ft heseav oy agef r
    om NewYor ktoSanFr ancisco.Ifanywer e
    i
    ncl i
    nedt ocriti
    ci zePresi dentRoosev eltf ort hewayi nwhi chhesnappedof fnegot i
    ationswith
    Colombi aandr ecogni zedt hePanamar ev olutionists,thei rattentionwasdr awnt othe
    magni ficentout comeoft heaf fai
    r.Not wi thstandi ngt het reatywi thGr eatBr it
    ain,Congr ess
    passedat oll
    sbi l
    ldiscriminat i
    ngi nratesi nfav orofAmer icanshi ps.I twasonl yont heur gent
    i
    nsi st
    enceofPr esidentWi l
    sont hatthemeasur ewasl aterr epealed.

    TheConcl usionoft heRusso- JapaneseWar .—Theappl ausewhi chgreetedthePr esident'


    snext
    dipl
    omat i
    cst rokewasunmar r
    edbycensur eofanyki nd.Int hewint
    erof1904t herebrokeout
    betweenJapanandRussi aaterri
    bleconfli
    ctoverthedivisionofspoil
    si nManchur ia.The
    fort
    unesofwarwer ewitht heagil
    ef or
    cesofNi ppon.Inthisst r
    uggl
    e,itseems, President
    Roosev elt
    'ssy mpat hi
    eswer emainlywiththeJapanese, althoughheobser vedthepr opri
    eties
    ofneut r
    ality.Atallevents,Secretar
    yHaywr oteinhisdiaryonNewYear 'sDay ,
    1905, thatthe
    Presidentwas" quit
    ef i
    rmi nhisv i
    ewt hatwecannotper mi tJapantober obbedasecondt ime
    ofherv ict
    or y,
    "referri
    ngtot hefactthatJapan, t
    eny ear
    sbef or
    e,aft
    erdefeatingChinaont he
    fi
    eldofbat t
    le,hadbeenf orcedbyRussi a,
    Germany ,andFr ancet of
    oregot hefruit
    sofconquest .

    What ev
    erthePresident'
    spersonalf
    eel
    ingsmayhav ebeen,hewasawarethatJapan,
    despiteher
    tri
    umphsov erRussia,wasstagger
    ingunderaheavyburdenofdebt.Atasuggest
    ionf
    rom Tokyo,he
    i
    nv i
    tedbothbell
    igerent
    sinthesummerof1905t ojoininapeaceconfer
    ence.Thecel
    eri
    tyofthei
    r
    replywasaidedbyt hepressur
    eofEuropeanbankers,whohadalr
    eadycomet oasubstant
    ial
    agreementthatthewarmustst op.Aft
    ersomedelay ,
    Port
    smouth,NewHampshi r
    e,waschosenas
    themeet i
    ngplaceforthespokesmenoft he
    twowarri
    ngpowers.Roosevel
    tpresi
    dedovertheopeningceremoni
    eswit
    hfineurbani
    ty,
    thor
    oughl
    yenjoyi
    ngthejust
    lyear
    nedhonorofbei ngfort
    hemomentatthecenterofthe
    worl
    d'si
    nter
    est.Hehadthesati
    sfact
    ionofseeingtheconfer
    enceendi
    nat r
    eatyofpeace
    andamity
    .

    TheMonr oeDoct r
    ineAppl iedt
    oGermany .
    —Lessspect acul
    arthant heRusso-Japanese
    settlementbutnotl essimpor t
    antwasadi plomaticpassage-at-
    armswi thGermanyov erthe
    Monr oeDoctr
    ine.Thiscl ashgrewoutofthei nabi
    li
    tyorunwill
    ingnessoftheVenezuel an
    gov ernmenttopaydebt sdueforei
    gncreditors.Havingexhaustedtheirpati
    enceinnegot iat
    ions,
    Engl andandGer many ,inDecember1901, sentbattl
    eshipstoestablishwhattheychar acter
    ized
    as" apeacefulblockade"ofVenezuelanpor ts.Thei
    ractionwasf oll
    owedbyt heruptureof
    diplomaticrel
    ati
    ons; therewasapossibil
    itythatwarandt heoccupat ionofVenezuelant err
    it
    ory
    mi ghtresul
    t.

    Whi leunwi l
    li
    ngt ost andbet weenaLat in-Amer i
    cancount r
    yandi t
    scr edi tors, Pr esident
    Roosev eltwasdet erminedt hatdebtcol l
    ect ingshouldnotbemadeanexcusef orEur opean
    count ri
    est osei zet err
    itory.Het her eforeur gedar bitr
    ationoft hedi sput e,wi nni ngt heassentof
    Engl andandI tal y
    .Ger many ,wi thasomewhathaught yai r
    ,refusedt ot aket hemi ldercour se.
    ThePr esident ,learningoft hisr efusal ,
    cal l
    edt heGer manambassadort otheWhi t
    eHouseand
    i
    nf or medhi mi nv erypreci set ermst hat,unl esst heImper ialGermanGov ernmentconsent edt o
    arbitr ate,Admi ralDeweywoul dbeor deredt ot hescenewi thinstructi
    onst opr eventGer many
    fr
    om sei zinganyVenezuel ant erri
    tory.Aweekpassedandnoanswercamef rom Ber l
    i
    n.Not
    baf fled, t
    hePr esidentagai nt ookt hemat terupwi t
    ht heambassador ,thist imewi thev enmor e
    fi
    rmness; hest atedi nlanguageadmi tt
    ingofbutonemeani ngt hat,unlesswi thinf orty-
    ei ght
    hour st heEmper orconsent edt oar bitr
    ation, Amer i
    canbat tl
    eships,alreadycoal edandcl ear ed,
    woul dsai l f
    orVenezuel anwat er s.Thehi ntwassuf fi
    cient.TheKai seraccept edt hepr oposal
    andt hePr esident ,wi t
    ht hef inei ronyofdi plomacy ,compl iment edhi m publ icl yon" bei
    ngso
    stanchanadv ocat eofar bit
    rat i
    on. "Intermsoft heMonr oeDoct ri
    net hisact ionmeantt hatt he
    Uni tedSt ates,whi lenotdeny ingt heobl igationsofdebt ors,woul dnotper mi tanymov eont he
    par tofEur opeanpower st hatmi ghteasi lyleadt othetempor aryorper manentoccupat ionof
    Latin- Amer i
    cant errit
    ory.

    TheSantoDomi ngoAf fair


    .—Thesamei ssuewasi nvol
    vedinacont roversyov erSant oDomi ngo
    whicharosein1904.TheDomi nicanrepublic,l
    ikeVenezuela,washeav i
    lyindebt ,andcertain
    Europeancountr
    iesdecl ar
    edthat,unl
    esst heUni tedStatesundertookt olookaf terthefi
    nances
    oftheembar r
    asseddebt or,t
    heywoul dresor tt
    oar medcoer ci
    on.Whatwast heUni tedStatesto
    do?Thedangerofhav ingsomeEur opeanpowerst r
    onglyi
    ntrenchedinSant oDomi ngowast oo
    i
    mmi nenttobedenied.Pr esi
    dentRoosev eltactedwi thchar
    acterist
    icspeed, and
    notwit
    hstandi
    ngstrongopposi t
    ionintheSenat ewasabl e,i
    n1907, toef f
    ectat reaty
    arr
    angementwhi chplacedDomi nicanfinancesunderAmer icansuperv i
    sion.

    Inthecour seoft hedebat eov erthisset t


    lement, anumberofi nter est i
    ngquest i
    onsar ose.Itwas
    perti
    nent lyaskedwhet hert heAmer icannav yshoul dbeusedt ohel pcr edi t
    orscollecttheirdebt s
    anywher einLatin-Amer ica.Itwassuggest edalsot hatnosanct ionshoul dbegivent othepr acti
    ce
    amongEur opeangov er nment sofusi ngar medf orcet ocol l
    ectpr i
    v atecl aims.Opponent sof
    PresidentRoosev elt
    'spol icy,andt heywer eneit
    herf ewnori nsigni ficant, ur
    gedthatsuchmat ter
    s
    shouldber eferr
    edt otheHagueCour tort ospecialinternational commi ssionsforar bit
    rat i
    on.To
    thi
    stheanswerwasmadet hatt heUni tedSt at
    escoul dnotsur renderanyquest i
    oncomi ngunder
    theter msoft heMonr oeDoct rinetot hedeci si
    onofani nternational tr
    ibunal.Theposi t
    ionoft he
    admini strati
    onwasv erycl earlystatedbyPr esi
    dentRoosev elthimsel f
    ."Thecount ry,"hesai d,
    "wouldcer t
    ainl
    ydecl i
    net ogot owart opr eventaf oreigngov ernmentf rom coll
    ectingaj ustdebt;on
    theot herhand, i
    ti sveryi nadv i
    sablet oper mitanyf oreignpowert ot akepossessi on, even
    tempor arily,
    ofthecust omshousesofanAmer icanr epubl i
    cinor dert oenf orcethepay mentofi ts
    obli
    gat ions;forsuchat empor aryoccupat i
    onmi ghtt urnintoaper manentoccupat ion.Theonl y
    escapefrom theseal
    ter
    nati
    vesmayatanytimebethatwemustour selv
    esundertaketobri
    ng
    aboutsomear rangementbywhichsomuchaspossibleofajustobl
    igat
    ionshall
    bepaid."The
    MonroeDoct ri
    newasnegative.I
    tdeni
    edtoEur
    opeanpowersacer t
    ainli
    bert
    yofoperati
    oninthis
    hemisphere.Theposit
    iveobl
    igat
    ionsr
    esul
    ti
    ngfrom i
    tsappl
    i
    cationbytheUnitedStat
    eswer epoi
    nts
    nowemphasi zedanddev el
    oped.
    TheHagueConf erence.—Thecont roversiesov erLat i
    n-Amer i
    canr elationsandhi spartin
    bri
    ngingt heRusso- JapaneseWart oacl osenat ural
    lymadeadeepi mpr essionuponRoosev elt
    ,
    turni
    nghi smi ndi nt hedirecti
    onoft hepeacef ul sett
    lementofi nt ernat i
    onal disputes.The
    subjectwasmor eov erintheai r
    .Asi fconsci ousofi mpendi ngcal ami ty,thest at
    esmenoft he
    OldWor ld,toall outwar dsignsatl east,seemedsear chingforawayt oreducear mament sand
    avoidthebloodyandcost lytri
    alofinternational causesbyt heanci entpr ocessofbat tl
    e.I
    twas
    theCzar, Ni
    chol asI I,f
    atedt odiei noneoft het er r
    ibleholocaustswhi chhehel pedtobring
    uponmanki nd, whosummonedt hedelegat esoft henat ionsint hef irstHaguePeace
    Conferencei n1899.Theconf er
    encedi dnot hi
    ngt or educemi l
    itar ybur densorav oidwarsbutit
    didrecognizet her ightoff ri
    endlynationst oof fertheser vi
    cesofmedi ati
    ont ocount ri
    esatwar
    anddi destablishaCour tattheHaguef orthear bitr
    ati
    onofi nternat ional di
    sput es.

    Encouragedbythisexperiment,feebleasitwas,PresidentRoosev el
    tin1904pr oposeda
    secondconference,yi
    eldingtotheCzart hehonorofissuingt hecall
    .Atthisgreati
    nternati
    onal
    assembly,hel
    datt heHaguei n1907, therepr
    esentati
    vesoft heUnitedStatesproposedapl an
    forthecompulsoryarbit
    rati
    onofcer tainmatt
    ersofinternati
    onal di
    spute.Thiswasrejected
    withcontemptbyGer many .Reducti
    onofar mament s,li
    kewiseproposedi ntheconference,
    wasagai ndef
    erred.Infact,not
    hingwasaccompl ishedbey ondagr eementuponcer tai
    nr ul
    es
    fortheconductof"civi
    li
    zedwar f
    are,"casti
    ngasomewhatl uridli
    ghtupont he"paci
    fi
    c"
    i
    ntenti
    onsofmostoft hepower sassembl ed.

    TheWor ldTouroft heFleet.—Asift oassur ethewor ldthent hattheUni tedSt atespl acedl i
    tt
    le
    rel
    ianceupont hef r
    ailr
    eedofpeaceconf er
    ences, Roosev eltt hefollowingy ear( 1908)madean
    i
    mposi ngdi splayofAmer icannav alpowerbysendi ngaf leetofsi xteenbat t
    leshi psonat our
    aroundt heglobe.Onhi sownaut hor i
    ty,
    heor deredtheshi pst osai loutofHampt onRoadsand
    cir
    cletheear thbywayoft heSt r
    aitsofMagel l
    an,SanFr anci sco,Aust rali
    a,thePhi l
    ippi
    nes, China,
    Japan, andtheSuezCanal .Thisent erpr
    isewasnot ,assomecr it
    icscl ai
    med, a"mer eboy i
    sh
    fl
    ourish."PresidentRoosev el
    tknewhowdeepwast hei nfl
    uenceofseapoweront hef at
    eofnat ions.
    Hewasawar et hatnocount r
    ycoul dhav eawi deempi r
    eoft r adeanddomi nionwi t
    houtf orce
    adequat etosust ainit
    .Thev oyagear oundt hewor l
    dt herefor eserv edadoubl epur pose.I t
    i
    nterestedhi sowncount r
    yinthenav alprogram ofthegov ernment ,anditremi ndedot herpower s
    thattheAmer i
    cangi ant,
    thoughqui et,wasnotsl eepingi nthemi dstofi nternational ri
    valri
    es.

    Col
    oni
    alAdmi
    nist
    rat
    ion

    AConst i
    tuti
    onal QuestionSettled.—Incoloni aladmi nist
    ration,asi nf orei
    gnpolicy ,
    Pr esi
    dent
    Rooseveltadvancedwi t hfi
    rm stepinapat hal readymar kedout .Pr esi
    dentMcKi nl
    eyhad
    defi
    nedthepr i
    nciplesthatwer et ocontrolthedev el
    opmentofPor t
    oRi coandt hePhi li
    ppines.
    TheRepubl i
    canpar tyhadannouncedapr ogr am ofpacification,gr adualself
    -gov ernment ,and
    commer ciali
    mpr ovement .Theonl yremai ningquest i
    onofi mpor tance, t
    ouset hepopul ar
    phrase,
    —"Doest heConst i
    tut
    ionf oll
    owthef lag? "
    —hadbeenanswer edbyt heSupr emeCour tof
    theUnit
    edSt ates.Althoughitwaswel lknownt hattheConst i
    tutiondi dnotcont empl atethe
    governmentofdependenci es,suchast hePhi l
    i
    ppinesandPor toRi co,theCourt, bygener ous
    andingeniousinterpretati
    ons,foundawayf orCongr esst oappl yanyr easonabl erulesr equir
    ed
    bytheoccasion.
    Phot
    ogr
    aphf
    rom Under
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    ASugarMi
    l
    l,Por
    toRi
    co

    Por t
    oRi co.—Thegov er nmentofPor toRi cowasar elativelysimplemat ter.Itwasasi ngle
    i
    slandwi thaf ai
    rlyhomogeneouspopul at i
    onapar tf r
    om t heSpani shuppercl ass.Forat i
    me
    aftermi l
    itaryoccupat ionin1898, itwasadmi nist
    eredundermi li
    taryrule.Thi swassucceeded
    byt heest abli
    shmentofci vi
    lgov ernmentundert he" or ganicact "passedbyCongr essi n1900.
    Thel awassur edtot hePor toRi cansAmer i
    canpr otect ionbutwi t
    hheldAmer i
    canci t
    izenship—a
    boonf i
    nallygrantedi n1917.I tpr ovidedf oragov ernorandsi xexecut i
    vesecr etariesappoi nt
    ed
    byt hePr esidentwi t
    ht heappr ov aloft heSenat e;andf oral egisl
    atureoft wohouses—one
    electedbypopul arnat ivevote,andanupperchambercomposedoft heexecut ivesecr etari
    es
    andf iveot herpersonsappoi ntedi nt hesamemanner .Thust heUni t
    edSt at est urnedbackt o
    thepr ovincialsystem mai ntainedbyEngl andi nVi r
    giniaorNewYor kinol dcol onial day s.The
    nativeswer egivenav oiceinthei rgov ernmentandt hepowerofi niti
    atingl aws; butt hef i
    nal
    wor dbot hi nl
    aw- maki ngandadmi nistrationwasv est edi nof fi
    cersappoi nt edinWashi ngton.
    Suchwast heplanunderwhi cht heaf f
    airsofPor toRi cower econduct edbyPr esi
    dent
    Roosev elt.Itl
    astedunt ilt
    henewor ganicactof1917.

    ThePhi li
    ppines.—Theadmi ni
    st rationoft hePhi l
    ippinespr esentedf armor edi ff i
    cul tquestions.
    Thenumberofi sl
    ands, t
    hev arietyofl anguagesandr aces,thedi ffer
    encesi nci vili
    zat i
    onal l
    combi nedtochal lenget heski l
    l oft hegov ernment .Mor eover, t
    herewasr agi ngi n1901a
    stubbornrev ol
    tagai nstAmer i
    canaut hori
    ty, whichhadt obef aced.Followi ngt hel inesl ai
    d
    downbyPr esidentMcKi nley ,theev oluti
    onofAmer i
    canpol icyf el
    lint
    ot hreest ages.Atf ir
    st
    theisl
    andswer egov er
    neddi rect l
    ybyt hePr esidentunderhi ssupr ememi l
    itar ypower .In1901
    acivil
    iancommi ssion, headedbyWi l
    li
    am Howar dTaf t,wassel ectedbyt hePr esidentand
    chargedwi ththegov ernmentoft hepr ovincesi nwhi chor derhadbeenr est or ed.Si xy ears
    l
    ater,undert hetermsofanor gani cact,passedbyCongr essi n1902, thet hir dst agewas
    reached.Thel ocal gover nmentpassedi nt ot hehandsofagov ernorandcommi ssion,
    appointedbyt hePr esidentandSenat e,andal egislatur e—onehouseel ectedbypopul arv ote
    andanupperchambercomposedoft hecommi ssion.Thi sscheme, li
    ket hatobt aini ngin
    PortoRico,remai nedi ntactunt ilaDemocr aticCongr essunderPr esi
    dentWi lson' sl eadership
    carri
    edt hecolonial admi nistrationi ntoitsf ourthphasebymaki ngbot hhousesel ect i
    ve.Thus,
    bythest eadypur suitofal i
    ber al policy,self-governmentwasext endedt ot hedependenci es;
    butitencour agedr athert hanext inguishedt hevigor ousmov ementamongt hePhi l
    ippine
    nati
    vesf orindependence.
    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    MrTaf
    tint
    hePhi
    l
    ippi
    nes

    CubanRel at i
    ons. —Wi t
    hint hespher eofcol onialaffairs,Cuba, thoughnomi nallyindependent ,also
    present edpr oblemst othegov ernmentatWashi ngt on.I nthef ineent husiasm t hataccompani ed
    thedecl arationofwaronSpai n,Congress, unmi ndf ulofpr actical consider at i
    ons, recognizedt he
    i
    ndependenceofCubaanddi sclaimed" anydi spositionori ntent i
    ont oexer ci
    sesov ereignty
    ,
    j
    ur i
    sdiction, orcont r
    olov ersai dislandexceptf orthepaci f
    icat i
    ont hereof."I ntheset t
    lementt hat
    foll
    owedt hewar , howev er,i
    twasdeemedundesi rabl etosett hey oungr epubl icadr i
    ftupont he
    stormyseaofi nt ernational pol i
    ti
    cswi thoutagui dinghand.Bef orewi t
    hdr awi ngAmer icantroops
    from thei sland, Congr ess, inMar ch,1901, enacted, andr equir edCubat oappr ov e,aser i
    esof
    restri
    ctionsknownast hePl at tamendment ,l
    i
    mi ti
    ngherpowert oi ncurindebt edness, securingt he
    ri
    ghtoft heUni tedSt atest oint ervenewhenev ernecessar ytopr otectl i
    feandpr oper t
    y,and
    reservingt ot heUni t
    edSt atescoal i
    ngst ati
    onsatcer tainpoint st obeagr eedupon.TheCubans
    madest rongpr otest sagai nstwhatt heydeemed" infringement soft hei
    rsov ereignt y
    ";butfinall
    y
    wi t
    hgoodgr aceaccept edt heirfate.Ev enwheni n1906Pr esidentRoosev eltlandedAmer i
    can
    troopsi nthei slandt oquel ladomest i
    cdi ssension, theyacqui escedi ntheact ion,ev i
    dently
    regardingi tasadi sti
    nctwar ningt hattheyshoul dl earnt omanaget heirel ectionsi nanor der l
    y
    manner .

    TheRoosev
    eltDomest
    icPol
    i
    cies

    Soci alQuest i
    onst ot heFront.—From thedayofhi si naugur ati
    ont othecl oseofhi sser vicei n1909,
    Presi dentRoosev elt,inmessages, speeches, andi nter vi
    ews, keptupal i
    v elyandi nterest i
    ng
    discussi onoft r
    usts, capit
    al,l
    abor,poverty,ri
    ches, l
    awbr eaking, goodci tizenshi p,andki ndr ed
    themes.Manyasubj ectprevi
    ouslytouchedupononl ybyr epresent ativesoft hemi norand
    dissent ingpar ti
    es, hedignifi
    edbyacar ef
    ul exami nat i
    on.Thathedi dt hiswi thanyf ixeddesi gnor
    policyi nmi nddoesnotseem t obethecase.Headmi tt
    edhi msel ft
    hatwhenhebecamePr esident
    hedi dnothav einhandanyset tl
    edorfar-r
    eachi ngpl anofsoci al betterment .Hedi dhav e,howev er
    ,
    seriousconv icti
    onsongener alpri
    ncipl
    es."Iwasbentuponmaki ngthegov ernment ,
    "hewr ote,"
    the
    mostef f i
    ci
    entpossi bleinstr
    umenti nhelpingthepeopl eoft heUni t
    edSt at est obettert hemsel ves
    i
    nev eryway ,
    pol it
    ically,
    sociall
    y,andindustrial
    ly.Ibel ievedwi thal lmyhear ti nrealandt horough-
    goingdemocr acyandIwi shedt omaket hedemocr acyi ndustrial aswel laspol i
    ti
    cal,althoughIhad
    onlypar ti
    all
    yf ormul atedthemet hodIbel i
    evedweshoul dfollow. "Iti
    st husev i
    dentatl eastt hathe
    haddepar t
    edal ongwayf rom theoldideaoft hegov ernmentasnot hingbutagr eatpol iceman
    keepi
    ngor
    deramongt
    hepeopl
    einast
    ruggl
    eov
    ert
    hedi
    str
    ibut
    ionoft
    henat
    ion'
    sweal
    thand
    r
    esour
    ces.

    Roosev el
    t'
    sVi ewoft heConst ituti
    on.—Equal lysignificantwasRoosev elt'
    satti
    tudet owar dthe
    Const i
    tut
    ionandt heofficeofPr esi
    dent .Heut t
    er l
    yr epudi atedt henar rowconst ructionofour
    nationalcharter.Hehel dt hattheConst i
    tuti
    on" shoul dbet reatedast hegr eatestdocument
    everdev i
    sedbyt hewitofmant oai dapeopl ei nexer cisingev er ypowernecessar yforit
    sown
    betterment,notasast rait-j
    acketcunni nglyfashionedt ost rangl egrowt h.
    "Hev i
    ewedt he
    presidencyashedi dtheConst ituti
    on.St r
    ictconst ructionistsoft heJef fersonianschool ,of
    whom t herewer emanyonoccasi onev eni ntheRepubl i
    canpar ty,
    hadt akenav iewt hatthe
    Presidentcoul ddonot hingt hathewasnotspeci fi
    cal l
    yaut hor izedbyt heConst ituti
    ont odo.
    Roosev el
    ttookexact lytheopposi teposi ti
    on.Itwashi sopi ni ont hati
    twasnotonl ythe
    President'
    srightbuthi sdut y"todoany thingthatt heneedsoft henationdemandedunl ess
    suchact i
    onwasf or
    biddenbyt heConst it
    uti
    onort hel aws. "Hewentont osayt hatheact ed
    "f
    ort hecommonwel l-
    bei ngofal lourpeopl ewhenev erandi nwhat evermannerwasnecessar y,
    unlessprevent edbydi r
    ectconst it
    utionalorlegislativepr ohi bit
    ion."

    TheTr ustsandRai l
    way s.
    —Tot het r
    ustquestion, Roosev el
    tdev otedespeci alatt
    enti
    on.This
    wasunav oidable.Byf arthelargerpartofthebusi nessoft hecount rywasdoneby
    corporati
    onsasdi sti
    nguishedf r
    om partner
    shi psandi ndividualowner s.Thegr owthofthese
    giganti
    caggr egationsofcapi t
    al hadbeenthel eadingf eatureinAmer icani ndustr
    ial
    developmentdur ingt helasttwodecadesoft heni net
    eent hcent ury
    .Int heconquestof
    businessbyt rust
    sand" theresulti
    ngprivat
    efor tunesofgr eatmagni tude,"thePopulist
    sand
    theDemocr at shadseenagr ievousdangert ot herepublic."Plutocracyhast akentheplaceof
    democr acy;thetariffbreedstrusts;l
    etusdest roythereforet hetari
    ffandt het r
    usts"
    —suchwas
    thebattl
    ecr ywhichhadbeent akenupbyBr yanandhi sf ollowers.

    PresidentRoosev eltcount eredv igorousl


    y.Her eject
    edt heideathatt het r
    ustsweret heproductof
    thetarif
    forofgov ernment al actionofanyki nd.Heinsistedthattheywer etheoutcomeof" natural
    economi cf orces": (
    1)dest ruct i
    vecompet i
    tionamongbusi nessmencompel l
    ingt
    hem t oav oidruin
    bycoöper ationi nfixingpr i
    ces; (
    2)t hegrowt hofmar ketsonanat ional scaleandev eninternati
    onal
    scalecalli
    ngf orv astaccumul ationsofcapi taltocarryonsuchbusi ness; (3)thepossibil
    i
    t yof
    i
    mmensesav ingsbyt heuni onofmanypl ant sunderonemanagement .Int hecor
    por at
    ionhesawa
    newst agei nt hedev el
    opmentofAmer i
    canindust r
    y.Unregulatedcompet it
    ionheregardedas" the
    sourceofev i
    lswhi chal lmenconcedemustber emedi edifthi
    scivil
    izationofoursist osur vi
    ve."
    Thenot ion,therefor e,thatthesei mmensebusi nessconcer nsshouldbeorcoul dbebr okenupbya
    decreeofl aw, Roosev eltconsi der edabsurd.

    Atthesamet imehepr oposedt hat"ev i


    ltrusts"shouldbepr eventedfrom "wrong-doingofany
    kind";t
    hatis,punishedf orplai
    nswi ndl i
    ng, formakingagr eement stoli
    mitoutput,forrefusi
    ngt o
    selltocustomer swhodeal twi thrivalfi
    rms, andforconspiraci
    eswi thrai
    lwaystor ui
    n
    compet it
    orsbychar ginghighf rei
    ghtr atesandf orsi
    mi l
    arabuses.Accor di
    ngly,hepr oposed,
    notthedest r
    uct i
    onoft hetrusts,butt heirregulati
    onbyt hegov ernment.This,hecont ended,
    woul dpreservetheadv antagesofbusi nessonanat i
    onalscalewhi l
    epreventi
    ngt heev il
    sthat
    accompani edi t
    .Ther ail
    waycompanyhedecl aredtobeapubl icservant."I
    tsratesshoul dbe
    j
    ustt oandopent oallshippersalike."Soheanswer edthosewhot houghtthattrustsand
    rail
    waycombi nati
    onswer epr i
    vateconcer nst obemanagedsol elybytheirowner swi t
    houtletor
    hindranceandal sothosewhot houghtt rustsandr ail
    waycombi nat
    ionscouldbeabol i
    shedby
    tari
    ffreducti
    onorcr iminalprosecut ion.

    TheLaborQuest ion.—Ont helaborquesti


    on,thenpressi
    ngtothefrontinpubli
    cinterest
    , President
    Roosevelttookadv ancedgroundf orhi
    stime.Hedecl ar
    edthattheworking-
    man, singl
    e-handedand
    empt y
    -handed,threatenedwithstarvat
    ionifunemployed,wasnomat chfortheempl oyerwhowas
    abletobargainandwai t
    .Thi
    sl edhim,accordi
    ngly
    ,toacceptthepri
    ncipleofthetradeuni on;namely,
    thatonlybycoll
    ect i
    vebargaini
    ngcanl aborbeputonaf ooti
    ngtomeasur eitsstr
    engt hequallywi t
    h
    capi
    tal
    .Whileheseverelyarr
    aignedlaborl
    eaderswhoadvocat
    edviolenceanddestr
    ucti
    vedoctr
    ines,
    heheldthat"
    theorganizat
    ionoflaborint
    otradeuni
    onsandfeder
    ationsisnecessar
    y,i
    sbenefi
    cent,
    andisoneofthegreatest
    possi
    bleagenci
    esintheatt
    ainmentofat r
    ueindust
    ri
    al,
    aswellasatruepol
    i
    tical
    ,democracyi
    n
    theUni
    tedStates.
    "Thelastresor
    toftradeunionsi
    nlabordi
    sputes,t
    hestr
    ike,heappr
    ov edi
    n
    casenegoti
    ati
    onsfai
    ledtosecure"af
    airdeal
    ."

    Het hought,however,thatl aboror ganizations,eveni fwiselymanaged, couldnotsol


    veallthe
    pressingsocialquestionsoft hetime.Theai doft hegov ernmentatmanypoi nt
    shebelieved
    tobenecessar ytoelimi nateundeser v
    edpov erty
    , indust
    rialdiseases,
    unempl oyment
    ,andt he
    unfortunat
    econsequencesofi ndustri
    al accidents.Inhisf i
    rstmessageof1901, fori
    nstance,
    heur gedthatworkersi njuredi nindustryshoul dhav ecer t
    ainandampl ecompensat i
    on.From
    ti
    met oti
    meheadv ocat edot herlegisl
    ationt oobt ainwhathecal l
    ed"alargermeasur
    eof
    socialandindustri
    aljust i
    ce."

    GreatRi chesandTaxat ion.—Event hechal l


    engeoft her adicals,suchast hePopul i
    sts, who
    all
    egedt hat" t
    het oilofmi lli
    onsisbol dlyst ol
    ent obuildupcol ossal fort
    unesf ora
    few" —chal lengeswhi chhi spredecessor sdidnotconsi derwor t
    hyofnot ice—President
    Roosev el trefusedt ol etpasswi thoutananswer .I
    nhi sf i
    rstmessagehedeni edthet ruthoft he
    commonsay i
    ngt hatt herichwer egr owi ngricherandt hepoorwer egr owingpoor er.He
    asser tedt hat,ont hecont rary,t
    heav erageman, wagewor ker ,f
    armer ,
    andsmal lbusinessman,
    wasbet terof fthanev erbeforeinthehi storyofourcount ry.Thatt herehadbeenabusesi nt he
    accumul ationofweal thhedi dnotpr etendt oignore,buthebel i
    ev edt hatev eni
    mmense
    fort
    unes, ont hewhol e,representedposi ti
    vebenefitsconf erredupont hecount ry.Nev ert
    heless
    hef eltt hatgr avedanger st othesaf etyandt hehappinessoft hepeopl elurkedingreat
    i
    nequal iti
    esofweal th.In1906hewr otet hathewi shedi twer einhi spowert opreventt he
    heapi ngupofenor mousf ort
    unes.Thenexty ear,t
    ot heast onishmentofmanyl eadersi nhi
    s
    ownpar ty ,heboldl yannouncedi namessaget oCongr esst hatheappr ov edbothincomeand
    i
    nher itancet axes, thengener all
    yv i
    ewedasPopul i
    storDemocr ati
    cmeasur es.Heev ent ookt he
    standt hatsucht axesshoul dbel aidi nor dertobri
    ngaboutamor eequi t
    abl edi
    stri
    but i
    onof
    weal thandgr eaterequal i
    tyofoppor tunityamongci ti
    zens.

    Legi
    slat
    iveandExecut
    iveAct
    ivi
    ti
    es

    Economi cLegi slation.—WhenPr esidentRoosev eltturnedf r


    om t hef ieldofopi nionhef ound
    himsel fi nadi fferentspher e.Manyofhi sv iewswer etooadv ancedf orthemember sofhi s
    partyi nCongr ess, andwher er esul tsdependedupont hemaki ngofnewl aws, hispr ogresswas
    slow.Nev erthel ess, i
    nhi sadmi nistrationssev er almeasur eswer eenact edt hatbor et hest amp
    ofhi stheor ies, t houghi tcouldhar dlybesai dt hathedomi natedCongr esst ot hesamedegr ee
    asdi dsomeot herPr esidents.TheHepbur nRai lwayActof1906enl argedt hei nterstat e
    commer cecommi ssion;itextendedt hecommi ssion'spowerov eroi lpipelines, expr ess
    compani es,andot herinterstatecar riers;itgav et hecommi ssiont her i
    ghtt or educer atesfound
    tobeunr easonabl eanddi scrimi nat ory; i
    tfor bade" midnighttar iffs,
    "t hatis, suddenchangesi n
    ratesf av ori
    ngcer tainshipper s; andi tpr ohibitedcommoncar riersf rom t ranspor t i
    nggoods
    ownedbyt hemsel ves,especi allycoal ,exceptf ort heirownpr operuse.Twoi mpor t
    antpur e
    foodanddr ugl aws, enacteddur ingt hesamey ear,wer edesignedt opr otectt hepubl icagainst
    diseasedmeat sanddel eteri
    ousf oodsanddr ugs.Asi gnif
    icantpi eceofl aborl egi slationwasan
    actoft hesameCongr essmaki ngi nterstater ailway sliabl
    et odamagesf ori njuri
    essust ai
    ned
    byt heirempl oyees.Whent hismeasur ewasdecl aredunconst itutional byt heSupr emeCour tit
    wasr eënact edwi ththeobj ect i
    onabl ecl ausesr emov ed.Asecondi nstallmentofl abor
    l
    egi sl
    at ionwasof feredint hel awof1908l i
    mi ti
    ngt hehour sofr ailwayempl oy eesengagedas
    t
    rai
    nmenort
    elegr
    aphoper
    ator
    s.
    Cour
    tesyUni
    tedSt
    atesRecl
    amat
    ionSer
    vice.
    TheRoosev
    eltDam,
    Phoeni
    x,Ar
    izona

    Reclamat ionandConser vati


    on. —Theopencount ry—thedeser t
    s, t
    hef orests, waterway s,andt he
    publi
    clands—i nterestedPr esidentRoosev eltnolessthanr ailwayandi ndust ri
    alquest ions.Indeed,
    i
    nhi sfirstmessaget oCongr esshepl acedt heconser vationofnat ur
    al resourcesamong" t
    hemost
    vi
    talinternalprobl ems"oft heage, andf orcibl
    yemphasi zedani ssuet hathadbeendi scussedi na
    casualwaysi nceCl eveland'sf i
    rstadmi nistrat
    ion.Thesuggest ionev okedani mmedi ateresponse
    i
    nCongr ess.Undert heleader shipofSenat orNewlands, ofNev ada, t
    heRecl amat i
    onActof1902
    waspassed, pr ovidi
    ngf orther edempt ionoft hedeser tar easoft heWest .Thepr oceedsf rom the
    saleofpubl i
    cl andswer ededi catedt ot heconstructi
    onofst oragedamsandsl uiceway stohol d
    wateranddi v
    er titasneededt othet hi
    rstysands.Fur ther mor ei twasst ipulatedthatt her entspaid
    bywat eruser sshoul dgoi ntoar eclamat i
    onf undtocont inuet hegoodwor kf orever.Const ructi
    on
    wasst ar t
    edimmedi atelyundert hetermsoft helaw.Wi thi nsev enteeny earsabout1, 600,000acr es
    hadbeenr eclaimedandmor et hanami ll
    i
    onwer eactuallyi r
    rigated.Int hesingley ear1918, the
    cropsoft heirrigateddistrictswer ev aluedatappr oxi
    mat ely$100, 000,000.

    Inhi sf i
    rstmessage, also, Pr esidentRoosev elturgedt het ransf erofal l
    cont rolov ernat ional
    forest stot r
    ainedmeni nt heBur eauofFor estry—ar ecommendat ioncar ri
    edouti n1907when
    theFor estr
    ySer vicewascr eat ed.I nev erydi r
    ect i
    onnot ewor thyadv anceswer emadei nt he
    admi nistr
    ati
    onoft henat ional domai n.Thesci enceoff orest r
    ywasi mpr ovedandknowl edgeof
    thesubj ectspreadamongt hepeopl e.Landsi nt henat ional forestav ai
    lablef oragr i
    cultur ewer e
    openedt osettlers.Wat erpowersi tesont hepubl i
    cdomai nwer eleasedf orat erm ofy ear st o
    privat ecompani esi nsteadofbei ngsol dout r
    ight.Thear eaoft henat i
    onal forestswasenl ar ged
    from 43mi l
    l
    ionacr est o194mi llionacr esbypr esident i
    alpr oclamat i
    on—mor ethan43mi l
    lion
    acr esbei ngaddedi noney ear ,1907.Themenwhot urnedsheepandcat t
    letogr azeont he
    publ iclandswer ecompel ledt opayaf airrent al,mucht ot heirdissatisf
    act i
    on.Fi repr event ion
    wor kwasunder takeni nt hef orest sonal ar gescal e,reduci ngt heappal li
    ng, annual dest ruct ion
    oft imber .Mill
    ionsofacr esofcoal l
    and, suchast hegov ernmenthadbeencar el
    essl ysel li
    ngt o
    mi ningcompani esatl owf igur es, werewi thdr awnf r
    om sal eandhel dunt i
    lCongr esswas
    prepar edt oenactl awsf ort hedi sposi t
    ionoft hem i nthepubl i
    cinterest.Prosecut ionswer e
    i
    nst itutedagai nstmenwhohadobt ainedpubl iclandsbyf raudandv astt r
    act swer er ecov er ed
    fort henat i
    onal domai n.Anagi tationwasbegunwhi chbor ef ruitundert headmi nistr
    at i
    onsof
    Taf tandWi l
    soni nl awsr eser vi
    ngt ot hef eder algov ernmentt heowner shipofcoal ,wat erpower ,
    phosphat es,andot hernat ur alresour ceswhi leaut horizingcor porationst odev elopt hem under
    l
    easesf
    oraper
    iodofy
    ear
    s.
    ThePr osecut i
    onoft heTrusts.—Asanexecut i
    ve,Pr
    esidentRoosev el
    twasalsoadi sti
    nct
    "personali
    ty.
    "Hi sdiscr i
    minati
    onbet ween"good"and"bad"t r
    ustsl edhimt oprosecutesomeof
    them wi t
    hv i
    gor.Onhi sinit
    iat
    ive,t
    heNor t
    hernSecuri
    ti
    esCompany ,formedtoobt ai
    ncont r
    olof
    certai
    ngr eatwester nr ai
    lways,wasdissolvedbyorderoftheSupr emeCour t
    .Proceedings
    werei nsti
    tut
    edagai nsttheAmer icanTobaccoCompanyandt heSt andardOilCompanyas
    monopol iesinv i
    olationoft heShermanAnt i-
    Trustl
    aw.TheSugarTr ustwasfoundgui l
    tyof
    cheatingtheNewYor kcustomshouseandsomeoft hemi norofficersweresentt opri
    son.
    Fraudsi nthePost -offi
    ceDepar tmentwereuncov er
    edandt heof fendersbroughttobook.I n
    facthardlyaweekpassedwi thoutsti
    rr
    ingnewsof" wrongdoer s"and" malef
    actors"haledint
    o
    federalcourts.

    TheGr eatCoal Stri


    ke.—TheRoosev eltt heoryt hatt hePr esidentcoul ddoany thingf orpubl i
    c
    welfarenotf orbiddenbyt heConst i
    tutionandt hel awswasputt oasev er
    et esti n1902.Ast rike
    oftheant hracitecoal miners,whichst ar tedint hesummer , r
    anlatei ntotheaut umn.I ndust r
    ies
    werepar alyzedf orthewantofcoal ;citieswer et hr
    eatenedwi ththeappal li
    ngmenaceofa
    winterwi thoutheat .Gov ernorsandmay orswer epower lessandappeal edforai d.Themi ne
    owner sr ejectedt hedemandsoft hemenandr efusedtoper mitthear bitr
    ati
    onoft hepoi ntsin
    di
    sput e,al t
    houghJohnMi tchell
    ,thel eaderoft hemi ners,repeatedlyur gedit.Af terobser ving
    cl
    osel ythecour seaf f
    air
    s, Presi
    dentRoosev eltmadeuphi smi ndt hatthesituat ionwas
    i
    ntolerabl e.Hear rangedt ohav ethef eder altroops, i
    fnecessar y,takepossessi onoft hemi nes
    andoper atet hem untilt
    hest ri
    kecoul dbeset tl
    ed.Het heni nvit
    edt hecont est antst otheWhi te
    Houseandbydi ntofhar dlaborinducedt hem t oaccept ,asasubst it
    uteorcompr omi se,
    arbi
    trationbyacommi ssionwhi chheappoi nted.Thus, byst eppingout sidet heConst it
    ution
    andact ingast hef i
    rstci
    tizenoft heland, PresidentRoosev el
    taver tedacr i
    sisofgr eat
    magni tude.

    TheElecti
    onof1904.—Thev i
    ewsandmeasur eswhi chheadvocatedwi t
    hsuchv i
    goraroused
    deephostil
    i
    tywit
    hinaswel laswi thouthi
    spar ty.Therewererumor sofaRepubl ican
    movementt odefeathi
    snomi nati
    onin1904andi twassaidthatthe" f
    inancialandcorporat
    ion
    i
    nter
    ests"wereinarmsagai nsthim.Apr omi nentRepubli
    canpaperi nNewYor kCityaccused
    hi
    m ofhav i
    ng"st
    olenMr.Br yan'sthunder
    ,"byhar ry
    ingthetr
    ustsandf avoringlaborunions.
    Whent heRepubl
    icanconv entionassembledi nChicago,however,theopposi t
    iondisappeared
    andRoosev el
    twasnomi natedbyaccl amation.

    Thiswast hesi gnalforachangeont hepar tofDemocr ati


    cl eaders.Theydenouncedt he
    Presidentaser rat
    ic,danger ous,andradical anddeci dedtoassumet hemoder at
    er ôl
    e
    themsel ves.Theyputasi deMr .Bry
    anandsel ect edastheircandidate,JudgeAl t
    onB.Par ker
    ,
    ofNewYor k,amanwhor epudiatedfreesilverandmadeadi r
    ectappeal fortheconser v
    ative
    vote.Theout comeoft her eversalwasast oundi ng.JudgePar ker'
    sv otefellmorethana
    milli
    onbel owt hatcastf orBr yanin1900; oft he476el ectoralvotesher eceivedonly140.
    Roosev elt,i
    naddi ti
    ont osweepi ngtheRepubl i
    cansect i
    ons, eveninvadedDemocr at i
    c
    terr
    itory
    ,car ryi
    ngt hestateofMi ssouri
    .Thusv indicat
    edatt hepol l
    s,hebecamemor e
    outspokent hanev er.Hisleader shi
    pinthepar tywassowi delyrecognizedthathev ir
    tuall
    y
    selectedhisownsuccessor .

    TheAdmi
    nist
    rat
    ionofPr
    esi
    dentTaf
    t

    TheCampai gnof1908. —Longbeforetheendofhi sel


    ectiveterm,PresidentRooseveltl
    etitbe
    knownt hathefav
    oredashi ssuccessor,Wil
    li
    am Howar dTaft,ofOhio,hisSecretar
    yofWar .To
    attai
    nthisendheusedev eryshredofhispower f
    ulinf
    luence.Whent heRepublicanconv ention
    assembl ed,
    Mr.Tafteasil
    ywont henominati
    on.Thought hepar t
    yplatform wasconser v
    at i
    vein
    tone,hegaveitaprogressi
    vetingebyexpressinghispersonalbeli
    efinthepopularelectionof
    Unit
    edStatesSenators,
    anincometax,
    andotherl
    i
    beral
    measur
    es.Pr
    esidentRoosevelt
    announcedhisfai
    thintheRepubl
    i
    cancandi
    dateandappeal
    edt
    othecountryf
    orhiselecti
    on.

    Thetur
    ninRepubl
    i
    canaf
    fai
    rsnowconv
    incedMr
    .Br
    yant
    hatt
    hesi
    gnswer
    epr
    opi
    ti
    ousf
    orat
    hir
    d
    at
    tempt
    towint hepresi
    dency.Thedi sastertoJudgePar kerhadt aughtthepar t
    ythatv i
    ctorydi
    dnot
    l
    ieinaconser vati
    vepolicy
    .Wi thli
    ttl
    ediff
    iculty
    , t
    herefore,thev et
    eranleaderfrom Nebraska
    oncemor eral
    li
    edtheDemocr atsaroundhisst andard,wont henomination,andwr otea
    platf
    ormv igor
    ouslyatt
    ackingt hetari
    ff,
    trusts,andmonopol ies.Supportedbyal oyal
    foll
    owing,heenteredthelist
    s, onl
    ytomeetanot herdef eat.Thoughhepol ledalmostami ll
    i
    on
    andahal fmor evotesthandidJudgePar kerin1904, thepal m wenttoMr .Taft.

    TheTar iffRev i
    sionandPar tyDissensions.—Att heverybegi nningofhi ster
    m, Presi dentTaft
    hadtof acet het ari
    ffissue.Hehadmeti tinthecampai gn.Mov edbyt heDemocr at i
    cdemand
    foradr asticreduction, hehadexpr essedopi nionswhichwer ethoughtt oimplya" downwar d
    revi
    sion."TheDemocr atsmademuchoft heimpl i
    cati
    onandt heRepubl i
    cansfrom t heMiddle
    Westr ejoicedi nit
    .Pr essur ewascomi ngf rom all
    sides.Mor et hant eny earshadel apsedsince
    theenact mentoft heDi ngleybillandt heposi t
    ionofmanyi ndust r
    ieshadbeenal teredwiththe
    courseoft i
    me.Ev i
    dent l
    yt hedayf orrevision—atbestat hanklesst ask—hadar ri
    v ed.Taf t
    acceptedt hei nevit
    abl eandcal ledCongr essi naspecial session.Unt ilthemidsummerof1909,
    RepublicanSenat orsandRepr esent at
    iveswr angledov ertarif
    fschedul es,t
    hePr esidentmaki ng
    l
    itt
    leefforttoi nfl
    uencet heirdecisi
    ons.WhenonAugust5t hePay ne-Aldri
    chbillbecameal aw,
    abreachhadbeenmadei nRepubl i
    canr anks.Power f
    ul Senator sfrom t heMiddleWesthad
    spokenangr i
    lyagai nstmanyoft hehighr atesimposedbyt hebi ll
    .Theyhadev enbr okenwi t
    h
    thei
    rpar tycolleaguest ovot eagainsttheent i
    reschemeoft ari
    ffrev i
    sion.

    TheI ncomeTaxAmendment .—Ther i


    ftinpar tyhar monywaswi denedbyanot herserious
    di
    fferenceofopi nion.Dur i
    ngt hedebat eont het arif
    fbill
    ,therewasaconcer tedmov ementt o
    i
    ncludei nitanincomet axpr ovision—t hisinspi teoft hedeci si
    onoft heSupr emeCour ti
    n1895
    declaringitunconstituti
    onal.Conser v
    at i
    v emenwer ealarmedbyt heev i
    dentwi l
    li
    ngnessof
    somemember st ofloutasol emndecr eeoft hatemi nentt r
    ibunal.Att hesamet imet heysawa
    power f
    ulcombinat i
    onofRepubl i
    cansandDemocr atsdet er
    mi neduponshi fti
    ngsomeoft he
    burdenoft axati
    ont ol argeincomes.I nt hepr essofci rcumst ances, acompr omisewasr eached.
    Thei ncomet axbillwasdr oppedf orthepr esent; butCongr esspassedt hesi xt
    eenth
    amendmentt ot heConst i
    tuti
    on, authorizingt axesuponi ncomesf rom what eversourcet hey
    mightbeder i
    ved,wi thoutreferencet oanyappor tionmentamongt hestatesont hebasi sof
    popul ati
    on.Thest atesratifi
    edt heamendmentandear lyin1913i twaspr oclai
    med.

    PresidentTaf t
    'sPol i
    cies.—Aftertheenactmentoft het arif
    fbi l
    l,Taf tcont i
    nuedt opushf orwar dwit
    h
    hislegislativeprogram.Her ecommended, andCongr esscr eated, aspeci al courtofcommer cewith
    j
    ur i
    sdiction,amongot hert hi
    ngs, overappealsfrom t heint erst
    at ecommer cecommi ssion, thus
    facili
    tati
    ngj udici
    alreviewoft herail
    wayratesf i
    xedandt heor der sissuedbyt hatbody .This
    measur ewasqui cklyfoll
    owedbyanactest abli
    shi ngasy stem ofpost alsav ingsbanksi n
    connect ionwi ththepostof f
    ice—aschemewhi chhadl ongbeenopposedbypr ivatebanks.Two
    year slater,Congressdef i
    edt helobbyoftheexpr esscompani esandsuppl ement edt hesav ings
    bankswi thapar celspostsy stem,thusenablingt heAmer i
    canpost al serv i
    cet ocat chupwi ththat
    ofot herpr ogressivenat i
    ons.Wi thav i
    ewt oimpr ov i
    ngt hebusi nessadmi nistrati
    onoft hef ederal
    gov ernment ,thePr esidentobt ai
    nedf r
    om Congr essal argeappr opriationf oraneconomyand
    effi
    ciencycommi ssionchar gedwi ththedutyofi nqui r
    ingi ntowast eful andobsol et emet hodsand
    recommendi ngimpr ov eddev i
    cesandpr acti
    ces.Thechi efresul tofthi sinv estigationwasa
    vigorousr epor ti
    nf avorofanat i
    onalbudgetsy stem, whichsoonf oundpubl icbacki ng.

    PresidentTaftnegot
    iatedwithEnglandandFr ancegeneraltreati
    esprovi
    dingf orthear
    bitr
    ati
    on
    ofdisputeswhichwer e"j
    ustici
    able"i
    ncharactereventhought heymightinvolvequesti
    onsof
    "vi
    talint
    erestandnati
    onal honor.
    "Theywer ecoldl
    yreceivedintheSenateandsoamendedt hat
    Taftabandonedt hem alt
    ogether.Atari
    ffr
    eciproci
    tyagreementwi thCanada, however,
    he
    forcedthroughCongressint hefaceofstr
    ongopposi t
    ionf r
    om hisownpar ty.Aftermakinga
    ser
    iousbreachi
    nRepubl
    i
    canranks,hewaschagr
    inedtoseethewhol
    eschemecomet
    onaught
    bytheovert
    hrowoft
    heLiber
    alsi
    ntheCanadi
    anelect
    ionsof1911.
    Prosecuti
    onoft heTr usts.—Thepartyschism wasev enenlargedbywhatappear edtobet he
    successfulprosecutionofsev er
    algreatcombi nati
    ons.I
    nt woimpor t
    antcases,t
    heSupr eme
    Courtorderedthedi ssoluti
    onoftheSt andardOi l
    Companyandt heAmer i
    canTobacco
    Companyont hegr oundt hatt
    heyv i
    olatedtheSher manAnt i
    -Trustlaw.I
    nt aki
    ngthisstepChi ef
    JusticeWhitewasatsomepai nstost atethatt helawdi
    dnotappl yt
    ocombi nat
    ionswhi chdid
    not"unduly
    "restrai
    nt rade.Hisremark, construedt omeant hatt heCourtwouldnotinter
    f ere
    withcorporati
    onsassuch, becamet hesubj ectofapopul arout cryagai
    nstthePresidentand
    thejudges.

    Pr
    ogr
    essi
    veI
    nsur
    gencyandt
    heEl
    ect
    ionof1912

    GrowingDi ssensi ons.—Allinal


    l,Taf t'
    sadmi nistrat
    ionf r
    om t hef i
    rstdayhadbeendi stur
    bedby
    part
    ydi scor d.Highwor dshadpassedov ert hetariffbil
    landdi sgrunt l
    edmember sofCongr ess
    coul
    dnotf or getthem.Todi ff
    erencesov erissueswer eaddedquar rel
    sbet weeny outhandol d
    age.IntheHouseofRepr esent
    ativest heredev elopedagr oupofy oung" insurgent"Republi
    cans
    whor esentedt hedomi nanceoft heSpeaker ,JosephG.Cannon, andot hermember softhe" ol
    d
    guard,"ast heynamedt hemenofl ongserv i
    ceandconser vati
    vemi nds.In1910, t
    heinsurgents
    wentsof arast ojoi
    nwi t
    htheDemocr at
    si namov ementt obreakt heSpeaker 'sswayby
    ousti
    nghi mf rom therulescommi tteeanddepr i
    v i
    nghi m ofthepowert oappoi nti
    tsmember s.
    Thest orm wasbr ewing.Intheaut umnoft haty eart heDemocr at
    swonacl earmajori
    tyinthe
    HouseofRepr esentati
    vesandbegananopenbat tl
    ewi t
    hPr esidentTaf tbydemandi ngan
    i
    mmedi atedownwar drevi
    sionoft het ar
    iff
    .

    TheRi seofthePr ogr essiveRepubl i


    cans.—Preparator
    ytot hecampai gnof1912, t
    hedissenter
    s
    withint heRepubl i
    canpar tyaddedt heprefi
    x"Progressiv
    e"t otheiroldtitl
    eandbeganto
    organi zeamov ementt opr eventther enominati
    onofMr .Taft.Asear l
    yasJanuar y21,1911,
    theyf ormedaPr ogr essiveRepubl icanLeagueatt hehomeofSenat orLaFol l
    etteofWisconsin
    andl aunchedanat tackont heTaftmeasur esandpol ici
    es.InOct obert heyi
    ndorsedMr .La
    Folletteas" t
    hel ogical Republicancandi dat
    e"andappeal edt othepar tyforsupport
    .The
    cont r
    ov ersyovert het ari
    ffhadgr owni nt
    oaf or
    midabler evoltagainsttheoccupantofthe
    Whi teHouse.

    Roosev el
    tintheField.—Af terlookingonf orawhi le,ex- PresidentRoosev elttookahandi nt he
    fray.Soonaf t
    erhisreturni n1910f r
    om ahunt i
    ngt ri
    pi nAf ri
    caandat ourinEur ope, hemadea
    seriesofaddressesi nwhi chhef ormul atedapr ogressi vepr ogram.I naspeechi nKansas, he
    favoredregulati
    onoft het rusts,agraduat edi ncomet axbear i
    ngheav i
    l
    yongr eatfortunes,
    tarif
    frevi
    sionschedul ebyschedul e,conser vationofnat uralresources,laborlegislati
    on,the
    directpri
    mar y,
    andt her ecallofelectiveof ficials.Inanaddr essbef oretheOhi ost ate
    const i
    tut
    ionalconventioni nFebr uary,1912, hei ndorsedt hei nit
    iati
    veandr ef
    erendum and
    announcedadoct ri
    neknownast he"recal lofj udicialdeci sions."Thiswasanewandr adical
    not einAmer i
    canpol i
    ti
    cs.Anex- Presidentoft heUni tedSt atespr oposedt hatthepeopl eatt he
    pollsshouldhav etherightt or ev
    erset hedeci sionofaj udgewhosetasi deanyactofast ate
    l
    egi sl
    atur
    epassedi nthei nterestsofsoci al wel fare.ThePr ogressiveRepubl i
    cans, impressed
    byt heseaddresses, t
    urnedf r
    om LaFol lettetoRoosev eltandonFebr uary24, inducedhi mt o
    comeoutopenl yasacandi dateagainstTaf tf ortheRepubl icannomi nation.

    TheSplitintheRepubl i
    canPar t
    y.—Thecount r
    ythenwitnessedt hestrangespectacleoftwomen
    whohadoncebeencl osecompani onsengagedi nabitt
    errivalrytosecureamajor i
    tyofthe
    delegat
    est otheRepubl i
    canconv ent
    iontobehel datChicago.Whent heconventi
    onassembl ed,
    aboutone- f
    ourthoft heseatswer econtested,t
    hedelegatesf orbothcandidat
    esl oudl
    ypr oclai
    ming
    theregulari
    tyoftheirelecti
    on.Indecidi
    ngbet weenthecontest antsthenati
    onalcommi ttee,aft
    er
    theusual hear
    ings,set t
    ledthedisputesinsuchawayt hatTaf treceivedasafemaj ori
    ty.Aftera
    weekofnegot iati
    on, Roosev el
    tandhisfoll
    ower sl
    eftt
    heRepubl icanpart
    y.Mostofhi ssuppor t
    ers
    withdr
    ewf r
    om t
    heconventionandthef ewwhor emainedbehi
    ndref
    usedtoanswertherol
    lcal
    l
    .
    Undist
    urbedbythi
    sformidablebolt
    ,theregul
    arRepubli
    canswentonwit
    hthei
    rwork.They
    renominat
    edMr.Taftandputf or
    thaplatfor
    mr oundl
    ycondemningsuch
    Pr
    ogr
    essi
    vedoct
    ri
    nesast
    her
    ecal
    lofj
    udges.

    TheFor mat i
    onoft hePr ogressi vePar ty.
    —Theact i
    onoft heRepubl icansi nseat i
    ngt heTaf t
    del egateswasv igorousl ydenouncedbyRoosev elt.Hedecl aredthatt heconv entionhadno
    claimt or epr esentt hev otersoft heRepubl i
    canpar t y
    ;thatanycandi dat enamedbyi twoul dbe
    "thebenef ici
    ar yofasuccessf ul fraud";andt hatitwoul dbedeepl ydi scr editabletoanymant o
    acceptt heconv ent i
    on'sappr ov al undersuchci rcumst ances.Thebi t
    t ernessofhi sf oll
    ower s
    wasext reme.OnJul y8, acallwentf or t
    hf ora"Pr ogressi v
    e"conv entiont obehel di nChicago
    onAugust5.Theassembl ywhi chdul ymetont hatdaywasauni quepol i
    ticalconf erence.
    Pr omi nencewasgi vent owomendel egates,and" pol i
    ti
    cians"wer enot abl yabsent .Roosev elt
    himsel f
    , whowascheer edasaconquer i
    ngher o,madeani mpassi onedspeechset ti
    ngf orthhi
    s
    "conf essi onoff aith."Hewasnomi natedbyaccl amat i
    on; Gov er
    norHi ram JohnsonofCal i
    forni
    a
    wassel ect edashi scompani oncandi dateforVicePr esident.Thepl at form endor sedsuch
    pol it
    ical refor msaswomansuf frage, di
    rectprimar ies,theiniti
    ati
    ve, r
    ef er endum, andr ecal
    l,
    popul arel ectionofUni tedStat esSenat ors,andt heshor tball
    ot.Itfav oredapr ogram ofsoci al
    l
    egi slation, i
    ncludingt hepr ohibitionofchi l
    dlaborandmi nimum wagesf orwomen.I tapproved
    ther egul at i
    on, ratherthant hedi ssolut i
    on,ofthet rusts.Likeapost lesi nanewandl oftycause,
    thePr ogr essi vesent eredav igor ouscampai gnfort heel ecti
    onoft hei rdi stinguishedl eader.

    Woodr owWi lsonandt heEl ectionof1912. —Wi tht heRepubl icansdi v i


    ded, vi
    ct oryloomedup
    beforet heDemocr ats.Nat urally,at errifi
    ccont estov erthenomi nat i
    onoccur redatt hei r
    conv ent i
    oni nBal t
    imor e.ChampCl ark, Speakeroft heHouseofRepr esent atives, andGov er nor
    Woodr owWi lson, ofNewJer sey,wer et hechi efcont estants.Af tertossi ngt oandf r
    of orsev en
    l
    ong, hotday s, andt akingf or ty
    -sixbal lot s,t
    hedel egat es,power full
    yinfluencedbyMr .Bry an,
    fi
    nallydeci dedi nf av orofthegov ernor .Asapr ofessor , awr i
    teronhi storical andpol i
    tical
    subject s,andt hepr esidentofPr incet onUni versit
    y ,Mr .Wi l
    sonhadbecomewi delyknowni n
    publicl i
    fe.Ast hegov ernorofNewJer seyhehadat t r
    actedt hesuppor toft hepr ogressi v
    esi n
    bothpar ti
    es.Wi t
    hgr i
    m det ermi nationhehad" wagedwaront hebosses, "andpushedt hrough
    thelegi sl
    aturemeasur esest ablishingdi rectpr i
    mar i
    es, regulatingpubl icut ili
    ties,andcr eat i
    nga
    system ofwor kmen' scompensat ioni ni ndust ri
    es.Dur ingthepr esidential campai gnt hat
    foll
    owedGov ernorWi l
    sont our edt hecount ryandar ousedgr eatent husiasm byaser iesof
    addressesl aterpubl i
    shedundert het itleofTheNewFr eedom.Hedecl ar edt hat" the
    gover nmentoft heUni tedSt atesisatpr esentt hef ost erchildoft hespeci alinterests."He
    proposedt of reethecount rybybr eaki ngt hedomi nanceof" thebi gbanker s,thebi g
    manuf acturers, t
    hebi gmast ersofcommer ce, theheadsofr ai l
    roadcor por ati
    onsandof
    steamshi pcor porat i
    ons. "

    I
    nt heel ect i
    onGov ernorWi lsoneasilysecur edamaj ori
    tyoft heel ectoralvotes,andhisparty,
    whiler etainingpossessi onoft heHouseofRepr esent ati
    v es,capturedt heSenat easwel l
    .The
    popul arv erdict,howev er, i
    ndicatedast ateofconf usi
    oni nt hecount r
    y .Thecombi ned
    Progressi veandRepubl icanv oteexceededt hatoft heDemocr atsby1, 300,000.TheSoci al
    ist
    s,
    withEugeneV.Debsast heircandidateagai n, polledabout900, 000v otes,mor ethandoubl e
    thenumberr eceivedfoury earsbefore.Thus, ast heresultofanext raordinaryupheav al
    the
    Republ icans, afterholdingt heof fi
    ceofPr esi dentf orsixteeny ears,passedoutofpower ,and
    thegov ernmentoft hecount r
    ywasi ntrustedt ot heDemocr atsundert heleader shipofaman
    destinedt obeoneoft heout standi
    ngf i
    gur esoft hemoder nage, Woodr owWi l
    son.

    Gener
    alRef
    erences

    J.
    B.Bi Theodor
    shop, eRoosev
    eltandHi
    sTi
    me(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    Theodor
    eRoosev
    elt
    ,Aut
    obi
    ogr
    aphy
    ;NewNat
    ional
    i
    sm;
    Progr
    essi
    vePr
    inci
    ples.
    W.
    H.Taf
    t,Popul
    arGov
    ernment
    .

    Wal
    terWey
    l,TheNewDemocr
    acy
    .
    H.Cr
    oly
    ,ThePr
    omi
    seofAmer
    icanLi
    fe.

    J.
    B.Bi ThePanamaGat
    shop, eway
    .

    J.
    B.Scot
    t,TheHaguePeaceConf
    erences.

    W.
    B.Munr
    o(ed.
    ),I
    nit
    iat
    ive,
    Ref
    erendum,
    andRecal
    l
    .

    C.
    R.VanHi TheConser
    se, vat
    ionofNat
    uralResour
    ces.

    Gi
    ff
    ordPi
    nchot
    ,TheFi
    ghtf
    orConser
    vat
    ion.

    W.
    F.Wi
    l
    loughby
    ,Ter
    ri
    tor
    iesandDependenci
    esoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates(
    1905)
    .

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    Roosevel
    tand"Bi
    gBusiness.
    "—Hawort TheUni
    h, t
    edSt at
    esi
    nOurOwnTi me,pp.281-
    289;
    F.A.
    Ogg,Nat i
    onalProgr
    ess (Ameri
    can Nati
    on Ser
    ies)
    ,pp.40-75;Paxson,The New Nation
    (Ri
    versi
    deSeri
    es)
    ,pp.293-
    307.

    OurI
    nsul
    arPossessi
    ons.
    —El Hi
    son, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.896-
    904.

    Lat
    in-
    Amer
    icanRel
    ati
    ons.
    —Hawor
    th,
    pp.294-
    299;
    Ogg,
    pp.254-
    257.

    ThePanamaCanal
    .—Hawor
    th,
    pp.300-
    309;
    Ogg,
    pp.266-
    277;
    Paxson,
    pp.286-
    292;
    Elson,
    pp.906-
    911.

    Conserv
    ati
    on.—Haworth,
    pp.331-
    334;
    Ogg,
    pp.96-
    115;
    Bear
    d,Amer
    icanGov
    ernmentand
    Pol
    it
    ics(3ded.)
    ,pp.401-
    416.

    Republi
    canDissensi
    onsunderTaft'
    sAdmini
    str
    ati
    on.
    —Hawor
    th,
    pp.351-
    360;
    Ogg,
    pp.167-
    186;Paxson,
    pp.324-342;
    Elson,pp.916-
    924.

    TheCampai
    gnof1912.
    —Hawor
    th,
    pp.360-
    379;
    Ogg,
    pp.187-
    208.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Compar
    etheear
    lycar
    eerofRoosev
    eltwi
    tht
    hatofsomeot
    herPr
    esi
    dent
    .

    2.
    Namet
    hechi
    eff
    orei
    gnanddomest
    icquest
    ionsoft
    heRoosev
    elt
    -Taf
    tadmi
    nist
    rat
    ions.

    3.
    Whati
    nter
    nat
    ional
    compl
    i
    cat
    ionswer
    einv
    olv
    edi
    nthePanamaCanal
    probl
    em?

    4.
    Rev
    iewt
    heMonr
    oeDoct
    ri
    ne.Di
    scussRoosev
    elt
    'sappl
    i
    cat
    ionsofi
    t.

    5.
    Whati
    sthest
    rat
    egi
    cimpor
    tanceoft
    heCar
    ibbeant
    otheUni
    tedSt
    ates?

    6.
    Whatismeantbytheseapower?Tr
    acet
    hevoyageofthef
    leetar
    oundt
    hewor
    ldand
    ment
    ionthesi
    gni
    fi
    canti
    mperi
    alandcommerci
    alpoi
    ntst
    ouched.

    7.
    Whati
    smeantbyt
    hequest
    ion:
    "Doest
    heConst
    it
    uti
    onf
    oll
    owt
    hef
    lag?
    "
    8.
    Tracet
    hehi
    stor
    yofsel
    f-
    gov
    ernmenti
    nPor
    toRi
    co.I
    nthePhi
    l
    ippi
    nes.

    9.
    Whati
    sCuba'
    srel
    ati
    ont
    otheUni
    tedSt
    ates?

    10.
    WhatwasRoosev
    elt
    '
    stheor
    yofourConst
    it
    uti
    on?

    11.
    Giv
    eRoosev
    elt
    'sv
    iewsont
    rust
    s,l
    abor
    ,taxat
    ion.

    12.
    Out
    li
    net
    hedomest
    icphasesofRoosev
    elt
    '
    sadmi
    nist
    rat
    ions.

    13.
    Accountf
    ort
    hedi
    ssensi
    onsunderTaf
    t.

    14.
    Tracet
    her
    iseoft
    hePr
    ogr
    essi
    vemov
    ement
    .

    15.
    WhatwasRoosev
    elt
    '
    spr
    ogr
    essi
    vepr
    ogr
    am?

    16.
    Rev
    iewWi
    l
    son'
    sear
    lycar
    eerandexpl
    aint
    heunder
    lyi
    ngt yofTheNewFr
    heor eedom.

    CHAPTERXXI
    I
    THESPI
    RITOFREFORM I
    NAMERI
    CA

    AnAgeofCr
    it
    ici
    sm

    Att
    acksonAbusesi nAmer icanLi fe.—Thecr isi
    spr ecipitatedbyt hePr ogr essi veupr isingwasnota
    suddenandunexpect edone.I thadbeenl ongi npr epar ation.Ther evoltagai nstcor r uptionin
    poli
    ti
    cswhi chpr oducedt heLi beral Republ i
    canout breaki nt hesev entiesandt heMugwump
    mov ementoft heei ght i
    eswasf oll
    owedbycont i
    nuouscr it
    icism ofAmer icanpol iti
    cal andeconomi c
    development .From 1880unt ilhisdeat hin1892, Geor geWi ll
    iam Cur ti
    s,aspr esi dentoft heCi vi
    l
    Servi
    ceRef orm Associ ati
    on, keptupar unni ngf i
    reupont heabusesoft hespoi lssy stem.James
    Bryce,anobser vantEngl i
    shschol arandmanofaf fairs, inhi sgreatwor k, TheAmer i
    can
    Commonweal th, publishedi n1888, bypict uri
    ngf earlessl yt hepoliticalringsandmachi neswhi ch
    domi natedt heci ties,gav et hewhol ecount ryaf reshshock.Si xyear slaterHenr yD.Ll oyd,ina
    power fulbookent i
    tledWeal thagai nstCommonweal th, attackedi nscat hi nglanguagecer t
    aintrust
    s
    whichhaddest r
    oy edt heirrivalsandbr i
    bedpubl icofficials.I n1903Mi ssI daTar bell, anaut horof
    establi
    shedr eput ati
    oni nthehi storicalfi
    eld, gavetot hepubl icanaccountoft heSt andar dOil
    Company ,rev ealingt her uthlessmet hodsoft hatcor por ationi ncrushi ngcompet it
    ion.Aboutt he
    samet imeLi ncol nSt effensex posedt hesor di dcharact erofpol it
    icsi nsev er
    al muni ci pali
    ti
    esina
    seri
    esofar ti
    cl esbear i
    ngt hepai nful heading: TheShameoft heCities.Thecr itical spi ri
    tappear ed
    i
    nal mostev eryf orm; i
    nweekl yandmont hlymagazi nes, i
    nessay sandpamphl et s,i
    nedi tori
    alsand
    newsst or
    ies, innov elsl i
    keChur chillsConi
    ' stonandSi nclair'sTheJungl e.I tbecamesosav ageand
    sowant onthatt heopeni ngy earsoft hetwent i
    ethcent urywer ewel lnamed" theageoft he
    muckr akers."

    TheSubj ectsoftheCrit
    icism.—Inthisoutbur
    stofinvect
    ive,
    not hi
    ngwasspared.Itwascharged
    thateachoft hepoli
    ti
    cal parti
    eshadf al
    leni
    ntothehandsofpr ofessi
    onal
    poli
    ti
    cianswhodev ot
    ed
    thei
    rt i
    met omanagingconv enti
    ons,makingplat
    forms,nominat i
    ngcandi
    dat
    es,anddictat
    ingto
    offi
    cial
    s;inretur
    nfortheir"servi
    ces"theysol
    dof f
    icesandpriv
    ileges.I
    twasal
    legedthatmay or
    s
    andcounci
    l
    shadbar
    gai
    ned
    awayf orpr ivatebenefi
    tstreetrai
    lwayandot herf
    ranchises.Itwasasser tedthatmany
    power fullaborunionswer edomi natedbymenwhobl ackmai ledemployer s.Somecri
    ti
    cs
    specializedi ndescri
    pti
    onsoft hepov erty
    ,sl
    ums,andmi seryofgreatcit
    ies.Other
    stookup
    "fr
    enziedf inance"andaccusedf i
    nanciersofsel
    li
    ngwor thlessstocksandbondst oaninnocent
    publi
    c.St il
    l other
    sprofessedt oseeint heaccumulat
    ionsofmi l
    li
    onair
    est hedownfal
    lofour
    republi
    c.

    TheAt tackon" Inv isi


    bleGov ernment ."—Someev enmai nt
    ainedt hatthecont rol ofpubl icaf fairs
    hadpassedf rom t hepeopl et oasi nist ermi nor it
    ycalled" t
    heinv i
    siblegov ernment .
    "Soemi nent
    andconser vativeast atesmanast heHon.El i
    huRootl entthewei ghtofhi sgr eatnamet osuchan
    i
    mput ation.Speaki ngofhi snat ivest at e, NewYor k,hesai d:"Whati sthegov ernmentoft hi
    sst ate?
    Whathasi tbeendur i
    ngt hef ortyy earsofmyacquai ntancewi thit?Thegov ernmentoft he
    Constituti
    on?Oh, no; nothal fthet imeorhal fway ..
    ..From theday sofFent onandConkl ingand
    ArthurandCor nel l andPl att,fr
    om t he
    day sofDav idB.Hi l
    ldownt othepr esentt ime, t
    hegov ernmentoft hest atehaspr esent edt wo
    diff
    erentl inesofact i
    v i
    ty:one, oft heconst ituti
    onal andst atutoryof f
    icersoft hest at eandt he
    otheroft hepar tyl eader s;theycal lthem par t
    ybosses.Theycal l t
    hesy stem—Idon' tcoint he
    phrase—t hesy st em t heycal l'
    i
    nv isiblegov ernment .'ForIdon' tknowhowmanyy ear sMr .
    Conklingwast hesupr emer uleri nt hisst at e.Thegov ernordi dnotcount ,thel egislat ur
    edi dnot
    count,compt roller sandsecr etariesofst at eandwhatnotdi dnotcount .ItwaswhatMr .
    Conklingsai d,andi nagr eatout burstofpubl icragehewaspul l
    eddown.ThenMr .Pl attr uled
    thestat e;forni ghupont went yy earsher ul edit.Itwasnott hegov ernor;itwasnott he
    l
    egi sl
    ature; itwasMr .Pl att.Andt hecapi t
    al wasnother e[inAl bany ]
    ;itwasat49Br oadway ;Mr.
    Plattandhi slieut enant s.Itmakesnodi ff
    er encewhatnamey ougi ve,whet heryoucal li
    tFent on
    orConkl i
    ngorCor nellorAr thurorPl at torbyt henamesofmennowl ivi
    ng.Ther ul eroft he
    statedur ingt hegr eaterpar toft hef or tyy ear sofmyacquai ntancewi ththest at
    egov ernment
    hasnotbeenanymanaut hor i
    zedbyt heconst it
    ut i
    onorbyl aw. .
    ..Thepar tyleaderi sel ect edby
    noone, account abl etonoone, boundbynooat hofof fi
    ce,remov ablebynoone. "

    TheNat i
    onAr oused.
    —Wi t
    hthespi r
    itofcr i
    ti
    cism cameal sot hespi ritofreform.Thechar ges
    wereusual lyexaggerated;oftenwhol l
    yf alse;butt herewasenought ruthinthem t owar r
    ant
    renewedv i
    gil
    anceont hepar tofAmer i
    candemocr acy.Pr esi
    dentRoosev eltdoubt l
    ess
    summedupt hesentimentoft hegr eatmaj ori
    tyofci ti
    zenswhenhedemandedt he
    punishmentofwr ong-doersin1907, say ing:"Itmakesnotapar ticleofdi ffer
    encewhet her
    thesecr i
    mesar ecommi tt
    edbyacapi talistorbyal abor er,byal eadi ngbankeror
    manuf acturerorrai
    lr
    oadmanorbyal eadi ngr epresent ativeofal aboruni on.Swi ndli
    ngi n
    stocks,corrupti
    nglegislat
    ures, maki ngf ortunesbyt hei nflat
    ionofsecur iti
    es,bywr ecking
    rai
    lroads,bydest r
    oyingcompet i
    torst hroughr ebates—t hesef or
    msofwr ong-doingi nthe
    capital
    istarefarmor einfamoust hananyor dinaryform ofembezzl ementorf orgery."The
    ti
    mehadcome, headded, t
    ost op" muckr aking"andpr oceedt otheconst ructi
    v ewor kof
    remov i
    ngt heabusest hathadgr ownup.

    Pol
    i
    tical
    Ref
    orms

    ThePubl i
    cSer vice.—I
    twasawi secompr ehensi onoft heneedsofAmer i
    candemocr acythatl ed
    thefri
    endsofr ef or
    mt olaunchandt osust ainf ormor ethanhalfacent uryamov ementt oimpr ov e
    thepublicservice.Ontheonesi det heyst ruckatt hespoi l
    ssy st
    em; att heri
    ghtofthepol it
    icianst o
    usepubl i
    cof f
    icesasmer erewar dsf orpar ti
    sanwor k.Thefederalcivilservi
    ceactof1883opened
    thewayt or ef
    or m byestabli
    shingfiv evitalprinci plesinlaw:(1)admi ssiontooffi
    ce,notont he
    recommendat i
    onofpar tywor kers,butont hebasi sofcompet it
    iveexami nati
    ons;(2)promot ionf or
    mer i
    tor
    iousser viceofthegov ernmentr athert hanofpar ti
    es;(3)noassessmentofof f
    icehol ders
    forcampai gnfunds; (
    4)permanentt enuredur inggoodbehav ior
    ;and( 5)nodi smissalsforpol it
    ical
    reasons.Theacti t
    sel
    fatf i
    rstappliedt oonl y14, 000federaloffi
    ces,butundert heconst ant
    pressurefrom t
    her ef
    ormersitwasext endedunti
    li
    n1916i tcoverednear
    ly300,
    000employ eesout
    ofanexecut i
    veforceofapproximat el
    y414,000.Whi
    legainingst
    eadil
    yatWashingt
    on,ci
    vi
    l servi
    ce
    reformerscarr
    iedtheiragi
    tat
    ionintothestatesandcit
    ies.By1920theywereablet
    oreportt en
    stateswithciv
    ilservi
    cecommi ssionsandt hemeri
    tsystem well
    i
    ntr
    enchedi
    nmor
    ethant
    hreehundr
    edmuni
    cipal
    i
    ties.

    Inexcludi ngspoi l
    smenf rom publ icof fi
    ce,ther efor
    mer swer e,inasense, engagedi nanegat iv
    e
    work: thatof" keepingt herascal sout ."Butt herewasasecondandl ar
    gerphaset otheir
    mov ement ,oneconst ructiveinchar acter:t
    hatofget t
    ingskill
    ed, l
    oyal,
    andef fici
    entser v
    ants
    i
    ntot hepl acesofr esponsi bili
    ty.Ev erywhereonl andandsea, i
    nt ownandcount ry,newbur dens
    werel aiduponpubl i
    cof f
    icers.Theywer ecal l
    edupont osuperv i
    setheshi pssai li
    ngt oandf r
    om
    ourpor ts; t
    oi nspectt hewat erandmi lksuppl iesofourci ti
    es;toconstr uctandoper ategreat
    publi
    cwor ks, suchast hePanamaandEr i
    ecanal s;
    tor egul
    atet hecompl icatedr at
    esofr ail
    way
    compani es; tosaf eguar dheal t
    handsaf et
    yi nat housandway s;tocli
    mbt hemount ainstofight
    for
    estf ires; andt odescendi ntot hedeepsoft heear t
    ht ocombatt hedeadl ycoal gasest hat
    assailthemi ners.Inawor d,thosewhol abor edtomast ert
    hesecr etsandt hepower sofnature
    weresummonedt ot heai doft hegov ernment :chemists,engineers,architects,nurses,
    surgeons, foresters—t heski lledinal lthesci ences,arts,andcr aft
    s.

    Keepingr ascalsoutwasnot askatallcompar edwi t


    htheproblem offi
    ndingcompet entpeople
    forallt
    het echnicaloff
    ices."Now,"saidther ef
    ormers,"wemustmakeat tracti
    vecareersinthe
    governmentwor kforthebestAmer i
    cant alent
    ;wemustt rai
    nthoseappl y
    ingf oradmi ssi
    onand
    i
    ncreaset heski l
    lofthosealreadyinpositionsoftrust;
    wemustseet oitthatthoseent er
    ingat
    thebottom hav eachancet ori
    setot hetop; i
    nshort,wemustwor kforagov ernmentasskill
    ed
    andef f
    ici
    entasi tisstrong,onecommandi ngal
    lthewisdom andtalentofAmer i
    cathatpublic
    welfar
    er equires.
    "

    TheAust ral
    ianBal l
    ot.
    —Asecondl i
    neofat t
    ackont hepol it
    icalmachi neswasmadei n
    connectionwi tht heballot.I
    nt heearl
    yday selecti
    onswer efrequent lyheldintheopenai rand
    thepollwast akenbyashowofhandsorbyt heenr oll
    mentoft hev ot er
    sundernamesoft hei
    r
    favori
    tecandi dates.Whent hi
    sanci entpracti
    cewasabandonedi nf avoroft heprint
    edball
    ot,
    therewasst il
    l nosecrecyaboutel ecti
    ons.Eachpar typreparedi tsownbal lot,oft
    enofa
    disti
    ncti
    vecol or ,
    containingthenamesofi tscandidates.Onel ectionday ,
    thesepaper swere
    handedoutt ot hevotersbypar t
    ywor ker
    s.Anyonecoul dt el
    lfrom t hecoloroft heball
    ot
    droppedi nt
    ot hebox, orf rom somemar kont heout si
    deoft hef oldedbal l
    ot ,j
    usthoweachman
    voted.Thosewhoboughtv ot
    eswer esuret hatthei
    rpur chaseswer e" del
    ivered."Thosewho
    i
    nt i
    midatedv oterscouldknowwhent hei
    rinti
    midationwasef fective.Inthiswayt hepartybal
    lot
    strengt
    henedt hepar t
    ymachi ne.

    Asar emedyf orsuchabuses, refor mers,l


    earningf rom theexperienceofAust ral
    ia,urgedt he
    adoptionoft he" Austr
    ali
    anbal l
    ot."Thatbal l
    ot,thoughi tappearedi nmanyf orms, hadcer tai
    n
    constantf eatures.I
    twasof fi
    cial
    , thatis,f
    urnishedbyt hegov ernment ,notbypartywor kers;i
    t
    contai
    nedt henamesofal l candidat esofallparti
    es; i
    twasgi venoutonl yinthepol l
    ingpl aces;
    anditwasmar kedinsecr et.Thef irststat
    et ointroducei twasMassachuset t
    s.They earwas
    1888.Bef oret heendoft hecent ur yithadbeenadopt edbynear l
    yal l
    thestatesint heuni on.
    Thesal utaryef f
    ectofther eformi nr educi
    ngt heamountofcheat ingandbr i
    beryinel ecti
    ons
    wasbey ondal lquest
    ion.

    TheDi rectPrimar y.
    —Inconnect i
    onwi ththeupri
    singagai nstmachi nepoliti
    cs,cameacal lforthe
    aboli
    tionoft heol dmet hodofnomi natingcandi
    dat esbyconv entions.Theset i
    me- honoredpar ty
    assembl ies,whichhadcomedownf rom thedaysofAndr ewJackson, were,i
    twassai d,mer el
    y
    conclavesofpar tyworkers,sustai
    nedbyt hespoilssystem, anddomi nat
    edbyani nnercir
    cl eof
    bosses.Ther emedyof f
    eredinthiscasewasagai n" moredemocr acy ,"namely,theaboliti
    onoft he
    part
    yconv entionandt headopt i
    onoft hedir
    ectprimary.Candi dateswer enolongert obechosenby
    secretconf erences.Anymemberofapar t
    ywast obeal lowedt or unf oranyof fi
    ce,topresenthi s
    namet ohispar tybysecur i
    ngsignat urestoapetiti
    on,andt osubmi thiscandidacytohisf ellow
    part
    isansatadi rectprimary—anel ect i
    onwithi
    nthepar ty.Inthismov ementGov ernorLaFol lett
    eof
    Wisconsi ntookt heleadandhi sstat ewast hefi
    rsti nt
    heuni ont oadoptt hedirectpri
    mar yf orstat
    e-
    widepurposes.Theideaspread,r
    apidlyint
    heWest ,moreslowl
    yintheEast
    .Thepubli
    c,al
    ready
    angeredagainst"t
    hebosses,"gr
    aspedeager l
    yatit
    .GovernorHughesinNewYorkpresseditupon
    theunwil
    li
    ngl egi
    slat
    ure.St
    ateaft
    erstateaccept
    editunti
    lby1918
    RhodeIsland,Del
    aware,Connecti
    cut
    ,andNew Mexi
    coweretheonlyst
    atesthathadnot
    bowedtot hestor
    m.Stil
    lther
    esult
    sweredi
    sappoi
    nti
    ngandatthatv
    eryt
    imethependul
    um
    wasbeginningtoswi
    ngbackwar d.

    PopularElectionofFeder alSenators.
    —Whi l
    et hemov ementf ordir
    ectpr i
    mar i
    eswasst i
    l
    ladv ancing
    every
    wher e,ademandf orthepopularelect
    ionofSenat or s,usual
    lyassoci atedwi t
    hi t
    ,swept
    for
    war dtov i
    ct ory.Undertheorigi
    nalConsti
    tution,i
    thadbeenexpr esslyprov i
    dedt hatSenator s
    shouldbechosenbyt helegisl
    aturesofthestates.Inpr acti
    cet hi
    sr ul
    et r
    ansf err
    edt heselectionof
    Senatorstosecr etcaucusesofpar t
    ymember sinthest atelegisl
    atures.Inconnect ionwitht hese
    caucusest herehadbeenmanyscandal s,somedi r
    ectpr oofsofbrazenbr iber yandcor r
    uption,and
    darkhintsbesi des.TheSenat ewascal l
    edbyi tsdetractors" amil
    li
    onaires' cl
    ub"andi twasl ooked
    uponast he" citadelofconservati
    sm."Thepr escri
    ptionint hiscasewasl i
    kewi se"mor e
    democr acy"—di rectel
    ecti
    onofSenat orsbypopul arvote.

    Thisr ef
    or m wasnotanewi dea.Ithadbeenpr oposedi nCongr essasearlyas1826.Pr esi
    dent
    Johnson, anar dentadv ocate, madei tthesubj ectofaspeci al
    messagei n1868Notl ong
    afterwar ditappear edinCongr ess.Atl astin1893, they earafterthegreatPopulistupheav al
    ,
    theHouseofRepr esentativ
    esbyt her equisit
    et wo-t
    hirdsv oteincorporat
    editinanamendment
    tothef eder alConst i
    tuti
    on.Agai nandagai nitpassedt heHouse; butt
    heSenat eitsel
    fwas
    obdur ate.Abl eSenat orsleveledtheirbat teri
    esagainsti t.Mr.HoarofMassachuset tsdeclared
    thatitwoul dt ransfertheseatofpowert othe" gr
    eatcitiesandmassesofpopul ati
    on" ;
    thatit
    woul d"ov erthrowt hewhol eschemeoft heSenat eandi ntheendt hewholeschemeoft he
    national Const it
    uti
    onasdesi gnedandest abli
    shedbyt hef ramer softheConstituti
    onandt he
    peoplewhoadopt edit.
    "

    Faili
    ngi ntheSenat e,adv ocatesofpopul arelect
    ionmadear earassaul tthrought hest ates.
    Theyi nducedst atel egislaturestoenactl awsrequiri
    ngt henomi nati
    onofcandi dat esforthe
    Senat ebyt hedirectpr i
    mar y,andt hent heyboundt helegislaturestoabi debyt hepopul ar
    choice.Nev adat ookt hel eadin1899.Shor tl
    yafter
    war dOr egon, bytheuseoft hei niti
    ativeand
    referendum, practicallyboundl egislator
    st oacceptthepopul arnomi neeandt hecount ry
    witnessedt hespect acleofaRepubl icanlegi
    slatur
    e"elect i
    ng"aDemocr attorepr esentt he
    stateint heSenat eatWashi ngton.By1910t hree-f
    ourthsoft hestateshadappl iedt hedirect
    primar yinsomef ormt ot hechoi ceofSenat ors.Mensel ectedbyt hatmet hodbegant opourin
    upont hef l
    oorsofCongr ess;fi
    nal l
    yin1912t het wo-t
    hirdsmaj ori
    tywassecur edf oran
    amendmentt othef ederal Constitutionprovi
    dingforthepopul arelecti
    onofSenat ors.I
    twas
    quicklyrati
    fiedbyt hest ates.Thef ol
    lowingyearitwaspr oclaimedi neffect.

    TheIniti
    ativ
    eandRef erendum. —Asacor rectivefort heevil
    swhi chhadgr ownupi nstate
    l
    egislat
    urest herearoseademandf ortheintroductionofaSwi ssdev i
    ceknownast heinit
    iati
    ve
    andreferendum.Thei nit
    iati
    veper mit
    sanyonet odr awupapr oposedbi l
    l;and, onsecuringa
    cert
    ainnumberofsi gnaturesamongt hevot ers,t
    or equirethesubmi ssi
    onoft hemeasur et o
    thepeopleatanel ect
    ion.Ifthebillt
    husinit
    iatedr eceivesasuff i
    cientmajori
    ty,itbecomesa
    l
    aw.Ther eferendum all
    owsci ti
    zenswhodi sapprov eanyactpassedbyt helegi sl
    aturetogetup
    apetiti
    onagai nstitandthusbr ingaboutar eferenceoft hemeasur etothev otersatthepol l
    s
    forapproval orrej
    ecti
    on.Theset wopracti
    cesconst itut
    eaf orm of"dir
    ectgov ernment .
    "

    Thesedev i
    ceswer eprescr i
    bed" t
    orestor
    ethegov ernmentt othepeople."ThePopul i
    sts
    favor
    edthem i nthei
    rplatform of1896.Mr.Bryan,twoy earslat
    er,madet hem apar tofhis
    progr
    am, andi nthesamey earSouthDakotaadopt edthem.I n1902Or egon,afterastrenuous
    campaign,addedadi rectlegislat
    ionamendmentt ot hestateconsti
    tuti
    on.Wi t
    hinteny earsal
    l
    theSouthwest er
    n,Mount ain,andPacifi
    cstat
    es,exceptTexasandWy omi ng,
    hadf oll
    owedt hi
    s
    example.Tot heeastoftheMi ssi
    ssippi
    ,however,
    di r
    ectlegisl
    ati
    onmetachi l
    lyrecepti
    on.By
    1920onlyfivestatesinthissect i
    onhadacceptedit:Mai ne,Massachusetts,Ohio,Michigan,
    andMar
    yland,
    thel
    astappr
    ovi
    ngt
    her
    efer
    endum onl
    y.

    TheRecal
    l
    .—Execut
    iveof
    fi
    cer
    sandj
    udges,
    aswel
    lasl
    egi
    slat
    ures,
    hadcomei
    nfort
    hei
    rshar
    e
    of
    cri
    ti
    ci sm, andi twaspr oposedthatt heyshouldli
    kewisebesubj ectedtoacl oserscr
    uti
    nybyt he
    public.Fort hi
    spurposet herewasadv ancedaschemeknownast herecal l
    —whichpermi t
    teda
    certainper centageoft hev ot
    erstocompel anyoffi
    cer,atanyt i
    medur inghi ster
    m, t
    ogobef orethe
    peopl eatanewel ect
    ion.Thisfeatureofdi r
    ectgovernment ,t
    ri
    edoutf irstinthecit
    yofLosAngel es,
    wasext endedt ostat
    e-wideusesi nOr egonin1908.Itfai
    led,howev er,tocapturepopular
    i
    magi nati
    ont othesamedegr eeast heinit
    iat
    iveandreferendum.Att heendoft enyears'agi
    tat
    ion,
    onlyt enst ates,mainlyintheWest ,hadadopt editf
    orgener alpurposes, andfourofthem didnot
    applyi ttot hejudgesoft hecourts.Stil
    litwasextensiv
    elyacclaimedi nci t
    iesandincorporat
    edinto
    hundr edsofmuni cipallawsandchar t
    ers.

    Asagener alproposit
    ion,di
    rectgov ernmenti nal
    litsformswasbi tt
    erl
    yopposedbymenofa
    conservati
    vecastofmi nd.ItwasdenouncedbySenat orHenryCabotLodgeas" not hi
    ngl ess
    thanacompl eterevol
    utioninthef abricofourgov ernmentandi nthefundament alpr i
    nciples
    uponwhi chthatgovernmentr ests."I
    nhi sopini
    on, i
    tpromi sedtobreakdownt he
    represent
    ati
    vepr i
    nci
    pleand" under mineandov ert
    hr owt hebulwarksoforderedlibertyand
    i
    ndiv i
    dualf
    reedom."Mr .TaftsharedMr .Lodge'
    sv i
    ewsandspokeofdi r
    ectgov er
    nmentwi t
    h
    scorn."Vot
    es,"heexclaimed,"arenotbr ead.
    ..r
    eferendumsdonotpayr entorfurnishhouses,
    recall
    sdonotf ur
    nishclothes,ini
    tiati
    vesdonotsuppl yempl oymentorreli
    eveinequal i
    ti
    esof
    conditi
    onorofoppor tuni
    ty.
    "

    Commi ssionGov ernmentforCi ti


    es.—Inther estl
    esssear chingoutofev il
    s,themanagementof
    ci
    tiesear l
    ycameundercr i
    ti
    calscrutiny
    .Ci t
    ygov ernment ,Mr .Brycehadr emar ked,wast heone
    conspicuousf ai
    lureinAmer ica.Thisshar pt hrust,thoughr esentedbysome, wasaccept edasa
    war ni
    ngbyot hers.
    Manypr escripti
    onswer eofferedbydoct orsoft hebodypol it
    ic.Chi efamongt hem wast heidea
    ofsi mplif
    y i
    ngt heci tygovernmentsot hatt hel i
    ghtofpubl i
    cscr utinycoul dshinet hr oughi t
    ."Let
    usel ectonlyaf ewmenandmaket hem cl ear l
    yresponsi blefort heci t
    ygov ernment !"wast he
    newcr yinmuni cipalref
    orm.So, manyci tycounci lswerer educedi nsi ze;oneoft het wohouses,
    whi chsev eralcitieshadadopt edinimitationoft hefederal gover nment ,wasabol ished; andin
    ordert hatthemay orcouldbehel dt oaccount ,hewasgi vent hepowert oappoi ntall t
    hechi ef
    offi
    cials.Thismadet hemay or,i
    nsomecases, theonl yelectiveci t
    yof fi
    cialandgav et hev oters
    a"shor tballot"cont aini
    ngonl yafewnames—ani deawhi chsomepr oposedt oappl yal sotot he
    stategov ernment .

    Afurt
    herst epintheconcentrat
    ionofaut hor
    it
    ywast akeninGal veston,Texas,
    wherethe
    peopl
    e, l
    ookinguponther ui
    noft hei
    rcit
    ywr oughtbyt hedev astati
    ngst or
    m of1901,and
    confr
    ontedbyt hedif
    fi
    cultprobl
    emsofr econstructi
    on,fel
    tthenecessi tyforamore
    busi
    nesslikemanagementofci tyaffai
    rsandi nsti
    tutedanewf orm oflocaladmini
    str
    ati
    on.
    Theyabolishedtheoldschemeofmay orandcounci landvestedal lpowerinfi
    ve
    commi ssi
    oners,

    oneofwhom, withoutanyspecialpr
    erogatives,wasassignedt otheoffi
    ceof" mayor
    presi
    dent.
    "In1908, thecommi ssi
    onform ofgov ernment ,asitwassoonchar act
    erized, was
    adoptedbyDesMoi nes,I
    owa.Theat tenti
    onofal lmunicipalref
    ormerswasdr awnt oi tandit
    washailedast heguaranteeofabetterday .By1920, mor ethanfourhundredcit
    ies,includi
    ng
    Memphi s,Spokane,Birmingham,Newar k,andBuf f
    alo,hadadopt edit
    .Sti
    ll
    thelargerci t
    iesl
    ike
    NewYor kandChi cagokeptt hei
    rboardsofal dermen.

    TheCi t
    yManagerPl an.
    —Af ewy ear
    s'exper
    iencewithcommi ssiongov ernmentrev ealedcer t
    ain
    patentdefects.Thedivi
    sionofthewor kamongf i
    vemenwasf requent lyfoundt ointroduce
    dissensi
    onsandi rr
    esponsibil
    i
    ty.Commi ssi
    onerswereof tenlackingi nt hetechnicalabili
    tyrequir
    ed
    tomanagesuchdi ffi
    cul
    tmat t
    ersasf i
    reandpoli
    cepr otecti
    on,publ i
    cheal th,publicwor ks,and
    publicut
    il
    iti
    es.Someonet henproposedtocarryoverintocitygov ernmentani deaf r
    om t he
    businesswor l
    d.Inthatspherethestockhol
    dersofeachcor porat i
    onel ectthedi r
    ectorsandt he
    dir
    ectors,i
    nt ur
    n, chooseabusi nessmanagert oconducttheaf
    fai
    rsofthecompany .I
    twas
    suggestedthatt hecitycommi ssioners,
    insteadofattempt
    ingt
    osupervi
    sethedetai
    lsoftheci
    ty
    administr
    ati
    on, shouldselectamanagert odot hi
    s.Theschemewasputintoef
    fectinSumter,
    SouthCar ol
    ina,in1912.Likethecommi ssionplan,i
    tbecamepopul
    ar.Wit
    hinei
    ghtyearsmorethan
    onehundr edandf i
    ft
    ytownsandci ti
    eshadadopt edit
    .Amongthelar
    germunici
    palit
    ies
    wereDay
    ton,Spri
    ngf
    iel
    d(Ohio)
    ,Akron,Kal
    amazoo,andPhoeni
    x.I
    tpr
    omi
    sedt
    ocr
    eat
    ea
    newpubl
    icservi
    ceprof
    essi
    on,thatofci
    tymanager
    .

    Measur
    esofEconomi
    cRef
    orm

    TheSpi ri
    tofAmer i
    canRef orm. —Thepur i
    ficati
    onofthebal l
    ot ,t
    her estri
    ctionofthespoi ls
    system, t
    heenlargementofdi rectpopul arcont r
    olovertheor gansofgov ernmentwer enott he
    soleanswer smadebyt her eformer stot hecr i
    ti
    csofAmer i
    cani nstit
    utions.Norwer et heythe
    mosti mportant.I
    nf act,t
    heywer eregar dednotasendsi nt hemsel ves,butasmeanst oserve
    awi derpurpose.Thatpur posewast hepr omot i
    onofthe" gener alwelfare."Theconcr ete
    objectscoveredbyt hatbroadt erm weremanyandv ari
    ed; buttheyi ncludedt hepreventionof
    extort
    ionbyr ai
    lwayandot hercor porati
    ons, theprot
    ecti
    onofpubl i
    cheal th,theextensionof
    education,t
    hei mprov ementofl i
    vi
    ngcondi ti
    onsintheciti
    es, theeliminationofundeser ved
    poverty,t
    her emoval ofgrossi nequalit
    iesi nwealth,
    andmor eequal i
    tyofoppor tunit
    y.

    Alltheset hingsi nvolvedt heuseoft hepower sofgov ernment .Al thoughaf ewcl ungt otheanci ent
    doctr i
    net hatt hegov er nmentshoul dnoti nterferewi thpr ivatebusi nessatal l
    ,theAmer i
    canpeopl e
    atlarger eject edt hatt heor yasv igor ouslyast heyr ej
    ect edt hedoct r
    inesofanext r
    emesoci al
    ism
    whichexal tst hest ateabov et hei ndiv i
    dual.Leader srepr esentingev eryshadeofopi nion
    proclaimedt hegov ernmentani nst r
    umentofcommonwel faretobeusedi nthepubl ici
    nterest."We
    mustabandondef i
    nitely,"saidRoosev elt
    ,"thel aissez-fairetheor yofpol i
    ti
    caleconomyand
    fearlesslychampi onasy stem ofi ncr easedgov er nment alcont rol,payingnoatt enti
    ont othecr i
    esof
    wor thypeopl ewhodenouncet hisassoci ali
    st i
    c."Thisv i
    ewwasshar edbyMr .Taf t,whoobser ved:
    "Undoubt edlyt hegov er nmentcanwi selydomuchmor e
    ..
    .tor eliev et heoppr essed, tocr eategr eat erequal ityofoppor tunity,t
    omaker easonabl eterms
    forlabori nempl oy ment ,andt of urnishv ocat ional educat ion."Hewasqui ckt oaddhi scaut i
    on
    that" therei sal i
    nebey ondwhi cht hegov er nmentcannotgowi thanygoodpr acticalresultsin
    seeki ngt omakemenandsoci etybet t
    er."

    TheRegul at i
    onofRai l
    way s.—Thef irstattempt st ouset hegov ernmenti nal ar gewayt ocont rol
    pri
    v ateent erpriseinthepubl icinterestwer emadebyt heNor thwest ernst atesi nt hedecade
    between1870and1880.Char geswer eadv ancedbyt hef armer s, par ti
    cular l
    yt hoseor gani zedi nto
    Granges, thatther ail
    way sext or t
    edt hehighestpossi blerat esf orf reightandpassenger s,that
    favoriti
    sm wasshownt ol argeshi pper s,thatfraudulentst ocksandbondswer esol dt othei nnocent
    publ i
    c.Itwascl aimedt hatr ail
    way swer enotl i
    keot herent erprises, butwer e" quasi -
    publ ic"concer ns,
    l
    iket her oadsandf er
    ri
    es, andt hussubj ecttogov er
    nmentcont rol.Accor di nglyl awswer eenact ed
    bri
    ngi ngt her ail
    roadsunderst atesuper vi
    sion.I nsomecasest hest at el
    egi slatur efi
    xedt he
    maxi mum r atest obechar gedbycommoncar ri
    ers,andi not hercasescommi ssionswer ecreat ed
    witht hepowert oestablisht her atesaf t
    erani nv esti
    gat i
    on.Thi sl egi slat
    ionwasatf irstdenounced
    i
    nt heEastasnot hinglesst hant he" confiscation"oft her ailway si nt heinterestoft hef ar mer s.
    Attempt st ohav etheSupr emeCour toftheUni tedSt atesdecl ar ei tunconst it
    ut ional wer emade
    withoutav ail
    ;stil
    lapr i
    nciplewasf inal
    lylaiddownt ot heef fectt hati nf i
    xingr at esstat elegi sl
    at ures
    andcommi ssionsmustper mi trai
    lwaycompani estoear na" fair"ret urnont hecapi talinv ested.

    Inafewy earstheGrangerspi ri
    tappear edinCongr ess.Ani nvest i
    gationrev eal
    edal ongl i
    stof
    abusescommi t
    tedbyt herailwaysagainstshi pper sandt r
    av elers.Ther esultwast hei nterstate
    commer ceactof1887, whichcreatedtheI nterstateCommer ceCommi ssion,forbade
    discr
    iminat
    ionsinrates,andpr ohi
    bitedot herobj ectionabl
    epr act i
    cesont hepar tofrailway s.This
    measur ewaslooselyenf or
    cedandt heabusesagai nstwhichi twasdi r
    ect edcont i
    nuedal most
    unabated.Ademandf orstrict
    ercont r
    ol gr
    ewl ouderandl ouder .Congr esswasf orcedt oheed.I n
    1903itenactedtheElkinslaw, for
    biddingr ail
    way st ocharger atesot herthant hosepubl i
    shed, and
    l
    aidpenalti
    esupont heof fi
    cersandagent sofcompani es,whogr ant
    edsecr etfavorst oshi ppers,
    anduponshi pperswhoaccept edthem.Thr eey earsl at
    erast il
    lmor edr asticstepwast akenbyt he
    passageoft
    heHepbur
    nact
    .TheI
    nter
    stat
    eCommer
    ceCommi
    ssi
    onwasaut
    hor
    ized,
    upon
    complaintofsomepar t
    yaggrieved,andafterapublichearing,todet
    erminewhetherjustand
    reasonabl
    erat eshadbeenchar gedbyt hecompani es.Ineffect,t
    heri
    ghttofi
    xfrei
    ghtand
    passengerrateswast akenoutoft hehandsoft heowner soft herai
    l
    way sengagedininter
    stat
    e
    commer ceandv est
    edinthehandsoft heInt
    erstat
    eCommer ceCommi ssi
    on.Thusprivate
    propert
    ytothev alueof$20,
    000, 000,000ormor ewasdecl aredtobeamat terofpubli
    cconcern
    andsubjecttogov ernmentregulati
    oni nt
    hecommoni nt
    erest.

    Muni cipal Uti


    li
    ti
    es.—Simi l
    arpr oblemsar oseinconnect ionwi t
    hthest r
    eetrail
    way s,electri
    c
    l
    ightpl ants,andot herut i
    l
    iti
    esi nthegreatciti
    es.Int hebegi nningther i
    ghttoconst ructsuch
    under t
    aki ngswasf r
    eely,andof tencorruptly
    ,grantedt opr i
    v atecompani esbyci t
    ycounci ls.
    Distressingabusesar osei nconnect i
    onwi thsuchpr actices.Manygr antsorfranchiseswer e
    madeper petual,
    orper hapsf orat erm of999year s.Ther ateschar gedandser v i
    cesr endered
    wer eleftlargelytothewi llofthecompani esholdingthef ranchises.Mer ger
    soruni onsof
    compani eswer ecommonandt hepublicwasdel ugedwi thstocksandbondsofdoubt ful
    value;bankr uptcieswer efrequent .Theconnect i
    onbet weent heutil
    it
    ycompani esandt he
    polit
    icianswas, t
    osayt heleast,notalway sinthepubl i
    ci nterest.

    Americani ngenuit ywasqui ckt odev isemethodsf oreli


    mi nat
    ingsuchev il
    s.Threel i
    nesof
    progr
    esswer elaidoutbyt her eformer s.Onegr ouppr oposedt hatsuchut il
    it
    iesshoul dbesubj ect
    tomuni cipalorst ateregul
    at i
    on, thattheformat ionofut i
    li
    tycompani esshouldbeunderpubl ic
    contr
    ol,andt hatt heissueofst ocksandbondsmustbeappr ov edbypubl icauthority
    .Insome
    casesst ate,andinot hercasesmuni cipal
    ,commi ssionswer ecr eatedtoexer ci
    sethisgr eatpower
    over"quasi -
    publiccorporations."Wi sconsin,bylawsenact edin1907, putall
    heat ,
    light,water
    works,telephone, andst r
    eetr ailwaycompani esundert hesuper v i
    sionofasi nglerail
    way
    commi ssion.Ot herstatesf ol
    lowedt hisexampl er api
    dly.By1920t heprinci
    pleofpubl iccontrol
    overmuni cipalutili
    ti
    eswasaccept edi nnearl
    yev erysecti
    onoft heuni on.

    Asecondl i
    neofr eform appearedi
    nthe" modelf
    ranchise"f
    orutili
    tycorporati
    ons.An
    i
    ll
    ustrationofthi
    st endencywasaf for
    dedbyt heChicagostreetrail
    wayset t
    lementof1906.
    Thetotal capi
    taloft hecompanywasf i
    xedatadefini
    tesum, it
    sear ni
    ngswer eagreedupon,
    andtheci tywasgi venther i
    ghttobuyandoperatethesy st
    em ifitdesir
    edt odoso.Inmany
    stat
    es, aboutthesamet ime,itwasprovi
    dedthatnofranchisestout i
    l
    itycompaniescoul
    dr un
    moret hant went
    y -f
    iveyears.

    At hi
    rdgroupofr ef
    ormer sweresatisfi
    edwithnothi
    ngshor tofmuni cipalownershi
    p.They
    proposedtodr i
    veprivat
    ecompani esent i
    rel
    youtofthef i
    eldandv esttheowner shi
    pand
    managementofmuni ci
    palpl
    antsint heci
    tyit
    self
    .Thisideawasext ensiv
    elyappli
    edto
    el
    ectri
    clightandwat erworksplants,buttostr
    eetrai
    lwaysi nonlyaf ewciti
    es,i
    ncludi
    ngSan
    Franci
    scoandSeat tle.I
    nNewYor kthesubway sareownedbyt heci t
    ybutleasedfor
    operati
    on.
    AnEastSi
    deSt
    reeti
    nNewYor
    k
    TenementHouseCont rol.
    —Amongt heot herpressi
    ngpr obl
    emsoft hecit
    ieswast he
    ov ercr
    owdinginhousesunf i
    tforhabitat
    ion.Ani nqui
    ryinNewYor kCitymadeundert heaut hori
    ty
    oft hestatein1902r evealedpov ert
    y,miser y
    ,slums,dirt,
    anddiseasealmostbey ondi maginati
    on.
    Thei mmedi ateanswerwast heenactmentofat enementhousel awprescri
    bingingr eatdetailt
    he
    sizeoft herooms, theairspace, t
    hel i
    ghtandt hesanitaryarr
    angementforallnewbui ldi
    ngs.An
    i
    mmensei mprov ementfollowedandt heideawasqui cklytakenupinotherstateshav i
    nglar ge
    i
    ndust ri
    alcenters.In1920NewYor kmadeaf urt
    heri
    nv asi
    onoftheright
    soflandl ordsbyassur i
    ng
    tot hepublic"r
    easonabler ents"forfl
    atsandapar t
    ment s.

    Wor kmen' sCompensat ion.—Nosmal l


    par tofthepov ertyincit
    ieswasduet othei nj
    uryofwage
    -earnerswhi l
    eatt heirtrade.Everyyearthenumberofmenandwomenki lledorwoundedi n
    i
    ndust rymount edhi gher .Undertheoldlaw, thewor kmanorhi sf amil
    yhadt obeartheloss
    unlesst heempl oy erhadbeengui l
    tyofsomeext raordinar
    ynegl i
    gence.Eveni nthatcasean
    expensi velawsuitwasusual lynecessarytor ecover"damages. "Inshort
    ,althoughempl oyers
    i
    nsur edt hei
    rbuildingsandmachi neryagai nstnecessar yr
    isksfrom fi
    reandst orm, t
    heyall
    owed
    theirempl oyeest oassumet heheav ylossesduet oaccidents.Theinj
    usticeoft hi
    s,though
    appar entenoughnow, wasoncenotgener all
    yrecognized.Itwassaidt obeunf airtomaket he
    empl oyerpayf orinjuri
    esf orwhichhewasnotper sonall
    yresponsibl
    e;butt heargumentwas
    overbor ne.

    About1910t her esetinadeci dedmov ementi nt hedi r


    ect ionofl i
    fti
    ngtheburdenofaccident
    s
    from theunf ortunatevict
    ims.I nthef i
    rstplace,lawswer eenact edrequiri
    ngemployerstopay
    damagesi ncer tainamount saccor di
    ngt ot henat ureoft hecase, nomat t
    erhowtheaccident
    occurred,asl ongast heinjuredper sonwasnotgui ltyofwi l
    l
    ful negl
    igence.By1914mor e
    thanone- halfthest at
    eshadsuchl aws.Int hesecondpl ace, theredevelopedschemesof
    i
    ndust ri
    alinsurancei ntheform ofaut omat i
    cgrant smadebyst atecommi ssi
    onstopersons
    i
    nj ur
    edini ndust r
    ies,t
    hefundst obepr ovidedbyt heempl oyersort hestateorbyboth.By
    1917t hir
    ty-sixstateshadlegi sl
    ationoft histype.

    Mini mum WagesandMot hers' Pensions.—Anot hersour ceofpov er


    t y,
    especi all
    yamongwomen
    andchi ldren,wasf oundt obet hel owwagespai df ortheirlabor.Repor tafterrepor tshowed
    this.In1912Massachuset tstookasi gnif
    icantst epi nthedi r
    ectionofdecl aringt hemi ni
    mum
    wageswhi chmi ghtbepai dtowomenandchi ldren.Or egon, thefollowingy ear,cr eateda
    commi ssionwi t
    hpowert opr escri
    bemi ni
    mum wagesi ncer t
    ainindust ri
    es,basedont hecost
    ofl i
    ving, andtoenf or cether atesfixed.Wi thinashor tti
    meone- thir
    doft hest ateshad
    l
    egi sl
    at ionoft hi
    schar acter.Tocutawaysomeoft heev il
    sofpov ertyandenabl ewi dowst o
    keept heirhomesi ntactandbr ingupt heirchildr en, adev i
    ceknownasmot her s'pensi ons
    becamepopul arduringt heseconddecadeoft het wentiethcentur y
    .Att heopeni ngof1913t wo
    states, Col or
    adoandI l
    li
    nois,hadl awsaut hor izingt hepay mentf rom publ icfundsofdef i
    nit
    e
    sumst owi dowswi t
    hchi ldren.Wi t
    hinf oury ears, thirt
    y-f
    ivest at
    eshadsi milarlegi sl
    ation.

    TaxationandGr eatFor tunes.—Asapar tofthecampai gnwagedagai nstpov ert


    ybyr efor
    mersthere
    cameademandf orheav ytaxesupongr eatfort
    unes,part
    icularlytaxesuponi nheri
    tancesor
    estatespassi ngtohei rsont hedeceaseoft heowner s.Roosev eltwasanar dentchampi onofthis
    typeoft axati
    onanddwel tuponitatlengthinhismessaget oCongr essi n1907." Suchat ax,
    "he
    said,"woul dhelptopr eserveameasur ableequalit
    yofoppor tunityforthepeopl eofthegenerat
    ions
    growingt omanhood. .
    ..Ouraimisto
    recogni zewhatLi ncolnpoi nt
    edout: t
    hef actthattherearesomer espectsi nwhi chmenar e
    obv i
    ousl ynotequal ;butal sotoinsi
    stt hatthereshouldbeequal i
    tyofself -r
    espectandof
    mut ual respect,anequal i
    tyofri
    ghtsbef orethelaw, andatl eastanappr oximat eequalit
    yinthe
    condi t
    ionsunderwhi cheachmanobt ainsthechancet oshowt hest ufft
    hati sinhi m when
    compar edwi thhisf ell
    ows. "
    Thespiri
    tofthenew agewas,theref
    ore,oneofreform,notofrevol
    uti
    on.Itcal
    ledforno
    evol
    uti
    onaryorutopi
    an exper
    iments,butforthe steadyand progr
    essiv
    e enactmentof
    measuresaimedatadmittedabusesanddesignedt oaccomplishtangi
    bleresult
    sinthe
    nameofpubli
    cwelfar
    e.

    Gener
    alRef
    erences
    J.Br
    y TheAmer
    ce, icanCommonweal
    th.

    R.
    C.Br Cor
    ooks, rupt
    ioni
    nAmer
    icanLi
    fe.

    E. Changi
    A.Ross, ngAmer
    ica.

    P.
    L.Hawor
    t Amer
    h, icai
    nFer
    ment
    .

    E.
    R.A.Sel
    i TheI
    gman, ncomeTax.

    W.
    Z.Ri
    pley
    ,Rai
    l
    roads:Rat
    esandRegul
    ati
    on.

    E.
    S.Br
    adf
    or Commi
    d, ssi
    onGov
    ernmenti
    nAmer
    icanCi
    ti
    es.

    H.
    R.Seager
    ,APr
    ogr
    am ofSoci
    alRef
    orm.

    C.Zuebl
    i
    n,Amer
    icanMuni
    cipalPr
    ogr
    ess.

    W.
    E.Wal
    l
    i Pr
    ng, ogr
    essi
    vi
    sm andAf
    ter
    .

    TheAmer
    icanYearBook(
    anannual
    publ
    i
    cat
    ionwhi
    chcont
    ainsr
    evi
    ewsofr
    efor
    mlegi
    slat
    ion)
    .

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    "
    TheMuckr
    aker
    s." TheNewNat
    —Paxson, ion(
    Riv
    ersi
    deSer
    ies)
    ,pp.309-
    323.

    Ci
    vi
    lServi
    ceRefor
    m.—Bear
    d,Ameri
    canGovernmentandPol
    i
    tics(
    3ded.
    ),pp.222-
    230;
    Ogg,
    Nat
    ionalPr
    ogr
    ess(Ameri
    canNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    ,pp.135-
    142.

    Di
    rectGov
    ernment
    .—Bear
    d,Amer
    icanGov
    ernment
    ,pp.461-
    473;
    Ogg,
    pp.160-
    166.

    Popul
    arEl
    ect
    ionofSenat
    ors.
    —Bear
    d,Amer
    icanGov
    ernment
    ,pp.241-
    244;
    Ogg,
    pp.149-
    150.

    Par
    tyMet
    hods.
    —Bear
    d,Amer
    icanGov
    ernment
    ,pp.656-
    672.

    Bal
    l
    otRef
    orm.
    —Bear
    d,Amer
    icanGov
    ernment
    ,pp.672-
    705.

    Soci
    alandEconomi
    cLegi
    slat
    ion.
    —Bear
    d,Amer
    icanGov
    ernment
    ,pp.721-
    752.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Whower
    esomeoft
    hecr
    it
    icsofabusesi
    nAmer
    icanl
    i
    fe?

    2.
    Whatpar
    ti
    cul
    arcr
    it
    ici
    smswer
    eadv
    anced?

    3.
    Howdi
    dEl
    i
    huRootdef
    ine"
    inv
    isi
    blegov
    ernment
    "?

    4.
    Discusst
    heuseofcr
    it
    ici
    sm asanai
    dtopr
    ogr
    essi
    nademocr
    acy
    .

    5.
    Expl
    ainwhati
    smeantbyt
    he"
    mer
    itsy
    stem"i
    ntheci
    vi
    lser
    vice.Rev
    iewt
    her
    iseoft
    hespoi
    l
    s
    syst
    em.

    6.
    Whyi
    sthepubl
    i
    cser
    viceofi
    ncr
    easi
    ngi
    mpor
    tance?Gi
    vesomeofi
    tsnewpr
    obl
    ems.
    7.
    Descr
    ibet
    heAust
    ral
    i
    anbal
    l
    otandt
    heabusesagai
    nstwhi
    chi
    tisdi
    rect
    ed.

    8.
    Whatar
    etheel
    ement
    sofdi
    rectgov
    ernment
    ?Sket
    cht
    hei
    rpr
    ogr
    essi
    ntheUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    9.
    Tracet
    hehi
    stor
    yofpopul
    arel
    ect
    ionofSenat
    ors.

    10.
    Expl
    aint
    hedi
    rectpr
    imar
    y.Commi
    ssi
    ongov
    ernment
    .Theci
    tymanagerpl
    an.

    11.
    Howdoesmoder
    nref
    ormi
    nvol
    vegov
    ernmentact
    ion?Onwhatt
    heor
    yisi
    tjust
    if
    ied?

    12.
    Enumer
    atef
    ivel
    i
    nesofr
    ecenteconomi
    cref
    orm.

    CHAPTERXXI
    II
    THENEW POLI
    TICALDEMOCRACY

    Womeni nPubl icAf fai


    rs.—Thesocial l
    egislati
    onenact edi nresponset othespi r
    itofreform
    vit
    al l
    yaffectedwomeni nthehomeandi ni ndust r
    yandwaspr omot edbytheirorganizati
    ons.
    Wher etheydi dnotl ead, t
    heywer eaffi
    li
    atedwi t
    hmov ementsf orsocialimprovement .Nocause
    escapedt heirattention;noy earpassedwi thoutwi deningther angeoft hei
    rinterest
    s.They
    serv edoncommi tteest hati
    nquiredintothepr oblemsoft heday ;theyappearedbef ore
    l
    egi slati
    veassembl iestoadv ocateremedi esf ortheev i
    lstheydiscov er
    ed.By1912t heywer ea
    forcet ober eckonedwi thinnat i
    onalpolit
    ics.Inni nestatescompl eteandequal suf
    fragehad
    beenest abl
    ished, andawi despreadcampai gnf oranat i
    onalsuffrageamendmentwasi nful
    l
    swing.Onev er yhandl ayev i
    dencest hattheirspher ehadbeenbr oadenedt oincludepubl i
    c
    affairs.Thiswast hecul minationofforcest hathadl ongbeenoper ati
    ng.

    ANewEmphasi sinHist ory.—Amov ementsodeepl yaffecti


    ngi mpor t
    anti nterestscoul dnotfai
    l
    tofindapl acei ntimeint hewr ittenr ecordofhumanpr ogress.Hi stor
    yof tenbeganasa
    chronicl
    eofki ngsandqueens, knight sandl adies,writ
    tenpar t
    lytoamuseandpar t
    lytoi nst
    ruct
    theclassest hatappear edi nitspages.Wi ththegrowt hofcommer ce, parl
    iament s,and
    i
    nternati
    onal relati
    ons,pol it
    icsanddi plomacywer eaddedt osuchchr oniclesofr oyaland
    pri
    ncelydoi ngs.Af t
    erther iseofdemocr acy ,i
    ndustry,andor ganizedlabor ,thet r
    ansact i
    onsof
    everydayli
    f ewer edeemedwor t hyofapl aceint hepagesofhi story.I
    neachcasehi storywas
    rewrit
    tenandt hepastr ediscov eredi nthel i
    ghtoft henewage.Soi twi ll
    bewi t
    ht heriseand
    growthofwomen' spoliticalpower .Thehi storyoftheirlabor,t
    hei reducat i
    on, t
    heirstatusi n
    society,
    theirinfluenceont hecour seofev entswi l
    l beexploredandgi venit splaceint he
    generalrecord.

    I
    twi l
    l beahi st
    oryofchange.Thesuper i
    orpositi
    onwhi chwomenenj oyinAmer i
    cat o-
    dayisthe
    resultofasl owevoluti
    onf r
    om anal mostrightl
    esscondi t
    ionincolonial
    times.Thef oundersof
    Amer icabroughtwitht hem theEngli
    shcommonl aw.Undert hatl
    aw, amar r
    iedwoman' spersonal
    proper t
    y—jewels,money ,f
    urnit
    ure,andthelike—becameherhusband' sproperty
    ;themanagement
    ofherl andspassedi ntohiscontrol
    .Eventhewagessheear ned,i
    fshewor kedforsomeoneel se,
    belongedt ohim.Cust om,ifnotlaw,prescri
    bedthatwomenshoul dnottakepartintownmeet i
    ngs
    orent erint
    opublicdiscussionsofreli
    giousquestions.Indeeditisafarcryfrom thebanishmentof
    AnneHut chi
    nsonf r
    om Massachuset t
    sin1637, f
    ordar i
    ngt odisputewit
    ht hechurchfathers,t
    othe
    pol
    it
    ical
    conv
    ent
    ionsof1920i
    nwhichwomensatasdel
    egat
    es,
    madenomi
    nat
    ingspeeches,
    and
    ser
    vedoncommitt
    ees.I
    nthecont
    rastbet
    weent
    heset
    wo
    scenesmaybemeasur edthechangei ntheprivi
    legesofwomensi ncethel andi
    ngoft hePil
    gri
    ms.
    Theaccountoft hi
    sprogr
    essisanar rati
    veofindividualef
    for
    tont hepartofwomen, of
    organi
    zati
    onsamongt hem, ofgenerousai dfrom sy mpathet
    icmeni nthel ongagitati
    onforthe
    removalofciv
    ilandpoli
    ti
    caldisabi
    lit
    ies.Iti
    si npartalsoanarrat
    iveofirresisti
    bleeconomic
    changewhichdr ewwomeni ntoindust r
    y,createdal ei
    surecl
    ass,gav ewomenwagesand
    i
    ncomes, andtherewi
    theconomi cindependence.

    TheRi
    seoft
    heWomanMov
    ement

    Abi
    gai
    lAdams

    ProtestsofCol onial Women. —Ther epublicanspi r i


    twhi chpr oducedAmer i
    cani ndependence
    wasofsl owandst eadygr owt h.Itdidnotspr ingupf ull
    -armedi nasi nglenight.Itwas, onthe
    contrary,nour isheddur ingal ongper i
    odoft imebyf i
    residedi scussi onsaswel lasbydebat esin
    thepubl i
    cfor um.Womenshar edt hatfiresidesi ftingofpol it
    ical principlesandpassedont he
    fi
    ndingsoft hatscr uti
    nyi nl etterstot heirfriends, newspaperar ti
    cles, andev eryform ofwr itten
    word.Howwi despr eadwast hispot ent,
    t houghnotspect acularf orce, i
    srevealedint he
    coll
    ectionsofwomen' slet ters,arti
    cles,songs, dramas, andsat ir
    ical "
    skits"onEngl ishr ul
    et hat
    havecomedownt ous.I nt hissear chintot her easonsofgov ernment ,somewomenbegant o
    takethoughtaboutl awst hatexcl udedt hem f rom t hebal l
    ot.Twowomenatl eastleftthei
    r
    protestsonr ecor d.Abi gail, t
    hei ngeniousandwi t
    tywi feofJohnAdams, wrotet oherhusband,
    i
    nMar ch,1776, t
    hatwomenobj ected" toal larbitrarypowerwhet herofst ateormal es"and
    demandedpol i
    tical pri
    vilegesi nt henewor dert henbei ngcr eat ed.HannahLeeCor bin,the
    sist
    erof" Light horse"Har r
    yLee, protestedt oherbr ot
    heragai nstt het axati
    onofwomenwi thout
    representation.

    TheSt iramongEur opeanWomen. —Fermenti nAmer i


    ca,inthecaseofwomenasofmen, was
    quickenedbyev entsinEur ope.In1792,Mar yWol lstonecraftpublishedinEnglandthe
    Vindicati
    onoft heRi ghtsofWomen—abookt hatwasdest inedt oservethecauseofl ibert
    y
    amongwomenast hewr i
    tingsofLockeandPai nehadser vedt hatofmen.Thespeci fic
    gri
    ev anceswhichst i
    rr
    edEngl ishwomenwer emen' sinvasionofwomen' sindustr
    ies,suchas
    spinningandweav ing;thedeni al
    ofequal educat i
    onal opportunit
    ies;andpolit
    icaldi
    sabili
    ti
    es.I
    n
    Franceal sothegr eatRevol ut
    ionraisedquestioningsaboutt hest atusofwomen.Ther i
    ghtsof
    "ci
    tizenesses"aswel l
    ast herightsof"cit
    izens"wer eexami nedbyt heboldestthi
    nkers.Thisin
    turnreacteduponwomeni ntheUni tedStates.

    Leadershi
    pinAmeri
    ca.—Theor i
    ginsoftheAmer i
    canwomanmov ementar et obef oundint
    he
    writ
    ingsofafewear
    lyintel
    lectualleader
    s.Duri
    ngt hefirstdecadesoftheni neteenthcentur
    y,
    books,art
    icl
    es,
    andpamphl etsaboutwomencamei nincr easi
    ngnumber sfrom t hepress.
    Lydi
    aMar iaChi
    ldwr
    oteahi storyofwomen; MargaretFullermadeacriti
    cal exami nati
    onofthe
    stat
    usofwomeni nhertime;andMr s.El
    izabet
    hElletsuppl ementedt
    heol derhi stor
    iesby
    showingwhatanimportantpar twomenhadpl ayedi ntheAmer icanRevolution.

    TheSt
    ruggl
    eforEducat
    ion.
    —Al
    ongwi
    thcr
    it
    ici
    sm,
    ther
    ewascar
    ri
    edonaconst
    ruct
    ivest
    ruggl
    efor
    bettereducati
    onalf
    acil
    i
    tiesforwomenwhohadbeenfrom t
    hebegi
    nni
    ngexcl
    udedfrom ev
    ery
    coll
    egei nthecount
    ry.I
    nt hi
    slongbat
    tl
    e,EmmaWil
    lar
    dandMar yLy
    onledt
    heway ;
    theformer
    foundedasemi nary
    atTroy,NewYor k;andt helattermadet hebegi nni
    ngsofMountHol yokeCollegei
    n
    Massachusetts.Ober l
    inCollegei nOhio,establi
    shedin1833,openeditsdoorstogi
    rl
    sand
    from i
    tweregr aduatedy oungst udentstoleadinthewomanmov ement.Sar
    ahJ.Hale,
    whoin
    1827becamet heeditorofa" Ladi es'
    Magazi ne,
    "publi
    shedinBoston,conductedacampai
    gn
    forequaleducationalopportunitieswhichhelpedt obearf
    rui
    tinthefoundingofVassar
    Coll
    egeshortlyaftertheCi v
    ilWar .

    TheDesi r
    et oEf
    fectReforms.—Astheycamet ost udytheirownhi storyandthei
    rownpar tin
    civi
    li
    zation,womennat ural
    lybecamedeeplyinterestedinallthecont r
    oversi
    esgoingonar ound
    them.Thet emperancequestionmadeaspeci alappeal t
    ot hem andt heyorgani
    zedtodemand
    therighttobehear donit.I
    n1846t he"DaughtersofTemper ance"formedasecr etsociet
    y
    favoringprohibi
    ti
    on.Theydaredt ocr
    it
    ici
    zethechur chesfort hei
    rindiff
    erenceandwer esobold
    astoaskt hatdr
    unkennessbemadeagr oundf ordivorce.

    Thesl averyissueevenmor ethant emper ancecalledwomeni ntopubli


    cl i
    fe.TheGr i
    mkési st
    ers
    ofSout hCar oli
    naemanci patedtheirbondmen, andoneoft hesesist
    ers,exiledfr
    om Char l
    eston
    forher" AppealtotheChr i
    stianWomenoft heSout h,"wentNorthtowor kagainsttheslavery
    system.I n1837t heNational Women' sAnt i-
    SlaveryConv enti
    onmetinNewYor k;seventy-
    one
    womendel egat
    esrepresentedei ghtstates.Threey earsl
    aterei
    ghtAmer icanwomen, f
    iveof
    them inQuakercost ume, attendedt heWor ldAnt i
    -SlaveryConvent
    ioninLondon, mucht othe
    horroroft hemen, whopr ompt l
    yexcl udedt hem fr
    om t hesessionsont hegr oundthatitwas
    notfit
    tingf orwoment otakepar tinsuchmeet i
    ngs.

    Inot herspher esofact iv


    ity,especiall
    ysocialserv
    ice, womenst eadil
    yenl argedtheirinter
    est .
    Not hinghumandi dt heyconsi deralientothem.Theyi nveighedagai nstcr uelcr
    iminallawsand
    unsani tarypri
    sons.Theyor ganizedpoorr eli
    efandl edi nprivat
    ephi lanthropy.DorotheaDi x
    directedt hemov ementt hatinducedt heNewYor klegi sl
    aturetoest abl
    ishi n1845asepar ate
    asy lum forthecr iminal i
    nsane.I nthesamey earSar ahG.Bagl eyor ganizedt heLowel lFemal e
    Ref orm Associ ationf orthepur poseofr educingthel onghour soflaborf orwomen,
    saf eguarding" t
    heconst itut
    ionsoff uturegenerat
    ions. "Mrs.ElizaWoodsonFar nham, mat ronin
    SingSi ngpeni tent i
    ary,wasknownt hroughoutthenat ionforhersoci al
    wor k,
    especiall
    ypr i
    son
    refor m.Wher ev erther eweremi seryandsufferi
    ng,womenwer eprepar i
    ngpr ogramsofr el
    ief.

    Freedom ofSpeechf orWomen. —I nt headv ancementoft heircauses, ofwhat everki nd, womenof
    necessi tyhadt omakepubl i
    cappeal sandt akepar tinopenmeet ings.Her et heyencount ered
    diff
    icul ti
    es.Theappear anceofwomenont hepl atf
    or m wasnewandst range.Nat ur allyitwas
    widel yr esented.Ant oinetteBrown, althoughshehadcr edent ial
    sasadel egat e, wasdr ivenoffthe
    platform ofat emper anceconv ent i
    oni nNewYor kCi t
    ysi mplybecauseshewasawoman.James
    Russel lLowel l
    ,edi t
    oroft he"AtlanticMont hl y,
    "declinedapoem f rom Jul i
    aWar dHoweont he
    theor yt hatnowomancoul dwr iteapoem; butheaddedonsecondt houghtt hathemi ghtconsi der
    anar ticlei nprose.Nat hanielHawt hor ne,anot heredi t
    or,ev enobj ectedt osomet hingi npr ose
    becauset ohim" alli
    nk- stai
    nedwomenwer eequal l
    ydet est able."Tot henat ural r
    esent mentagai nst
    theirint rusionintonewf i
    eldswasaddedt hatar ousedbyt heirideasandmet hods.Ast emper ance
    reformer s,theycr i
    ticizedi nacaust i
    cmannert hosewhowoul dnotacceptt hei ropini ons.As
    opponent sofsl averyt heywer eespeci al
    lybi t
    ter.Oneoft heirconv entions, hel datPhi ladelphi
    ai n
    1833, passedar esolutioncalli
    ngonal l woment ol
    eav et hosechur chest hatwoul dnotcondemn
    everyf or m ofhumanbondage.Thi sst irr
    edagai nstthem manyoft hecler gywho, accust omedt o
    hav i
    ngwomensi tsilentdur i
    ngser vices, wer einnomoodt ot r
    eatsuchar ev oltlenient ly.Then
    camet hel aststraw.Womendeci dedt hattheywoul dpr each—outoft hepul pitfir
    st, andf i
    nal
    lyinit
    .

    Womeni nIndustry.
    —Theperiodofthisfermentwasal sot
    heageoft heindustr
    ialr
    evol
    utionin
    America,t
    heriseofthefact
    orysy st
    em, andthegrowthofmill
    t owns.Thelaborofwomenwas
    tr
    ansferr
    edfrom thehomestot hefactori
    es.Thenarosemanyquest i
    ons:thehoursoflabor,
    the
    sani
    tarycondit
    ionsofthemil
    ls,thepressureoffor
    eignimmigrati
    ononnat i
    velabor,
    thewagesof
    womenascompar edwi
    ththoseofmen,
    andther
    ightofmar
    ri
    edwoment
    othei
    rownear
    nings.
    Laboror
    gani
    zat
    ionsspr
    angupamongwor ki
    ng
    women.Themi l
    lgi
    rlsofLowell
    ,Massachusetts,
    mainlythedaughtersofNewEngl andfarmer
    s,
    publi
    shedamagazi ne,"
    TheLowellOffer
    ing."Soexcell
    entweretheirwr
    iti
    ngsthattheFrench
    stat
    esman, Thi
    ers,
    carri
    edacopyoft hei
    rpaperintotheChamberofDeput i
    estoshowwhat
    workingwomencoul dachiev
    einarepublic.Aswomenwer enowadmi tt
    edlyearningtheirown
    wayint heworl
    dbyt hei
    rownlabor
    ,theybegant otal
    koft hei
    r"economicindependence."

    TheWor l
    dShakenbyRev oluti
    on. —Suchwast hequi ckeningofwomen' smi ndsin1848when
    thewor l
    dwasst art
    ledoncemor ebyar evol
    utioni nFrancewhi chspr eadt oGer many ,
    Pol and,
    Aust r
    ia,Hungar y,andI t
    aly.Oncemor et hepeopl eoft heear t
    hbegant oexpl orethepr i
    nciplesof
    democr acyandexpoundhumanr ights.Women, nowbet t
    ereducat edandmor e"adv anced"i n
    theirideas,playedar ôleofst il
    lgreaterimpor tancei nthatrevol
    ution.Theyl edi nagi t
    ationsand
    uprisi
    ngs.Theysuf feredfrom react i
    onandper secuti
    on.Fr om t
    heirprisoni nFrance, twoof
    them whohadbeenj ail
    edf ortoomuchi nsi
    stenceonwomen' sr i
    ghtsexchangedgr eeti
    ngswi t
    h
    Amer icanwomenwhower er ai
    singt hesamei ssueher e.Byt hi
    st i
    met hewomenhadmor e
    suppor tersamongt hemen.Hor aceGr eeley
    ,edi toroftheNewYor kTr ibune, t
    houghhe
    afterwar dsrecanted,usedhi spower fulpenint heirbehalf.Anti
    -sl
    av eryleaderswel comedt heir
    aidandr epaidthem byur gingt heenf ranchi
    sementofwomen.

    TheWoman' sRi ghtsConv enti


    onof1848. —Thef orces,mor al andi nt
    ell
    ect ual,whi
    chhadbeen
    sti
    rri
    ngamongwomen, cr
    ystalli
    zedaf ewmont hsaftertheout breakoft heEur opeanrevol
    utionin
    thefir
    stWoman' sRi ghtsConv enti
    oni nthehistor
    yofAmer ica.I tmetatSenecaFal l
    s,NewYor k,i
    n
    1848,ont hecal lofLucreti
    aMot t
    ,Mar thaWright,Eli
    zabethCadySt anton, andMar yAnn
    McCl i
    ntock,threeoft hem Quaker s.Accustomedt ot akepar tinchur chmeet ingswithmen, t
    he
    Quakersnat urall
    ysuggest edthatmenaswel laswomenbei nv i
    tedtoat tendt heconventi
    on.
    Indeed,amanpr esi
    dedov ertheconf erence,
    f ort
    hatposi t
    ionseemedt oopr esumptuousev enfor
    suchstoutadv ocatesofwoman' srights.

    Thedel i
    berationsoft heSenecaFal lsconv enti
    onresultedi naDecl arationofRi ghtsmodel ed
    aftert heDecl ar at i
    onofI ndependence.Forexampl e,t
    hepr eambl ebegan: "Wheni nt he
    cour seofhumanev ent
    si tbecomesnecessar yforonepor t
    ionoft hefami lyofmant o
    assumeamongt hepeopl eoft heear t haposi t
    iondiff
    erentf rom t hatwhi cht heyhav ehither t
    o
    occupi ed...
    ."Soal soitclosed: "
    Suchhasbeent he
    patientsuf feri
    ngofwomenundert hisgov ernmentandsuchi snowt henecessi tywhi ch
    const r
    ai nsthem t odemandt heequal stationtowhi chtheyar eent it
    led."Thenf oll
    owedt hel i
    st
    ofgr iev ances, thesamenumberwhi chhadbeenexhi bitedt oGeor geIIIin1776.Especi allydi d
    theyassai lthedi sabil
    it
    iesi mposedupont hem byt heEngl ishcommonl awi mpor tedinto
    Amer i
    ca—t hel awwhi chdeni edmar riedwoment heirproper ty,theirwages, andt heirlegal
    exist enceassepar atepersons.Al lthesegr i
    evancestheyr ecitedt o" acandi dwor l
    d."The
    remedi esf ortheev il
    swhi cht heyendur edwer ethensetf or t
    hi ndet ail
    .Theydemanded" equal
    ri
    ght s"i nthecol leges,trades,andpr ofessi ons;equalsuf f
    rage; ther i
    ghtt oshar einal lpol i
    tical
    offices, honor s, andemol ument s;ther i
    ghtt ocompl eteequal ityinmar ri
    age, includingequal
    guar dianshi poft hechildren;andf ormar ri
    edwoment herightt oownpr oper t
    y ,tokeepwages,
    tomakecont ract s,totransactbusi ness, andt otesti
    fyint hecour tsofjust i
    ce.I nshor t,they
    decl aredwoment obeper sonsasmenar epersonsandent i
    tledt oallther i
    ght sandpr ivileges
    ofhumanbei ngs.Suchwast hecl ari
    oncal l whichwentf ortht ot hewor ldi n1848—t oan
    amusedandcont emptuouswor ld,i
    tmustbeadmi tt
    ed—butt oawor l
    df at edt oheedandobey .

    TheFi r
    stGai nsinCi
    vi
    l Li
    bert
    y.—Theconv enti
    onof1848di dnotmakepol i
    ti
    cal
    enfranchisementtheleadi
    ngissue.Ratherdiditemphasi zet heci
    v i
    ldi
    sabil
    i
    tiesofwomen
    whichwer emostseri
    ouslyunderdiscussionatt hetime.Indeed,theNewYor klegi
    slat
    ureof
    thatveryy ear,
    astheresul
    tofat welveyears'agitat
    ion,passedtheMar ri
    edWoman' sProper
    ty
    Actset t
    ingasidethegeneralpri
    nci
    plesoft heEngl i
    shcommonl awasappl i
    edt owomenand
    givi
    ngt hem manyofthe" r
    ightsofman."Cal i
    forniaandWi sconsinfoll
    owedin1850;
    Massachusett si
    n1854;andKansasin1859.Otherstat
    essoonf el
    li
    ntoli
    ne.Women'searni
    ngs
    andinheri
    tanceswereatlastt
    heirowninsomest at
    esatl east
    .Inalit
    tl
    ewhilel
    awswere
    passedgrantingwomenr i
    ghtsasequalguardi
    ansoftheirchil
    drenandpermitt
    ingt
    hem to
    di
    vorcetheirhusbandsonthegroundsofcruel
    tyanddrunkenness.
    Bydegreesotherstepswer et aken.TheWoman' sMedi calColl
    egeofPennsy lvani awas
    foundedin1850,andt hePhiladelphi
    aSchool ofDesi gnforWoment hreeyearsl ater.In1852
    theAmericanWomen' sEducat i
    onalAssociat
    ionwasf ormedt oini
    ti
    ateanagi tationf or
    enlar
    gededucati
    onal opportuniti
    esforwomen.Ot hercollegessoonemul atedt heexampl eof
    Oberli
    n:t
    heUniversit
    yofUt ahi n1850;Hil
    lsdaleCollegeinMi chi
    gani n1855;BakerUni versi
    tyi
    n
    Kansasin1858;andt heUniv ersi
    tyofIowain1860.Newt radesandpr of
    essionswer eopened
    towomenandol dpr ejudi
    cesagai nstthei
    ractivi
    ti
    esanddemandssl owlygav eway .

    TheNat
    ional
    Str
    uggl
    eforWomanSuf
    frage

    TheBegi nningsofOr ganization.—Aswomensur mount edoneobst acleaf t


    eranot her ,theagi tati
    on
    forequal suffragecamet ot hef ront.Ifanyy earist obef i
    xedast hedat eofitsbegi nni ng,itmay
    verywel lbe1850, whent hesuf fragistsofOhi our gedt hestateconst i
    tutional convent iontoconf er
    thev oteupont hem.Wi thappar entspont aneitytherewer ehel dint hesamey earst atesuf frage
    conf er
    encesi nI ndiana,Pennsy lvania, andMassachuset ts;andconnect i
    onswer efor medamong
    theleader soft hesemeet ings.Att hesamet imet hef i
    rstnational suffrageconv entionwashel din
    Wor cester ,Massachuset t
    s, ont hecal l ofeighty-nineleadingmenandwomenr epresent i
    ngsi x
    states.Account soft heconv entionwer ewi delyci r
    culatedinthiscount ryandabr oad.Engl ish
    women, —f orinst ance,Har ri
    etMar ti
    neau,—sentwor dsofappr eciationf orthewor kt hus
    i
    naugur at ed.Iti nspir
    edal eadingar ti
    cleint he" West minsterReview, "whi chdeepl yi nterestedt he
    disti
    nguishedeconomi st, JohnSt uartMi ll
    .Soonhewast hechampi onofwomansuf f
    ragei nt he
    Briti
    shPar l
    iamentandt heaut horofapower fultractTheSubj ectionofWomen, widelyr ead
    throughoutt heEngl i
    sh-speaki ngwor ld.Thusdowor l
    dmov ement sgr ow.St ranget or el at
    et he
    womenofEngl andwer eenf ranchi sedbef or
    et headopt ionoft hef ederal suff
    rageamendmenti n
    Amer i
    ca.

    Thenat i
    onalsuff
    rageconv enti
    onof1850wasf ol
    lowedbyanext raordi
    naryout burstof
    agit
    ati
    on.Pamphl etsstreamedf r
    om thepr ess.Peti
    ti
    onstol egisl
    ati
    vebodi eswer edrafted,
    si
    gned, andpresented.Therewer eaddressesbyf avor
    it
    eorat orsli
    keGar r
    ison, Phi
    lli
    ps,and
    Curti
    s,andlectur
    esandpoemsbymenl ikeEmer son,Longfell
    ow, andWhi tti
    er.In1853t hefi
    rst
    suff
    ragepaperwasf oundedbyt hewifeofamemberofCongr essfrom RhodeI sl
    and.Byt hi
    s
    ti
    met helastbarri
    ertowhi t
    emanhoodsuf frageintheNorthhadbeensweptawayandt he
    woman' smov ementwasgai ni
    ngmoment um everyyear.

    TheSuf frageMov ementCheckedbyt heCi vi


    lWar .
    —Adv ocat esofwomansuf fragebel i
    eved
    themsel vesont hehighr oadt osuccesswhent heCi vil
    Warengagedt heener giesandl aborsof
    thenat i
    on.Nor t
    her nwomenbecameabsor bedi nthest ruggletopr eser vetheuni on.Theyhel d
    nosuf frageconv enti
    onsf orfiveyears.Theyt ransfor medt heirassociat ionsintoLoy alt
    y
    Leagues.Theybandedt ogethertobuyonl ydomest icgoodswhenf orei gnimpor t
    sthreatened
    toruinAmer icanmar kets.Theyr olledupmonst erpetit
    ionsi nfavoroft heemanci pati
    onof
    slaves.Inhospi tals,i
    nmi lit
    aryprisons, i
    nagriculture,andi nindustrytheybor etheirfullshareof
    responsi bil
    it
    y.Ev enwhent heNewYor klegi
    slaturet ookadv antageoft heirunguar dedmoment s
    andr epeal edthel awgivingt hemot herequal rightswi t
    ht hef at
    heri ntheguar dianshipof
    chil
    dren, theyrefusedt olayasi dewarwor kforagi tati
    on.Asi nall
    ot herwar s, t
    heirdev oti
    onwas
    unstintedandt heirsacr
    ificesequal t
    ot henecessi t
    iesoft hehour .

    TheFeder al Suff
    rageAmendment .—Theirpl
    ansandact i
    vi
    ties,whent hewarclosed, were
    shapedbyev ent
    sbey ondtheircontr
    ol.Theemanci pati
    onoft heslavesandt heirproposed
    enfr
    anchisementmadepr omi nentt
    hequestionofanat i
    onal suff
    rageforthefirstti
    mei nour
    hi
    story.Friendsoft hecoloredmani nsist
    edthathiscivill
    i
    ber ti
    eswoul dnotbesaf eunlesshe
    wasgr antedt herighttovote.Thewomansuf f
    ragistsveryper t
    inent
    lyaskedwhyt hesame
    pri
    ncipledidnotappl ytowomen.Theanswerwhi cht heyreceivedwasnegat ive.The
    fourt
    eent
    hamendmenttothefeder
    alConsti
    tut
    ion,adoptedin1868,def
    ini
    tel
    yputwomen
    asidebyl
    imi
    tingt
    hescopeofi
    tsappli
    cat
    ion,sofarasthesuf f
    ragewasconcerned,
    tot
    hemal
    e
    sex.Inmaki
    ngmanhoodsuff
    ragenati
    onal,
    howev er,
    itnati
    onali
    zedthei
    ssue.
    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    SusanB.Ant
    hony

    Thiswast hesignalfortheadvocat
    esofwomansuf frage.InMar ch,1869, t
    heirproposed
    amendmentwasi ntroducedinCongressbyGeor geW.Jul ianofI ndiana.I tprovidedthatnocit
    izen
    shouldbedepr i
    vedoft hevoteonaccountofsex, followingthel anguageoft hefift
    eenth
    amendmentwhi chforbadedisfr
    anchi
    sementonaccountofr ace.Suppor tfortheamendment ,
    comingfrom manydi r
    ecti
    ons,l
    edthesuffr
    agist
    st obel ievethatt heircasewashopef ul.I
    nthei
    r
    plat
    form of1872,forexample,theRepubli
    canspr aisedt hewomenf ort heirl
    oy aldevot
    ionto
    fr
    eedom, welcomedt hem tospheresofwiderusef ulness,anddecl aredt hatthedemandofany
    cl
    assofci ti
    zensforadditi
    onalri
    ghtsdeser
    ved"respect fulconsider ation."

    Experi
    encesoondemonst rated,howev er,t
    hatpraisewasnott hebal lot
    .Indeedt hesuf fragist
    s
    alr
    eadyhadr eal
    i
    zedt hatat ediouscontestlaybeforet hem.Theyhadr evivedin1866t heir
    regul
    arnationalconvention.Theygav et henameof" TheRev olut
    ion"tot heirpaper,editedby
    Eli
    zabethCadySt antonandSusanB.Ant hony.Theyfor medanat ionalsuffrageassoci ation
    andorganizedannual pi
    l
    grimagest oCongr esstopresentt heirclaims.Suchact ivit
    iesbor e
    somer esul
    t s.Manyemi nentcongr essmenwer econv ertedtot heircauseandpr esentedi tably
    tothei
    rcolleaguesofbot hchamber s.Stil
    lthesubjectwasr i
    diculedbyt henewspaper sand
    l
    ookeduponasf r
    eakishbyt hemasses.

    TheSt ateCampai gns.—Di scour


    agedbyt heout comeoft henational campai gn,suf f
    ragi
    sts
    turnedtot hevot
    ersoft heindi
    vi
    dual statesandsoughtt heballotatt heirhands.Gai nsbyt hi
    s
    processwer epainfullyslow.Wy oming, i
    tistrue,whi l
    estil
    laterritory, grantedsuf f
    rageto
    womeni n1869andcont i
    nueditonbecomi ngast atetwentyyear sl ater,inspiteofst r
    ong
    protestsinCongress.I n1893Col oradoest abli
    shedcompl et
    epol i
    tical equality
    .InUt ah,t
    he
    thi
    rdsuf f
    ragestate, t
    hecausesuf feredmanyv icissit
    udes.Womenwer eenf ranchisedbythe
    terri
    tor
    iall
    egisl
    ature;theywer edeprivedoft hebal l
    otbyCongr essi n1887; fi
    nallyin1896on
    theadmi ssionofUt ahtot heuniontheyr ecoveredt heirf
    ormerr ight s.Dur i
    ngt hesamey ear,
    1896, I
    dahoconf err
    edequal suf
    frageupont hewomen.Thi swast hel astsuff r
    agev ict
    oryfor
    mor ethanadecade.

    TheSuf fr
    ageCausei nCongr ess.—I nt
    hemi dstoft
    hemeagergai nsamongt hestatest herewere
    occasionalfl
    urri
    esofhopef ori mmediateactiononthefederal
    amendment .Between1878and
    1896t heSenatecommi t
    teer eportedt
    hesuf f
    rageresol
    uti
    onbyaf avorabl
    emaj or
    it
    yonf ive
    dif
    ferentoccasions.Duri
    ngt hesameper i
    od,however,t
    herewerenineunfavorabl
    er eportsand
    onlyoncedidt hesubjectreacht hepointofageneraldebat
    e.Atnot i
    mecoul danythinglikethe
    requi
    redtwo-thirdsvotebeobt ained.

    TheChangingSt atusofWomen. —Whilethesuffr


    agemov ementwasl agging,t
    heacti
    vit
    iesof
    womeni notherdirect
    ionswer esteadi
    lymulti
    plyi
    ng.Coll
    egeaftercol
    l
    ege—Vassar ,
    BrynMawr ,
    Smith,
    Wel l
    esley
    , t
    oment ionaf ew—wasf oundedtogivethem t
    headv antagesofhi
    gher
    educat
    ion.Otherinsti
    tut
    ions,especial
    l
    ythestateuniver
    sit
    iesoftheWest ,openedt
    heirdoorst
    o
    women, andwomenwer erecei
    v edi
    ntotheprofessi
    onsoflawandmedi ci
    ne.Bytherapid
    growthofpubli
    chi
    ghschoolsinwhi
    chgir
    lsenj
    oyedt
    hesamer i
    ghtsasboys,educat
    ionwas
    extendedst
    il
    lmorewi
    dely.Thenumberofwomenteacher
    sincr
    easedbyleapsandbounds.
    Meanwhi l
    ewomenwer eenteringnearlyeverybranchofi ndust
    ryandbusi ness.Howmanyof
    them workedatgai nfuloccupat i
    onsbef ore1870wedonotknow; butfrom thaty earforward
    wehav etherecordsoft hecensus.Bet ween1870and1900t hepr oporti
    onofwomeni nthe
    professi
    onsrosef rom lesst hantwopercentt omor ethantenpercent ;intradeand
    transpor
    tati
    onfrom 24. 8percentt o43.2percent;andi nmanuf acturi
    ngfrom 13t o19percent.
    I
    n1910, therewer eov er8,000,000womengai nful
    lyempl oyedascompar edwi th30,000,000
    men.When, duri
    ngt hewaronGer many ,
    thegovernmentest abli
    shedt heprincipleofequal pay
    forequalworkandgav eoffi
    cialrecognit
    iontothev alueofthei
    rser vi
    cesinindust ry,i
    twas
    discover
    edhowf arwomenhadt ravel
    edalongther oadforecastbyt heleadersof1848.

    TheCl ubMov ementamongWomen. —Allovert hecountrywomen' ssocietiesandcl ubswer e


    startedt oadv ancet hisorthatreform ormer elytostudyliterat
    ure,art,andscience.I nti
    me
    thesewomen' sor ganizat
    ionsofal lki
    ndswer efederat
    edi ntocit
    y,state,andnat ional
    associ ationsanddr awnintotheconsi derati
    onofpubl icquest i
    ons.Undert heleader shipof
    FrancesWi l
    l
    ardt heymadet emper ancereform av it
    ali
    ssue.Theyt ookani nterestinlegisl
    ation
    pertainingt oprisons, pur
    efood, publichealt
    h, andmuni ci
    pal government ,amongot herthings.
    Atthei rsessionsandconf erencesl ocal
    ,state,andnational i
    ssueswer ediscussedunt ilfi
    nally
    ,
    i
    tseems, everyt
    hi ngledtothequestoft hefranchise.Bysol emnr esoluti
    oni n1914t heNat i
    onal
    Feder ationofWomen' sClubs,representi
    ngnear l
    ytwomi lli
    onclubwomen, for
    mal lyendorsed
    womansuf f
    rage.I nthesamey eart heNat i
    onal Educati
    onAssoci at i
    on,speakingf orthepubl ic
    school t
    eacher soft heland,addedi tssealofappr oval
    .

    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    Conf
    erenceofMenandWomenDel
    egat
    esataNat
    ional
    Conv
    ent
    ioni
    n1920

    StateandNat ionalAct i
    on.—Agai nt hesuffragemov ementwasi nfullswingi nt hestates.
    Washingtoni n1910, Cal i
    forniai
    n1911, Oregon, Kansas, andAr izonain1912, Nev adaandMont ana
    i
    n1914bypopul arvoteenf ranchi sedt hei
    rwomen.I ll
    inoisin1913conf erredupont hem t heri
    ghtt o
    voteforPresidentoft heUni tedSt ates.Thetimehadar rivedf oranewmov ement .Anumberof
    youngersuf f
    ragist
    ssoughtt ouset hev ot
    esofwomeni ntheequal suff
    ragest atestocompel one
    orbothoft henat i
    onal polit
    icalpar tiestoendor seandcar rythroughCongr esst hefeder alsuf
    frage
    amendment .Pressuret hencameuponCongr essf rom ev erydirecti
    on:fr
    om t hesuf f
    ragistswho
    madeast raightappeal onthegr oundsofj ustice;andf rom thesuf fragi
    stswhobesoughtt he
    womenoft heWestt ov oteagai nstcandi datesf orPresident ,
    whowoul d
    notappr ovethefederalamendment .I
    n1916,forthefi
    rstt
    ime,aleadingpr
    esidenti
    alcandidat
    e,
    Mr .CharlesE.Hughes, speakingfortheRepubl
    icans,
    endorsedthefederalamendmentanda
    disti
    nguishedex-President,Roosevelt
    ,exer
    tedapowerfuli
    nfl
    uencet okeepitanissueinthe
    campai gn.

    National Enfranchi sement .


    —Af terthat,ev ent smov edr api dly.Thegr eatstateofNewYor k
    adopt edequal suffragein1917.Okl ahoma, Sout hDakot a, andMi chiganswungi ntolinethe
    foll
    owi ngy ear;sev eralotherstates,bylegi slativeact ion, gav ewoment heri
    ghtt ovotef or
    President .I
    nt hemeant imet hesuf fr
    agebat t l
    eatWashi ngt ongr ewi ntense.Appealsand
    petiti
    onspour edi nuponCongr essandt hePr esi dent .Mi litantsuffragistshelddail
    y
    demonst rati
    onsi nWashi ngton.OnSept ember30, 1918, Pr esidentWi lson,who, t
    woy ears
    befor e, hadopposedf ederalactionandendor sedsuf fr agebyst ateadopt i
    ononl y,wentbef or
    e
    Congr essandur gedt hepassageoft hesuf frageamendmentt otheConst ituti
    on.InJune, 1919,
    ther equi sit
    et wo- t
    hirdsv otewassecur ed; ther esol ut i
    onwascar r
    iedandt ransmi t
    tedt othe
    statesf orrati
    fication.OnAugust28, 1920, t het hirty-sixt hst ate,Tennessee, appr
    ov edthe
    amendment ,maki ngt hree-f
    ourthsoft hest atesasr equi r edbyt heConst it
    ution.Thuswoman
    suffragebecamet helawoft hel and.Anewpol itical democr acyhadbeencr eated.Theageof
    agitationwascl osedandt heepochofr esponsi bleci tizenshi popened.

    Gener
    alRef
    erences

    Edi
    thAbbot
    t,Womeni
    nIndust
    ry.

    C.
    P.Gi
    l WomanandEconomi
    man, cs.

    I
    .H.Har
    per
    ,Li
    feandWor
    kofSusanB.Ant
    hony
    .

    E.
    R.Hecker
    ,Shor
    tHi
    stor
    yofWoman'
    sRi
    ght
    s.

    S.
    B.Ant
    honyandI
    .H.Har
    per
    ,Hi
    stor
    yofWomanSuf
    frage(
    4vol
    s.)
    .

    J.
    W.Tay
    lor
    ,Bef
    oreVassarOpened.

    A. TheSt
    H.Shaw, oryofaPi
    oneer
    .

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    TheRiseoftheWomanSuffr
    ageMovement.
    —McMast erHi
    , st
    oryoft
    hePeopleoftheUni
    ted
    Stat
    es,Vol
    .VII
    I,
    pp.116-
    121;
    K.Por
    ter
    ,Hi
    storyofSuf
    frageint
    heUnit
    edStat
    es,pp.135-
    145.

    TheDevel
    opmentoft
    heSuffrageMovement
    .—Port
    er,
    pp.228-
    254; Nat
    Ogg, ionalPr
    ogr
    ess
    (Amer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    ,pp.151-
    156andp.382.

    Women'
    sLabori
    ntheCol
    oni
    alPer
    iod.
    —E.Abbot
    t,Womeni
    nIndust
    ry,
    pp.10-
    34.

    Womenandt
    heFact
    orySy
    stem.
    —Abbot
    t,pp.35-
    62.

    Ear
    lyOccupat
    ionsf
    orWomen.
    —Abbot
    t,pp.63-
    85.

    Women'
    sWages.
    —Abbot
    t,pp.262-
    316.

    Quest
    ions
    1.Whywer
    ewomeni
    nvol
    vedi
    nther
    efor
    m mov
    ement
    soft
    henewcent
    ury
    ?
    2.
    Whati
    shi
    stor
    y?Whatdet
    ermi
    nest
    het
    opi
    cst
    hatappeari
    nwr
    it
    tenhi
    stor
    y?

    3.
    Stat
    etheposi
    ti
    onofwomenundert
    heol
    dcommonl
    aw.

    4.
    Whatpartdi
    dwomenpl
    ayi
    nthei
    ntel
    l
    ect
    ual
    mov
    ementt
    hatpr
    ecededt
    heAmer
    ican
    Rev
    olut
    ion?

    5.
    Expl
    aint
    her
    iseoft
    hedi
    scussi
    onofwomen'
    sri
    ght
    s.

    6.
    Whatwer
    esomeoft
    heear
    lywr
    it
    ingsaboutwomen?

    7.
    Whywast
    her
    east
    ruggl
    eforeducat
    ional
    oppor
    tuni
    ti
    es?

    8.
    Howdi
    dref
    orm mov
    ement
    sdr
    awwomeni
    ntopubl
    i
    caf
    fai
    rsandwhatwer
    ethechi
    efr
    esul
    ts?

    9.
    Showhowt
    her
    iseoft
    hef
    act
    oryaf
    fect
    edt
    hel
    i
    feandl
    aborofwomen.

    10.Whyistheyear1848animpor
    tanty
    eari
    nthewomanmov
    ement
    ?Di
    scusst
    hewor
    kof
    theSenecaFal
    l
    sconv ent
    ion.

    11.
    Enumer
    atesomeoft
    heear
    lygai
    nsi
    nci
    vi
    ll
    iber
    tyf
    orwomen.

    12.
    Tracet
    her
    iseoft
    hesuf
    fragemov
    ement
    .Showt
    heef
    fectoft
    heCi
    vi
    lWar
    .

    13.
    Rev
    iewt
    hehi
    stor
    yoft
    hef
    eder
    alsuf
    frageamendment
    .

    14.
    Summar
    izet
    hehi
    stor
    yoft
    hesuf
    fragei
    nthest
    ates.

    CHAPTERXXI
    V
    I
    NDUSTRI
    ALDEMOCRACY

    TheNewEconomi cAge. —Thespiri


    tofcr it
    ici
    sm andt hemeasur esofreform designedt omeeti t
    ,
    whichchar acteri
    zedt heopeningyear soft het wentiethcent ury,weremer el
    yt hesignsofanew
    age.Thenat i
    onhaddef i
    nitel
    ypassedi ntoi ndustr
    iali
    sm.Thenumberofci tydwel l
    ersempl oyedfor
    wagesascont rastedwi ththefar
    mer swor kingont hei rownl andwasst eadilymount i
    ng.Thef ree
    l
    and,oncet herefugeofr estl
    esswor kingmenoft heEastandt heimmi grantsf r
    om Eur ope,wasa
    thi
    ngoft hepast .AsPr esidentRoosev eltlatersai
    di nspeaki ngofthegreatcoal stri
    ke, "
    afew
    generat
    ionsago, theAmer icanworkmancoul dhav esav edmoney ,goneWest ,andtakenupa
    homestead.Nowt hef r
    eelandswer egone.I nearli
    erday s,amanwhobeganwi thapi ckand
    shovelmi ghtcomet oownami ne.Thatout l
    etwasnowcl osedasr egardst heimmensemaj or
    ity
    ..
    ..
    Themaj orit
    yofmenwhoear nedwagesi nt hecoal indust ry
    , i
    fthey
    wishedt opr ogressatal l,werecompel ledt oprogr essnotbyceasi ngt obewage- earnersbut
    byimprov ingt hecondi ti
    onsunderwhi chal lt
    hewage- earnersofthecount r
    ylivedand
    worked."

    Thedisappearanceoft
    hef r
    eeland,
    Presi
    dentRoosev
    eltwentontosay,al
    soproduced"acr
    ass
    i
    nequali
    tyinthebargai
    ningrel
    ati
    onoftheemploy
    erandtheindi
    vi
    dualemploy
    eest andi
    ngal
    one.
    Thegreatcoal
    -mini
    ngandcoal
    -car
    ryi
    ngcompani
    eswhi
    chempl
    oyedt
    hei
    rtensoft
    housands
    coul
    deasilydi
    spensewit
    h
    theser vi
    cesofanypar ti
    cularmi ner
    .Themi ner,ontheot herhand,howeverexper
    t,coul
    dnot
    dispensewi ththecompani es.Heneededaj ob;hi
    swi feandchi l
    drenwouldstar
    veifhedi dnot
    getone. ..
    .
    Indivi
    dual l
    ythemi nerswer eimpot entwhent heysoughtt oenterawagecont ractwiththe
    greatcompani es;theycouldmakef airt
    ermsonl ybyuni t
    ingintotr
    adeunionst obargain
    collectivel
    y.
    "Itwasoft hisstateofaf fai
    rsthatPresidentTaf tspokewhenhef avor
    edt he
    modi ficati
    onoft hecommonl aw" soast oputempl oy eesoflit
    tl
    epowerandmeansonal ev
    el
    witht heiremployersinadjustingandagr eeingupont heirmutualobli
    gati
    ons."

    JohnD.Rockef ell
    er ,Jr .
    ,onthesi deoft hegr eatcapt ai
    nsofi ndust ry,recognizedt hesamef acts.
    Hesai d:
    "Int heear lyday soft hedev elopmentofi ndustry,theempl oy erandcapi t
    ali
    nv estorwer e
    frequent lyone.
    Dai l
    ycont actwashadbet weenhi m andhisempl oyees, whower ehisfriendsandnei ghbor
    s..
    ..
    Becauseof
    thepr opor ti
    onswhi chmoder ni ndustryhasattained,empl oyersandempl oyeesar etooof t
    en
    stranger st oeachot her .
    ..
    .Personal rel
    ati
    onscanber ev i
    vedonl ythr
    oughadequat e
    repr esent ationoft heempl oyees.
    Repr esent ati
    oni sapr i
    nciplewhi chisfundament al
    l
    yj ustandv i
    taltothesuccessf ulconductof
    i
    ndust ry .
    ..
    .
    Itisnotconsi stentforusasAmer icanstodemanddemocr acyingov ernmentandpr actice
    aut ocr acyi nindustry .
    ...Withthedev elopmentswhatt heyar einindustryto-day,thereissureto
    comeapr ogr essive
    ev olutionf r
    om ar i
    st ocr ati
    csingl econtrol
    , whetherbycapi tal
    , l
    abor,ort hestate,todemocr ati
    c,
    coöper ati
    v econt r
    ol byal lt
    hree."

    Coöper
    ati
    onbet
    weenEmpl
    oyer
    sandEmpl
    oyees

    CompanyUni ons. —Thechangedeconomi clifedescr ibedbyt het hreeemi nentmenj ustquot ed


    wasacknowl edgedbysev eral gr eatcompani esandbusi nessconcer ns.Al lov ert hecount ry
    decidedef fortswer emadet obr idget hegul fwhi chi ndust ryandt hecor porat ionhadcr eat ed.
    Amongt hedev icesadopt edwast hatoft he" companyuni on."Inoneoft heWest ernl umber
    mills, f
    orexampl e, allt
    heempl oy eeswer einv it
    edt ojoi nacompanyor ganizat i
    on; t
    heyhel d
    mont hlymeet i
    ngst odiscussmat tersofcommonconcer n;theyel ecteda" shopcommi ttee"to
    conf erwi thther epr esentativesoft hecompany ; andper iodi call
    ytheagent soft heempl oy ers
    attendedt heconf erencesoft hement otalkov ermat tersofmut ual interest .Thef unct ionof
    theshopcommi tteewast oconsi derwages, hour s,saf etyr ules,sanit ati
    on, recr eationandot her
    probl ems.Whenev eranyempl oy eehadagr ievancehet ooki tupwi tht hef or emanand, ifitwas
    notset tl
    edt ohi ssat i
    sfact i
    on, hebr oughtitbef oret heshopcommi tt
    ee.I fthemember soft he
    shopcommi tteedeci dedi nf av oroft hemanwi thagr iev ance, theyat tempt edt oset tlet he
    mat terwi tht hecompany 'sagent s.Al l
    theset hingsf ai li
    ng, thedi sputewast r ansf erredt oa
    grandmeet ingofal lt
    heempl oy eeswi ththeempl oyer s'repr esentatives, incommoncounci l
    .A
    deadl ock, i
    fitensuedf r
    om suchaconf erence, wasbr okenbycal l
    ingi nimpar t
    ialar bitr
    at ors
    select edbybot hsi desf r
    om amongci ti
    zensout sidet hemi l
    l.Thust heempl oy eeswer egi vena
    voicei nal ldecisi onsaf fect i
    ngt hei rwor kandwel f
    are; right sandgr i
    ev anceswer etreat edas
    mat ter sofmut ual i
    nterestr athert hani ndividual concer n.Repr esent at i
    vesoft radeuni onsf rom
    outside, howev er ,wer erigidlyexcl udedf rom al l negot iat i
    onsbet weenempl oy ersandt he
    empl oy ees.

    Profi
    t-
    shar
    ing.—Anotherproposalfordrawingcapitalandlabort
    ogetherwastosupplement
    thewagesy st
    em byot hert
    ies.Sometimesl umpsumswer epaidtoempl oy
    eeswhor emained
    i
    nacompany '
    sserviceforadef i
    nit
    eperiodofy ear
    s.Againtheyweregivenacert
    ain
    percent
    ageoft heannualprofi
    ts.I
    notherinstances,employeeswereall
    owedtobuyst ockon
    easytermsandt husbecomepar towner sintheconcern.Thislastplanwascar riedsof arbya
    l
    argesoapmanuf acturi
    ngcompanyt hattheemployees,besidesbecomi ngstockhol der
    s,
    securedtherighttoelectrepresentativ
    est oserv
    eont heboar dofdi r
    ectorswhomanagedt he
    enti
    rebusiness.Soext ensi
    vehadpr ofi
    t-shar
    ingbecomeby1914t hattheFederal I
    ndustri
    al
    Relat
    ionsCommi tt
    ee,appointedbyt hePr esi
    dent,deemedi tworthyofaspecial study.Though
    opposedbyr egulartr
    adeuni ons,itwasundoubt edlygrowinginpopul ari
    ty.

    LaborManager
    sandWel
    far
    eWor
    k.—Anot
    heref
    for
    tofempl
    oyer
    stomeett
    hepr
    obl
    emsoft
    henew
    age
    appearedi nt heappoi nt mentofspeci ali
    sts, knownasempl oymentmanager s,whoset aski t
    wast ost udyt her elationsexi stingbet weenmast ersandwor kersanddi scoverpr acti
    cal
    met hodsf ordeal i
    ngwi theachgr ievanceasi tar ose.By1918, hundr edsofbi gcompani eshad
    recognizedt hismoder n" profession"anduni v ersiti
    eswer egi vi
    ngcour sesofi nstructi
    onont he
    subjecttoy oungmenandwomen.I nt haty earanat i
    onalconf erenceofempl oymentmanager s
    washel datRochest er,NewYor k.Thedi scussi onr ev eal
    edawi der angeofdut i
    esassi gnedt o
    manager s, i
    ncludingquest i
    onsofwages, hour s, sanitati
    on,restr ooms, recreati
    onal f
    acili
    ties,
    andwel farewor kofev erykinddesi gnedt omaket hecondi t
    ionsi nmi ll
    sandf actoriessaf erand
    mor ehumane.Thusi twasev identt hathundr edsofempl oyer shadabandonedt heol dideat hat
    theywer edeal ingmer elywi t
    hi ndividual empl oy eesandt hatthei robli
    gat i
    onsendedwi tht he
    paymentofanywagest heysawf ittof ix.Inshor t,theywereseeki ngtodev elopaspi ritof
    coöperationt ot aket hepl aceofcompet i
    tionandenmi ty
    ;andt oi ncreaset hepr oductionof
    commodi ti
    esbypr omot ingtheef f i
    ciencyandhappi nessoft hepr oducers.

    TheRi
    seandGr
    owt
    hofOr
    gani
    zedLabor

    TheAmer icanFeder at
    ionofLabor .
    —Meanwhi leapower f
    ul associ ati
    onofwor kersrepresent i
    ngal l
    theleadingt radesandcr afts,organiz edintounionsoft heirown, hadbeenbui l
    tupout sidet he
    cont r
    olofempl oyers.Thi swast heAmer icanFederationofLabor ,anation-
    wideuni onofuni ons,
    foundedi n1886ont hebasi sofbegi nningsmadef ivey earsbef or e.Attheti
    meofi tsest abli
    shment
    i
    thadappr ox i
    mat ely150, 000member s.It
    sgrowt hupt ot heendoft hecenturywassl ow, forthe
    totalenrol
    lmenti n1900wasonl y300, 000.Atthatpoi ntthei ncreasebecamemar ked.The
    member shipr eached1, 650,000i n1904andmor ethan3, 000, 000i n1919.Tobecount edint he
    ranksofor gani zedlaborwer esev eral str
    onguni ons,fri
    endl ytot heFeder ati
    on,thoughnotaf fi
    li
    ated
    withit.Such, forexampl e, weretheRai l
    wayBrotherhoodswi thmor ethanhalfami ll
    ionmember s.
    Byt heopeni ngof1920t het ot
    al str
    engt hofor ganizedlaborwasputatabout4, 000,000member s,
    meani ng,ifwei ncludet heirfami l
    ies,thatnearlyone- f
    ifthoft hepeopl eoftheUni t
    edSt ateswer ein
    someposi ti
    vewaydependentupont heoper ati
    onsoft r
    adeuni ons.

    Histor i
    cal Backgr ound. —Thi swast hecul mi nat i
    onofal ongandsi gnifi
    canthi st or
    y .Bef oretheend
    oftheei ght eent hcent ury,theski l
    ledwor kmen—pr i
    nters, shoemaker s,tail
    or s, andcar penters—had,
    aswehav eseen, formedl ocal unionsi nt hel ar geci ti
    es.Bet ween1830and1860, sev eral
    aggr essivest epswer et akeni ntheAmer icanl abormov ement .Foronet hing, thenumberofl ocal
    unionsi ncr easedbyl eapsandboundsi nal l t
    hei ndust rialtowns.Foranot her ,ther ewas
    establ i
    shedi nev eryl argemanuf act uringci tyacent rallaborbodycomposedofdel egat esfrom the
    unionsoft hesepar atet rades.Int hel ocal uni ont hepr intersort hecor dwai ner s, forexampl e,
    consi deredonl ythei rspeci al t
    radepr obl ems.I nt hecent r
    al l
    aboruni on, printer s,cor dwai ners,i
    ron
    mol ders, andot hercr aftsmenconsi der edcommonpr obl emsandl earnedt ocoöper atewi thone
    anot herinenf or cingt hedemandsofeachcr aft.At hirdst epwast hef eder ationoft heuni onsof
    thesamecr aftsmeni ndi fferentciti
    es.Thepr i
    nt ersofNewYor k,Philadelphi a, Bost on, andot her
    towns, fori nst ance, drewt ogetherandf or medanat i
    onal t
    radeuni onofpr inter sbui ltupont he
    l
    ocal uni
    onsoft hatcr aft.Byt heev eoft heCi v i
    l Wart her ewer efourorf i
    vepower ful national
    unionsoft hi schar act er.Theexpansi onoft her ai l
    waymadet ravel andcor respondenceeasi erand
    national conv ent i
    onspossi bleev enf orwor kmenofsmal lmeans.About1834anat temptwas
    madet of eder atet heuni onsofal l t
    hedi ffer entcr aftsint oanat ional organi zation; butt heef fort
    waspr emat ure.

    TheNationalLaborUnion.
    —Thepl anwhi chfail
    edin1834wast r
    iedagaini nthesixti
    es.Duringthe
    war,i
    ndustri
    esandr ai
    lwayshadflour
    ishedasnev erbefore; pr
    iceshadr isenrapidly
    ; t
    hedemand
    forl
    aborhadi ncr
    eased;wageshadmount edsl owly
    ,butst eadily.Hundredsofnewl ocalunions
    hadbeenf oundedandeightortennationalt
    r adeunionshadspr ungint
    obei ng.Thet imewasr i
    pe,
    i
    tseemed, foranati
    onalconsoli
    dati
    onofal llabor'
    sforces; andin1866, they earafterthesurrender
    ofGeneralLeeatAppomat tox,
    the"NationalLaborUni on"wasf ormedatBal timoreundert he
    l
    eadershi
    pofanexperi
    encedor
    gani
    zer
    ,W.H.Syl
    visoftheir
    onmolder
    s.Thepurposeoft
    he
    Nati
    onalLaborUni
    onwasnotmerel
    ytosecurel
    abor'
    sstandar
    ddemandstouchinghour
    s,wages,
    andcondit
    ionsofwor
    kortomaint
    aint
    hegainsal
    ready
    won.Itleanedtowardpol i
    ti
    calacti
    onandr adicalopi
    nions.Aboveall
    ,itsoughttoeliminat
    ethe
    confl
    ictbetweencapitalandlaborbymaki ngwor ki
    ngment heowner sofshopst hroughthe
    for
    mat ionofcoöper
    ativ ei
    ndustri
    es.ForsixyearstheNat i
    onalLaborUnioncontinuedt ohol
    d
    conferencesandcarryoni t
    spropaganda; butmostoft hecoöperati
    veenterpri
    sesf ai
    led,
    poli
    ti
    cal di
    ssensi
    onsar ose,andby1872t heexper i
    menthadcomet oanend.

    TheKni ghtsofLabor .—WhiletheNat i


    onal LaborUni onwasexper imenting,theregrewupi nthe
    i
    ndust rialwor l
    damor eradi
    cal organi
    zationknownast he" NobleOr deroft heKnightsofLabor .
    "It
    wasf oundedi nPhiladel
    phiain1869, fir
    stasasecr etsocietywithr i
    tual
    s,signs,andpasswor ds;"
    so
    thatnospyoft hebosscanf indhi swayi ntothelodger oom tobet rayhisfellows,
    "ast heKni ghts
    putit.Inf ormt henewor ganizati
    onwassi mple.Itsoughtt obringall l
    aborers,ski
    ll
    edandunski ll
    ed,
    menandwomen, whiteandcol ored,i
    ntoami ghtybodyofl ocal andnat i
    onal uni
    onswi thout
    dist
    inct i
    onoft radeorcraft.By1885, teny ear
    saf terthenational or
    ganizationwasest abl i
    shed,it
    boast edamember shipofov er700,000.Inphi l
    osophy ,
    theKni ghtsofLaborwer esocialisti
    c,for
    theyadv ocatedpublicowner shipoftherailwaysandot heruti
    li
    tiesandt hef ormati
    onofcoöper ati
    ve
    societiest oownandmanagest oresandf act
    or i
    es.

    AstheKni ghtswer er adicali


    nspi ri
    tandt heirstr
    ikes,numer ousandpr olonged,wer eoften
    accompani edbyv i
    olence, t
    heor gani zational ar
    medempl oy ersandt hegener alpublic,r
    aising
    upagainsti t
    selfav igorousopposi tion.Weaknesseswi thin, aswel lasf oesf r
    om wi t
    hout ,
    star
    tedtheKni ghtsont hepat htodi ssol ution.Theywagedmor est r
    ikest hantheycoul dcar r
    y
    onsuccessf ull
    y;theircoöper ati
    veexper iment sfailedast hoseofot herlaborgr oupsbef ore
    them hadf ai
    led;andt her ankandf ilecoul dnotbekepti nl ine.Themaj or i
    tyofthemember s
    wantedimmedi ategai nsinwagesort her eductionofhour s; whent heirhopeswer enotr eali
    zed
    theydri
    ftedawayf rom theor der.Thet r
    oubl eswer eincreasedbyt heappear anceoft he
    Amer i
    canFeder ationofLabor ,astillmi ght i
    erorganizationcomposedmai nl
    yofskilledwor kers
    whohel dst r
    ategicposi ti
    onsi nindust ry.Whent heyfailedt osecur et heef fecti
    vesuppor toft he
    Federati
    oni ntheiref f
    ortstoor ganizet heunski lled,t
    heempl oyerscl osedi nupont hem; then
    theKnightsdecl i
    nedr apidlyinpower .By1890t heywer eanegl i
    giblefact orandinashor tti
    me
    theypassedi ntothel imboofdeadexper i
    ment s.

    ThePol iciesoft heAmer i


    canFeder ati
    on.—Unl i
    ketheKnight
    sofLabor ,theAmer i
    canFeder at i
    on
    ofLaborsought ,f
    ir
    stofall
    ,tobev erypracticali
    nitsobj
    ectsandmet hods.I tav oidedal lki
    nds
    ofsocialistict heori
    esandat tendedst ri
    ctl
    yt othebusinessoforganizi
    nguni onsf orthepur pose
    ofincreasi ngwages, short
    eninghour s,andi mpr ov
    ingworki
    ngcondi ti
    onsf oritsmember s.It
    di
    dnott ryt oi ncl
    udeev er
    ybodyi nonebi guni onbutbroughttogethertheempl oyeesofeach
    parti
    cularcr aftwhosei nt
    erestswer eclearlythesame.Topr epareforstrikesandper i
    odsof
    unempl oy ment ,i
    trai
    sedlargef undsbyi mposi ngheavyduesandcr eatedabenef itsystem to
    hol
    dmenl oy all
    ytotheunion.Inor dertoper mitacti
    ononanat ionalscale,itgav et hesuperior
    off
    icersext ensivepower soverl ocalunions.

    Whiledeclari
    ngthatemployersandempl oy eeshadmuchi ncommon, t
    heFeder ati
    onst rongly
    opposedcompanyuni ons.Empl oyers,i
    tar gued, wer eaff
    il
    iatedwi tht
    heNat i
    onal
    Manufacturers'
    Associat
    ionorwi t
    hsi milarempl oyer s'or
    ganizations;everyimportantindust r
    y
    wasnownat i
    onalinscope;andwagesandhour s,inv i
    ewofcompet i
    ti
    onwi thothershops,
    couldnotbedet er
    minedinasi ngl
    ef actory,nomat terhowami cablemightbet her elat
    ionsof
    thecompanyandi tsworkersinthatpar ti
    cul arpl
    ant .Fortheser easons,theFederat i
    ondecl ared
    companyuni onsandlocalshopcommi tteesi nherent l
    yweak; i
    tinsist
    edt hathours, wages,and
    otherl
    aborstandardsshouldbef i
    xedbygener altr
    adeagr eement sapplicabl
    etoal ltheplants
    ofagivenindustry
    ,evenifsubjecttolocal modi f
    ications.

    Att
    hesameti
    me,theFeder
    ati
    on,f
    arfrom del
    iber
    atel
    yantagonizi
    ngemploy
    ers,soughtt
    o
    enl
    i
    stt
    hei
    rcoöper
    ati
    onandsupport
    .Itaf
    fi
    liat
    edwiththeNationalCi
    vi
    cFederat
    ion,an
    associ
    ati
    onofbusinessmen, fi
    nanci
    ers,andprofessi
    onal
    men, foundedin1900topromote
    fri
    endl
    yrel
    ati
    onsintheindust
    rialworl
    d.Inbri
    ef,t
    heAmer i
    canFeder ati
    onofLaboraccept
    ed
    themodernindust
    ri
    alsystem and,byorgani
    zati
    onwi t
    hini
    t,endeavoredtosecur
    ecertai
    n
    defi
    nit
    etermsandconditi
    onsf ort
    radeunioni
    sts.
    TheWi
    derRel
    ati
    onsofOr
    gani
    zedLabor

    TheSoci al
    ist
    s.—Thet r
    adeuni onism "pureandsi mpl e,
    "espousedbyt heAmer i
    canFeder
    ati
    onof
    Labor,seemedt oinvolv
    eatf i
    rstgl
    ancenot hingbutbusi nessli
    kenegot i
    ati
    onswit
    hemployers.I
    n
    practi
    ceitdidnotwor koutt hatway .TheFeder ationwasonl ysixy
    ear soldwhenanew
    organizati
    on,appeal
    ingdi r
    ectlyforthelaborv ote—namel y
    ,theSociali
    stLaborPart
    y—nominateda
    candidateforPresi
    dent,launchedi ntoanational campaign,andcalledupontradeuni
    oni
    ststo
    deserttheolderpart
    iesandent eri
    tsf ol
    d.

    Thesoci ali
    sti
    ci dea,introducedintonationalpol
    it
    icsin1892, hadbeenl ongi ngerminat i
    on.
    BeforetheCi vilWar ,
    anumberofr efor
    mer s,i
    ncl
    udingNat hanielHawt horne, HoraceGr eeley,
    andWendel lPhill
    ips,deepl ymovedbyt hepov er
    tyoft hegreatindustri
    al citi
    es,hadear nestly
    soughtrel i
    efintheest abli
    shmentofcoöper ati
    veorcommuni sticcolonies.Theybel ievedt hat
    peopleshoul dgoi ntot hecount r
    y,securelandandt ools,
    ownt hem incommonsot hatnoone
    couldprof i
    tfrom excl usiveownership,andproducebycommonl aborthef oodandcl othi
    ng
    necessar yfortheirsuppor t
    .Foratimet hi
    smov ementat tr
    actedwi deinter est,
    butithadl i
    ttle
    vit
    ali
    ty.Near l
    yal lt
    hecol oni
    esfail
    ed.Selfi
    shnessandi ndolenceusual l
    ydi sruptedthebestof
    them.

    Inthecour seoft imet his"Utopian"ideawasabandoned, andanot hersetofsoci ali


    stdoct r
    ines,
    claimi ngt obemor e" scienti
    fic,
    "appear edinstead.Thenewschool ofsoci ali
    st s,adopt i
    ngthe
    principl esofaGer manwr it
    erandagi tator,KarlMar x, appealeddirectlytowor kingmen.I turged
    them t ouni t
    eagai nstt hecapi t
    ali
    sts, t
    ogetpossessi onoft hemachi ner yofgov ernment ,andto
    i
    nt roducecol lectiveorpubl i
    cowner shipofr ail
    way s,land, mines,mill
    s, andot hermeansof
    product ion.TheMar xiansoci ali
    sts,therefore,becamepol i
    ti
    cal.Theysoughtt oor ganizelabor
    andt owi nelections.Li ketheot herpar tiestheyputf orwardcandidat esandpl at f
    orms.The
    Soci alistLaborpar tyin1892, forexampl e,declar
    edi nf avorofgov ernmentowner shipof
    util
    iti
    es, fr
    eeschool books, womansuf frage,heav yincomet axes,andt her eferendum.The
    Soci alistparty ,f
    oundedi n1900, withEugeneV.Debs, t
    heleaderoft hePul l
    manst rike,asits
    candi dat e,calledforpubl i
    cowner shipofal ltrust
    s, monopol i
    es,mines, rail
    way s;andt hechief
    meansofpr oduct ion.I nthecour seoft i
    met hev oteoft helatt
    erorgani zati
    onr oseto
    consi der ablepr oportions, r
    eachi ngal mostami ll
    ioni n1912.I tdecli
    nedf oury earslaterand
    thenr osei n1920t oaboutt hesamef igure.

    Intheirappeal forv otes,t


    hesociali
    st sofev erytypeturnedf i
    rsttolabor.Att heannual
    conv enti
    onsoft heAmer i
    canFeder ati
    onofLabort heybesoughtt hedel egat estoendor se
    socialism.Thepr esidentoftheFeder ati
    on,Samuel Gomper s,oneachoccasi ontookt hef l
    oor
    againstt hem.Her epudiatedsoci
    alism andt hesocial
    ists,onbotht heoreticalandpr actical
    grounds.Heopposedt oomuchpubl icowner shi
    p,declari
    ngthatt hegov ernmentwasasl ikel
    y
    asanypr ivateempl oyertooppressl abor.Theappr oval ofsocial
    ism, hemai nt ai
    ned,woul dspli
    t
    theFeder ati
    onont her ockofpoli
    tics, weakeni ti
    nitsfightforhigherwagesandshor terhours,
    andpr ej
    udicethepubl i
    cagainsti
    t.Atev eryt urnhewasabl etovanqui sht hesociali
    stsint he
    Feder ati
    on, al
    thoughhecoul dnotpr eventitfrom endor si
    ngpublicowner shipofther ail
    way sat
    theconv ent i
    onof1920.

    TheExtremeRadi cals.—Someoft hesoci al


    ists,def eatedi nt
    hei reffortstocapt ur
    eorganized
    l
    aborandseeingt hatt hegai nsi nelectionswer ev erymeager ,brokeawayf rom bothtrade
    unioni
    sm andpol i
    tics.Onef action,t
    heI ndust ri
    alWor kersoft heWor ld,f
    oundedi n1905,
    declar
    edthemsel vesopposedt oal lcapit
    alists,thewagessy stem, andcr af
    tunions.They
    assert
    edthatthe" wor kingcl assandt heempl oy i
    ngcl asshav enot hingincommon"andt hat
    tr
    adeunionsonl ypittedonesetofwor kersagai nstanot herset.Theyr epudiatedall
    gov er
    nment
    ownershipandt hegov ernmenti tsel
    f,boldlypr oclaimi ngtheirintentiontouni t
    eallempl oyees
    i
    ntoonebi gunionandsei zet herail
    way s,mi nes,andmi llsofthecount ry.Thisdoctri
    ne,so
    revol
    uti
    onaryint
    one,cal
    l
    eddownupont heextremist
    sthecondemnationoftheAmer i
    can
    Federati
    onofLaboraswellasoft
    hegeneralpubli
    c.Ati
    tsconventi
    onin1919,theFederati
    on
    wentonr ecor
    das"opposedtoBol
    shevi
    sm, I
    .W.W.-i
    sm,andtheirr
    esponsi
    bleleader
    shipthat
    encouragessucha
    pol
    i
    cy.
    "Itannouncedi
    ts"
    fi
    rm adher
    encet
    oAmer
    icani
    deal
    s."

    TheFeder ati
    onandPol it
    ical I
    ssues.—Thehost ili
    tyoftheFeder ati
    ontothesoci ali
    stsdi
    dnot
    mean, howev er,thatitwasi ndi
    f f
    erenttopoli
    ti
    cal issuesorpol iti
    calpart
    ies.Ont hecontrary,
    from t
    imet ot i
    me, ati
    tsannual conv ent
    ions,
    itendor sedpol it
    icalandsocial r
    eforms,suchas
    theini
    tiat
    ive,referendum, andr ecall
    ,theabol
    itionofchi ldlabor,theexcl
    usionofOr i
    ent
    al labor
    ,
    old-
    agepensi ons, andgov ernmentowner shi
    p.Mor eoveritadopt edthepolicyof"rewarding
    fri
    endsandpuni shingenemi es"byadv i
    singmember stov otef ororagainstcandidates
    accordingtot heirstandont hedemandsofor ganizedl abor.

    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    Samuel
    Gomper
    sandOt
    herLaborLeader
    s

    Thispolicywaspur suedwithespecialzealinconnecti
    onwi thdi sput
    esov ert
    heuseof
    i
    njuncti
    onsi nlaborcontrov
    ersi
    es.Ani nj
    unctionisabill
    orwr itissuedbyaj udgeorderingsome
    personorcor porat
    iontodoort orefrai
    nfrom doingsomet hing.Forexampl e,ajudgemayor der
    atradeuni ontorefr
    ainfrom i
    nterf
    eri
    ngwi thnon-uni
    onmenort ocont i
    nueatwor khandling
    goodsmadebynon- uni
    onlabor;andhemayf i
    neorimprisont hosewhodi sobeyhisinjunct
    ion,
    thepenal t
    ybeinginfl
    ict
    edfor"contemptofcour t.
    "Thisancientl egaldevi
    cecamei nto
    prominencei nconnecti
    onwi t
    hnat i
    on-widerail
    waystri
    kesi n1877.I twasappliedwith
    i
    ncreasingf r
    equencyafterit
    seffecti
    veuseagai nstEugeneV.Debsi nt hePull
    manst r
    ikeof
    1894.

    Arousedbyt heextensiveuseoft hewr it


    ,organizedl abordemandedt hatt hepowerofj udgest o
    i
    ssueinjunct i
    onsinlabordi sputesbel i
    mitedbyl aw.Repr esent ati
    v esoft heuni onssought
    supportfrom theDemocr atsandt heRepubl i
    cans; theyr eceivedf rom t hef or merv er
    yspeci fi
    c
    andcordial endorsement .In1896t heDemocr at
    icpl at
    for m denounced" gov ernmentby
    i
    njuncti
    onasanewandhi ghlydanger ousform ofoppr ession."Mr .Gomper s, whil
    erefusingt o
    commi ttheFeder ati
    ont oDemocr at i
    cpolit
    ics,privatel
    ysuppor tedMr .Bryan.I n1908, hecame
    outopenl yandboast edt hateightypercentoft hev otesoft heFeder ationhadbeencastf orthe
    Democr aticcandidate.Agai nin1912t hesamepol icywaspur sued.Ther ewar dwast he
    enactmenti n1914ofaf eder all
    awexempt i
    ngt radeuni onsf r
    om pr osecut ionascombi nations
    i
    nr est
    raintoftrade,li
    mitingt heuseoft heinjuncti
    oni nlabordi sput es,andpr escribi
    ngt r
    ialby
    j
    uryincaseofcont emptofcour t
    .Thismeasur ewashai ledbyMr .Gomper sast he"Magna
    CartaofLabor "andav i
    ndicat i
    onofhi spolicy.Asamat teroff act,howev er,itdidnotprev ent
    thecontinueduseofi nj
    unct i
    onsagai nsttradeuni ons.Nev ert
    hel essMr .Gomper swas
    unshakeni nhisconv ict
    iont hatorganizedlaborshoul dnotat temptt of orm ani ndependent
    pol
    i
    tical
    par
    tyorendor
    sesoci
    ali
    storot
    herr
    adi
    cal
    economi
    ctheor
    ies.
    Organi zedLaborandt hePubl ic.—Besidesitsrelati
    onst oempl oyers,
    radi cal
    swithi
    nitsown
    ranks, andpol i
    ti
    cal quest ions,theFeder at
    ionhadt ofacer esponsibil
    i
    tiest othegeneralpubl
    ic.
    Witht hepassi ngoft imet hesebecameheav yandgr ave.Whi l
    eindustrieswer esmalland
    confli
    ct swer elocal i
    nchar acter,astri
    keseldom af f
    ectedany bodybutt heemployerandt he
    empl oy eesimmedi atel
    yi nvolvedinit.When, howev er,i
    ndust riesandtradeuni onsbecame
    organizedonanat ional scaleandast ri
    kecouldpar alyzeabasi centerpr i
    seli
    kecoalmi ni
    ngor
    rai
    lway s, t
    hev i
    tali
    nt erest sofallciti
    zenswer eputinj eopar dy.Moreov er,asincr
    easesi n
    wagesandr eductionsi nhour sof tenaddeddi r
    ect l
    ytot hecostofl ivi
    ng, theacti
    onoft he
    unionsaf f
    ectedthewel l
    - beingofal l
    —thefood, clot
    hing, andshel t
    eroft hewhol epeople.

    Fort hepurposeofmeet ingtheissuer aisedbyt hisstateofaffairs,itwassuggest edthat


    empl oyersandempl oyeesshoul dlaytheirdi
    sput esbeforecommi ssionsofarbitrati
    onf or
    decisionandset t
    lement.PresidentClev el
    and,inamessageofApr il2,1886,proposedsucha
    met hodf ordi
    sposingofindustrialcontrover
    sies,andt woy earslaterCongr essenact eda
    vol
    unt aryarbi
    tr
    ationlawapplicabletot herai
    lway s.Thepr i
    nciplewasext endedi n1898and
    againi n1913,andundert heauthor i
    tyofthefeder algovernmentmanycont entionsi nthe
    rai
    lwaywor l
    dwereset t
    ledbyar bit
    rati
    on.

    Thesuccessofsuchl egislati
    oni nducedsomest udentsofindustrialquestionstour gethat
    unionsandempl oyer
    sshoul dbecompel ledtosubmitalldi
    sputest oof fi
    cialtr
    ibunalsof
    arbit
    rat
    ion.Kansasact uall
    ypassedsuchal awin1920.Congr essi ntheEsch- Cummi ns
    rai
    lwaybillofthesamey earcr eatedaf ederalboar
    dofninemember stowhi challr
    ailway
    controv
    ersies,notsett
    ledbynegot i
    ati
    on, mustbesubmi tt
    ed.St r
    ikes, howev er
    ,werenot
    absolut
    elyforbidden.Gener allyspeaki
    ng, bothemployersandempl oyeesopposed
    compulsoryadj ust
    ment swi thoutofferi
    nganysubst it
    uteincasev oluntar
    yar bi
    trati
    onshould
    notbeaccept edbybot hpar tiestoadi spute.

    I
    mmi
    grat
    ionandAmer
    icani
    zat
    ion

    ThePr oblemsofI mmigrati


    on.
    —From it
    sv eryincepti
    on,theAmer i
    canFeder at
    ionofLabor
    ,li
    ke
    theKni ghtsofLaborbefor
    eit,wasconfrontedbynumer ousquest
    ionsr ai
    sedbytheever
    swell
    ingt i
    deofalienscomingtoourshor es.I
    nitsefforttomakeeacht r
    adeunionall
    -
    i
    nclusive,ithadtowrestl
    ewithascoreormor elanguages.Wheni tsucceededinthor
    oughl
    y
    organizingacraft
    ,itof
    tenfoundit
    spurposesdef eat
    edbyani nfl
    uxoff orei
    gnersr
    eadyto
    workforl owerwagesandt husunderminet hefoundati
    onsoft heunion.

    Atthesamet ime,personsout sidet helabormov ementbegant obeappr ehensi veast hey


    contempl atedt heundoubt edev i
    l,aswel l asthegood, t
    hatseemedt obeassoci atedwi ththe
    "ali
    eninv asion."Theysawwhol esect i
    onsofgr eatciti
    esoccupi edbypeopl espeakingf orei
    gn
    tongues, readingonlyf or
    eignnewspaper s,andlookingtot heOl dWor ldalonef ortheirideas
    andt heircustoms.Theywi tnessedanexpandi ngarmyoft otalil
    li
    terates,menandwomenwho
    couldreadandwr it
    enol anguageatal l;
    whi leamongt hoseal ienswhocoul dreadf ewt here
    wer ewhoknewany t
    hingofAmer icanhi story,t
    radi
    ti
    ons, andi deals.Offi
    cial r
    eportsrev eal
    ed
    thatov ertwent ypercentoft hemenoft hedr aftar
    mydur i
    ngt heWor l
    dWarcoul dnotr eada
    newspaperorwr it
    eal ett
    erhome.Per hapsmostal armingofal lwast hedi scoverythat
    thousandsofal ienmenar ei ntheUni tedSt atesonlyonat empor arysojour n,sol
    elytomake
    moneyandr eturnhomewi ththeirsav i
    ngs.Thesemen, wil
    lingtowor kforlowwagesandl i
    vein
    placesunf itforhumanbei ngs, hav enost akei nthi
    scount ryanddonotcar ewhatbecomesof
    i
    t.

    TheRestrict
    ionofI
    mmi grat
    ion.—Inal
    lthi
    stherewas, st
    ri
    ctl
    yspeaki
    ng,
    nocauseforsur
    pri
    se.Si
    nce
    thefoundati
    onofourrepubli
    ct hepol
    i
    cyoft hegovernmenthadbeentoencour
    agethecomingof
    theali
    en.Fornearl
    yonehundr edyear
    snor estr
    aini
    ngactwaspassedbyCongress,whi
    let
    wo
    i
    mpor t
    antlawsposit
    ivel
    yencour
    agedit;namely
    , thehomesteadactof1862andt hecont
    ract
    i
    mmi grat
    ionlawof1864.Notunti
    lAmer i
    canwor kingmencamei ntoopencoll
    isi
    onwit
    hcheap
    Chi
    neselaboronthePacifi
    cCoastdidthefederalgovernmentspreadthefi
    rstmeasur
    eof
    l
    imi
    tati
    onont hestat
    utebooks.Aft
    erthediscov
    er y
    ofgold, andpar ti
    cularl
    yaf t
    ert heopeni ngoft herail
    wayconst ructi
    oner a,ahordeofl aborer
    s
    fr
    om Chi nadescendeduponCal if
    or ni
    a.Accust omedtost arvationwagesandi ndiff
    erenttothe
    conditionsofl iving,theythreat enedt ocuttheAmer icanst andar dtot hepoi ntofsubsistence.
    By1876t hepr otestofAmer icanl aborwasl oudandl ongandbot htheRepubl i
    cansandt he
    Democr atsgav eheedt oit.In1882Congr essenact edal awpr ohibi
    tingt headmi ssionof
    Chinesel abor erstot heUni tedSt atesforat er m oft
    eny ears—l aterext endedbyl egisl
    ati
    on.Ina
    l
    itt
    lewhi let hedemandar osef ort heexclusionoft heJapaneseaswel l.Inthiscaseno
    exclusionl awwaspassed; butanunder standi ngwasr eachedbywhi chJapanagr eednott o
    i
    ssuepasspor tst oherlabor ersaut hori
    zingt hem tocomet ot heUni tedSt ates.Byactof
    Congr essi n1907t hePr esidentwasempower edtoexcludeanyl abor erswho, having
    passpor tst oCanada, Hawai i,orMexi co,attempt edtoent erourcount ry.

    Thesel awsandagr eement s, howev er ,didnotr emoveal l groundsf ort heagi t


    at i
    onoft hesubject.
    Theywer edi ff
    iculttoenf orceandi twascl aimedbyr esident soft heCoastt hati nspiteoff ederal
    author i
    tyOr i
    ent all
    abor erswer efindingt heirwayintoAmer i
    canpor ts.Mor eov er,sev eralWest er
    n
    states,anxioust opreser vet hesoi lf
    orAmer i
    canowner shi p,enact edl awsmaki ngitimpossi blefor
    ChineseandJapaneset obuyl andout right;andinotherway stheydi scr i
    mi natedagai nstOr i
    entals.
    Suchpr oceedingspl acedt hef ederal gov ernmenti nanembar rassingposi tion.Byt reatyithad
    guar anteedspeci f
    icrightst oJapaneseci t
    izensintheUni tedSt at
    es, andt hegov ernmentatToky o
    contendedt hatt hestatel awsj ustcit edv i
    olatedthetermsoft hei nt ernat i
    onal agreement .The
    West er
    nst ateswer ef ixedi ntheirdet ermi nationtocontr ol Ori
    ental resi dent s;Japanwasequal l
    y
    persistentinaski ngt hatnobadgeofi nferiori
    tybeattachedt oherci ti
    zens.Subj ectedt opressur e
    onbot hsides,thef eder algov ernmentsoughtawayoutoft hedeadl ock.

    Hav ingembar kedupont hepol i


    cyofrestri
    cti
    oni n1882, Congr essr eadil
    yextendedi t
    .Inthat
    samey earitbarredpaupers,criminal
    s,convicts,andtheinsane.Thr eeyearslater,mainl
    yowi ng
    tot hepressureoft heKnightsofLabor,itforbadeanyper son, company ,orassociati
    onto
    i
    mpor tali
    ensundercont ract
    .Byanactof1887, thecontractlaborr estri
    cti
    onwasmadeev en
    mor esevere.In1903,anarchist
    swer eexcludedandt hebureauofi mmi grati
    onwast ransfer red
    from theTr easuryDepartmentt otheDepar t
    mentofCommer ceandLabor ,
    inordertoprov ide
    foramor erigidexecuti
    onoft helaw.In1907t hecl assesofper sonsdeni edadmi ssionwer e
    wi denedtoembr acethosesuf f
    eri
    ngfrom phy sicalandment al defectsandot herwiseunfitf or
    effectiv
    ecitizenship.WhentheDepar tmentofLaborwasest abl i
    shedi n1913t heenforcement
    oft helawwaspl acedinthehandsoft heSecr etaryofLabor ,
    W. B.Wi l
    son,whowasaf or
    mer
    l
    eaderi ntheAmer icanFederati
    onofLabor .

    TheLiteracyTest.
    —Stil
    ltheadvocatesofr estri
    cti
    onwer enotsat i
    sfied.Sti
    llorganizedlabor
    prot
    est edanddemandedmor eprotectionagai nstt hecompetit
    ionofi mmi grants.In1917i twona
    thi
    rt
    y -
    yearbatt
    leinthepassageofabi l
    l excludi
    ng" allal
    iensoversixteenyear sofage, phy sical
    ly
    capableofreading,whocannotreadt heEngl i
    shl anguageorsomeot herlanguageordi alect,
    i
    ncludingHebreworYi ddish.
    "EvenPr esidentWi lsoncoul dnotblockit,f
    orat wo- t
    hirdsv otet o
    overcomehi svetowasmust eredinCongr ess.

    Thisact ,
    whi l
    eitservedt oexcludeil
    li
    terat
    es,madenodr ast
    iccuti
    nt hevolumeofimmi gr
    ati
    on.
    Indeedamat eri
    alreductionwasr esolut
    elyopposedinmanyquar t
    ers.Peopleofcert
    ain
    nationali
    ti
    esalreadyint heUnitedStatesobject
    edtoever ybarri
    erthatshutoutthei
    rown
    kinsmen.SomeAmer i
    cansoft heoldstockstil
    lhel
    dtot heideathattheUnitedStat
    esshould
    cont i
    nuetobeanasy lum for"theoppressedoftheearth."Manyempl oyerslookeduponan
    i
    ncr easedlaborsuppl yasthemeansofescapi ngwhatt heycall
    ed" t
    hedomi nati
    onoftr
    ade
    unions."Inthebabel ofcountlessvoices,t
    hediscussi
    onoft hesev i
    talmatterswentonintown
    andcount ry.

    Amer
    icanizati
    on.—Int
    imatel
    yconnectedwit
    hthesubj
    ectofi
    mmigrat
    ionwasacal
    lforthe
    "
    Americanizat
    ion"oftheali
    enal
    readywit
    hinourgat
    es.Ther
    evel
    ati
    onofthei
    l
    li
    ter
    acyinthear
    my
    r
    aisedthecryandthedemandwasint
    ensif
    iedwheni twasf oundthatmanyoftheleadersamong
    t
    heext r
    emer adi
    cal
    swerefor
    eigni
    nbi
    rthandcit
    izenship.I
    nnumer ableprogr
    amsforassimil
    ati
    ng
    t
    healientoAmer i
    canl
    if
    eweredrawnup,andin1919anat ionalconferenceont
    hesubjectwasheld
    i
    nWashi ngt
    onunderthe
    auspicesoftheDepar t
    mentoft heI
    nteri
    or.Al l
    wer eagreedt hatthefor
    eignershouldbet aught
    tospeakandwr i
    tethelanguageandunder standthegov ernmentofourcount r
    y.Congresswas
    urgedtolendaidint hi
    svastundert
    aking.Amer ica,asex-PresidentRoosevelthadsaid,wast o
    fi
    ndout" whetheritwasanat i
    onoraboar ding-house."

    Gener
    alRef
    erences

    J.
    R.CommonsandAssoci
    at Hi
    es, st
    oryofLabori
    ntheUni
    tedSt
    ates(
    2vol
    s.)
    .

    Samuel
    Gomper
    s,Laborandt
    heCommonWel
    far
    e.

    W.
    E.Wal
    l
    i Soci
    ng, ali
    sm asI
    tIs.

    W.
    E.Wal
    l
    ing(
    andOt
    her
    s)TheSoci
    , ali
    sm ofToday
    .

    R.
    T.El
    y,TheLaborMov
    ementi
    nAmer
    ica.

    T.
    S.AdamsandH.Sumner
    ,LaborPr
    obl
    ems.

    J.
    G.Br Amer
    ooks, icanSy
    ndi
    cal
    i
    sm andSoci
    alUnr
    est
    .

    P.
    F.Hal
    l
    ,Immi
    grat
    ionandI
    tsEf
    fect
    sont
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates.

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    TheRi
    seofTr
    adeUnioni
    sm.—Mar yBeard,ShortHi
    storyoft
    heAmericanLaborMov
    ement
    ,pp.
    10-
    18,
    47-
    53,62-
    79;
    Car l
    t Or
    on, ganizedLaborinAmer i
    canHist
    ory
    ,pp.11-
    44.

    LaborandPoli
    ti
    cs.—Bear Shor
    d, tHi
    story
    ,pp.33-
    46,54-
    61,103-
    112;
    Car
    lt
    on,
    pp.169-
    197;
    Ogg,Nati
    onalProgress(
    Ameri
    canNati
    onSeri
    es),
    pp.76-85.

    TheKnight
    sofLabor
    .—Bear
    d,ShortHi
    stor
    y,pp.116-
    126;
    Dewey
    ,Nat
    ionalPr
    obl
    ems
    (Amer
    icanNat
    ionSeri
    es)
    ,pp.40-
    49.

    TheAmer
    icanFeder
    ati
    onofLabor
    —Or
    gani
    zat
    ionandPol
    i
    cies.
    —Bear
    d,Shor
    tHi
    stor
    y,pp.86-
    112.

    Or
    gani
    zedLaborandt
    heSoci
    ali
    sts.
    —Bear
    d,Shor
    tHi
    stor
    y,pp.126-
    149.

    Laborandt
    heGr
    eatWar
    .—Car
    lt
    on,
    pp.282-
    306;
    Bear
    d,Shor
    tHi
    stor
    y,pp.150-
    170.

    Quest
    ions

    1.
    Whatar
    ethest
    ri
    ki
    ngf
    eat
    uresoft
    heneweconomi
    cage?

    2.
    Giv
    eMr
    .Rockef
    ell
    er'
    svi
    ewofi
    ndust
    ri
    aldemocr
    acy
    .

    3.
    Out
    li
    net
    heef
    for
    tsmadebyempl
    oyer
    stoest
    abl
    i
    shcl
    oserr
    elat
    ionswi
    tht
    hei
    rempl
    oyees.

    4.
    Sket
    cht
    her
    iseandgr
    owt
    hoft
    heAmer
    icanFeder
    ati
    onofLabor
    .

    5.
    Howf
    arbacki
    nourhi
    stor
    ydoest
    hel
    abormov
    ementext
    end?
    6.
    Descr
    ibet
    hepur
    posesandout
    comeoft
    heNat
    ional
    LaborUni
    onandt
    heKni
    ght
    sofLabor
    .

    7.
    Stat
    ethechi
    efpol
    i
    ciesoft
    heAmer
    icanFeder
    ati
    onofLabor
    .

    8.
    Howdoesor
    gani
    zedl
    aborbecomei
    nvol
    vedwi
    thout
    sidef
    orces?

    9.
    Outl
    inetheri
    seoft
    hesoci
    ali
    stmov
    ement
    .Howdi
    ditcomei
    ntocont
    actwi
    tht
    heAmer
    ican
    Federat
    ion?

    10.
    Whatwast
    her
    elat
    ionoft
    heFeder
    ati
    ont
    otheext
    remer
    adi
    cal
    s?Tonat
    ional
    pol
    i
    tics?Tot
    he
    publ
    i
    c?

    11.
    Expl
    aint
    hei
    njunct
    ion.

    12.
    Whyar
    elaborandi
    mmi
    grat
    ioncl
    osel
    yrel
    ated?

    13.
    Out
    li
    net
    hehi
    stor
    yofr
    est
    ri
    cti
    onsoni
    mmi
    grat
    ion.

    14.
    Whatpr
    obl
    emsar
    isei
    nconnect
    ionwi
    tht
    heassi
    mil
    ati
    onoft
    heal
    i
    ent
    oAmer
    icanl
    i
    fe?

    CHAPTERXXV
    PRESI
    DENTWI
    LSONANDTHEWORLDWAR

    "Thewel far e,thehappi ness,theener gy ,


    andt hespi ri
    tofthemenandwomenwhodot hedail
    y
    wor kinourmi nesandf act
    ories, onourr ai
    lroads, i
    nourof fi
    cesandpor tsoftrade, onourfarms,
    andont heseaar etheunder l
    y ingnecessi tyofal l
    prosperit
    y."ThusspokeWoodr owWi lson
    duringhiscampai gnf orelecti
    on.I nt hisspi r
    it
    , asPresident,hegav ethesignal forwor kby
    summoni ngCongr essinaspeci al sessiononApr i
    l7,1913.Hei nv i
    tedthecoöper ati
    onofall
    "forward-lookingmen"andi ndi catedt hathewoul dassumet her ôleofleadership.Asan
    ev i
    denceofhi sr esolve,heappear edbef or eCongr essinper sont oreadhisf i
    rstmessage,
    revivi
    ngt heol dcust om ofWashi ngtonandAdams.Thenhel etitbeknownt hathewoul dnot
    givehispar tyanyr estunt i
    li
    tf ulfi
    ll
    edi tspledgest othecount ry
    .WhenDemocr ati
    cSenat or
    s
    balkedatt arif
    freductions, t
    heywer eshar plyinformedt hatthepar tyhadplightedi t
    swor dand
    thatnoexcusesordel ay swoul dbet olerated.

    Domest
    icLegi
    slat
    ion

    Financi
    al Measur es.—Underthisspir
    it
    edleadershipCongr esswenttowor k,
    passingfirstt
    he
    Underwoodt ar
    if
    factof1913, whichmadeadownwar dr evi
    sionint
    heratesofduty,f
    ixingthem
    ont heav er
    ageaboutt wenty-
    sixpercentl
    owert hant hef i
    gur
    esof1907.Thepr ot
    ecti
    v e
    princi
    plewasr etained,butanef f
    ortwasmadet oper mitamoder at
    eelementofforei
    gn
    compet it
    ion.Asapar toftherevenueactCongressl evi
    edat axonincomesasaut horizedby
    thesixteenthamendmentt otheConsti
    tut
    ion.Thet axwhi chrousedsuchpartypassi
    onst wenty
    yearsbef or
    ewasnowaccept edasamat t
    erofcour se.

    Hav
    ingdi
    sposedoft
    het
    ari
    ff
    ,Congr
    esst
    ookupt
    heol
    dandv
    exat
    iouscur
    rencyquest
    ionand
    off
    eredanewsol ut
    ioni
    nthef
    orm ofthefederalreser
    velawofDecember,
    1913.Thismeasure,
    one
    ofthemostinteresti
    ngi
    nthehi
    storyoffederalf
    inance,embr
    acedfourl
    eadi
    ngfeatures.I
    nthef
    ir
    st
    pl
    ace,itcont
    inued
    theprohibit
    ionont heissuanceofnot esbyst atebanksandpr ov idedforanat i
    onalcurrency.In
    thesecondpl ace,itputt henewbanki ngsy st
    em underthecont rolofafederal r
    eserv
    eboar d
    composedent i
    relyofgov er
    nmentof fi
    cials.Topreventthegrowt hofa" centralmoneypower ,
    "it
    provi
    ded, i
    nt het hir
    dpl ace,forthecreationoft welv
    efederalreser vebanks,oneineachof
    twelvegreatdi stri
    ctsintowhi chthecount r
    yisdivi
    ded.Alll
    ocal nationalbankswer erequired
    andcertainot herbanksper mittedtobecomemember soft henewsy st
    em andshar einits
    control
    .Finally,withav iewt oexpandingt hecur r
    ency,astepwhi cht heDemocr atshadl ong
    urgedupont hecount ry,theissuanceofpapermoney ,underdefinitesafeguards,was
    authori
    zed.

    Mindfuloftheagr i
    cul
    turali
    nter
    est ,
    everdeartotheheartofJefferson'sfoll
    owers,t
    he
    Democr at
    ssuppl ementedther eservelawbytheFarm LoanActof1916, cr
    eati
    ngfederal
    agenciestolendmoneyonf arm mor tgagesatmoderat
    er atesofinterest.Wit
    hinay ear
    $20,
    000,000hadbeenl enttofarmers, t
    heheavi
    estborr
    owi ngbeingi nnineWest er
    nand
    Southernstates,
    wi t
    hTexasi nthelead.

    Anti-
    trustLegisl at
    ion.—Thet ariffandcur r
    encyl awswer ef oll
    owedbyt hreesi gnificantmeasur es
    rel
    ativetot r
    ust s.Reject i
    ngut terlythePr ogr essiv edoct r
    ineofgov er
    nmentr egul ation,Presi
    dent
    Wilsonannouncedt hati twast hepur poseoft heDemocr ats"todestroymonopol yandmai ntain
    compet it
    ionast heonl yef f
    ect i
    v einstrumentofbusi nessl i
    berty.
    "Thef irstst epi nt hi
    sdirecti
    on, t
    he
    ClaytonAnt i
    -trustAct ,carri
    edi nt ogreatdet ai
    l t
    heSher manl awof1890f orbiddi ngandpenal i
    zing
    combi nati
    onsi nr estraintofint erstat
    eandf oreignt r
    ade.I nev eryli
    nei treveal edadet er
    minedef for
    t
    totearapar tthegr eatt rust
    sandt oputal l businessonacompet i
    tiv
    ebasi s.Itst ermswer e
    rei
    nforcedi nthesamey earbyal awcr eatingaFeder alTradeCommi ssionempower edtoinquire
    i
    ntot hemet hodsofcor porationsandl odgecompl aintsagai nstconcer ns" usinganyunf ai
    rmet hod
    ofcompet i
    ti
    on. "Inonl yoner espectwast hesev eri
    tyoft heDemocr aticpol icyr elaxed.Anactof
    1918pr ovidedt hattheSher manl awshoul dnotappl ytocompani esengagedi nexpor ttr
    ade,the
    purposebei ngt oencour agel argecor por ationst oent erfor ei
    gncommer ce.

    Theef f
    ectofthi
    swholebodyofanti
    -tr
    ustlegi
    slati
    on, i
    nspi
    teofmuchl aboroni
    t,r
    emained
    problemati
    cal
    .Veryfewcombinat
    ionsweredissolvedasar esultofi
    t.St
    art
    li
    ngi
    nvest
    igati
    ons
    weremadei ntoall
    egedabusesonthepartoftrusts;buti
    tcouldhardl
    ybesaidt
    hathuge
    businessconcer
    nshadlostanyofthei
    rpredomi nanceinAmer i
    canindust
    ry.

    LaborLegislati
    on.—Bynomer ecoinci
    dence,theClayt
    onAnt i
    -t
    rustl
    awof1914mademany
    concessionst oorgani
    zedl abor
    .Itdecl
    aredthat"
    thelaborofahumanbei ngisnotacommodi t
    y
    oranar ti
    cleofcommer ce,
    "anditexemptedunionsfrom prosecuti
    onas" combinati
    onsin
    restr
    aintoftrade.
    "Itli
    kewisedefinedandli
    mi t
    edtheuseswhi chthefederalcourt
    smi ghtmake
    ofinj
    unctionsinlabordisputesandguaranteedtri
    albyjur
    yt othoseguil
    tyofdisobedience(
    see
    p.581).

    TheClayt
    onlawwasf oll
    owedt henextyearbytheSeamen'sActgi
    v i
    nggreat
    erli
    bert
    yof
    contr
    actt
    oAmer i
    cansailor
    sandr equi
    ringanimprovementofli
    vi
    ngconditi
    onsonshipboar
    d.
    Thiswassuchadrasti
    clawt hatshi
    powner sdecl
    aredthemsel
    vesunabletomeetforei
    gn
    competi
    ti
    onunderit
    st er
    ms, owingtothelowlaborstandar
    dsofothercount
    ri
    es.

    Sti
    llmor eextr
    aordi
    narythantheSeamen' sActwast heAdamsonl awof1916f i
    xi
    ngastandard
    ei
    ght-hourwor k-
    dayfortrai
    nmenonr ailr
    oads—ameasur ewrungfrom Congressunderathr
    eat
    ofagr eatstr
    ikebythefourRail
    wayBr otherhoods.Thi
    sact,
    viewedbyunionleadersasa
    tr
    iumph, cal
    ledfort
    habitterdenunci
    ationof" t
    radeuni
    ondomi nat
    ion,
    "buti
    twaseasierto
    cri
    ti
    cizethant ofi
    ndanothersolut
    ionoft heproblem.

    Thr
    eeot
    herl
    awsenact
    eddur
    ingPr
    esi
    dentWi
    l
    son'
    sadmi
    nist
    rat
    ionwer
    epopul
    ari
    nthel
    abor
    worl
    d.Oneoft hem provi
    dedcompensat i
    onforfeder
    alemployeesinj
    uredi
    nthedi
    schargeof
    thei
    rdut
    ies.Anotherprohi
    bitedthelaborofchil
    drenunderacertai
    nageinthei
    ndust
    riesofthe
    nati
    on.Athir
    dpr escr
    ibedforcoalmi ner
    sinAlaskaaneight
    -hourdayandmodernsafeguards
    forl
    if
    eandheal t
    h.Therewer eposit
    ive
    pr
    oof
    sthator
    gani
    zedl
    aborhadobt
    ainedal
    argeshar
    eofpoweri
    nthecounci
    l
    soft
    hecount
    ry.

    FederalandSt at
    eRel ations.—I fthei nt
    erferenceoft hegov er
    nmentwi thbusinessandl abor
    repr
    esentedadepar tur efrom t heol dideaof" thel essgov ernmentthebetter,
    "whatcanbesai d
    ofalargebodyofl awsaf fectingt her i
    ghtsofst ates?Thepr ohibi
    ti
    onofchildl aborever
    ywhere
    wasonei ndicati
    onoft henewt endency .Mr .Wilsonhadoncedecl aredsuchl egisl
    ati
    on
    unconstit
    uti
    onal; t
    heSupr emeCour tdeclareditunconst i
    tuti
    onal;
    butCongress, undaunted,
    carr
    ieditint
    oef fectundert hegui seofat axongoodsmadebychi l
    drenbelowt heagel i
    mit
    .
    Therewer eotherindi cationsoft hedr i
    ft.Largesumsofmoneywer eappropriatedbyCongress
    i
    n1916t oassistthest atesinbui l
    dingandmai ntaininghighways.Thesamey eartheFarm
    LoanActpr ojectedthef ederal gov ernmenti ntot hespher eoflocalmoneylendi ng.In1917
    mill
    i
    onsofdol l
    arswer egr antedt ost atesi naidofv ocati
    onaleducati
    on,i
    ncident al
    lyimposi
    ng
    unif
    orm standardst hr oughoutt hecount r
    y.Evident lythegovernmentwasnol ongerlimit
    edto
    theduti
    esoft hepol iceman.

    ThePr ohibit
    ionAmendment .
    —Ast i
    l
    l moresignifi
    cantf or
    m ofint er v
    ent i
    oni nstateaf f
    airswas
    thepassage, inDecember ,
    1917, ofanamendmentt ot hefeder alConst it
    uti
    onest abli
    shing
    nati
    onal prohibi
    ti
    onoft hemanuf actureandsal eofi ntoxicati
    ngl iquor sasbev erages.Thi swas
    theclimaxofahi stor
    icalmov ementext endingov erhal facent ury .I
    n1872, aNat i
    onal
    Prohibiti
    onpar t
    y,launchedthreey earsbefore,nomi nateditsfi
    r stpr esidenti
    alcandi dateand
    i
    naugur atedacampai gnofagi t
    ation.Thoughi tsvot ewasnev erl arge, thecausef orwhi chit
    stoodf oundincreasingfavoramongt hepeople.St ateafterstat ebypopul arreferendum
    aboli
    shedt hel i
    quortraff
    icwithinitsborders.By1917atl eastthi r
    t y
    -twooft hef orty-
    eightwere
    "dry
    ."Whent hefederalamendmentwassubmi ttedf orappr oval, t
    her atifi
    cati
    onwas
    surpri
    singlyswift.Inalit
    tl
    emor et hanay ear,namel y,onJanuar y16, 1919, i
    twaspr oclaimed.
    Twelvemont hslatertheamendmentwenti ntoef fect.

    Col
    oni
    alandFor
    eignPol
    i
    cies

    ThePhi li
    ppinesandPor t
    oRi co.—I ndependencef orthePhi li
    ppi nesandl ar
    gersel f-gov ernment
    forPor toRi cohadbeenamongt hepol i
    ciesoft heDemocr aticpar tysincet hecampai gnof
    1900.Pr esidentWi lsoninhi sannual messagesur geduponCongr essmor eaut onomyf orthe
    Fil
    ipinosandadef i
    nitepromi seoff i
    nal i
    ndependence.Ther esultwast heJonesOr ganicAct
    forthePhi l
    ippinespassedi n1916.Thi smeasur epr ovidedthatt heupperaswel last hel ower
    houseoft hePhi lippinelegislatureshoul dbeel ectedbypopul arv ote,anddecl ar editt obet he
    i
    nt enti
    onoft heUni tedSt atest ogr antindependence" assoonasast ablegov ernmentcanbe
    established. "This,saidPr esidentWi lsononsi gningt hebi l
    l,i
    s" av erysat i
    sfactoryadv ancei n
    ourpol icyofext endi ngtot hem sel f-
    gov ernmentandcont r
    ol ofthei rownaf fai
    rs."Thef ollowing
    yearCongr ess, yi
    eldingtoPr esi dentWi lson'
    sinsistence, passedanewor ganicactf orPor to
    Rico, maki ngbot hhousesoft hel egisl
    atureelectiv
    eandconf erringAmer i
    canci tizenshipupon
    theinhabi tantsoft hei sl
    and.
    TheCar
    ibbeanRegi
    on

    Amer i
    canPoweri ntheCar i
    bbean.—Whi leext endi ngmor esel f
    -gov ernmentt oi t
    sdomi nions,the
    UnitedSt atesenl argedi t
    sspher eofinfluencei nt heCar ibbean.Thesuper visionoffinancesi n
    SantoDomi ngo, i
    naugur atedinRoosev elt'
    sadmi nistr
    ation, wast ransf ormedi ntoapr otectorate
    underWi l
    son.I n1914di ssensionsinther epubl i
    cl edtot hel andingofAmer icanmar inest o
    "supervise"t heelecti
    ons.Twoy ear
    slater ,
    anof f
    icerint heAmer icannav y,withauthor i
    tyfrom
    Washi ngton, placedt heent ir
    erepubli
    c" i
    nast ateofmi l
    itaryoccupat ion."Hepr oceededt osuspend
    thegov ernmentandl awsoft hecountry,exilet hepr esident ,suppr esst hecongr ess,andsubst it
    ute
    Amer i
    canmi lit
    aryauthor i
    ty.I
    n1919aconsul tingboar doff ourpr omi nentDomi nicanswas
    appointedt oai dtheAmer i
    canmi li
    tar
    ygov ernor ;butitresignedt henexty earaf t
    ermaki ngapl ea
    forther estor ati
    onofi ndependencet other epubl ic.Foral lpracti
    cal pur poses, i
    tseemed, the
    sovereigntyofSant oDomi ngohadbeent r
    ansf erredtot heUni t
    edSt ates.

    I
    nt heneighbor i
    ngrepublicofHai t
    i,asimi l
    arstateofaff ai
    rsexi
    sted.Inthesummerof1915a
    rev ol
    uti
    onbr okeoutt here—oneofal ongser i
    esbegi nningin1804—andourmar ineswer e
    l
    andedt orestoreorder.Elect i
    onswer eheldundert hesuper vi
    sionofAmer icanof fi
    cers,anda
    treatywasdr awnuppl acingt hemanagementofHai ti
    anf i
    nancesandt helocal constabular
    y
    underAmer i
    canaut horit
    y .Intakingthi sacti
    on,ourSecr etaryofStatewascar efultoannounce:
    "TheUni tedSt atesgovernmenthasnopur poseofaggr essionandi sentir
    elydisinter
    estedin
    promot i
    ngt hispr ot
    ectorate."Stil
    litmustbesai dthattherewer evigor
    ouspr otestsont hepart
    ofnat i
    vesandAmer i
    canci ti
    zensagai nsttheconductofouragent sintheisland.In1921
    Pr esi
    dentWi lsonwasconsi deringwi t
    hdr awal.

    Inl i
    newi thAmer i
    canpol icyi nt
    heWestI ndianwat erswast hepur chasein1917oft heDani sh
    Islandsj ustoffthecoastofPor toRico.Thest rategicposi tionoft heislands,especial l
    yin
    relati
    ont oHaitiandPor t
    oRi co,madet hem anobj ectofAmer i
    canconcer nasear l
    yas1867,
    whenat reatyofpurchasewasnegot iatedonl ytober ejectedbyt heSenateoft heUni t
    edSt ates.
    In1902asecondar rangementwasmade, butthist i
    mei twasdef eatedbyt heupperhouseof
    theDani shpar l
    i
    ament .Thet hir
    dt r
    eatybr oughtanendt ofiftyy earsofbargainingandt heSt ar
    s
    andSt r
    ipeswer er ai
    sedov erSt
    .Croix, St.Thomas, St.John, andnumer ousmi norislands
    scat t
    eredabouti nthenei ghbor hood." I
    twoul dbesui cidal,
    "comment edaNewYor knewspaper ,
    "forAmer ica,onthet hreshol dofagr eatcommer cialexpansi oninSout hAmer ica,tosuf fera
    Hel i
    goland, oraGi braltar
    , oranAdent obeer ectedbyherr iv alsatthemout hofherSuez. "On
    themai nlandAmer i
    canpowerwasst rengt henedbyt heest abl i
    shmentofapr ot ect
    or ateover
    Nicar aguai n1916.

    Mexi
    canRel
    ati
    ons.
    —Theex
    tensi
    onofAmer
    icanent
    erpr
    isesout
    hwar
    dint
    oLat
    inAmer
    ica,
    ofwhi
    ch
    t
    heoper
    ati
    onsi
    ntheCar
    ibbeanr
    egi
    onswer
    emer
    elyonephase,
    nat
    ural
    l
    ycar
    ri
    edAmer
    icansi
    nto
    Mexi
    cot
    o
    devel
    opt henat ural resour
    cesoft hatcount ry.Underthei r
    onr ul
    eofGener alPor f
    iri
    oDi az,
    est
    ablishedin1876andmai ntainedwi thonlyashor tbreakunt i
    l1911, Mexi cohadbecome
    i
    ncreasinglyattractivetoourbusi nessmen.Ont heinvitat
    ionofPr esidentDi az ,
    theyhad
    i
    nvestedhugesumsi nMexicanl ands, oilfi
    elds,andmi nes,andhadl ai
    dt hef oundat i
    onsofa
    newindust r
    ialorder .Thesev erer égimei nsti
    tutedbyDi az,however ,sti
    rredpopul ardiscontent
    .
    Thepeons, orser fs,demandedt hebr eak-upoft hegreatestates,someofwhi chhadcome
    downf rom theday sofCor t
    ez.Thei rclamorf or"therestorat
    ionoft helandt ot hepeopl ecould
    notbesi l
    enced."In1911Di azwasf orcedt oresignandl eftt
    hecount ry
    .

    Mexi conowsl iddownt hepat htodisorder


    .Rev ol
    uti
    onsandci vi
    lcommot i
    onsf ol
    lowedi nswift
    successi on.Al i
    beralpresident
    ,Mader o,i
    nst al
    ledasthesuccessort oDi az,wasdeposedi n
    1913andbr utal
    lymur dered.Huert
    a,ami li
    taryadv ent
    urer,hailedforat i
    measanot her"str
    ong
    man, "succeededMader owhosemur derhewasaccusedofi nsti
    gating.AlthoughGr eatBrit
    ain
    andnear l
    yal l
    thepower sofEur opeaccept edthenewgov ernmentasl awf ul,t
    heUni tedStates
    steadilywi t
    hheldrecognition.I
    nthemeant imeMexi cowast ornbyinsur recti
    onsundert he
    l
    eader shi
    pofCar r
    anza,af ri
    endofMader o, Vil
    l
    a, abanditofgener ouspr etensions,andZapat a,
    ar adicalleaderofthepeons.Wi t
    houtthesuppor toftheUnitedSt ates,Huer t
    awasdoomed.

    I
    nt hesummerof1914, t
    hedict
    atorresi
    gnedandfledfr
    om thecapit
    al,leavingt hefi
    eldto
    Carranza.Forsixy
    ear sthenewpr esi
    dent,
    recogni
    zedbytheUnitedStates, heldapr ecar
    ious
    positi
    onwhi chhevigorousl
    ystr
    ov etostr
    engthenagai
    nstvari
    ousrevolutionarymov ements.
    Atlengthin1920,het oowasdeposedandmur der
    ed,andanothermili
    tarychi eftai
    n,Obregon,
    i
    nstall
    edinpower .

    Theseev ent sr i
    ghtatourdoorcoul dnotfailt
    oinvol
    vethegov ernmentoft heUnitedSt ates.
    Inthedi sor dersmanyAmer i
    canci
    ti
    zenslostthei
    rli
    ves.Americanpr opert
    ywasdest r
    oy ed
    andl andownedbyAmer icanswasconf i
    scated.AnewMexi canconst it
    uti
    on,ineffect
    nati
    onal izingt henat ur
    alresourcesofthecountry
    ,str
    uckatther ightsofforei
    gninvestor s.
    Mor eov ertheMexi canbor derwasinconstantturmoil
    .Eveninthel astdaysofhis
    admi nistration,Mr .Taftfeltcompel
    ledtoissueasolemnwar ningt otheMexicangov ernment
    protestingagai nstthev i
    olati
    onofAmer i
    canr i
    ght
    s.

    PresidentWi l
    son, soonafterhisinaugur ation, sentacommi ssionertoMexi cot oi nqui reint
    o
    thesi tuation.Al thoughhedecl aredagener alpolicyof"wat chful wait
    ing,"het wi cecamet o
    blowswi thMexi canf or
    ces.In1914someAmer i
    cansai l
    orsatTampi cower ear restedbya
    Mexi canof fi
    cer ;theMexi cangov ernment ,alt
    houghi timmedi at el
    yreleasedt hemen, refusedto
    maket her equiredapol ogyf orthei nci
    dent .Asar esultPresidentWi lsonor deredt hel andingof
    Amer i
    canf orcesatVer aCr uzandt heoccupat ionoft hecity.Acl ashofar msf ollowedi nwhi ch
    sev eral Amer icanswer ekil
    led.Warseemedi nev i
    table,butatt hisjunct urethegov ernment sof
    Ar gentina, Brazil,andChi l
    et enderedt hei
    rgoodof fi
    cesasmedi ators.Af teraf ewweeksof
    negot iation,dur i
    ngwhi chHuer tawasf orcedoutofpower ,Amer i
    canf orceswer ewi thdr awn
    from Ver aCr uzandt heincidentcl osed.

    I
    n1916asecondbr eaki nami cablerel
    ati
    onsoccurred.Inthespringofthaty earabandof
    Vil
    la'smenr ai
    dedthet ownofCol umbus, NewMexi co,ki
    ll
    i
    ngsev eral
    ci t
    izensandcommi t
    ti
    ng
    robberies.Apunitiveexpedi ti
    onundert hecommandofGener alPershingwasqui ckl
    ysentout
    tocapt uretheoffenders.Agai nsttheprotestsofPr
    esidentCarranza,Amer icanforces
    penet r
    ateddeeplyintoMexi cowi t
    houteffecti
    ngtheobjectoftheunder t
    aking.Thisoper ati
    on
    l
    ast edunt i
    lJanuary,1917, whent heimmi nenceofwarwi t
    hGer manyl edtot hewithdrawalof
    theAmer i
    cansoldiers.Friendlyrel
    ati
    onswer eresumedwi ththeMexi cangov ernmentandt he
    poli
    cyof" wat chf
    ulwai t
    ing"wascont i
    nued.

    TheUni
    tedSt
    atesandt
    heEur
    opeanWar
    TheOutbreakoftheWar.
    —Int
    heopeni
    ngdaysofAugust,
    1914,
    theage-
    longjeal
    ousiesofEur
    opean
    nati
    ons,
    sharpenedbynewimper
    ial
    ambit
    ions,
    brokeouti
    nanot
    hergeneral
    confl
    ictsuchashad
    shakent
    he
    wor l
    dint heday sofNapol eon.OnJune28, theheirt otheAust r
    o-Hungar ianthr onewas
    assassinatedatSer ajevo,thecapital ofBosnia,anAust ri
    anpr ovi
    nceoccupi edmai nlybySer bs.
    Withav iewt ost oppingSer bianagitat i
    onforindependence, Austri
    a-Hungar ylaidthebl amef or
    thi
    sincidentont hegov ernmentofSer biaandmadehumi l
    iat
    ingdemandsont hatcount ry.
    Germanyatoncepr oposedt hatthei ssueshoul dber egar dedas" anaf f
    airwhi chshoul dbe
    settl
    edsol elybetweenAust r
    ia-
    Hungar yandSer bi
    a"; meani ngthatthesmal lnat ionshoul dbe
    l
    efttothet endermer ciesofagr eatpower .Russiar efusedt otaket hisv i
    ew.Gr eatBrit
    ain
    proposedaset tl
    ementbymedi ation.Ger manybackedupAust r
    iatot helimit.Touset he
    l
    anguageoft heGer manaut hori
    ti
    es: "Wewer eper fectlyawar ethatapossi blewar li
    keat ti
    tude
    ofAustria-Hungar yagai nstSerbiami ghtbr i
    ngRussi aupont hef i
    eldandt hatitmi ghttherefore
    i
    nv ol
    veusi nawar ,inaccor dancewi thourdut i
    esasal l
    ies.Wecoul dnot ,howev er
    ,inthesev i
    tal
    i
    nterestsofAust ri
    a-Hungar ywhichwer eatstake,adv i
    seoural l
    ytot akeay i
    eldingat t
    itudenot
    compat i
    bl ewi t
    hhisdi gnitynordenyhi m ourassistance. "Thatmadet hewari nev i
    table.

    Everydayoft hef atefulAugust ,1914, wascrowdedwi thmoment ousev ents.Onthe1st ,


    Germanydecl ar
    edwaronRussi a.Ont he2d,theGer mansi nv adedthelittl
    educhyof
    Luxembur gandnot if
    iedtheKi ngofBel gi
    um thattheywer epr epari
    ngt ov i
    olatet
    heneut r
    alityof
    hisreal
    m ont heirwayt oParis.Ont hesameday ,GreatBrit
    ain,anxiouslybesoughtbythe
    Frenchgov ernment ,promisedt heai doftheBr it
    ishnav yifGer manwar shipsmadehost i
    l
    e
    demonst r
    ationsint heChannel .August3d, t
    heGer mangov ernmentdecl aredwaronFr ance.
    Thef ol
    l
    owi ngday ,GreatBritaindemandedofGer manyr espectforBelgianneut r
    ali
    tyand, f
    aili
    ng
    torecei
    vet heguar antee,brokeof fdipl
    omaticrelati
    ons.Ont he5th,theBr i
    tishpr
    imemi nister
    announcedt hatwarhadopenedbet weenEngl andandGer many .Thest orm nowbrokei nall i
    ts
    pit
    il
    essfury.

    TheSt ateofAmer i
    canOpi nion.—Al thoughPr esi dentWi l
    sonpr ompt l
    ypr ocl
    aimedt heneut r
    ali
    ty
    oftheUni t
    edSt ates,thesy mpat hiesofal argemaj orit
    yoftheAmer i
    canpeopl ewer ewi t
    hout
    doubtont hesideofGr eatBr i
    tainandFr ance.Tot hem theinvasionoft helit
    tlekingdom of
    Belgium andt hehor rorsthataccompani edGer manoccupat i
    onwer eodi ousi ntheextreme.
    Mor eover,theyr egardedt heGer mani mper ialgov ernmentasanaut ocrati
    cpowerwi el
    dedinthe
    i
    nterestofanambi ti
    ousmi lit
    ar ypar t
    y.TheKai ser ,Will
    iam I
    I,andt heCr ownPr incewer ethe
    symbol sofr oyal arr
    ogance.Ont heotherhand, manyAmer icansofGer mandescent ,i
    nmemor y
    oftheirtieswitht heFat herland, openl ysy mpat hizedwi ththeCent ralPower s;andmany
    Amer icansofI r
    ishdescent ,recal li
    ngt heirlongandbi t
    terstr
    uggl eforhomer uleinIr
    eland,
    woul dhav eregar dedBr i
    ti
    shdef eatasamer i
    tedr edressofanci entgrievances.

    Extremelysensi ti
    vet oAmer icanopi nion, butil
    l i
    nf ormedabouti t
    ,theGer mangov ernmentsoon
    begansy st emat i
    ceffortstopr esenti tscauset ot hepeopl eoftheUni tedSt atesinthemost
    favorablelightpossible.Dr .BernhardDer nburg, t
    hef or
    mercol onial secr etaryoftheGer man
    empi r
    e,wassentt oAmer i
    caasaspeci alagent .Formont hshef il
    ledt henewspaper s,
    magazi nes, andper i
    odicalswi thinter views,articles,andnot esont hej ust i
    ceoft heTeut onic
    cause.Fr om apr essbur eaui nNewYor kf l
    owedast ream ofpamphl ets,leaf l
    ets,
    andcar t
    oons.
    Amagazi ne, "
    TheFat herland,"wasf oundedt osecur e"fairplayforGer manyandAust r
    ia."
    Severalpr ofessorsinAmer icanuni ver sit
    ies,whohadr eceivedtheirt rainingi nGermany ,t
    ookup
    thepeni ndef enseoft heCent ralEmpi res.TheGer manl anguagepr ess, withoutexcept ionit
    seems, theNat i
    onalGer manAl li
    ance, minorGer mansoci eti
    es,andLut heranchur chescamet o
    thesuppor toftheGer mancause.Ev ent heEngl ishl anguagepaper s, t
    houghgener all
    yfav or
    able
    totheEnt ent eAll
    ies,openedt heircol umnsi nt hei nterestofequal just icet othespokesmenf or
    allt
    hecont endingpower sofEur ope.

    Beforetwoweekshadel apsedthecontrov
    ersyhadbecomesoi nt
    enset hatPresi
    dentWilson
    (August18,1914)wasmov edtocauti
    onhiscountry
    menagainstf
    all
    ingintoangrydisput
    es."Ev
    ery
    man,"hesaid,"
    whor eall
    ylovesAmericawil
    lactandspeakinthet
    ruespi r
    itofneut
    rali
    tywhichi
    s
    thespir
    itofi
    mpar t
    ial
    it
    yandf ai
    rnessandfr
    iendl
    inesstoal
    lconcer
    ned..
    ..Wemustbei mparti
    ali
    n
    thoughtaswellasin
    acti
    on, mustputacurbuponoursenti
    mentsaswel
    lasuponev
    erytransact
    iont
    hatmi
    ghtbe
    construedasapr ef
    erenceofonepar
    tytot
    hestr
    uggl
    ebefor
    eanother.
    "
    TheCl ashov erAmer i
    canTr ade.—Asi nt heti
    meoft heNapol eonicwar s,theconf li
    cti nEurope
    rai
    sedf undament al quest ionsr espectingr i
    ghtsofAmer icanst radingwi t
    hcount ri
    esatpeace
    aswel last hoseatwar .Ont hispointther eexistedonAugust1, 1914, afairlydefinitebodyof
    pri
    nci plesbywhi chnat ionswer ebound.Amongt hem t hef oll
    owi ngwer eofv i
    talsignifi
    cance.
    Inthef irstplace, i
    twasr ecogni zedthatanenemymer chantshi pcaughtont hehi ghseaswasa
    l
    egitimat eprizeofwarwhi chmi ghtbesei zedandconf iscat ed.Int hesecondpl ace, i
    twas
    agreedt hat"cont rabandofwar "foundonanenemyorneut ral shipwasal awful pri
    ze; anyshi
    p
    suspect edofcar r
    y i
    ngitwasl i
    abletosear chandi fcaughtwi thforbiddengoodswassubj ectto
    seizure.I nthet hirdplace, i
    nt ernati
    onal l
    awpr escribedt hatapeacef ulmer chantshi p,whether
    belongi ngtoanenemyort oaneut ralcount r
    y,shoul dnotbedest royedorsunkwi thout
    provisionf ort hesaf etyofcr ewandpassenger s.I
    nt hef ourthpl ace,itwasunder stoodt hata
    bell
    iger enthadt her i
    ght ,ifitcoul d,t
    obl ockadet hepor tsofanenemyandpr eventt heingress
    andegr essofal lships; butsuchabl ockade, t
    obel awful, hadt obeef f
    ective.

    Thesegener alpri
    nciplesleftundeterminedtwoi mpor t
    antmat ters:"
    Whati sanef fecti
    ve
    bl
    ockade? "and"Whati scont r
    abandofwar ?"Thet askofanswer ingthesequest ionsfellto
    GreatBr i
    tainasmi stressoft heseas.Al t
    hought heGer mansubmar i
    nesmadei timpossi blefor
    herbat t
    leshipstomai ntai
    nacont inuouspatrolofthewat ersinfrontofblockadedpor ts, she
    declaredthebl ockadet obenonet heless"effecti
    ve"becausehernav ywassupr eme.Ast o
    contrabandofwarGr eatBr i
    tainputsuchabr oadinterpret
    ationupont heterm ast oinclude
    nearlyever yi
    mpor tantar t
    icl
    eofcommer ce.Earlyin1915shedecl ar
    edev encar goesofgr ai
    n
    andf l
    ourt obecont raband, defendingtheactionont hegroundt hattheGer mangov er
    nment
    hadr ecentlytakenpossessi onofal ldomesticstocksofcor n,wheat,andf l
    our.

    Anewquest i
    onaroseinconnect i
    onwi t
    hAmer icant radewi t
    ht heneutralcountr
    ies
    surr
    oundingGer many.Gr eatBri
    tainearlybegant ointerceptshipscarryingoil
    ,gasoli
    ne,and
    copper—allwarmaterialsofpr i
    mei mpor t
    ance—ont hegr oundt hatt
    heyeitherweredest ined
    ult
    imatel
    yt oGermanyorwoul dreleasegoodsf orsal etoGer mans.OnNov ember2, 1914, the
    Engli
    shgov er
    nmentannouncedt hattheGermanswor esowi ngmi nesinopenwat ersandt hat
    ther
    eforethewholeoft heNor thSeawasami l
    itaryzone.Shi psboundf orDenmar k,Nor way ,
    andSwedenwer eorderedt ocomebyt heEnglishChannel forinspecti
    onandsai li
    ngdirections.
    Ineff
    ect,Amer i
    canswer enowl icensedbyGr eatBr i
    taintot r
    adei ncert
    aincommodi t
    iesandi n
    cert
    ainamount swithneut ral
    count r
    ies.

    Againsttheseextr
    aordinarymeasures,theStat eDepar tmentatWashi
    ngtonlodgedpoi nted
    objecti
    ons,say
    ing:"Thisgovernmentisreluctantlyforcedtotheconcl
    usi
    ont hatt
    hepr esent
    poli
    cyofHi sMajesty'
    sgov er
    nmentt owardneut r
    alshipsandcargoesexceedsthemani fest
    necessityofabell
    igerentandconsti
    tutesrestricti
    onsupont heri
    ghtsofAmer i
    cancit
    izenson
    thehighseas,whichar enotjust
    if
    iedbyt herulesofi nter
    nati
    onall
    aworrequiredundert he
    pri
    ncipleofsel
    f-
    preser v
    ati
    on."

    GermanyBegi nstheSubmar i
    neCampai gn. —Germanynowannouncedt hat,onandaf ter
    Februar y18,1915,thewhol eoft heEngl ishChannel andthewat ersaroundGr eatBr itainwould
    bedeemedawarzoneandt hatev eryenemyshi pfoundt hereinwouldbedest r
    oyed.The
    Germandecr eeaddedt hat,
    ast heBr it
    ishadmi ralt
    yhador der edtheuseofneut ral f
    lagsby
    Englishshipsint i
    meofdi st
    ress, neutralvesselswoul dbei ndangerofdest ructi
    oni ff oundin
    thef or
    biddenarea.Itwascl earthatGer manyi ntendedt oempl oysubmar inestodest roy
    shipping.Anewf actorwast husi ntr
    oducedi nt
    onav alwarf
    are,onenotpr ovidedf orint he
    accept edlawsofwar .Awar shipov erhaulingamer chantvesselcouldeasi l
    ytakei t
    scr ewand
    passenger sonboar df orsafekeepi ngaspr escri
    bedbyi nternati
    onallaw;butasubmar ine
    ordinaril
    ycoulddonot hingofthesor t.Ofnecessi tytheliv
    esandt heshipsofneut rals, aswell
    asofbel l
    i
    gerents,wer eputinmor t
    alperil.Thisamazi ngconductGer manyj ustif
    iedont he
    gr
    oundt
    hati
    twasmer
    eret
    ali
    ati
    onagai
    nstGr
    eatBr
    it
    ainf
    orherv
    iol
    ati
    onsofi
    nter
    nat
    ional
    law.

    Theresponseoft heUni
    tedSt
    atestotheominousGermanorderwasswi
    ftanddir
    ect
    .OnFebr
    uar
    y
    10,1915,itwarnedGermanyt
    hatifhercommandersdest
    roy
    edAmer i
    canli
    vesandshi
    psi
    n
    obediencetothat
    decree,theactionwould"bever
    yhardindeedt oreconcil
    ewiththefriendl yrel
    ati
    onshappi l
    y
    subsist
    ingbet weenthetwogovernments."TheAmer icannoteaddedt hattheGer mani mperi
    al
    governmentwoul dbeheldt
    o"str
    ictaccountabil
    it
    y"andallnecessaryst epswoul dbetakent o
    safeguardAmer i
    canli
    vesandAmer i
    canrights.Thi
    swasf ir
    m andcl earl anguage,buttheonly
    responsewhi chitevokedfr
    om Germanywasasuggest i
    onthat,i
    fGr eatBr i
    tai
    nwoul dallow
    foodsuppl i
    estopasst hr
    oughtheblockade,thesubmar i
    necampai gnwoul dbedr opped.

    ViolationsofAmer icanRight s.—Meanwhi leGer manycont i


    nuedt oravageshi ppi
    ngont hehi gh
    seas.OnJanuar y28, aGer manr ai
    dersankt heAmer icanshi p,Willi
    am P.Fr ye,int heSouth
    Atlantic;onMar ch28, aBr i
    tishship,theFal aba, wassunkbyasubmar i
    neandmanyonboar d,
    i
    ncl udinganAmer icanci t
    izen, werekill
    ed; andonApr il 28,aGer manai rplanedr oppedbombs
    ont heAmer i
    canst eamerCushi ng.Ont hemor ningofMay1, 1915,Amer i
    canswer eastounded
    toseei nthenewspaper sanadv er
    ti
    sement ,signedbyt heGer manI mper ialEmbassy ,warning
    tr
    av elersofthedanger sint hewarzoneandnot i
    fy i
    ngt hem t hatanywhov enturedonBr i
    tish
    shipsi ntothatareadi dsoatt heirownr isk.Ont hatday ,theLusitania,aBr it
    ishst eamer,sai l
    ed
    fr
    om NewYor kf orLiverpool .OnMay7, withoutwar ning, theshipwasst ruckbyt wot orpedoes
    andi naf ewmi nut eswentdownbyt hebow, carryingt odeat h1153per sonsi ncluding114
    Amer i
    canmen, women, andchi l
    dren.Acr yofhor rorr ant hrought hecount ry.TheGer man
    paper sinAmer icaandaf ewAmer i
    canpeopl ear guedt hatAmer icancitizenshadbeendul y
    war nedoft hedangerandhaddel i
    beratelytakent heirlivesintotheirownhands; butthet erri
    ble
    deedwasal mostuni versall
    ycondemnedbypubl i
    copi nion.

    TheLusi taniaNot es.


    —OnMay14, t
    heDepar tmentofStat eatWashi ngtonmadepubl i
    cthef i
    rstof
    threef amousnot esont heLusitani
    acase.I tsolemnlyi
    nformedt heGer mangov ernmentt hat" no
    war ningthatanunl awfulandinhumaneactwi llbecommi tt
    edcanpossi blybeaccept edasan
    excuseorpal l
    iati
    onforthatactorasanabat ementofther esponsibil
    it
    yf orit
    scommi ssion."It
    calledupont heGer mangov ernmentt odisavowt heact
    , maker eparati
    onasf araspossi bl
    e, and
    takest epstopr event"t
    herecurrenceofany thi
    ngsoobv iouslysubversiveoft heprinci
    plesof
    war fare.
    "Thenot eclosedwi t
    hacl earcauti
    ont oGermanyt hatthegov ernmentoft heUni t
    edSt at
    es
    woul dnot" omitanywor doranyactnecessar ytotheperformanceofi tssacr eddut yofmai ntaini
    ng
    ther i
    ghtsoft heUni t
    edStatesandi t
    sciti
    zensandofsaf eguardi
    ngt hei
    rf reeexerciseand
    enjoy ment.
    "Thedi ewascast;butGer manyi nreplymerelytemporized.

    Inasecondnot e,madepubl i
    conJune11, theposi ti
    onoft heUni tedSt at
    eswasagai naffi
    rmed.
    Will
    i
    am JenningsBr yan,theSecr etar
    yofSt ate,hadr esignedbecauset hedr if
    tofPr esidentWi lson's
    poli
    cywasnott owardmedi ationbutthest ri
    ctmai ntenanceofAmer icanr i
    ght s,ifneedbe, byforce
    ofarms.TheGer manreplywasst i
    llevasiveandGer mannav alcommander scont inuedt heircour se
    ofsinki
    ngmer chantships.I nat hirdandf i
    nal noteofJul y21, 1915, PresidentWi lsonmadei tclear
    toGermanyt hathemeantwhathesai dwhenhewr otet hathewoul dmai nt ai
    nt her ightsof
    Amer i
    cancit
    izens.Final
    lyaf termuchdi scussionandshi fti
    ngabout ,theGer manambassadoron
    September1, 1915,sentabr i
    efnot etot heSecr etaryofSt at
    e: "
    Linerswi l
    l notbesunkbyour
    submarineswi t
    houtwar ningandwi t
    houtsaf etyoft hel i
    v esofnon- combat ants,pr ovidedt heliners
    donott r
    ytoescapeorof ferr esist
    ance."Editori
    ally,theNewYor kTi mesdecl ared: "Itisatr i
    umph
    notonlyofdiplomacybutofr eason,ofhumani ty,ofjust i
    ce,andoft r
    uth."TheSecr etaryofSt ate
    sawi ni
    t"arecogniti
    onoft hef undament alprinciplesf orwhi chwehav econt ended. "

    ThePr esi
    denti
    alElecti
    onof1916. —I
    nt hemidstofthiscr i
    siscamet hepresidential campaign.
    Ont heRepubli
    cansi deeveryt
    hingseemedt odependupont heactionofthePr ogressives.If
    thebreachcreatedin1912coul dbeclosed,vi
    ctorywaspossi ble;
    ifnot,defeatwascer t
    ain.A
    promiseofunitylayinthefactthatt
    heconv enti
    onsoft heRepubl icansandPr ogressi v
    eswer e
    heldsimult
    aneouslyinChicago.Thef r
    iendsofRoosev elthopedt hatbothpar tieswoul dsel ect
    him asthei
    rcandidate;butthi
    shopewasnotr eal
    ized.TheRepubl i
    canschose, andt he
    Progressi
    vesaccepted,Char l
    esE.Hughes,anassoci at
    ej usticeofthefederal Supr emeCour t
    who,asgover
    norofNewYor
    k,hadwonanat
    ional
    reput
    ati
    onbywagi
    ngwaron"
    machi
    ne
    pol
    it
    ici
    ans.
    "
    Inthef aceoft heclamorf orexpr essionsofsy mpat hywi thoneort heotherofthecont endi
    ng
    power sofEur ope, t
    heRepubl icanschoseami ddlecour se,declari
    ngthattheywoul dupholdall
    Amer icanr i
    ghts"athomeandabr oad, bylandandbysea. "ThissentimentMr.Hughesechoed
    i
    nhi saccept ancespeech.Bysomei twasi nterpr
    etedt omeanaf i
    rmerpoli
    cyi ndeali
    ngwi t
    h
    GreatBr it
    ain;byothers,amor ev i
    gor oushandl ingoft hesubmar i
    nemenace.TheDemocr at
    s,
    ont heirside,r
    enomi natedPr esidentWi l
    sonbyaccl amat i
    on, r
    eviewedwithpridethelegisl
    ati
    ve
    achievement soft hepar t
    y,andcommended" thespl endiddiplomaticvi
    ctori
    esofourgr eat
    Presidentwhohaspr eservedthev i
    talinterestsofourgov ernmentandi t
    sciti
    zensandkeptus
    outofwar ."

    I
    nt heelecti
    onwhichensuedPr esidentWi lson'
    spopul arv ot
    eexceededt hatcastforMr .
    Hughesbymor ethanhalfami ll
    i
    on, whi
    lehi selectoralvotestood277t o254.Ther esultwas
    regar
    ded, andnotwit
    houtwar rant,asagr eatpersonal tr
    iumphf orthePr esident.Hehad
    recei
    vedt helar
    gestvot
    ey etcastforapr esidentialcandidate.ThePr ogressiv
    epar t
    y
    pract
    icall
    ydisappear
    ed,andt heSociali
    stssuf f
    eredasev ereset-back,fall
    ingfarbehindthe
    voteof1912.

    PresidentWi lsonUr gesPeaceupont heWar r


    ingNat i
    ons. —Appar entlyconv i
    ncedt hathis
    pacif
    icpol ici
    eshadbeenpr ofoundl yapprov edbyhi scount rymen, Presi dentWi l
    son, soonaf t
    er
    theelect i
    on,addr essed" peacenot es"tot heEur opeanbel li
    gerents.OnDecember16, the
    GermanEmper orproposedt otheAl l
    i
    edPower st hattheyent erintopeacenegot iati
    ons, a
    suggest ionthatwast reatedasamer epol i
    ti
    cal maneuv erbyt heopposi nggov ernment s.Two
    daysl aterPresidentWi l
    sonsentanot et othewar ringnat i
    onsaski ngt hem t oav ow" thet er
    ms
    uponwhi chwarmi ghtbeconcl uded. "Tot hesenot est heCent ralPower sr epli
    edt hatt hey
    werer eadyt omeett heirant agonistsinapeaceconf erence; andAl l
    iedPower sanswer edby
    presentingcer tai
    ncondi t
    ionspr ecedentt oasat isfactoryset tl
    ement .OnJanuar y22, 1917,
    PresidentWi lsoni nanaddr essbef oret heSenat e, declaredittobeadut yoft heUni tedSt ates
    totakepar tint heest abli
    shmentofast ablepeaceont hebasi sofcer tainpr i
    nciples.These
    were, i
    nshor t:"peacewi t
    houtv ict
    or y";t
    her ightofnat i
    onal i
    ti
    est ofreedom andsel f-
    government ;
    thei ndependenceofPol and; f
    reedom oft heseas; t
    her educt ionofar mament s;
    andt heabol i
    tionofent angli
    ngal l
    iances.Thewhol ewor ldwasdi scussi ngt hePr esident '
    s
    remar kablemessage, wheni twasdumbf oundedt ohear ,onJanuar y31, thatt heGer man
    ambassadoratWashi ngt onhadannouncedt heof f
    icialrenewal ofrut hlesssubmar i
    newar fare.

    TheUni
    tedSt
    atesatWar

    Stepst owar dWar .


    —Thr eeday saftert herecei ptofthenewst hattheGer mangov ernment
    i
    ntendedt or eturntoi t
    sf ormersubmar inepolicy,PresidentWi l
    sonsev ereddi plomat icrelati
    ons
    witht heGer manempi re.Att hesamet i
    meheex plai
    nedt oCongr essthathedesi r
    ednoconf lict
    withGer manyandwoul dawai tan"ov ertact "beforetakingf ur
    therstepst opr eserveAmer ican
    ri
    ght s."Godgr ant ,
    "heconcl uded,"t
    hatwemaynotbechal lengedt odefendt hem byact sof
    will
    ful i
    njusticeont hepar tofthegov ernmentofGer many."Yetthechal l
    engecame.Bet ween
    Febr uary26andApr il2,sixAmer icanmer chantv esselswer etor
    pedoed, inmostcaseswi thout
    anywar ningandwi thoutr egardtot hel ossofAmer i
    canl i
    ves.PresidentWi lsont hereforecal led
    uponCongr esst oanswert heGer manmenace.Ther eplyofCongr essonApr i
    l6wasa
    resoluti
    on, passedwi thonl yaf ewdi ssent i
    ngv ot
    es,declari
    ngt heexistenceofast ateofwar
    withGer many .Aust r
    ia-Hungar yatoncesev ereddi pl
    omat i
    cr el
    ationswi t
    ht heUni tedSt ates; but
    i
    twasnotunt i
    l December7t hatCongr ess, actingont hePr esi
    dent'sadvice, declaredwaral so
    ont hat"v assal oftheGer mangov ernment .
    "

    Ameri
    canWarAi ms.—I
    nmanyaddressesatt
    hebegi
    nni
    ngandduri
    ngthecour
    seoft
    hewar,
    Pr
    esi
    dentWilsonstat
    edthepur
    poseswhichact
    uat
    edourgov
    ernmenti
    ntaki
    nguparms.Hefir
    st
    madeitcl
    earthati
    twasawarofself
    -def
    ense."
    Themil
    i
    tar
    ymaster
    sofGermany,
    "heexcl
    aimed,
    "deni
    edusther i
    ghtt
    obeneut r
    al.
    "Pr
    oofofthatl
    ayonever
    yhand.Agent
    softheGermanimper
    ial
    governmenthaddestr
    oyedAmer i
    canli
    vesandAmeri
    canproper
    tyonthehi
    ghseas.Theyhadf
    il
    led
    ourcommuni t
    ieswit
    hspies.They
    hadpl
    antedbombsi nshi
    psandmuni
    ti
    onwor
    ks.Theyhadf
    oment
    eddi
    vi
    sionsamong
    Ameri
    cancit
    izens.

    Thoughassai
    ledinmanyway sandcompell
    edtoresor
    ttowar,theUnit
    edStat
    essoughtno
    materi
    alr
    ewards."Theworl
    dmustbemadesaf efordemocracy.I
    tspeacemustbeplant
    ed
    uponthetest
    edfoundati
    onsofpol
    it
    icall
    i
    bert
    y.Wehav enoself
    ishendstoser
    ve.Wedesireno
    conquest
    ,nodomi ni
    on.Weseeknoindemnit
    iesf
    oroursel
    ves."

    Inav eryremar kabl emessager eadt oCongr essonJanuar y8, 1918, PresidentWi lsonlai ddownhi s
    famous" fourteenpoi nts"summar i
    zingt heideal sforwhi chwewer ef i
    ghting.Theyi ncludedopen
    treat i
    esofpeace, openl yarrivedat;absol utefreedom ofnav i
    gationupont heseas; t
    her emov al,as
    faraspossi bl
    e, oft radebar r
    iersamongnat i
    ons; reduct i
    onofar mament s;adjustmentofcol onial
    claimsi nt heinter estoft hepopul ationsconcer ned;f ai
    randf r
    iendlytreatmentofRussi a;the
    rest orat
    ionofBel gium; r
    ightingthewr ongdonet oFr ancei n1871i nthemat terofAl sace- Lorraine;
    adj ustmentofI talianf rontiersalongt hel i
    nesofnat ionali
    ty ;morelibertyforthepeopl esofAust ri
    a-
    Hungar y;t
    her est orationofSer bi
    aandRumani a;ther eadjustmentoft heTur kishEmpi r
    e; an
    i
    ndependentPol and; andanassoci ati
    onofnat ionst oaffor dmut ualguar anteestoal l
    st atesgr eat
    andsmal l
    .Onal at eroccasi onPr esidentWi lsonel aboratedt helastpoi nt,namel y,thefor mat ionof
    al eagueofnat ionst oguar anteepeaceandest abli
    shj usti
    ceamongt hepower soft hewor l
    d.
    Democr acy ,
    ther i
    ghtofnat ionstodet ermi net heirownf at e,acov enantofendur i
    ngpeace—t hese
    wer etheidealsf orwhi chtheAmer icanpeopl ewer et opouroutt heirbloodandt reasur e.

    TheSel ectiveDr af t
    .—TheWor ldWarbecameawarofnat ions.Thepower sagai nstwhichwe
    werear rayedhadev eryabl e-bodiedmani nserv i
    ceandal ltheirresources,humanandmat eri
    al,
    thr
    owni ntot hescal e.Fort hisreason, Pr esi
    dentWi l
    sonsummonedt hewhol epeopl eofthe
    Unit
    edSt atest omakeev erysacr ifi
    cenecessar yforvictory.Congr essbylawdecr eedthatthe
    nati
    onal ar myshoul dbechosenf r
    om all maleci ti
    zensandmal esnotenemyal ienswhohad
    decl
    aredt heirintentionofbecomi ngcitizens.Byt hef i
    rstactofMay18, 1917, i
    tfixedtheage
    l
    imitsatt went y
    -onet ot hi
    rty-onei ncl
    usiv e.Later,i
    nAugust ,1918,itextendedt hem toeight
    een
    andforty -
    five.From t hemenoft hefir
    stgr oupsoenr oll
    edwer echosenbyl otthesoldier
    sfor
    theWor ldWarwho, withther egulararmyandt henationalguar d,formedt heAmer i
    can
    Expedi
    t i
    onar yFor ceuphol dingt heAmer icancauseont hebat t
    lefi
    eldsofEur ope."Thewhol e
    nati
    on,"sai dt hePr esident,"mustbeat eam i nwhi cheachmanshal lplaythepar tforwhichhe
    i
    sbestf itted."

    LibertyLoansandTaxes. —Inor derthatthemi l


    itaryandnav al forcesshoul dbest i
    ntedi nno
    respect ,thenat ionwascalledupont oplaceitsfinanci alresour cesatt heser vi
    ceoft he
    gov ernment .Someur gedthe" conscripti
    onofweal thaswel lasmen, "meani ngthesuppor tof
    thewaroutoft axesupongr eatfortunes;butmor econser v ativecounsel sprevail
    ed.Fourgr eat
    LibertyLoanswer efl
    oated,all t
    heagenciesofmoder npubl icitybei ngempl oyedt oenl i
    st
    popul arinterest.Thefir
    stloanhadf ourandahal fmi lli
    onsubscr ibers;thefourt
    hmor et han
    twent ymi ll
    ion.Combi nedwi thloanswer eheav ytaxes.Apr ogr essi vetaxwasl aidupon
    i
    ncomesbegi nningwithfourpercentoni ncomesi nt helowerr angesandr i
    singt osixty-t
    hree
    percentoft hatpartofanyincomeabov e$2,000,000.Apr ogr essi v
    et axwasl eviedupon
    i
    nher i
    t ances.Anexcesspr ofitstaxwasl aiduponal lcorpor ationsandpar t
    nerships,risi
    ngi n
    amountt osi xtypercentoft heneti ncomei nexcessoft hirty-threepercentont hei nvested
    capital."This,"saidadisti
    ngui shedeconomi st,"
    ist hehi gh-wat ermar kinthehistoryoft axation.
    Nev erbef orei ntheannalsofci vil
    i
    zationhasanat temptbeenmadet otakeasmuchast wo-
    thir
    dsofaman' sincomebyt axati
    on."

    Mobili
    zingMat eri
    alResources.
    —Nost onewasleftuntur
    nedtopr ov
    idethear
    ms, munit
    ions,
    suppl
    ies,andtransportat
    ionrequi
    redinthegi
    ganticundert
    aki
    ng.Betweenthedeclar
    ati
    onofwar
    andthear mist
    ice,Congressenactedlawaft
    erlawr el
    ati
    vetofoodsuppli
    es,r
    awmat eri
    als,
    rai
    lways,
    mines,ships,f
    orests,andindust
    ri
    alenter
    pri
    ses.Nopowerov ertheli
    vesandpropert
    yofciti
    zens,
    deemednecessaryt
    ot hepr
    osecuti
    onoft hearmedconfl
    ict,waswit
    hheldfrom thegover
    nment.
    Thefarmer'
    swheat,
    thehousewife'
    ssugar,coalatt
    hemi nes,l
    abori
    nt hef
    actori
    es,shi
    psatthe
    wharves,
    tradewi
    thfr
    iendl
    ycountri
    es,
    t herai
    lways,
    banks,stor
    es,pr
    ivatef
    ortunes—all
    were
    mobil
    izedandlai
    dunderwhateverobl
    igati
    onsthe
    gov
    ernmentdeemedi
    mper
    ati
    ve.Nev
    erwasanat
    ionmor
    ecompl
    etel
    ydev
    otedt
    oasi
    ngl
    ecause.

    Al awofAugust10, 1917, gav et hePresidentpowert of ixthepr i


    cesofwheatandcoal andt o
    takeal mostanyst epsnecessar ytopr eventmonopol yandexcessi veprices.Byaser i
    esof
    measur es,enlargi
    ngt hepr inciplesoft heshi ppingactof1916, shipsandshi py ardswer e
    br oughtunderpubl iccont rol andt hegov ernmentwasempower edt oembar kuponagr eatship
    -buildingpr ogram.I nDecember ,1917, t
    hegov er nmentassumedf ortheper iodoft hewart he
    oper at ionofther ail
    way sunderapr esidentialproclamat ionwhi chwasel abor at edi nMar ch,
    1918, byactofCongr ess.Int hesummerof1918t heexpr ess,telephone, andt elegraph
    busi nessoft heent i
    recount r
    ypassedundergov ernmentcont rol.Bywarr iski nsur anceact s
    allowanceswer emadef orthef amili
    esofenl i
    stedmen, compensat i
    onf ori njurieswas
    pr ovided, deathbenef it
    swer ei nstit
    uted,andasy stem ofnat i
    onal insurancewasest abli
    shedin
    thei nt erestofthemeni nser vi
    ce.Nev erbeforei nthehi storyoft hecount ryhadt he
    gov er nmentt akensuchawi seandhumanev i
    ewofi t
    sobl i
    gati
    onst othosewhoser vedont he
    fieldofbat tl
    eoront heseas.

    TheEspi onageandSedi tionAct s.—Byt heEspi onagel awofJune15, 1917, andt heamendi ng
    l
    aw, knownast heSedi ti
    onact ,passedi nMayoft hef oll
    owi ngy ear , t
    hegov er nmentwasgi ven
    adrast i
    cpowerov ert heexpr essionofopi ni
    on.Thef irstmeasur epenal izedt hosewho
    conv eyedinformat iontoaf oreigncount r
    yt obeusedt ot heinjuryoft heUni t
    edSt at es;those
    whomadef alsest atement sdesi gnedt ointerfer
    ewi tht hemi l
    it
    ar yornav alfor cesoft heUni ted
    States;thosewhoat tempt edt ost i
    rupi nsubor di
    nat ionordi sloyal tyint hear myandnav y ;and
    thosewhowi llf
    ull
    yobst r
    uct edenl i
    stment .TheSedi tionactwasst il
    l mor esev ereandsweepi ng
    i
    ni t
    st erms.Itimposedheav ypenal ti
    esuponanyper sonwhoused" abusi velanguageaboutt he
    gover nmentori nstituti
    onsoft hecount ry
    ."Itauthor i
    zedt hedi smi ssal ofanyof fi
    ceroft he
    gover nmentwhocommi tt
    ed" disloyalacts"orut tered" disloyallanguage, "andempower edt he
    Postmast erGener al tocloset hemai lstoper sonsv i
    ol atingt helaw.Thi smeasur e,pr eparedby
    theDepar tmentofJust ice, encount eredv igorousopposi tionint heSenat e,wher etwent y -
    four
    Republ i
    cansandt woDemocr atsv otedagai nstit.Senat orJohnsonofCal i
    forni adenouncedi t
    asal aw" tosuppr esst hef reedom oft hepr essint heUni tedSt at esandt opr ev entanyman, no
    mat terwhohei s,from expr essi nglegiti
    mat ecr i
    ti
    cism concer ningt hepr esentgov ernment .
    "
    Theconst itut
    ionalityoft heact swasat t
    acked; butt heywer esust ai
    nedbyt heSupr emeCour t
    andst ri
    ngentlyenf orced.

    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    TheLaunchi
    ngofaShi
    patt
    heGr
    eatNav
    alYar
    ds,
    Newar
    k,N.
    J.

    Laborandt heWar .—Inviewoftherestl


    essnessofEur opeanl
    aborduri
    ngthewarandespeci all
    y
    theprolet
    arianrev
    ol ut
    ioninRussiainNov ember,1917,someanxi
    etywasearlyexpressedast o
    thestandwhi chorganizedlabormighttakeintheUnitedStat
    es.I
    twas,however,soondispel
    led.
    Samuel Gomper s,speakingfortheAmer i
    canFederati
    onofLabor,decl
    aredt
    hat"thisisl
    abor'
    s
    war,
    "andpledgedtheunit
    edsupportofal
    ltheuni
    ons.Therewassomedissent
    .TheSocial
    i
    stpar
    ty
    denouncedthewarasacapi t
    ali
    stquar
    rel
    ;butal
    lthepr
    otestscombi
    nedweretoosl
    ightt
    ohave
    muchef f
    ect
    .Americanlaborl
    eaderswere
    senttoEur opet ost rengthent hewav eringr anksoft r
    adeuni onist
    si nwar-wornEngl and, France,
    andI t
    aly.Laborwasgi venr epr esentationont heimpor tantboar dsandcommi ssi
    onsdeal i
    ng
    wit
    hi ndustri
    al quest ions.Tr adeuni onst andardswer eaccept edbyt hegov er
    nmentand
    generall
    yappl i
    edi ni ndustry.TheDepar tmentofLaborbecameoneoft hepower fulwar
    centersofthenat ion.I namemor ableaddr esst otheAmer i
    canFeder ati
    onofLabor ,President
    Wilsonassur edt het radeuni oni ststhatl aborcondi t
    ionsshoul dnotbemadeundul yoner ous
    bythewarandr ecei v edinr etur napl edgeofl oyal
    tyfrom theFeder ati
    on.Recogni t
    ionofl abor's
    contri
    butiontowi nni ngt hewarwasembodi edi nthetreatyofpeace, whichprov i
    dedf ora
    permanenti nternat ional organi zationtopr omot ethewor ld-
    wi deef for
    toflabort oimpr ove
    socialconditi
    ons." Thel eagueofnat ionshasf ori
    tsobjectt heest abli
    shmentofuni v er
    sal
    peace,"runsthepr eambl et ot helaborsect i
    onoft hetreaty,"andsuchapeacecanbe
    establi
    shedonl yi fiti sbaseduponsoci aljusti
    ce..
    ..Thef ail
    ur eofanynat i
    ont oadopthumane
    conditi
    onsofl abori sanobst aclei nthewayofot hernat i
    onswhi chdesiretoimpr ovet he
    conditi
    onsi ntheirowncount ries."

    TheAmer i
    canNav yi nt heWar .—AssoonasCongr essdecl aredwart hefleetwasmobi li
    zed,
    Amer i
    canpor tswer et hrownopent ot hewar shipsoft heAl li
    es,immedi ateprovisionwasmadef or
    i
    ncr easingthenumberofmenandshi ps,andacont ingentofwarv esselswassentt ocoöperate
    wit
    ht heBriti
    shandFr enchi ntheirl
    if
    e-and-deat hcont estwi t
    hsubmar i
    nes.Speci aleff
    ortwasmade
    tost i
    mul atetheproduct i
    onof" submar inechasers"and" scoutcruisers"tobesentt othedanger
    zone.Conv oyswerepr ov i
    dedt oaccompanyt hetranspor tsconv ey
    ingsol dier
    st oFrance.Beforethe
    endoft hewarmor et hant hreehundredAmer icanv esselsand75, 000of ficer
    sandmenwer e
    oper ati
    nginEur opeanwat ers.Thought heGermanf leetfail
    edt ocomeoutandchal lengethesea
    poweroft heAl l
    i
    es, t
    hebat tl
    eshipsoft heUnitedSt ateswer eal waysreadyt odot heirful
    ldutyi
    n
    suchanev ent.Ast hingst urnedout,theser vi
    ceoft heAmer i
    cannav ywasl i
    mitedmai nlytohel
    ping
    i
    nt hecampai gnthatwor edownt hesubmar i
    nemenacet oAl li
    edshipping.

    TheWari nFrance.
    —Owi ngtot hepeculiarchar acteroft hewar far
    einFrance,i
    tr equi
    reda
    l
    ongertimef orAmericanmi li
    taryforcest ogeti ntoaction;buttherewasnounnecessar ydel ay
    .
    Soonaf t
    erthedecl
    arationofwar ,
    stepswer etakent ogi vemi l
    itar
    yassist
    ancet otheAl l
    ies.The
    regul
    ararmywasenl argedandt het r
    oopsoft henat i
    onal guardwer ebroughtintonational
    servi
    ce.OnJune13, Gener alJohnJ.Per shing,chosenheadoft heAmer i
    canExpedi ti
    onary
    Forces,r
    eachedParisandbeganpr eparationsf orthear ri
    valofourtroops.I
    nJune, t
    he
    vanguardofthearmyr eachedFr ance.Asl owandst eadyst r
    eam f ol
    lowed.Assoonast hemen
    enrol
    ledunderthedraftwer eready ,i
    tbecameaf lood.Dur i
    ngt heperiodofthewart hear my
    wasenlargedf r
    om about190, 000ment o3, 665,000, ofwhom mor ethan2,000,000wer ein
    Francewhent hear
    mi sticewassi gned.

    Alt
    houghAmer i
    cant r
    oopsdi dnottakepar tonal argescal eunt il
    thel astphaseoft hewari n1918,
    severalbattal
    ionsofi nf
    antrywereinthet renchesbyOct ober,1917, andhadt hei
    rfirstsevere
    encounterwi ththeGer mansearlyinNov ember .I
    nJanuar y,1918, theyt ookoverapar tofthef ront
    l
    ineasanAmer icansector.InMarch,Gener alPershingpl acedourf orcesatthedisposal ofGener al
    Foch,commander -
    in-
    chiefoftheAll
    iedar mies.Thef ir
    stdi vi
    sion,whi chenteredtheMont didi
    er
    sal
    ientinApr il
    ,soonwasengagedwi t
    ht heenemy ,
    "takingwi t
    hspl endi ddasht hetownofCant igny
    andal l
    ot herobject
    ives,whichwereor ganizedandhel dst eadf astl
    yagai nstvi
    ciouscount erattacks
    andgal l
    ingartil
    ler
    yf i
    re.
    "
    Copy
    rightbyUnder
    woodandUnder
    wood,
    N.Y.
    Tr
    oopsRet
    urni
    ngf
    rom Fr
    ance

    Whent heGer mansl aunchedt heirgranddriv


    estowar dtheMarneandParis,i
    nJuneandJul y,
    1918,everyav ai
    lablemanwaspl acedatGener alFoch'scommand.AtBelleauWood, at
    Château-Thierr
    y,andot herpointsalongthedeepsalientmadebyt heGermansintotheFrench
    l
    ines,Amer i
    cansol dier
    sdistingui
    shedt hemselvesbyher oi
    cacti
    on.Theyalsopl
    ayedan
    i
    mpor tantrôleinthecount eratt
    ackt hat"smashed"thesali
    entanddrovetheGermansback.

    InSept ember , Amer i


    cant roops, withFr enchai d,"wipedout "theGer mansal i
    entatSt .Mihiel.By
    thistimeGener alPer shingwasr eadyf ort hegr eatAmer i
    candr i
    vet ot henor theasti nthe
    Argonnef orest, whi l
    eheal socoöper atedwi t
    ht heBr iti
    shi ntheassaul tont heHi ndenbur gli
    ne.
    Int heMeuse- Argonnebat tle,oursol diersencount eredsomeoft hemostsev er efight i
    ngoft he
    warandpr essedf orwardst eadi l
    yagai nstt hemostst ubbor nr esistancef rom t heenemy .Ont he
    6thofNov ember ,reportedGener al Pershing, "
    adi v i
    sionoft hef ir
    stcor psr eachedapoi ntont he
    Meuseopposi teSedan, twent y-fivemi l
    esf rom ourl ineofdepar ture.Thest rategical goal whi ch
    wasourhi ghesthopewasgai ned.Wehadcutt heenemy '
    smai nlineofcommuni cationsand
    not hi
    ngbutasur renderoranar mi st i
    cecoul dsav ehi sarmyf r
    om compl etedisast er.
    "Fiveday s
    l
    at ertheendcame.Ont hemor ningofNov ember11, theor dertoceasef ir
    ingwenti ntoef f
    ect .
    TheGer manar mywasi nr apidr etreatanddemor ali
    zat i
    onhadbegun.TheKai serhadabdi cat ed
    andf ledint oHol land.TheHohenzol lerndr eamsofempi r
    ewer eshat tered.I nthef if
    ty-second
    mont h,theWor ldWar ,
    inv olvi
    ngnear lyev erycivil
    izednat ionont hegl obe, wasbr oughtt oa
    close.Mor ethan75, 000Amer i
    cansol di ersandsai l
    orshadgi vent heirli
    v es.Mor et han250, 000
    hadbeenwoundedorwer emi ssingori nGer manpr isoncamps.
    West
    ernBat
    tl
    eLi
    nesoft
    heVar
    iousYear
    soft
    heWor
    ldWar

    TheSet
    tl
    ementatPar
    is

    ThePeaceConf erence.—OnJanuar y18, 1919, aconf er enceoft heAl l


    i
    edandAssoci atedPower s
    assembl edt opronouncej udgmentupont heGer manempi reandi t
    sdef eatedsat elli
    tes:Aust r
    ia-
    Hungar y,Bulgari
    a, andTur key.Itwasamov ingspect acl e.Sev enty-
    twodel egat esspokef orthirt
    y-
    twost ates.TheUni tedStates,GreatBri
    tain, France,Italy, andJapanhadf i
    vedel egateseach.
    Belgium, Brazi
    l,andSer biawer eeachassi gnedt hree.Canada, Austral
    ia,Sout hAfrica,India,China,
    Greece, Hedjaz,Pol and,Portugal,Rumani a,Siam, andCzechosl ovakiawer eal l
    ottedt woapi ece.The
    remai ni
    ngst at
    esofNewZeal and,Boli
    via,Cuba, Ecuador , Guatemal a,Haiti
    ,Hondur as,Liberi
    a,
    Nicaragua, Panama, Peru,andUr uguayeachhadonedel egate.PresidentWi lsonspokei nper son
    fortheUni tedStates.Engl and,France,andI talywer er epr esentedbyt heirpremi ers:Dav i
    dLl oyd
    Geor ge,GeorgesCl émenceau, andVitt
    or i
    oOr l
    ando.

    Pr
    emi
    ersLl
    oydGeor
    ge,
    Orl
    andoandCl
    émenceauandPr
    esi
    dentWi
    l
    sonatPar
    is

    TheSupremeCounci l.
    —Therealworkofthesett
    lementwasfi
    rstcommittedt
    oaSupr eme
    Counci
    loftenrepresenti
    ngt
    heUni t
    edStates,
    GreatBri
    tai
    n,Fr
    ance,I
    tal
    y,andJapan.Thi
    swas
    l
    aterr
    educedtof i
    vemember s.ThenJapandroppedoutandfinal
    lyI
    tal
    y,l
    eavi
    ngonlyPresi
    dent
    Wil
    sonandt hePremiers,
    LloydGeor geandCl émenceau,the" BigThree,
    "whoassumedt heburdenofmi ghtydecisions.
    OnMay6, t
    heirwor kwascompl etedandi nasecretsessi
    onoftheful
    lconferencethewhol e
    treatyofpeacewasappr oved,t
    houghaf ewofthepower smadereservat
    ionsorobject i
    ons.
    Thenextdayt hetreatywaspresent edtotheGermanswho, aft
    erpr
    olongedpr otest
    s,signed
    ont helastdayofgr ace,June28.Thi sGermant r
    eatywasfoll
    owedbyagr eement swithAustri
    a,
    Hungar y,Bulgari
    a,andTurkey.Collecti
    vel
    ythesegreatdocumentsfor
    medt helegalbasisof
    thegener alEuropeansettl
    ement .

    TheTer msoft heSett


    lement.—Thecombinedt r
    eatiesmakeahugev ol
    ume.TheGermant r
    eaty
    al
    oneembr acesabout80,000words.Col
    lecti
    velytheycov eranimmenser angeofsubj
    ects
    whichmaybesummar izedunderf
    iveheads:(1)Thet err
    itori
    alset
    tl
    ementinEurope;(
    2)the
    destr
    uctionofGermanmi l
    it
    arypower;
    (3)reparati
    onsf ordamagesdonebyGer manyandher
    al
    li
    es;(4)thedisposi
    ti
    onofGer mancoloniesandpr otectorat
    es;and(5)theLeagueofNati
    ons.

    Germanywasr educedbyt hecessi onofAl sace-Lorr


    ainetoFr anceandt helossofsev eralother
    provi
    nces.Austri
    a- Hungarywasdi ssolvedanddi smember ed.Russiawasr educedbyt he
    creat
    ionofnewst atesont hewest .Bul gar
    iawasst r
    ippedofhergai nsinther ecentBal kan
    wars.Turkeywasdi smember ed.Ni nenewi ndependentstateswer ecreated:Poland, Finland,
    Lit
    huania,Lat
    via,Est honi
    a,Ukraine, Czechoslovakia,Armenia,andHedj az.I
    taly,Greece,
    Rumani a,
    andSer biawer eenlargedbycessi onsoft erri
    tor
    yandSer biawast ransformedi nto
    thegreatstat
    eofJugosl avia.

    Thedest r
    ucti
    onofGer manmi l
    it
    arypowerwast hor
    ough.Theent i
    renav y
    ,withminor
    exceptions,wast urnedovert
    otheAl l
    i
    edandAssociatedPower s;
    Ger many '
    stot
    alequi
    pment
    forthef utur
    ewasl imit
    edtosixbatt
    leshipsandsi
    xli
    ghtcruisers,withcertai
    nsmallvessel
    s
    butnosubmar ines.Thenumberofenl i
    stedmenandof f
    icer
    sf orthear mywasf i
    xedatnot
    moret han100, 000;theGener
    alStaf
    fwasdi ssol
    ved;andthemanuf actur
    eofmuni t
    ions
    rest
    rict
    ed.

    Germanywascompel ledtoacceptfullresponsi bili


    tyforalldamages; topayf i
    vebill
    iondoll
    ars
    i
    ncashandgoods, andt omakecer tai
    not herpay ment swhichmi ghtbeor deredfrom timeto
    ti
    mebyani nter-
    all
    i
    edr eparati
    onscommi ssion.Shewasal sor equiredtodelivertoBelgium,
    France,andI t
    aly
    ,mill
    ionsoft onsofcoal ev eryy earforteny ears;whilebywayofaddi ti
    onal
    compensat iontoFrancet herichcoalbasi noft heSaarwaspl acedunderi nter-
    all
    i
    edcont r
    olto
    beexploitedunderFrenchadmi ni
    str
    ationf oraper i
    odofatl eastf i
    fteeny ear
    s.Aust r
    iaandthe
    otherassociatesofGer manywer ealsol aidunderheav yobligationstot hevictor
    s.Damages
    donet oshippingbysubmar i
    nesandot herv esselswer etobepai dforont hebasisoft onfor
    ton.

    Thedi sposi
    ti
    onoft heGer mancol oniesandtheoldOt tomanempi r
    epr esentedknotty
    problems.Itwasf i
    nall
    yagr eedthattheGermancol oniesandTur ki
    shpr ovi
    nceswhi chwerei
    n
    abackwar dstageofdev el
    opmentshoul dbeplacedundert hetutel
    ageofcer tainpowers
    actingas"mandat ori
    es"holdingthem in"asacredtrustofcivi
    l
    izati
    on."Anexcept i
    ontothe
    mandat orypri
    ncipl
    ear oseinthecaseofGer manr i
    ght sinShantung,allofwhichwer e
    tr
    ansf er
    reddir
    ectlytoJapan.I twast hi
    sarr
    angementt hatledtheChinesedel egati
    onto
    withholdthei
    rsignatur
    esf rom thetreaty
    .

    TheLeagueofNat i
    ons.—Highamongt hepurposeswhi chhehadinmi ndinsummoni ngthe
    nati
    ont oarms, Pr
    esi
    dentWi lsonplacedthedesi r
    et oputanendt owar.Allthrought heUni t
    ed
    Statesthepeoplespokeoft he"wart oendwar ."Noslogancall
    edf or
    thadeeperr esponsef rom
    thepublic.ThePresi
    denthimsel fr
    epeatedlydeclaredthatageneralassoci
    at i
    onofnat i
    onsmust
    beformedt oguar
    dthepeaceandpr otectallagainstt
    heambi t
    ionsofthefew." AsIseei t
    ,"he
    saidinhisaddressonopeni ngtheFour t
    hLibertyLoancampai gn,"t
    heconst i
    tuti
    onoft heLeague
    ofNat i
    onsandt hecleardef
    initi
    onofitsobjectsmustbeapar t
    ,inasenset hemostessent i
    al
    par
    t,oft
    hepeaceset
    tl
    ementi
    tsel
    f.
    "

    Nothingwasmorenatural
    ,ther
    efor
    e,t
    hanWi
    lson'
    sinsi
    stenceatPari
    supont
    hef or
    mationofan
    i
    nternati
    onal
    associ
    ati
    on.I
    ndeedhehadgonetoEuropeinpersonlar
    gel
    ytoaccompli
    shthatend.
    PartOne
    ofthetr
    eatywithGer
    many ,theCov enantoft
    heLeagueofNat i
    ons,wasduetohisl
    aborsmore
    thantoanyotheri
    nfl
    uence.Wi t
    hintheLeaguethuscr eat
    edweretobeembracedal
    ltheAl
    li
    ed
    andAssociat
    edPower sandnear l
    yalltheneut
    rals.Byatwo-
    thi
    rdsvoteoft
    heLeague
    Assemblytheexcl
    udednationsmi ghtbeadmitted.

    Theagenci
    esoft heLeagueofNat i
    onsweretobet hreeinnumber :(1)apermanentsecr etar
    iat
    l
    ocatedatGeneva;(2)anAssembl yconsisti
    ngofonedel egat
    ef rom eachcount r
    y,dominion,
    orsel
    f-
    governi
    ngcol ony(includi
    ngCanada, Austral
    i
    a,SouthAf r
    ica,NewZeal and,andIndia);
    (3)
    andaCouncilconsisti
    ngofr epresentat
    ivesoftheUnitedStates,GreatBri
    tai
    n, Fr
    ance,It
    aly,
    andJapan,andfourot herrepresentat
    ivessel
    ectedbyt heAssemblyf rom t
    imet oti
    me.

    Thedut i
    esi mposedont heLeagueandt heobl i
    gat i
    onsaccept edbyi t smember swer e
    numer ousandi mportant.TheCounci lwast otakest epst oformul ateaschemef ort he
    reduct i
    onofar mament sandtosubmi tapl anf ortheest ablishmentofaper manentCour tof
    Internati
    onal Just i
    ce.Themember soft heLeague( Ar ti
    cleX)wer etor espectandpr eserv
    eas
    agai nstexternal aggressiont
    het err
    itoriali
    nt egri
    tyandexi sti
    ngpol iti
    cal independenceofal lt
    he
    associ atednat i
    ons.Theywer etosubmi ttoar bitr
    at i
    onori nquirybyt heCounci lal
    ldisputes
    whi chcoul dnotbeadj ustedbydiplomacyandi nnocaset oresorttowarunt i
    lthr
    eemont hs
    aftertheawar d.Shoul danymemberdi sregar ditscov enants, i
    tsact i
    onwoul dbeconsi deredan
    actofwaragai nsttheLeague, whichwoul daccor dingl ycutof fthet radeandbusi nessoft he
    host il
    ememberandr ecommendt hrought heCounci lt othesev eral associ at
    edgov ernments
    themi l
    it
    arymeasur est obetaken.Incaset hedeci sioni nanyar bi
    trat i
    onofadi sputewas
    unani mous, themember softheLeagueaf fectedbyi twer et oabidebyi t
    .

    Suchwast hesett
    lementatPari
    sandsuchwast heassoci
    ati
    onofnat
    ionsf
    ormedto
    promotethepeaceoftheworl
    d.Theywer
    equickl
    yappr
    ovedbymostoft
    hepower
    s,andt
    he
    fi
    rstAssemblyoft
    heLeagueofNati
    onsmetatGeneval
    atei
    n1920.

    TheTr eat yint heUni tedSt ates. —Whent het r


    eatywaspr esent edt ot heUni t
    edSt atesSenat ef or
    approv al
    , av i
    olentopposi ti
    onappear ed.I nthatchambert heRepubl i
    canshadasl ightmaj or i
    tyand
    atwo- thi
    rdsv otewasnecessar yf orr ati
    ficati
    on.Thesent i
    mentf orandagai nstt het reatyr an
    mainlyal ongpar tyli
    nes; butt heRepubl icanswer et hemsel vesdi vided.Themaj orpor t
    ion, known
    as"reser vati
    oni sts,
    "fav oredr atifi
    cat i
    onwi thcertaincondi ti
    onsr espect ingAmer icanr i
    ght s; whilea
    smal l
    thoughact ivemi nor i
    tyr ejectedt heLeagueofNat ionsi nitsent ir
    et y
    ,announci ngt hemsel ves
    tobe" i
    r r
    econci l
    ables."Thegr oundsoft hisRepubl icanopposi tionl aypar tl
    yint het er msofpeace
    i
    mposedonGer manyandpar tlyint heCov enantoft heLeagueofNat ions.Except ionwast akent o
    theclauseswhi chaf fectedt her i
    ghtsofAmer icanci ti
    zensi npr oper t
    yi nvolvedi nt headj ust ment
    withGer many ,butt hebur denofcr it
    icism wasdi r
    ect edagai nstt heLeague.Ar ti
    cl eXguar ant eei
    ng
    againstext ernal aggressi ont hepol i
    tical i
    ndependenceandt erritorialintegrit
    yoft hemember sof
    theLeaguewassubj ectedt oaspeci allyheav yfir
    e; whilethet reat mentaccor dedt oChi naandt he
    secti
    onsaf fect i
    ngAmer i
    cani nt ernalaf fair
    swer elikewi seattackedas" unjustanddanger ous. "As
    anout comeoft heirdel i
    berat i
    ons, t
    heRepubl icanspr oposedal ongl istofr eserv ationswhi ch
    toucheduponmanyoft hev ital partsoft hetreaty.Thesewer er ejectedbyPr esidentWi l
    sonas
    amount i
    ngi nef fecttoa" nulli
    ficationoft hetreaty."Asadeadl ockensuedt het reat ywasdef init
    ely
    rej
    ected, owi ngt othef ailureofi t
    ssponsor stosecur etherequi si t
    et wo- thir
    dsv ote.
    TheLeagueofNat ionsintheCampai gnof1920. —Att hisjuncturet hepr esident ialcampai gnof
    1920opened.TheRepubl i
    cans,whilecondemni ngthet ermsoft hepr oposedLeague, endor sed
    thegener al i
    deaofani nternat
    ionalagr eementt oprev entwar .Thei rcandidat e, SenatorWar ren
    G.Har dingofOhi o,maintainedasi milarpositionwithoutsay i
    ngdef i
    nit
    elywhet hertheLeague
    devisedatPar i
    scouldber ecastinsuchamannerast omeethi sr equirement s.TheDemocr ats,
    ontheot herhand,whi l
    enotopposi ngl imi
    tationsclarifyingtheobl igati
    onsoft heUni tedSt ates,
    demanded" t
    heimmedi ater at
    if
    icati
    onoft het reatywithoutr eservat i
    onswhi chwoul di mpai rits
    essential i
    ntegri
    ty.
    "TheDemocr ati
    ccandi date, GovernorJamesM.Cox, ofOhi o, announcedhi s
    fi
    rm conv icti
    onthattheUni tedStatesshoul d" gointotheLeague, "wi t
    houtcl osi ngt hedoort o
    mildreser vati
    ons;heappeal edtothecount r
    yl argel
    yont hatissue.Theel ectionofSenat or
    Harding, i
    nanext raordi
    nary" l
    andsli
    de,"coupl edwi t
    ht her et
    urnofamaj orityofRepubl icanst o
    theSenat e,madeuncer t
    ainAmer icanpar ti
    cipationint heLeagueofNat ions.

    TheUni t
    edSt atesandI nter
    nationalEnt
    anglement s.
    —Whet herAmer i
    caenteredtheLeagueor
    not,i
    tcouldnotcl osei t
    sdoor stotheworldandescapeper pl
    exingi
    nternat
    ionalcompli
    cati
    ons.
    Ithadever-
    increasi ngfi
    nancialandcommer cialconnect
    ionswi thal
    lothercountri
    es.Our
    associat
    esint her ecentwarwer eheavi
    lyindebtedtoourgov ernment.Theprosperit
    yof
    Amer i
    canindust r
    iesdependedt oaconsiderabl
    eextentupont herecoveryoftheimpoveri
    shed
    andbat t
    le-
    tor
    ncount ri
    esofEur ope.

    Therewer eothercomplicat
    ionsnol essspecifi
    c.TheUni tedStateswascompel l
    edbyf orceof
    cir
    cumst ancestoadoptaRussi anpol i
    cy.Thegov er
    nmentoft heCzarhadbeenov ert
    hrownbya
    l
    iberalr
    ev ol
    uti
    on, whi
    chinturnhadbeensucceededbyanext r
    eme, communi st"dict
    atorship.
    "The
    Bolshevi
    ki,ormajorit
    yfacti
    onoft hesociali
    sts,
    hadobt ainedcont r
    olofthenat ionalcouncilof
    peasants,workingmen,andsoldiers,cal
    ledthesov i
    et,
    andi nauguratedar adicalrégi
    me.Theyhad
    madepeacewi thGermanyi nMar ch,1918.Thereupont heUnitedStatesjoinedEngl and,France,
    andJapani
    nanunof
    fi
    cial
    warupon
    them.Af terthegeneralsett
    lementatParisin1919, ourgovernment ,
    whil
    ewithdrawi
    ngtroops
    from SiberiaandArchangel,cont
    inuedinitsrefusaltorecognizetheBol
    shevist
    sortopermit
    unhamper edtradewiththem.PresidentWilsonrepeatedlydenouncedthem astheenemiesof
    civil
    i
    zationandunder tooktolaydownf orallcountr
    iestheprincipl
    eswhichshouldgover
    n
    i
    nt ercoursewithRussia.

    Furtherinternat
    ionalcomplicat
    ionswer
    ecreatedinconnect i
    onwi t
    htheWorl
    dWar ,wholl
    yapart
    from thetermsofpeaceort heLeagueofNations.TheUnitedSt at
    eshadpart
    ici
    pat
    edinageneral
    Europeanconf l
    i
    ctwhi chchangedtheboundari
    esofcount r
    ies,call
    edi
    ntobei
    ngnewnat i
    ons,and
    reducedt hepowerandt err
    it
    ori
    esofthevanquished.Accor
    dingly,i
    twasboundtofacetheprobl
    em
    ofhowf ari twaspr eparedto

    coöperatewiththev i
    ctorsi
    nanyset tl
    ementofEurope'
    sdif
    ficult
    ies.Bynoconcei v
    ableprocess,
    ther
    efore,couldAmer i
    cabedi sent
    angledfrom t
    hewebofwor l
    daf fair
    s.I
    solat
    ion,
    ifdesir
    able,
    hadbecomei mpossible.Wit
    hinthreehundredyear
    sfrom t
    hef oundi ngoftheti
    nysettl
    ement s
    atJamest ownandPl y
    mouth,Amer ica,
    byv i
    rt
    ueofit
    sinst
    it
    ut i
    ons,itspopulati
    on,i
    tswealth,
    anditscommer ce,hadbecomef ir
    stamongt henati
    onsoftheear th.Bymor alobl
    igat
    ionsand
    bypracticali
    nterest
    sitsfat
    ewast husl i
    nkedwit
    hthedesti
    nyofal l mankind.

    Summar
    yofDemocr
    acyandt
    heWor
    ldWar

    Theast oundingi ndustrialprogressthatchar act


    eri
    zedt heperiodfollowingtheCi vi
    lWar
    bequeat hedtot henewgener ati
    onmanyper plexi
    ngpr oblemsconnect edwiththegrowt hoftrusts
    andrail
    way s, t
    heaccumul ati
    onofgr eatfortunes,t
    hei ncreaseofpov ertyi
    nt heindustr
    ialci
    ti
    es, t
    he
    exhaustionoft hef r
    eel and, andtheacqui si
    tionofdomi nionsindistantseas.Asl ongast her
    ewas
    anabundanceofl andint heWestanyabl e-
    bodiedmanwi t
    hinit
    iat
    iveandi ndustrycoul
    dbecomean
    i
    ndependentf armer .Peopl efrom theci
    tiesandi mmi grantsfrom Europehadal way sbeforethem
    thatgatewayt opr opertyandpr osperi
    ty.Whent helandwasal lgone, Americaneconomi c
    condit
    ionsi nevitabl
    ybecamemor eli
    ket hoseofEur ope.

    Thought heneweconomi cquestionshadbeenv i


    gorouslydebatedi nmanyci rcl
    esbef orehisday ,
    i
    twasPr esidentRooseveltwhof irstdiscussedt hem cont i
    nuouslyf r
    om t heWhi teHouse.The
    naturalr
    esour cesofthecount rywer ebeingex hausted;headvocat edt heirconservat
    ion.Huge
    fort
    uneswer ebeingmadei nbusi nesscr eatinginequalit
    iesinoppor tunity;hefavoredreducing
    them byincomeandi nherit
    ancet axes.
    Industri
    eswer edist
    urbedbyst r
    ikes; hepr essedar bitr
    ati
    onuponcapi tal andlabor.Thef ree
    l
    andwasgone; hedeclaredt hatlaborwasi nalessf avorabl
    eposi ti
    ont obar gainwi t
    hcapi tal
    andt hereforeshouldor ganizeinuni onsf orcol l
    ectivebargaining.Ther ehadbeenwr ong-doing
    ont hepar tofcertai
    ngr eattrusts;thoser esponsi bleshouldbepuni shed.

    Thespi r
    itofreform wasabr
    oadint heland.Thespoil
    ssystem wasattacked.Itwasall
    eged
    thatthepoli
    t i
    calpart
    ieswer
    edomi natedby" ri
    ngsandbosses."TheUnitedStatesSenatewas
    call
    ed" amilli
    onair
    es'cl
    ub.
    "Povertyandmi serywereobser
    v edintheci
    ti
    es.Statelegi
    slat
    ures
    andci t
    ygov ernmentswereaccusedofcor rupti
    on.

    Inanswertot hechar ges,


    remedieswer eproposedandadopt ed.Civi
    lservi
    cereform was
    approved.TheAust rali
    anball
    ot,
    popularelecti
    onofSenat ors,theini
    ti
    ativ
    e, r
    efer
    endum, and
    recal
    l,commi ssionandcitymanagerplansf orcit
    ies,
    publicregulati
    onofr ai
    lways,
    compensat ionforthoseinj
    uredinindustr
    ies,mini
    mum wagesf orwomenandchi ldr
    en,
    pensionsforwi dows, t
    hecontr
    olofhousingi nthecit
    ies—theseandahundr edot herref
    orms
    wereadopt edandt ri
    edout.Thenat i
    onalwatchwor dbecame: "
    Amer i
    ca,ImproveThy sel
    f."

    Thespi
    ri
    tofr
    efor
    m br
    okei
    ntobot
    hpol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    es.I
    tappear
    edi
    nmanyst
    atut
    esenact
    edby
    Congr
    essunderPresi
    dentTaft
    '
    sleadership.Itdi
    srupt
    edtheRepubl
    icanstempor
    ari
    l
    yin1912
    whenthePr
    ogressiv
    epartyent
    eredthefield.Itl
    edtheDemocrat
    iccandidat
    eint
    hatyear
    ,
    Gover
    norWil
    son,tomakea
    "
    progressi
    veappeal
    "tothevot
    ers.Iti
    nspi
    redaconsi
    derabl
    epr
    ogr
    am ofnat
    ional
    l
    egisl
    ati
    onunderPresi
    dentWil
    son'stwoadmini
    str
    ati
    ons.

    Intheageofchange,f ouri
    mpor tantamendmentstothefederalconsti
    tut
    ion,thefir
    stinmor e
    thanfor
    tyy ears,wereadopted.Thesi xt
    eenthempoweredCongresst olayani ncomet ax.The
    sevent
    eenthassur edpopularelectionofSenator
    s.Theeighteenthmadepr ohibi
    ti
    onnat i
    onal
    .
    Thenineteenth,fol
    lowingupont headopt i
    onofwomansuf fr
    agei nmanyst ates,enfr
    anchised
    thewomenoft henation.

    Inthespher eofi
    ndustry,
    equall
    ygr eatchangest ookpl
    ace.Themaj orpor t
    ionoft henati
    on's
    businesspassedintothehandsofcor por
    ations.Inal
    lthel
    eadingindustri
    esoft hecountry
    l
    aborwasor gani
    zedintotradeunionsandf ederatedi
    nanat i
    onalorganization.Thepowerof
    organizedcapit
    alandorganizedlaborloomedupont hehori
    zon.Theirstruggles,thei
    rri
    ghts,
    andt hei
    rplaceintheeconomyoft henati
    onr ai
    sedproblemsofthef i
    rstmagni tude.

    Whilethecountrywasengagedinaheat eddebateuponi tsdomesti


    cissues,t
    heWor l
    dWar
    brokeoutinEuropein1914.Asahundredy earsbefor
    e, Amer i
    canri
    ghtsuponthehighseas
    becamei nvol
    vedatonce.Theywereinvadedonbot hsides;butGermany,inaddit
    ionto
    assail
    ingAmericanshipsandproper
    ty,
    ruthl
    esslydest
    roy edAmer i
    canli
    ves.Shesetatnaught
    therulesofci
    vil
    izedwarfar
    euponthesea.War ni
    ngsfrom Pr esi
    dentWil
    sonwer ewithoutav
    ail
    .
    NothingcouldstaythehandoftheGermanwarpar ty.

    Aft
    erl ongandpatientnegotiat
    ions,Presi
    dentWilsonin1917cal l
    edupont henat
    iontotake
    upar msagainstanassai l
    antthathadi neff
    ectdeclar
    edwaruponAmer ica.Theanswerwas
    swiftandfir
    m.Thenat ionalresources,humanandmat eri
    al,
    weremobili
    zed.Thenav ywas
    enl
    ar ged,adraf
    tarmycr eated,hugeloansfloat
    ed,heav yt
    axeslaid,
    andt hespi
    ri
    tofsacri
    fi
    ce
    cal
    ledf or
    thinatit
    anicstruggleagainstanautocrati
    cpowert hatthr
    eat
    enedt odominate
    Eur
    opeandt heWor l
    d.

    I
    nt heend,Americanf
    inancial
    ,naval
    ,andmi li
    taryassi
    stancecountedheav i
    lyi
    nt hescal
    e.
    Amer i
    cansai
    lor
    sscour edtheseassear chi
    ngf ort
    heterri
    blesubmar i
    nes.Americansoldi
    ers
    tookparti
    nthelastgreatdri
    vesthatbrokethemi ghtofGermany'sar my.Suchwast henati
    on'
    s
    responset
    othePr esi
    dent'
    ssummonst oar msi nawar" f
    ordemocr acy"and"t
    oendwar .
    "

    Whenv i
    ctorycr
    ownedt hear
    msoft hepowersunit
    edagainstGermany ,
    PresidentWil
    sonin
    persontookparti
    nt hepeacecouncil
    .Hesoughttoredeem hispledgetoendwar sbyforming
    aLeagueofNat i
    onst okeepthepeace.Inthetr
    eat
    ydr awnatthecloseofthewart hefi
    rstpar
    t
    wasacov enantbindingthenati
    onsinapermanentassociat
    ionforthesett
    lementof
    i
    nternat
    ionaldi
    sputes.Thist
    reaty,
    thePresi
    dentof
    feredtotheUni t
    edStat
    esSenat efor
    rat
    ifi
    cat
    ionandtohi scountr
    yforapprov
    al.

    Onceagain,asint heday soft heNapoleonicwars,t


    hepeopl eseri
    ouslydiscussedtheplaceof
    Americaamongt hepower softheearth.TheSenaterefusedtoratif
    ythetreat y
    .Worldpoli
    ti
    cs
    thenbecameani ssuei nthecampai gnof1920.ThoughsomeAmer icanstalkedasifthe
    Unit
    edStatescoul dclosei t
    sdoor sandwi ndowsagainstall
    manki nd,thevictorint
    heelecti
    on,
    SenatorHardi
    ng, ofOhi o,
    knewbet t
    er.Theelecti
    onretur
    nswer ehardlyannouncedbef orehe
    begantoaskt headv iceofhi scountrymenont hepr
    essingthemet hatwoul dnotbedowned:
    "WhatpartshallAmer ica—firstamongt henati
    onsoftheearthinweal thandpower —assumeat
    thecounci
    ltableoft hewor ld?"

    Gener
    alRef
    erences
    Woodr
    owWi
    l TheNewFr
    son, eedom.

    C. TheCar
    L.Jones, ibbeanI
    nter
    est
    soft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates.
    H.
    P.Wi
    l
    li
    s,TheFeder
    alReser
    ve.

    C.
    W.Bar
    r TheMexi
    on, canPr
    obl
    em (
    cri
    ti
    cal
    towar
    dMexi
    co)
    .

    L.
    J.deBekker
    ,ThePl
    otagai
    nstMexi
    co(
    agai
    nstAmer
    icani
    nter
    vent
    ion)
    .

    Theodor
    eRoosev
    elt
    ,Amer
    icaandt
    heWor
    ldWar
    .

    E.
    E.Robi
    nsonandV.
    J.West
    ,TheFor
    eignPol
    i
    cyofWoodr
    ow

    Wi
    l
    son.J.
    S.Basset
    t,OurWarwi
    thGer
    many
    .

    Car
    lt
    onJ.
    H.Hay ABr
    es, iefHi
    stor
    yoft
    heGr
    eat

    War
    .J.
    B.McMast
    erTheUni
    , tedSt
    atesi
    nthe

    Wor
    ldWar
    .

    Resear
    chTopi
    cs

    Pr
    esi
    dentWi
    l
    son'
    sFi
    rstTer
    m.—El Hi
    son, st
    oryoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates,
    pp.925-
    941.

    TheUnder
    woodTar
    if
    fAct
    . Nat
    —Ogg, ionalPr
    ogr
    ess(
    TheAmer
    icanNat
    ionSer
    ies)
    ,pp.209-
    226.

    TheFeder
    alReser
    veSy
    stem.
    —Ogg,
    pp.228-
    232.

    Tr
    ustandLaborLegi
    slat
    ion.
    —Ogg,
    pp.232-
    236.

    Legi
    slat
    ionRespect
    ingt
    heTer
    ri
    tor
    ies.
    —Ogg,
    pp.236-
    245.

    Amer
    icanI
    nter
    est
    sint
    heCar
    ibbean.
    —Ogg,
    pp.246-
    265.

    Amer
    icanI
    nter
    est
    sint
    hePaci
    fi
    c.—Ogg,
    pp.304-
    324.

    Mexi
    canAf
    fai
    rs.
    —Hawor
    th,
    pp.388-
    395;
    Ogg,
    pp.284-
    304.

    TheFi
    rstPhasesoft
    heEur
    opeanWar
    .—Hawor
    th,
    pp.395-
    412;
    Ogg,
    pp.325-
    343.

    TheCampai
    gnof1916.
    —Hawor
    th,
    pp.412-
    418;
    Ogg,
    pp.364-
    383.

    Ameri
    caEnt
    erst
    heWar
    .—Hawor
    th,
    pp.422-
    440;
    pp.454-
    475.Ogg,
    pp.384-
    399;
    Elson,
    pp.951-
    970.

    Mobi
    l
    izi
    ngt
    heNat
    ion.
    —Hawor
    th,
    pp.441-
    453.

    ThePeaceSet
    tl
    ement
    .—Hawor
    th,
    pp.475-
    497;
    Elson,
    pp.971-
    982.

    Quest
    ions

    1.Enumer
    atet
    hechieffi
    nanci
    almeasuresoftheWil
    sonadmini
    str
    ati
    on.Rev
    iewt
    hehi
    stor
    yof
    banksandcur
    rencyandgiv
    ethedetai
    lsoftheFeder
    alr
    eser
    velaw.

    2.
    Whatwast
    heWi
    l
    sonpol
    i
    cyt
    owar
    dtr
    ust
    s?Towar
    dlabor
    ?
    3.
    Rev
    iewagai
    nthet
    heor
    yofst
    ates'
    right
    s.Howhasi
    tfar
    edi
    nrecenty
    ear
    s?
    4.
    Whatst
    epswer
    etakeni
    ncol
    oni
    alpol
    i
    cies?I
    ntheCar
    ibbean?

    5.
    Out
    li
    neAmer
    ican-
    Mexi
    canr
    elat
    ionsunderWi
    l
    son.

    6.
    Howdi
    dtheWor
    ldWarbr
    eakouti
    nEur
    ope?

    7.
    Accountf
    ort
    hedi
    vi
    dedst
    ateofopi
    nioni
    nAmer
    ica.

    8.
    Revi
    ewtheev
    ent
    sleadi
    ngupt
    otheWarof1812.Compar
    ethem wi
    tht
    heev
    ent
    sfr
    om 1914
    to1917.

    9.
    Stat
    ethel
    eadi
    ngpr
    inci
    plesofi
    nter
    nat
    ional
    lawi
    nvol
    vedandshowhowt
    heywer
    evi
    olat
    ed.

    10.
    WhatAmer
    icanr
    ight
    swer
    eassai
    l
    edi
    nthesubmar
    inecampai
    gn?

    11.
    Giv
    eWi
    l
    son'
    sposi
    ti heLusi
    onont tani
    aaf
    fai
    r.

    12.
    Howdi
    dtheWor
    ldWaraf
    fectt
    hepr
    esi
    dent
    ial
    campai
    gnof1916?

    13.
    Howdi
    dGer
    manyf
    inal
    l
    ydr
    ivet
    heUni
    tedSt
    atesi
    ntowar
    ?

    14.
    Stat
    etheAmer
    icanwarai
    msgi
    venbyt
    hePr
    esi
    dent
    .

    15.
    Enumer
    atet
    hemeasur
    est
    akenbyt
    hegov
    ernmentt
    owi
    nthewar
    .

    16.
    Rev
    iewt
    hepar
    toft
    henav
    yint
    hewar
    .Thear
    my.

    17.
    Howwer
    ethet
    ermsofpeacef
    ormul
    ated?

    18.
    Enumer
    atet
    hepr
    inci
    pal
    resul
    tsoft
    hewar
    .

    19.
    Descr
    ibet
    heLeagueofNat
    ions.

    20.
    Tracet
    hef
    ateoft
    het
    reat
    yinAmer
    icanpol
    i
    tics.

    21.
    Cant
    her
    ebeapol
    i
    cyofi
    sol
    ati
    onf
    orAmer
    ica?

    APPENDI
    X
    CONSTI
    TUTI
    ONOFTHEUNI
    TEDSTATES

    Wethepeopl eoftheUnit
    edStates,i
    nordert ofor
    m amoreper f
    ectunion,
    establ
    i
    shjust
    ice,
    i
    nsuredomest i
    ctranqui
    l
    li
    ty,
    providefort
    hecommondef ence,promotethegener
    alwelf
    are,
    andsecuretheblessi
    ngsofli
    bertytoourselvesandourpost
    erit
    y ,
    doordai
    nandestabli
    shthi
    s
    Consti
    tut
    ionfortheUnit
    edStatesofAmer ica.

    Ar
    ti
    cleI
    Secti
    on1.Al
    ll
    egisl
    ati
    vepower
    sherei
    ngrant
    edshal
    lbevestedi
    naCongressoft
    heUni
    ted
    Stat
    es,whi
    chshall
    consi
    stofaSenat
    eandHouseofRepresent
    ati
    ves.

    Secti
    on2.1.TheHouseofRepr esentati
    vesshal
    lbecomposedofmember schosenev ery
    secondyearbythepeopleoft
    hesev eralStat
    es,
    andtheelector
    sineachStat
    eshallhavethe
    quali
    fi
    cat
    ionsrequi
    si
    teforel
    ectorsofthemostnumer ousbranchoftheSt
    atelegi
    slat
    ure.

    2.Nopersonshallbear epr
    esentat
    ivewhoshallnothaveat
    tai
    nedtotheageoftwenty-
    fi
    ve
    years,
    andbeensevenyearsaciti
    zenoftheUni
    tedStates,
    andwhoshal
    lnot
    ,whenelect
    ed,be
    aninhabi
    tantoft
    hatSt
    ateinwhichheshall
    bechosen.
    [
    3]
    3.Repr esent at i
    vesanddi rectt axes shal lbeappor t
    ionedamongt hesev eralStat
    eswhi ch
    maybei ncludedwi thinthisUni on,accor dingt otheirrespecti
    venumber s, whichshallbe
    determi nedbyaddi ngt ot hewhol enumberoff r
    eeper sons,includingt hoseboundt oser vi
    ce
    forat erm ofy ears,andexcl uding
    [3]
    Indiansnott axed, three-fi
    ft hsofal lotherper sons. Theact ual enumer at i
    onshal lbemade
    withinthr eey earsaf terthef ir
    stmeet ingoft heCongr essoft heUni tedSt ates,andwithinever
    y
    subsequentt erm oft eny ear s,insuchmannerast heyshal lbylawdi rect.Thenumberof
    represent ativesshal lnotexceedonef orev erythir
    tythousand, buteachSt ateshallhaveat
    l
    eastoner epr esentative;andunt ilsuchenumer ati
    onshal lbemade, theSt ateofNew
    Hampshi reshal lbeent it
    ledt ochooset hree,Massachuset tseight,RhodeI slandand
    Prov i
    dencePl antat
    ionsone, Connect icutf i
    ve,NewYor ksi
    x,NewJer seyf our,Pennsylvania
    eight,Del awar eone, Mary landsi x,Vir
    gi ni
    at en,Nor t
    hCar oli
    naf ive,Sout hCar oli
    nafive,and
    Geor giat hree.

    4.Whenvacanci
    eshappeni
    ntherepr
    esent
    ati
    onfrom anySt
    ate,
    theexecut
    iveaut
    hor
    it
    y
    ther
    eofshal
    li
    ssuewri
    tsofel
    ect
    iontofi
    l
    lsuchvacanci
    es.

    5.TheHouseofRepr
    esent
    ati
    vesshal
    lchooset
    hei
    rspeakerandot
    herof
    fi
    cer
    s;andshal
    l
    havethesol
    epowerofi
    mpeachment.

    Secti
    on3.1.TheSenat
    eoftheUnit
    edStatesshal
    lbecomposedoftwosenator
    sfrom each
    [
    4]
    Stat
    e,chosenbyt
    helegi
    slat
    uret
    hereof
    ,forsi
    xyears;
    andeachsenat
    orshal
    lhaveonev ot
    e.
    2.Immedi atelyaftertheyshallbeassembl edinconsequenceoft hefirstel
    ect i
    on, t
    heyshallbe
    divi
    dedasequal l
    yasmaybei ntothreecl asses.Theseat softhesenat orsoft hef i
    rstclass
    shallbevacat edatt heexpirat
    ionoft hesecondy ear,ofthesecondcl assatt heexpi rat
    ionof
    thefourthy ear,
    andoft hethir
    dclassatt heexpi r
    ationoft hesixt
    hy ear,sothatone- thir
    dmay
    bechosenev erysecondy ear;
    andifv acancieshappenbyr esi
    gnati
    on, orotherwise, dur
    ingthe
    recessoft helegislatur
    eofanySt ate, t
    heexecut i
    v ethereofmaymaket empor ar
    y
    [5]
    appointment suntilthenextmeet i
    ngoft helegisl
    ature,whichshallthenf i
    ll
    suchv acancies.
    3.Nopersonshall
    beasenat
    orwhoshallnothav
    eatt
    ainedtotheageoft
    hir
    tyy
    ears,andbeen
    nineyearsaci
    ti
    zenoft
    heUnit
    edStates,
    andwhoshall
    not,whenelect
    ed,
    beaninhabit
    antof
    thatStat
    eforwhi
    chheshal
    lbechosen.

    4.TheVi
    ce-
    Presidentoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    atesshal
    lbePr
    esi
    dentoft
    heSenat
    e,butshal
    lhav
    eno
    vote,
    unl
    esstheybeequall
    ydi
    vi
    ded.

    5.TheSenateshall
    chooset
    hei
    rotheroff
    icer
    s,andal
    soaPr dentpr
    esi otempor
    e,int
    heabsence
    oftheVi
    ce-Presi
    dent,
    orwhenheshall
    exerci
    setheoff
    iceofPresi
    dentoft
    heUni
    tedStat
    es.

    6.
    TheSenat
    eshal
    lhav
    ethesol
    epowert
    otr
    yal
    li
    mpeachment
    s.Whensi
    tt
    ingf
    ort
    hatpur
    pose,
    t
    heyshal
    l
    beonoathoraff
    ir
    mati
    on.WhenthePresi
    dentoft
    heUnitedSt
    atesistri
    ed,
    thechi
    efj
    ust
    iceshal
    l
    pr
    esi
    de:
    Andnopersonshal
    lbeconv
    ict
    edwit
    houttheconcur
    renceoft
    wo-thir
    dsofthemembers
    pr
    esent
    .

    7.Judgmentincasesofimpeachmentshallnotextendfur
    therthantoremovalf
    rom off
    ice,and
    di
    squali
    fi
    cati
    ontohol dandenjoyanyoff
    iceofhonor,t
    rust
    ,orprofi
    tundert
    heUnitedStates:
    butthepart
    yconv i
    ctedshal
    lnevert
    hel
    essbeliabl
    eandsubj ectt
    oindict
    ment,t
    ri
    al,
    judgment ,
    andpunishment,accordi
    ngtolaw.

    Secti
    on 4.1.The t imes,places,and mannerofhol ding el
    ecti
    ons forsenator
    s and
    repr
    esentat
    ives,shal
    lbeprescri
    bedineachStat
    ebyt hel
    egisl
    atur
    ethereof
    ;buttheCongress
    mayatanyt imebyl awmakeoral t
    ersuchregul
    ati
    ons,exceptastotheplacesofchoosing
    senator
    s.

    2.TheCongressshal
    lassembleatleastonceinever
    yyear
    ,andsuchmeeti
    ngshal
    lbeont
    he
    fi
    rstMondayinDecember,unl
    esstheyshallbylawappoi
    ntadif
    fer
    entday
    .

    Secti
    on5.1.EachHouseshal l
    bethejudgeoftheelect
    ions,
    ret
    urnsandquali
    fi
    cati
    onsofits
    ownmember s,andamaj ori
    tyofeachshal
    lconsti
    tuteaquorum t
    odobusiness;butasmall
    er
    numbermayadj our
    nfrom daytoday,andmaybeaut hori
    zedtocompelt
    heat t
    endanceof
    absentmembers,insuchmanner,andundersuchpenalti
    esaseachHousemaypr ov
    ide.

    2.EachHousemaydet
    erminet
    her ul
    esofi
    tspr
    oceedings,
    puni
    shi
    tsmember
    sfordi
    sor
    der
    ly
    behavi
    our
    ,and,
    wit
    htheconcur
    renceoftwo-
    thi
    rds,
    expelamember
    .

    3.EachHouseshallkeepaj
    ournalofit
    sproceedings,andf
    rom t
    imetoti
    mepubli
    shthesame,
    excepti
    ngsuchpartsasmayintheirj
    udgmentrequiresecr
    ecy;
    andtheyeasandnay
    softhe
    member sofei
    therHouseonanyquest i
    onshall
    ,atthedesi
    reofone-
    fi
    ft
    hofthosepr
    esent
    ,be
    enter
    edonthejournal.

    4.NeitherHouse,
    duri
    ngthesessi
    onofCongr
    ess,shall
    ,wit
    houttheconsentoft
    heot
    her,
    adjournformorethant
    hreedays,
    nort
    oanyotherplacethanthati
    nwhichthetwoHouses
    shallbesit
    ti
    ng.

    Section6.1.Thesenat orsandrepresentati
    vesshall
    receiveacompensati
    onf orthei
    rserv
    ices,
    tobeascer t
    ainedbyl aw,andpaidoutoft heTreasuryoftheUnit
    edStat
    es.Theyshal li
    nall
    cases,excepttreason,fel
    ony,
    andbr eachoft hepeace,bepriv
    il
    egedfr
    om arrestduri
    ngtheir
    attendanceatthesessionsoftheirrespecti
    veHouses, andingoi
    ngtoandr eturni
    ngfrom t
    he
    same; and,f
    oranyspeechordebat eineitherHouse,theyshal
    lnotbequestionedinanyother
    place.

    2.Nosenatororrepresent
    ativeshall
    ,dur i
    ngt heti
    mef orwhichhewaselect
    ed, beappoi nt
    edto
    anyciv
    ilof
    ficeundertheaut hori
    tyoftheUni tedStat
    es,whichshal
    lhavebeencr eated,ort
    he
    emolumentswher eofshall
    hav ebeeni ncreasedduri
    ngsucht ime;
    andnoper son, hol
    dingany
    off
    iceundertheUnitedStates,shall
    beamemberofei t
    herHouseduri
    nghiscont i
    nuancei n
    off
    ice.

    Secti
    on7.1.Al
    lbi
    l
    lsforr
    aisi
    ngrevenueshal
    lor
    igi
    natei
    ntheHouseofRepr
    esent
    ati
    ves;
    but
    theSenat
    emayproposeorconcurwithamendmentsasonotherbi
    l
    ls.

    2.Ever
    ybi
    ll
    ,whichshal
    lhavepassedtheHouseofRepr esent
    atives;andtheSenate,shal
    l,
    befor
    eit
    becomealaw,bepresent
    edtothePresidentoftheUni
    tedStates;ifheapprov
    eheshal lsi
    gnit,
    but
    i
    fnotheshall
    retur
    nitwit
    hhisobject
    ionstothatHouse,i
    nwhichi tshall
    haveorigi
    nated,whoshal
    l
    entertheobj ecti
    onsatlargeont heirj
    ournal,andproceedtoreconsideri t
    .Ifaft
    ersuch
    reconsiderati
    ont wo-t
    hirdsofthatHouseshal l
    agreetopasst hebil
    l,i
    tshal lbesent,
    togetherwit
    h
    theobj ecti
    ons,totheotherHouse, bywhi chitshall
    li
    kewiseber econsidered,andifapprovedby
    two-thirdsofthatHouse, i
    tshallbecomeal aw.Butinallsuchcasest hev otesofbothHousesshal l
    bedet erminedbyy easandnay s,andthenamesoft hepersonsv ot
    ingf orandagainstthebil
    lshall
    beent eredont hejournalofeachHouser especti
    vely
    .Ifany
    bi
    ll
    shallnotberet
    urnedbyt
    hePr esidentwi
    thi
    ntendays(Sunday
    sexcepted)aft
    eritshal
    l
    havebeenpresent
    edtohim,thesameshal l
    beal aw,i
    nli
    kemannerasifhehadsi gnedit
    ,
    unl
    esstheCongressbythei
    radjournmentprev
    entitsr
    etur
    n,i
    nwhichcaseitshall
    notbea
    l
    aw.

    3.Everyorder,r
    esol
    uti
    on,orv ot
    etowhi chtheconcurr
    enceoftheSenateandHouseof
    Representati
    vesmaybenecessar y(exceptonaquest i
    onofadjournment)shall
    bepr esent
    ed
    tothePr esi
    dentoft
    heUni tedStat
    esandbef orethesameshalltakeeff
    ect,shal
    lbeappr ov
    ed
    byhim, orbeingdi
    sapprovedbyhim, shal
    lberepassedbytwo-thir
    dsoftheSenat eandHouse
    ofRepresentati
    ves,
    accordingtotherulesandlimit
    ati
    onsprescri
    bedinthecaseofabi l
    l
    .

    Secti
    on8.TheCongressshal
    lhav
    epower:1.Tol
    ayandcollectt
    axes,dut
    ies,
    imposts,
    and
    exci
    ses,
    topaythedebtsandprovi
    defort
    hecommondef enceandgeneralwelf
    areofthe
    Unit
    edStat
    es;butal
    lduti
    es,i
    mposts,
    andexci
    sesshal
    lbeunifor
    mt hr
    oughouttheUnit
    ed
    Stat
    es;

    2.
    Tobor
    rowmoneyont
    hecr
    edi
    toft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates;

    3.
    Toregul
    atecommer
    cewi
    thf
    orei
    gnnat
    ions,
    andamongt
    hesev
    eral
    Stat
    es,
    andwi
    tht
    he
    Indi
    antr
    ibes;

    4.Toest
    abli
    shanunif
    ormrul
    eofnatural
    izat
    ion,
    anduni
    for
    mlawsont
    hesubj
    ectof
    bankr
    upt
    ciesthr
    oughoutt
    heUni
    tedStates;

    5.
    Tocoinmoney
    ,regul
    atet
    hev
    aluet
    her
    eof
    ,andoff
    orei
    gncoi
    n,andf
    ixt
    hest
    andar
    dof
    wei
    ght
    sandmeasures;

    6.
    Toprovi
    def
    ort
    hepuni
    shmentofcount
    erf
    eit
    ingt
    hesecur
    it
    iesandcur
    rentcoi
    noft
    heUni
    ted
    Stat
    es;

    7.
    Toest
    abl
    i
    shpostof
    fi
    cesandpostr
    oads;

    8.Topromotet
    heprogr
    essofsci
    enceandusefular
    tsbysecur
    ingforl
    i
    mi tedt
    imest
    oaut
    hor
    s
    andinv
    entor
    stheexcl
    usi
    veri
    ghtt
    othei
    rrespecti
    vewri
    ti
    ngsanddiscover
    ies;

    9.
    Toconst
    it
    utet
    ri
    bunal
    sinf
    eri
    ort
    otheSupr
    emeCour
    t;

    10.Todefineandpuni
    shpi
    raci
    esandf
    eloni
    escommi
    tt
    edont
    hehi
    ghseas,
    andof
    fences
    againstt
    helawofnati
    ons;

    11.
    Todeclar
    ewar,gr
    antl
    ett
    ersofmar
    queandr
    epr
    isal
    ,andmaker
    ulesconcer
    ningcapt
    ures
    onlandandwat
    er;

    12.
    Torai
    seandsupportarmies,
    butnoappr
    opr
    iat
    ionofmoneyt
    othatuseshal
    lbef
    ora
    l
    ongert
    ermthant
    woy ears;

    13.
    Topr
    ovi
    deandmai
    ntai
    nanav
    y;

    14.
    Tomaker
    ulesf
    ort
    hegov
    ernmentandr
    egul
    ati
    onoft
    hel
    andandnav
    alf
    orces;

    15.
    Toprovideforcal
    li
    ngforththemil
    i
    tiat
    oexecut
    ethel
    awsoft
    heUni
    on,
    suppr
    ess
    i
    nsurr
    ect
    ions,andrepeli
    nvasions;

    16.
    Topr
    ovi
    def
    oror
    gani
    zi
    ng,
    armi
    ng,
    anddi
    sci
    pli
    ningt
    hemi
    l
    iti
    a,andf
    orgov
    erni
    ngsuchpar
    tof
    them asmaybeemployedint
    heserv
    iceoftheUnit
    edSt ates,
    reser
    vingtotheStat
    esrespect
    ively
    theappoint
    mentoft
    heoffi
    cer
    s,andt
    heauthori
    tyoftr
    ainingthemili
    tiaaccor
    dingt
    othedisci
    pline
    prescri
    bedbyCongr
    ess.
    17.Toexerciseexclusi
    velegisl
    ati
    oni nallcaseswhat soever,oversuchdistr
    ict(notexceeding
    tenmi l
    essquare)asmay ,bycessionofpar ti
    cularStatesandt heacceptanceofCongr ess,
    becomet heseatoft hegovernmentoft heUni tedSt ates,andtoexerciseli
    keaut hori
    tyoverall
    placespurchasedbyt heconsentoft helegisl
    atureoft heSt ateinwhichthesameshal lbe,
    f or
    theerecti
    onoff or
    ts,magazines,arsenal
    s, dock-yards, andotherneedfulbui
    ldings;—and

    18.Tomakeal
    llawswhichshallbenecessaryandpr
    operf
    orcarr
    yingint
    oexecuti
    onthe
    for
    egoi
    ngpowers,andal
    lotherpowersvestedbythi
    sConst
    it
    uti
    oni nt
    hegovernmentofthe
    Unit
    edStat
    es,
    orinanydepartmentoroffi
    certher
    eof
    .

    Secti
    on9.1.Themi grati
    onorimport
    ati
    onofsuchper
    sonsasanyoftheStat
    esnowexisti
    ngshal
    l
    thi
    nkpropertoadmi t
    ,shall
    notbeprohi
    bit
    edbytheCongr
    esspr
    iort
    ot hey
    earonethousandei
    ght
    hundredandeight,
    butat axordut
    ymaybei mposedonsuchi
    mportati
    on,
    notexceedi
    ngten
    dol
    larsforeachperson.

    2.Thepri
    vi
    legeofthewrtofhabeascor
    i pusshal
    lnotbesuspended,
    unl
    esswheni
    ncasesof
    rebel
    l
    ionorinv
    asionthepubl
    i
    csafetymayr
    equir
    eit.

    3.
    Nobi
    l
    lofat
    t nderorexpostf
    ai act
    olawshal
    lbepassed.

    4.Nocapi
    tati
    on,
    orot herdi
    rect,
    taxshal
    lbelaid,unl
    essi
    npr
    opor
    ti
    ont
    othecensusor
    [
    6]
    enumerat
    ionher
    einbeforedir
    ectedt
    obet aken.
    5.
    Not
    axordut
    yshal
    lbel
    aidonar
    ti
    clesexpor
    tedf
    rom anySt
    ate.

    6.
    Noprefer
    enceshal
    lbegivenbyanyregulati
    onofcommerceorrev
    enuetotheport
    sofone
    St
    ateovert
    hoseofanot
    her:norshal
    lvesselsboundt
    o,orf
    rom,oneStat
    e,beobl
    igedtoent
    er,
    cl
    ear
    ,orpaydut
    iesi
    nanother.

    7.Nomoneyshal
    lbedrawnfrom t
    heTreasur
    y,butinconsequenceofappropr
    iat
    ionsmadeby
    l
    aw;andaregul
    arst
    atementandaccountoft
    her ecei
    ptsandexpendi
    turesofall
    publi
    cmoney
    shal
    lbepubl
    i
    shedfr
    om ti
    met oti
    me.

    8.
    Not i
    tleofnobi
    li
    tyshal
    lbegrant
    edbytheUnitedSt
    ates;andnoperson,holdinganyoff
    ice
    ofprof
    itortrustunderthem,shall
    ,wi
    thouttheconsentoft heCongress,acceptofany
    pr
    esent,emolument,of
    fi
    ce,orti
    tl
    e,ofanykindwhatever
    ,from anyki
    ng,prince,orfor
    eign
    St
    ate.

    Sect
    ion10.1.NoStateshal
    lent
    erint
    oanytreat
    y,al
    l
    iance,
    orconf
    eder
    ati
    on;
    grantl
    ett
    ersof
    marqueandrepr
    isal
    ;coinmoney;emitbi
    l
    lsof

    credi
    t;makeanyt
    hingbutgoldandsi
    l
    vercoinatenderi
    npaymentofdebts;
    passanybillof
    attai
    nder
    ,expostfact
    olaw,orl
    awimpair
    ingtheobli
    gat
    ionofcont
    ract
    s;orgrantanyt
    it
    leof
    nobil
    it
    y.

    2.NoSt ateshall,
    withouttheconsentoftheCongress,
    layanyi mpostsordutiesoni mportsor
    exports,exceptwhatmaybeabsol utel
    ynecessar
    yforexecuti
    ngitsinspecti
    onlaws: andthenet
    produceofal lduti
    esandimpost s,lai
    dbyanyStateonimpor t
    sorexports,shall
    bef ortheuse
    oftheTr easuryoftheUnitedStates;andal
    lsuchlawsshallbesubjecttotherevisi
    onand
    controloftheCongr ess.

    3.NoStat
    eshal
    l,wi
    thouttheconsentofCongress,l
    ayanydut yoft
    onnage,keeptroops,or
    shi
    psofwarint
    imeofpeace,ent
    erintoanyagr
    eementorcompactwithanotherSt
    ate,orwith
    aforei
    gnpower
    ,orengageinwarunlessact
    ual
    lyinvaded,ori
    nsuchimminentdangeraswi l
    l
    notadmi
    tofdel
    ay.

    Ar
    ti
    cleI
    I
    Secti
    on1.1.Theexecut i
    vepowershall
    bevestedinaPresi
    dentoft
    heUnitedSt
    atesof
    America.Heshallholdhisof
    fi
    ceduri
    ngtheterm off
    ouryear
    s,and,
    toget
    herwit
    htheVice-
    Presi
    dent,chosenforthesameter
    m, beel
    ected,asf
    oll
    ows:

    2.EachSt ateshal lappoint ,i


    nsuchmannerast helegi slat uret her eofmaydi rect ,anumberof
    elector s,equal t
    ot hewhol enumberofsenat or
    sandr epr esent ativ est owhi cht heSt atemaybe
    entitl
    edi ntheCongr ess; butnosenat ororr epr
    esent at i
    v e,orper sonhol dinganof ficeoft r
    ustor
    profitundert heUni t
    ed
    [7]
    States, shallbeappoi ntedanel ect or. Theel ector sshal lmeeti nthei rrespect iveSt ates, and
    votebybal lotf ort woper sons, ofwhom oneatl eastshal l notbeani nhabi t antoft hesameSt at
    e
    witht hemsel ves.Andt heyshal lmakeal i
    stofal ltheper sonsv ot edf or ,andoft henumberof
    votesf oreach; whi chlisttheyshal lsignandcer t
    if
    y , andt ransmi tseal edt ot heseatoft he
    gov ernmentoft heUni tedSt at es, direct edtothepr esi dentoft heSenat e.ThePr esidentoft he
    Senat eshal l,int hepr esenceoft heSenat eandHouseofRepr esent atives, openal l t
    he
    certificates, andt hev otesshal l thenbecount ed.Theper sonhav i
    ngt hegr eatestnumberof
    votesshal lbet hePr esident ,ifsuchnumberbeamaj or i
    tyoft hewhol enumberofel ector s
    appoi nt ed;andi ft herebemor et hanonewhohav esuchmaj or i
    t y,andhav eanequal numberof
    votes, thent heHouseofRepr esent ativesshal li
    mmedi atelychoosebybal lotoneoft hem f or
    Presi dent ;andi fnoper sonhav eamaj ori
    ty,t
    henf rom t hef ivehi ghestont hel istt hesai dHouse
    shall inl i
    kemannerchooset hePr esi dent.Buti nchoosi ngt hePr esi dent ,thev ot esshal lbe
    takenbySt at es, ther epresent at i
    onf rom eachSt atehav ingonev ote; aquor um f ort hispur pose
    shall consi stofamemberormember sf r
    om two- thirdsoft heSt atesandamaj or i
    tyofal lthe
    Statesshal l benecessar ytoachoi ce.I nev erycase, af tert hechoi ceoft hePr esi dent,the
    personhav ingt hegr eat estnumberofv otesoftheel ect or sshal l bet heVi ce- Pr esident .Buti f
    thereshoul dr emai ntwoormor ewhohav eequal v ot es, theSenat eshal lchoosef rom t hem by
    [8]
    ballott heVi ce- Pr esident .
    3.TheCongressmaydeter
    minet
    heti
    meofchoosi
    ngt
    heelect
    ors,andthedayonwhi
    ch
    theyshal
    lgi
    vethei
    rvot
    es;whi
    chdayshal
    lbet
    hesamethr
    oughouttheUnit
    edStat
    es.

    4.Nopersonexceptanaturalbornci
    ti
    zen,oraci
    ti
    zenoft heUnit
    edSt at
    es,attheti
    meoft he
    adopti
    onofthisConsti
    tut
    ion,shal
    lbeeli
    gibl
    etot
    heof f
    iceofPresident;
    neit
    hershallany
    personbeeli
    giblet
    othatoffi
    cewhoshallnothaveatt
    ainedtotheageoft hi
    rty
    -fi
    veyears,and
    beenfourt
    eeny ear
    saresidentwit
    hint
    heUni t
    edStat
    es.

    5.Incaseoft heremovalofthePresi
    dentfrom offi
    ce, orofhi
    sdeat h,r
    esignation,ori
    nabil
    it
    yto
    dischargethepowersanddut i
    esofthesaidof f
    ice,thesameshal ldevolveont heVice-
    President,
    andt heCongressmaybyl awprov i
    defort hecaseofremov al,death,resi
    gnati
    on,or
    i
    nabi l
    it
    ybothoft hePr
    esidentandVice-
    President,declari
    ngwhatof fi
    cershallthenactas
    President,
    andsuchof f
    icershal
    lactaccordingl
    y,untilthedi
    sabi
    l
    ityber emov ed, oraPresi
    dent
    shallbeelect
    ed.

    6.ThePresidentshal
    l
    ,atst
    atedt i
    mes,recei
    veforhisser
    vicesacompensat
    ion,whi
    chshall
    neit
    herbeincreasednordi
    minishedduringt
    heper i
    odforwhichheshall
    havebeenelect
    ed,
    andheshall notr
    ecei
    vewithi
    nt hatper
    iodanyotheremolumentfr
    om theUnit
    edStat
    es,or
    anyofthem.

    7.Before he enteron the executi


    on ofhi
    s offi
    ce,he shalltake the foll
    owi
    ng oath or
    af
    fir
    mat i
    on:—"Idosolemnlyswear(oraf
    fir
    m)thatIwi
    llf
    ait
    hful
    l
    yexecut etheoffi
    ceofPresi
    dent
    oftheUni tedSt at
    es,andwi l
    ltot hebestofmyabi l
    ity
    ,preser
    v e,protect
    ,anddefendt he
    Constit
    uti
    onoft heUnit
    edStat
    es."

    Sect
    ion2.1.ThePr
    esi
    dentshal
    lbecommander
    -i
    n-chi
    efoft
    hear
    myandnav
    yoft
    heUni
    ted
    Stat
    es,andofthemi l
    it
    iaoftheseveralStates,whencall
    edintotheact ualservi
    ceoftheUnited
    Stat
    es;hemayr equir
    etheopini
    on,inwr i
    ting,oft
    heprinci
    palofficeri
    neachoft heexecutiv
    e
    depart
    ments,uponanysubjectrel
    ati
    ngt ot heduti
    esoftheirrespecti
    veoffices,andheshall
    havepowertogr antr
    epri
    evesandpar donsf oroff
    encesagainstt heUnit
    edSt at
    es,excepti
    n
    casesofimpeachment .
    2.Heshallhavepower,byandwi t
    ht headv i
    ceandconsentoft heSenat e,t
    omaket r
    eati
    es,
    provi
    dedtwo-thi
    rdsofthesenator
    spr esentconcur ;andheshal l
    nomi nate,andbyandwi tht
    he
    advi
    ceandconsentoft heSenate,shal lappointambassador s, otherpubli
    cmi ni
    stersandconsul
    s,
    j
    udgesoft heSupremeCour t
    ,andall otherofficersoftheUni tedSt at
    es,whoseappoi nt
    mentsare
    notherei
    notherwiseprovi
    dedfor,andwhi chshal lbeestabl
    ishedbyl aw: buttheCongressmayby
    l
    awv esttheappointmentofsuchinfer i
    oroffi
    cer s,astheythinkpr oper,
    inthePresidental
    one,i
    n
    thecourt
    soflaw, ori
    ntheheadsofdepar t
    ment s.

    3.ThePresi
    dentshal
    lhav
    epowertof
    il
    lal
    lvacanci
    esthatmayhappenduri
    ngtherecessoft
    he
    Senate,
    bygranti
    ngcommissi
    onswhi
    chshallexpi
    reatt
    heendofthei
    rnextsessi
    on.

    Section3.Heshal lfr
    om t
    imet ot i
    megi vetotheCongr essinformati
    onont hest at
    eofthe
    Union,andr ecommendt otheirconsiderat
    ionsuchmeasur esasheshal lj
    udgenecessaryand
    expedient;hemay ,onext
    raordinaryoccasions,convenebot hHouses,oreitherofthem,andin
    caseofdi sagreementbetweent hem, wit
    hrespecttothet i
    meofadj ournment ,hemayadjourn
    them tosucht imeasheshall thi
    nkpr oper
    ;heshallreceiv
    eambassador sandot herpubl
    ic
    minister
    s; heshal
    ltakecarethatthelawsbef ai
    thf
    ull
    yexecut ed,andshallcommi ssi
    onallt
    he
    offi
    cersoft heUnit
    edStates.

    Sect
    ion4.ThePresi
    dent
    ,Vi
    ce-
    Presi
    dent
    ,andal
    lciv
    ilof
    fi
    cer
    soft heUni
    tedStatesshal
    lbe
    removedfr
    om off
    iceoni
    mpeachmentfor
    ,andconvi
    cti
    onof,t
    reason,
    briber
    y,orot
    herhighcr
    imes
    andmisdemeanors.

    Ar
    ti
    cleI
    II

    Sect
    ion1.Thej udici
    alpoweroftheUnit
    edStat
    esshallbevest
    edinoneSupr emeCour t
    ,andinsuch
    i
    nfer
    iorcourt
    sast heCongr essmayfrom t
    imetoti
    meor dai
    nandestabli
    sh.Thejudges,bothofthe
    Supr
    emeandi nfer
    iorcourt
    s,shal
    lhol
    dthei
    roffi
    cesduri
    nggoodbehaviour,
    andshal l
    ,atst
    ated
    ti
    mes,recei
    vef orthei
    rserv
    icesacompensati
    on,whichshal
    lnotbedi
    mi ni
    shedduringthei
    r
    cont
    inuanceinof f
    ice.

    Secti
    on2.1.Thej udicial powershal lextendt oal
    l cases, i
    nlawandequi t
    y ,ar
    isi
    ngundert hi
    s
    Constit
    ution,thelawsoft heUni t
    edSt ates,andtreati
    esmade, orwhichshal l
    bemade, under
    thei
    rauthor i
    ty;
    —t oall casesaf fecti
    ngambassador s,otherpublicministersandconsul s;—toal
    l
    casesofadmi ralt
    yandmar it
    imej urisdicti
    on;—tocont roversi
    estowhi cht heUni t
    edStatesshall
    beapar ty;—tocont rov ersiesbet weent woormor eSt ates;
    —betweenaSt at eandciti
    zensof
    [
    9]
    anotherSt at
    e; —bet weenci t
    izensofdi ffer
    entStates;—bet weencit
    izensoft hesameSt ate
    clai
    mingl andsundergr ant sofdi f
    ferentSt ates;
    —andbet weenaSt at
    e, ort heciti
    zensthereof
    ,
    andforeignSt ates,citizens, orsubj ects.

    2.Inall
    casesaff
    ectingambassador
    s,otherpubli
    cmi ni
    stersandconsul sandthoseinwhicha
    Stateshal
    lbeaparty,theSupr
    emeCour tshall
    haveor i
    ginalj
    urisdi
    cti
    on.Inall
    theothercases
    beforementi
    oned,theSupremeCourtshallhaveappell
    atejuri
    sdict
    ion,bothastolawandf act
    ,
    withsuchexcept
    ionsandundersuchregulati
    onsast heCongr essshallmake.

    3.Thetr
    ialofallcri
    mes,
    exceptincasesofi
    mpeachment,shal
    lbebyjury;andsuchtri
    alshal
    l
    beheldintheSt at
    ewherethesaidcri
    messhal
    lhavebeencommi t
    ted;butwhennot
    commi t
    tedwi t
    hinanySt
    ate,t
    hetrial
    shal
    lbeatsuchpl
    aceorplacesastheCongr essmayby
    l
    awhav edirected.

    Secti
    on3.1.Tr
    easonagai
    nsttheUnit
    edStatesshal
    lconsi
    stonl
    yinlev
    yingwaragai
    nstthem,
    orinadher
    ingt
    othei
    renemies,gi
    vi
    ngthem aidandcomfort
    .Nopersonshal
    lbeconvi
    ctedof
    tr
    easonunl
    essont
    het
    est
    imonyoft
    wowi
    tnessest
    othesameov
    ertact
    ,oronconf
    essi
    oni
    n
    opencour
    t.

    2.TheCongr
    essshal
    lhavepowert
    odeclarethepuni
    shmentoftreason,butnoat
    tainderof
    tr
    easonshal
    lwor
    kcorrupt
    ionofbl
    oodorforf
    eit
    ureexceptdur
    ingtheli
    feoftheperson
    att
    aint
    ed.
    Ar
    ti
    cleI
    V

    Secti
    on1.Fullfait
    handcreditshallbegivenineachStatet
    othepubli
    cacts,
    recor
    ds,and
    j
    udici
    alproceedingsofever
    yot herState.AndtheCongressmaybygenerall
    awsprescri
    be
    themannerinwhi chsuchacts,records,andproceedi
    ngsshal
    lbeproved,
    andtheeff
    ect
    ther
    eof.

    Sect
    ion2.1.Theci
    ti
    zensofeachSt
    ateshal
    lbeent
    it
    ledt
    oal
    lpr
    ivi
    l
    egesandi
    mmuni
    ti
    esof
    ci
    ti
    zensinthesev
    eralSt
    ates.

    2.ApersonchargedinanySt at
    ewithtreason,f
    elony
    ,orothercri
    me, whoshallf
    leefr
    om
    j
    ustice,
    andbefoundi nanotherSt
    ate,shallondemandoft heexecuti
    veauthori
    tyoft
    heStat
    e
    fr
    om whi chhef
    led,bedeli
    veredup,tober emovedtotheStatehavingjur
    isdi
    cti
    onofthe
    cri
    me.

    3.Nopersonheldtoservi
    ceorlabori
    noneState,
    underthelawsthereof,
    escapi
    nginto
    another
    ,shall
    ,i
    nconsequenceofanylaworr
    egulati
    ontherei
    n,bedischargedf
    rom such
    serv
    iceorlabor,
    butshal
    lbedeliv
    ereduponclai
    m ofthepartyt
    owhom suchser vi
    ceorlabor
    maybedue.

    Secti
    on3.1.NewStatesmaybeadmi tt
    edbyt heCongressint
    ot hisUnion;
    butnonewSt ate
    shal
    lbeformedorerect
    edwit
    hinthejuri
    sdict
    ionofanyotherState;noranySt
    atebeformedby
    thej
    uncti
    onoftwoormor eSt
    ates,orpart
    sofSt at
    es,wit
    houttheconsentofthelegi
    slat
    uresof
    theStat
    esconcer
    nedaswellasoftheCongr ess.

    2.TheCongr essshal
    lhavepowertodi
    sposeofandmakeallneedf
    ul r
    ulesandr
    egulati
    ons
    respect
    ingtheterr
    it
    oryorotherpr
    oper
    tybel
    ongingt
    otheUnit
    edStates;andnot
    hinginthi
    s
    Constit
    uti
    onshallbesoconstruedast
    oprej
    udiceanycl
    aims,oft
    heUni t
    edStat
    es,orofany
    parti
    cul
    arState.

    Secti
    on4.TheUnit
    edStatesshallguarant
    eetoeveryStat
    einthi
    sUnionarepubli
    canfor
    m of
    government
    ,andshal
    lprotecteachofthem agai
    nstinv
    asion;
    andonappli
    cati
    onofthe
    l
    egisl
    atur
    e,oroft
    heexecutive(whenthelegi
    slat
    urecannotbeconv
    ened),
    againstdomesti
    c
    vi
    olence.

    Ar
    ti
    cleV

    TheCongr ess,whenev ertwo- t


    hirdsofbot hHousesshal ldeem i tnecessar y,shal lpropose
    amendment stot hi
    sConst i
    tuti
    on, or,ont heappl i
    cati
    onoft hel egislat
    uresoft wo- t
    hirdsoft he
    severalStat
    es,shallcallaconv entionforpr oposingamendment s,which, i
    nei thercase, shal l
    bev ali
    dtoalli
    ntentsandpur posesaspar tofthi sConsti
    tution, whenr atifi
    edbyt he
    l
    egislatur
    esofthree-fourthsoft hesev eral States,orbyconv entionsint hree-four thsthereof ,
    astheoneort heot hermodeofr ati
    fi
    cat i
    onmaybepr oposedbyt heCongr ess; prov i
    dedt hat
    noamendmentwhi chmaybemadepr iortot hey earonet housandei ghthundr edandei ght
    shallinanymanneraf f
    ectthef i
    rstandf ourthcl ausesintheni nthSect ionoft hef irstart
    icle;
    andt hatnoState,withoutit
    sconsent ,shal lbedepr iv
    edofi tsequal suffragei nt heSenat e.

    Ar
    ti
    cleVI

    1.Al
    ldebt
    scontr
    actedandengagementsent
    eredinto,
    beforetheadopti
    onofthi
    sConsti
    tut
    ion,
    shal
    lbeasval
    idagainstt
    heUni
    tedStat
    esunderthisConsti
    tut
    ion,asundert
    heConfeder
    ati
    on.
    2.Thi
    sConst i
    tut
    ionandt hel
    awsoft heUnitedStateswhichshal l
    bemadei npur
    suancet her
    eof
    andallt
    reati
    esmade, orwhichshallbemade, undertheauthori
    tyoftheUnit
    edStates,
    shallbe
    thesupr
    emel awoft heland;andthejudgesineveryStateshallbeboundther
    eby,anyt
    hingin
    theConsti
    tut
    ionorlawsofanySt atetothecontrarynotwit
    hstanding.
    3.Thesenat orsandr epr
    esent
    ati
    vesbefor
    ement i
    oned,andthemembersoft
    hesev er
    alState
    l
    egislatur
    es,andal lexecuti
    veandj udi
    cialof
    fi
    cers,bothoftheUnit
    edStat
    esandoft he
    severalStates,shallbeboundbyoat horaf f
    ir
    mat i
    ontosupportt
    hisConsti
    tut
    ion;butno
    rel
    igioustestshalleverberequi
    redasaqual i
    fi
    cati
    ontoanyoffi
    ceorpubl
    ictr
    ustundert he
    UnitedStates.

    Ar
    ti
    cleVI
    I

    Therat
    ifi
    cat
    ionoftheconventi
    onsofnineSt
    atesshal
    lbesuf
    fi
    cientf
    orthe
    est
    abli
    shmentofthisConsti
    tut
    ionbet
    weentheStatessor
    ati
    fyi
    ngthesame.

    Donei nConventionbytheunanimousconsentoftheStat
    espresenttheseventeent
    hdayof
    Septemberint heyearofourLordonethousandsevenhundredandeight
    y-sevenandofthe
    i
    ndependenceoft heUnitedStatesofAmer i
    cathet wel
    fth.I
    nwi t
    nesswher eofwehav e
    hereuntosubscri
    bedournames,
    o
    G .Washi
    ngton—
    Pr
    esi
    dt.andDeput
    yfr
    om Vir
    gini
    a

    [
    andt
    hir
    ty-
    eightmember
    sfr
    om al
    ltheSt
    atesexceptRhodeI
    sland.
    ]

    Arti
    clesinaddi
    ti
    onto,andamendmentof ,
    theConstit
    uti
    onoftheUnit
    edStat
    esofAmer i
    ca,
    proposedbyCongress,andrati
    fi
    edbythelegi
    slat
    uresofthesev
    eral
    Stat
    espursuantt
    othe
    fi
    ftharti
    cleoft
    heori
    ginalConsti
    tut
    ion.

    [10]
    Ar
    ti
    cleI
    Congr essshallmakenolawrespecti
    nganestabl
    ishmentofrel
    igion,orprohibi
    ti
    ngt he
    freeexercisether
    eof;
    orabri
    dgi
    ngt hefr
    eedom ofspeech,
    oroft hepress;ortherightof
    thepeopl epeaceabl
    ytoassemble,andtopet
    it
    ionthegovernmentf oraredressof
    griev
    ances.

    Ar
    ti
    cleI
    I

    Awel
    lregul
    atedmi
    li
    ti
    a,bei
    ngnecessarytothesecur
    it
    yofaf
    reeSt
    ate,
    ther
    ightoft
    hepeopl
    e
    t
    okeepandbearar
    msshallnotbeinfr
    inged.

    Ar
    ti
    cleI
    II

    Nosoldi
    ershal
    l
    ,inti
    meofpeace,
    bequart
    eredinanyhouse,
    wit
    houtt
    heconsentoft
    heowner
    ,
    nori
    ntimeofwar,buti
    namannertobeprescr
    ibedbyl
    aw.

    Ar
    ti
    cleI
    V

    Theri
    ghtoft
    hepeopl
    etobesecur
    einthei
    rpersons,houses,paper
    s,andef
    fect
    s,against
    unr
    easonabl
    esear
    chesandsei
    zur
    es,shal
    lnotbeviol
    ated,andnowar r
    ant
    sshalli
    ssue,butupon
    probablecause,support
    edbyoat
    horaf
    fi
    rmat
    ion,
    andpar
    ti
    cul
    arl
    ydescr
    ibi
    ngt
    hepl
    acet
    obe
    searched,andthepersonsor
    t
    hingst
    obesei
    zed.

    Ar
    ti
    cleV

    Noper sonshal lbeheldtoanswerf oracapi t


    al,orother
    wiseinfamouscr i
    me, unlessona
    presentmentori ndict
    mentofagr andj ury,
    exceptincasesar isi
    nginthelandornav alforces,
    orinthemi l
    it
    ia, wheninactualservi
    ceint i
    meofwarorpubl icdanger;norshallanypersonbe
    subjectfort
    hesameof f
    encet obetwiceputi njeopardyofli
    feorlimb;norshallbecompel l
    ed
    i
    nanycr iminal casetobeawi t
    nessagainsthimsel f
    ;norbedepr i
    vedoflif
    e,li
    berty,orpropert
    y,
    withoutduepr ocessoflaw; norshall
    pr i
    vatepropertybetakenforpublicuse,withoutjust
    compensat i
    on.

    Ar
    ti
    cleVI

    Inallcr
    iminal prosecuti
    ons, t
    heaccusedshal lenj
    oytherighttoaspeedyandpubl ictr
    ial
    ,by
    animpar t
    ialjuryoftheSt ateanddistr
    ictwhereinthecri
    meshal lhavebeencommi t
    ted,whi
    ch
    dist
    ri
    ctshal l
    hav ebeenpr eviousl
    yascer t
    ainedbylaw,andt obeinformedofthenat ur
    eand
    causeoft heaccusat ion;tobeconfrontedwi t
    hthewitnessesagainsthim;tohave
    compulsor yprocessf orobtaini
    ngwitnessesinhisfavor,andtohav etheassi
    stanceof
    counselforhi sdefence.

    Ar
    ti
    cleVI
    I

    Insuit
    satcommonl aw,wheretheval
    ueincont
    rover
    syshall
    exceedtwent
    ydollar
    s,ther
    ightof
    tr
    ialbyjuryshal
    lbepreser
    ved,andnofactt
    ri
    edbyaj ur
    yshallbeot
    herwi
    sereexaminedi
    nany
    courtoftheUnit
    edSt at
    es,t
    hanaccordi
    ngtotherul
    esofthecommonl aw.

    Ar
    ti
    cleVI
    II

    Excessi
    vebail
    shallnotber
    equi
    red,
    norexcessi
    vef
    inesi
    mposed,
    norcr
    uel
    andunusual
    punishment
    sinfl
    i
    cted.

    Ar
    ti
    cleI
    X

    Theenumerat
    ioni
    ntheConst
    it
    uti
    on,
    ofcert
    ainr
    ight
    s,shal
    lnotbeconst
    ruedt
    odenyor
    di
    sparageot
    hersr
    etai
    nedbyt
    hepeople.

    Ar
    ti
    cleX

    Thepowersnotdel
    egat
    edt
    otheUnit
    edStatesbytheConst
    it
    uti
    on,
    norpr
    ohi
    bit
    edbyi
    ttot
    he
    Stat
    es,
    arereser
    vedtot
    heSt
    atesr
    espect
    ivel
    y,ort
    othepeople.

    [11]
    Ar
    ti
    cleXI
    Thejudici
    alpoweroftheUnitedStat
    esshall
    notbeconst
    ruedt
    oextendtoanysui
    tinl
    awor
    equi
    ty,commencedorpr osecutedagai
    nstoneoft
    heUnitedSt
    atesbyci
    ti
    zensofanot
    her
    Stat
    e,orbyciti
    zensorsubjectsofanyf
    orei
    gnStat
    e.

    [
    12]
    Ar
    ti
    cleXI
    I
    Theel ector sshal lmeeti nt hei rr espect i
    v eSt ates, andv otebybal lotf orPr esi dentandVi ce-
    President ,oneofwhom atl eastshal lnotbeani nhabi tantoft hesameSt atewi tht hemsel ves;
    theyshal lnamei nt hei rbal lotst heper sonv otedf orasPr esident ,andi ndi st i
    nctbal lotst he
    personv otedf orasVi ce- Pr esident , andt heyshal l makedi stinctl ist sofal l per sonsv otedf oras
    President ,andofal lper sonsv ot edf orasVi ce-Pr esident ,andoft henumberofv otesf oreach,
    whichl i
    ststheyshal lsignandcer tify,andt ransmi tseal edt ot heseatoft hegov er nmentoft he
    UnitedSt ates, direct edt ot hePr esi dentoft heSenat e;—ThePr esi dentoft heSenat eshal l
    ,in
    presenceoft heSenat eandHouseofRepr esent atives, openal lthecer tificat esandt hev otes
    shallthenbecount ed; —Theper sonhav ingt hegr eatestnumberofv otesf orPr esi dent ,shall be
    thePr esident ,ifsuchnumberbeamaj or i
    tyoft hewhol enumberofel ect or sappoi nted; andi f
    noper sonhav esuchmaj ority, thenf r
    om t heper sonshav i
    ngt hehi ghestnumber snot
    exceedi ngt hreeont hel istoft hosev ot edf orasPr esident ,theHouseofRepr esent ativesshal l
    choosei mmedi atel y,bybal l
    ot ,thePr esi dent .Buti nchoosi ngt hePr esident ,thev otesshal lbe
    takenbySt at es, t
    her epr esent ationf r
    om eachSt at ehav i
    ngonev ot e;aquor um f ort hispur pose
    shallconsi stofamemberormember sf rom t wo- t
    hirdsoft heSt at es, andamaj or i
    tyofal l
    the
    Statesshal l benecessar yt oachoi ce.Andi ftheHouseofRepr esent ativ esshal lnotchoosea
    Presidentwhenev ert her i
    ghtofchoi ceshal ldev olveupont hem, bef or et hef our thdayofMar ch
    nextf oll
    owi ng, thent heVi ce- Presi dentshal lactasPr esident ,asi nt hecaseoft hedeat hor
    otherconst i
    tut i
    onal disabi lityoft hePr esident .Theper sonhav i
    ngt hegr eat estnumberofv ot es
    asVi ce-Presi dent ,shal lbet heVi ce- Presi dent ,ifsuchnumberbeamaj or ityoft hewhol e
    numberofel ect orsappoi nted, andi fnoper sonhav eamaj or i
    ty, thenf rom t het wohi ghest
    member sont hel i
    st, theSenat eshal lchooset heVi ce-President ;aquor um f ort hepur pose
    shallconsi stoft wo- thirdsoft hewhol enumberofsenat ors,andamaj or ityoft hewhol e
    numbershal lbenecessar yt oachoi ce.Butnoper sonconst it
    ut ional lyi nel i
    gi blet ot heof fi
    ceof
    Presidentshal lbeel i
    gi blet ot hatofVi ce- Pr esidentoft heUni tedSt ates.

    [13]
    Ar
    ti
    cleXI
    II
    Sect
    ion1.Neit
    herslav
    erynori
    nvol
    unt
    aryser
    vitude,exceptasapuni
    shmentforcr
    ime
    whereoft
    hepartyshal
    lhavebeendul
    yconvi
    cted,shallexi
    stwi
    thi
    ntheUni
    tedStat
    es,
    orany
    pl
    acesubjectt
    otheirj
    uri
    sdi
    cti
    on.

    Sect
    ion2.Congr
    essshal
    lhav
    epowert
    oenf
    orcet
    hisar
    ti
    clebyappr
    opr
    iat
    elegi
    slat
    ion.

    [14]
    Ar
    ti
    cleXI
    V
    Section1.All
    per sonsbornornatur
    alizedint heUnitedStat
    es,andsubjecttothejurisdi
    cti
    on
    thereof,
    arecit
    izensoft heUni
    tedStatesandoft heStatewherei
    ntheyreside.NoSt ateshall
    makeorenf orceanyl awwhichshallabridget hepri
    vil
    egesorimmuniti
    esofci ti
    zensoft he
    UnitedStat
    es;norshal l
    anyStatedepriveanyper sonoflif
    e,l
    iber
    ty,
    orpr opert
    ywi t
    houtdue
    processoflaw; nordenytoanypersonwi t
    hinitsjur
    isdi
    cti
    ontheequalpr ot
    ecti
    onoft helaws.

    Section2.Repr esentativ
    esshal l beapporti
    onedamongt hesever alStatesaccor di ngtothei
    r
    respectivenumber s,count i
    ngt hewhol enumberofper sonsineachSt ate,excludingIndiansnot
    taxed.Butwhent herightt ovoteatanyel ecti
    onf orthechoiceofel ectorsforPr esidentand
    Vice-PresidentoftheUni tedStat es,
    representativesinCongr ess, theexecut iveandj udici
    al
    offi
    cersofaSt ate,
    ort hemember softhelegislaturethereof,i
    sdeni edtoanyoft hemal e
    i
    nhabi t
    antsofsuchSt ate,beingt wenty-
    oney ear sofage, andcitizensoft heUni tedStates,orin
    anywayabr idged,exceptf orpar t
    ici
    pati
    oninrebel l
    i
    onorot hercrime, thebasisof
    representationtherei
    nshal lber educedinthepr oporti
    onwhi chthenumberofsuchmal e
    cit
    izensshal lbeartothewhol enumberofmal eci t
    izenstwenty-oney earsofagei nsuchSt ate.
    Sect
    ion3.Noper
    sonshal
    lbeasenat
    ororr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    vei
    nCongr
    ess,
    orel
    ect
    orofPr
    esi
    dent
    andVice-
    President,orholdanyoffi
    ce,civi
    lormi l
    it
    ary,
    undertheUnitedStates,orunderanySt ate,who,
    havingpr evi
    ouslytakenanoath,asamemberofCongr ess,orasanof fi
    ceroftheUni t
    edSt at
    es,or
    asamemberofanySt at
    elegisl
    ature,orasanexecutiveorjudi
    cialof
    ficerofanyState, t
    osupport
    theConst it
    uti
    onoft heUnit
    edSt ates,
    shallhaveengagedininsurrect
    ionorrebell
    ionagai nstt
    he
    same, orgivenaidorcomf orttotheenemi esther
    eof.ButCongressmaybyt wo-t
    hirdsv oteofeach
    House, remov esuchdisabi
    li
    ty.

    Secti
    on4.Thev ali
    dit
    yofthepublicdebtoft heUnitedStates,author
    izedbylaw,includingdebt
    s
    i
    ncurredforpaymentofpensionsandbount i
    esforser v
    icesinsuppressinginsur
    rectionor
    rebel
    li
    on,shal
    lnotbequest i
    oned.ButneithertheUnitedStatesnoranySt ateshallassumeor
    payanydebtorobl i
    gati
    onincurr
    edi naidofinsurr
    ectionorrebelli
    onagainsttheUni t
    edSt at
    es,
    oranyclaimforthelossoremanci pat
    ionofanysl ave;butallsuchdebts,obli
    gati
    ons, and
    clai
    msshallbeheldill
    egalandvoid.

    Secti
    on5.TheCongr
    essshal
    lhav
    epowert
    oenf
    orce,
    byappr
    opr
    iat
    elegi
    slat
    ion,
    the
    prov
    isi
    onsofthi
    sart
    icl
    e.

    [
    15]
    Ar
    ti
    cleXV
    Sect
    ion1.Theri
    ghtofci
    ti
    zensoft
    heUnit
    edStat
    estovoteshal
    lnotbedeniedorabri
    dgedby
    theUni
    tedStat
    esorbyanyStat
    eonaccountofr
    ace,
    color,
    orprev
    iouscondit
    ionofserv
    itude.

    Sect
    ion2.TheCongr
    essshal
    lhav
    epowert
    oenf
    orcet
    hisar
    ti
    clebyappr
    opr
    iat
    elegi
    slat
    ion.

    [16]
    Ar
    ti
    cleXVI
    TheCongressshallhav
    epowert ol
    ayandcoll
    ecttaxesonincomes,fr
    om whatev
    ersource
    deri
    ved,wi
    thoutapport
    ionmentamongthesever
    al St
    ates,
    andwithoutregar
    dtoanycensusor
    enumerati
    on.

    [
    17]
    Ar
    ti
    cleXVI
    I
    TheSenateoftheUnitedSt at
    esshallbecomposedoftwosenator
    sfrom eachState,el
    ected
    bythepeoplethereof
    ,forsixyear
    s;andeachsenatorshal
    lhav
    eonevote.Theelector
    sineach
    Stat
    eshallhavethequalif
    icat
    ionsrequi
    sit
    eforel
    ector
    softhemostnumer ousbranchofthe
    Stat
    elegi
    slatur
    e.

    Whenv acancieshappenintherepresentat
    ionofanySt atei
    ntheSenate,t
    heexecut
    ive
    authori
    tyofeachStateshal
    lissuewr i
    tsofelecti
    ontofill
    suchvacanci
    es:Prov
    idedt
    hatthe
    l
    egislat
    ureofanyStatemayempowert heexecuti
    vethereoft
    omaket emporary
    appoint
    ment sunti
    lthepeoplefi
    ll
    thev acanci
    esbyelectionasthelegi
    slat
    uremaydi
    rect.

    Thisamendmentshal
    lnotbesoconst
    ruedastoeff
    ecttheel
    ect
    ionort
    erm ofanysenat
    or
    chosenbef
    orei
    tbecomesv al
    i
    daspartoftheConst
    it
    uti
    on.

    [18]
    Ar
    ti
    cleXVI
    II
    Section1.Aft
    eroney earfrom t
    herati
    fi
    cationofthi
    sarti
    clethemanufact
    ure,sal
    e,or
    transpor
    tat
    ionofint
    oxicati
    ngl i
    quor
    swi t
    hin,theimpor
    tati
    ont her
    eofi
    nto,
    ortheexport
    ation
    thereoff
    rom theUnit
    edSt atesandall
    terr
    itorysubj
    ecttothejuri
    sdi
    cti
    onther
    eofforbeverage
    purposesisherebyprohibi
    ted.
    Secti
    on2.TheCongressandt
    hesev er
    alSt
    atesshal
    lhav
    econcur
    rentpowert
    oenf
    orce
    thi
    sarti
    clebyappr
    opri
    atel
    egi
    slat
    ion.
    Sect
    ion3.Thisarti
    cl
    eshal
    lbeinoperat
    iveunl
    essitshal
    lhavebeenrati
    fi
    edasan
    amendmentt otheConst
    it
    uti
    onbyt hel
    egisl
    atur
    esoftheseveralSt
    ates,aspr
    ovi
    dedinthe
    Consti
    tuti
    on,
    withi
    nsevenyearsfr
    om thedateofthesubmissi
    onhereoftotheSt
    atesbythe
    Congress.

    [19]
    Ar
    ti
    cleXI
    X
    Theri
    ghtofci
    ti
    zensoftheUni
    tedStatestovot
    eshal
    lnotbedeni
    edorabr
    idgedbyt
    he
    Uni
    tedStat
    esoranyStateonaccountofsex
    .

    TheCongr
    essshal
    lhav
    epowert
    oenf
    orcet
    hisar
    ti
    clebyappr
    opr
    iat
    elegi
    slat
    ion.

    POPULATIONOFTHEUNITEDSTATES,
    BY
    STATES:
    1920,
    1910,
    1900
    St
    ates Popul
    ati
    on
    1920 1910 1900
    75,
    994,
    57
    Uni
    tedSt
    ates 105,
    708,
    77191,
    972,
    266 5
    Al
    abama
    2,
    348,
    174 2,
    138,
    0931,
    828,
    697
    Ar
    izona
    333,
    903 204,
    354 122,
    931
    Ar
    kansas
    1,
    752,
    204 1,
    574,
    4491,
    311,
    564
    Cal
    i
    for
    nia
    3,
    426,
    861 2,
    377,
    5491,
    485,
    053
    Col
    orado
    939,
    629 799,
    024 539,
    700
    Connect
    icut
    1,
    380,
    631 1,
    114,
    756 908,
    420
    Del
    aware
    Di
    str
    ictof 223,
    003 202,
    322 184,
    735
    Col
    umbia
    437,
    571 331,
    069 278,
    718
    Fl
    ori
    da
    968,
    470 752,
    619 528,
    542
    Geor
    gia
    2,
    895,
    832 2,
    609,
    1212,
    216,
    331
    I
    daho
    431,
    866 325,
    594 161,
    772
    I
    ll
    i
    noi
    s
    6,
    485,
    280 5,
    638,
    5914,
    821,
    550
    I
    ndi
    ana
    2,
    930,
    390 2,
    700,
    8762,
    516,
    462
    I
    owa
    2,
    404,
    021 2,
    224,
    7712,
    231,
    853
    Kansas 1,
    769,
    257 1,
    690,
    9491,
    470,
    495
    Kent
    ucky
    2,
    416,
    630 2,
    289,
    9052,
    147,
    174
    Loui
    si
    ana
    1,
    798,
    509 1,
    656,
    3881,
    381,
    625
    Mai
    ne
    768,
    014 742,
    371 694,
    466
    Mar
    yland
    1,
    449,
    661 1,
    295,
    3461,
    188,
    044
    Massachuset
    ts
    3,
    852,
    356 3,
    366,
    4162,
    805,
    346
    Mi
    chi
    gan
    3,
    668,
    412 2,
    810,
    1732,
    420,
    982
    Mi
    nnesot
    a
    2,
    387,
    125 2,
    075,
    7081,
    751,
    394
    Mi
    ssi
    ssi
    ppi
    1,
    790,
    618 1,
    797,
    1141,
    551,
    270
    Mi
    ssour
    i
    3,
    404,
    055 3,
    293,
    3353,
    106,
    665
    Mont
    ana 548,
    889 376,053 243,
    329
    Nebr aska 1,
    296,
    372 1,
    192,
    2141,
    066,
    300
    Nev ada 77,
    407 81,
    875 42,335
    NewHampshi re 443,
    407 430,
    572 411,
    588
    NewJer sey 3,
    155,
    900 2,
    537,
    1671,
    883,
    669
    NewMexi co 360,
    350 327,
    301 195,
    310
    NewYor k 10,
    384,
    829 9,
    113,
    6147,
    268,
    894
    NorthCar ol
    i
    na 2,
    559,
    123 2,
    206,
    2871,
    893,
    810
    NorthDakot a 645,
    680 577,
    056 319,
    146
    Ohio 5,
    759,
    394 4,
    767,
    1214,
    157,
    545
    Oklahoma 2,
    028,
    283 1,
    657,
    155 790,
    391
    Oregon 783,
    389 672,
    765 413,
    536
    Pennsy lv ani
    a 8,
    720,
    017 7,
    665,
    1116,
    302,
    115
    RhodeI sland 604,
    397 542,
    610 428,
    556
    Sout hCar ol
    ina 1,
    683,
    724 1,
    515,
    4001,
    340,
    316
    Sout hDakot a 636,
    547 583,
    888 401,
    570
    Tennessee 2,
    337,
    885 2,
    184,
    7892,
    020,
    616
    Texas 4,
    663,
    228 3,
    896,
    5423,
    048,
    710
    Utah 449,
    396 373,
    351 276,
    749
    Vermont 352,
    428 355,
    956 343,
    641
    Vir
    gi ni
    a 2,
    309,
    187 2,
    061,
    6121,
    854,
    184
    Washi ngt on 1,
    356,
    621 1,
    141,
    990 518,
    103
    WestVi rgini
    a 1,
    463,
    701 1,
    221,
    119 958,
    800
    Wisconsi n 2,
    632,
    067 2,
    333,
    8602,
    069,
    042
    Wy omi ng 194,
    402 145,
    965 92,531

    APPENDI
    X
    TABLEOFPRESI
    DENTS

    Stat Par
    t Yearin
    Name e y Vi ce-Pr
    esident
    Off
    ice
    George 1789-
    1Washingt
    on Va. Fed. 1797 JohnAdams
    1797- Thomas
    2JohnAdams Mass.Fed. 1801 Jeffer son
    1801- AaronBur r
    3ThomasJefferson Va. Rep. 1809 Geor geCl i
    nton
    1809- GeorgeCl i
    nton
    4JamesMadison Va. Rep. 1817 El bridgeGer r
    y
    1817- DanielD.
    5JamesMonr oe Va. Rep. 1825 Tompki ns
    Mass. 1825-
    6JohnQ.Adams Rep. 1829 JohnC.Cal houn
    7AndrewJackson Tenn.Dem.1829- JohnC.Cal houn
    1837 Mar t
    inVanBur
    en
    N.Y.Dem.1837- RichardM.
    8Mar
    ti
    nVanBur
    en 1841 Johnson
    9 Whig1841-
    Wm.H.Harri
    son Ohio 1841 JohnTy
    ler
    [20] Whig1841-
    10JohnTy
    ler Va. 1845
    Tenn.Dem.1845-
    11JamesK.Pol k 1849 Geor
    geM.Dal
    l
    as
    Whig1849-
    12ZacharyTayl
    or La. 1850 Mi
    l
    lar
    dFi
    l
    lmor
    e
    [
    20] Whig1850-
    13Mill
    ardFi
    ll
    mo r
    e N.Y.1853
    Dem.1853-
    14Frankl
    inPi
    erce N.H.1857 Wi
    l
    li
    am R.Ki
    ng
    Dem.1857-
    15JamesBuchanan Pa. 1861 J.
    C.Br ecki
    nri
    dge
    1861- HannibalHamlin
    16Abraham Li ncoln I
    ll
    . Rep.1865 AndrewJohnson
    [20] 1865-
    17AndrewJohnson Tenn.Rep.1869
    1869- Schuyl
    erCol
    fax
    18UlyssesS.Gr ant I
    ll
    . Rep.1877 HenryWil
    son
    1877-
    19RutherfordB.Hay es Ohio Rep.1881 Wm.A.Wheel
    er
    1881-
    20JamesA.Gar fi
    eld Ohi o Rep.1881 Chest
    erA.Ar
    thur
    [20] 1881-
    21Che st
    er A .Ar
    t hur N.Y.Rep.1885
    Dem.1885- ThomasA.
    22GroverCl eveland N.Y.1889 Hendr
    icks
    1889-
    23Benjami nHar ri
    son I nd. Rep.1893 Lev
    iP.Mor
    ton
    N.Y.Dem.1893-
    24GroverCl eveland 1897 AdlaiE.St
    evenson
    Garret
    tA.Hobart
    1897- Theodore
    25Will
    i
    am McKinley Ohi
    o Rep.1901 Roosevelt
    Theodore
    [
    20] 1901-
    26Roosevel
    t N.Y.Rep.1909 Chas.W.Fai
    rbanks
    1909-
    27Wi
    l
    li
    am H.Taf
    t Ohio Rep.1913 JamesS.Sher
    man
    Dem.1913- ThomasR.
    28WoodrowWil
    son N.J. 1921 Marshal
    l
    29Warr
    enG.Hardi
    ng Ohio Rep.1921- Cal
    vinCool
    i
    dge
    POPULATI
    ONOFTHEOUTLYI
    NGPOSSESSI
    ONS:
    1920AND1910
    AREA 1920 1910
    Unit
    edStateswithoutl
    ying 101,146,
    53
    possessi
    ons 117,
    857,
    509 0
    Conti
    nentalUni
    tedStates 105,
    708,
    77191,
    972,266
    Outl
    yingPossessions 12,
    148,
    738 9,
    174264
    Alaska 54,
    899 64,356
    [
    21]
    Amer icanSamoa 8,
    056 7,251
    Guam 13,
    275 11,806
    Hawai i 255,
    912 191,909
    [
    21]
    PanamaCanal Zone 22,
    858 62,810
    Por t
    oRi co 1,
    299,
    809 1,
    118,012
    Milit
    aryandnav al
    ,et
    c.,
    servi
    ce 117,
    238 55,608
    [
    22]
    abroadPhi l
    ippi
    neIsl
    ands 10,
    350,
    640
    Virgi
    nI slandsoftheUnitedSt
    ates [
    23]
    7,
    635,
    426
    [
    24] [
    25]
    26,
    051 27,
    086

    ATOPI
    CALSYLLABUS
    Asar esul
    tofawhol esomer eacti
    onagai nstthepurel
    ychr onologicalt
    r eatmentofhist or
    y,ther
    e
    i
    snowamar kedtendencyinthedirecti
    onofapur elytopicalhandlingoft hesubject.The
    topicalmethod, however,mayalsobepushedt oofar.Eachsuccessi vest ageofanyt opi
    ccan
    beunder stoodonl yi
    nrelati
    ontothef orcesoftheti
    me.Fort hatreason, thebestresultsare
    reachedwhent hereisacombi nat
    ionoft hechronologicalandthet opical met
    hods.I tis
    thereforesuggestedthattheteacherf i
    rstf
    oll
    owt hetextcloselyandt henr evi
    ewt hesubj ect
    withtheaidoft histopi
    calsyll
    abus.Ther efer
    encesar etopages.

    I
    mmi
    grat
    ion

    I
    .Causes: rel i
    gi ous( 1-2, 4-11, 302) ,economi c( 12-17,302-303) ,
    and
    poli
    ti
    cal(302- 303) .
    AI.Colonial immi gration.
    1.Div ersi f
    iedchar act er:Engl i
    sh,Scotch- Ir
    ish,I
    rish,Jews,
    Germansandot herpeopl es( 6-12).
    2.Assi mi l
    ationt oanAmer icant ype;i
    nf l
    uenceoft helandsystem
    (23-
    25,411) .
    3.Enf or cedi mmi grat i
    on: i
    ndent uredser v i
    tude,slavery
    ,etc.(
    13-
    17) .
    BI.I
    mmi gr at i
    onbet ween1789- 1890
    1.Nat i
    onal iti
    es: Engl i
    sh, Ir
    ish, Germans, andScandi navians(
    278,
    302-
    303) .
    2.Rel at i
    onst oAmer icanlife( 432-433,445) .
    I
    V.Immi grat ionandi mmi grationquest i
    onsaf ter1890.
    1.Changei nnat i
    onal ities(410- 411).
    2.Changesi neconomi coppor t
    uniti
    es( 411) .
    3.Pr obl emsofcongest ionandassi milation(410) .
    4.Rel ationst olaborandi l
    literacy(582-586) .
    5.Or ient alimmi gr ation( 583) .
    6.
    Ther
    est
    ri
    cti
    onofi
    mmi
    grat
    ion(
    583-
    585)
    .

    Expansi
    onoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates
    I
    .Terri
    tor i
    algr owt h.
    1.Ter ri
    tor yoft heUni tedSt atesi n1783( 134andcol ormap) .
    2.Loui sianapur chase, 1803( 188- 193andcol ormap) .
    3.Flor i
    dapur chase, 1819( 204) .
    4.Annexat i
    onofTexas, 1845( 278- 281) .
    5.Acqui si t
    ionofAr izona, NewMexi co, California,andother
    terr
    itoryatcl oseofMexi canWar , 1848( 282- 283).
    6.TheGadsdenpur chase, 1853( 283) .
    7.Set tl
    ementoft heOr egonboundar yquest ion,1846( 284-286)
    .
    8.Pur chaseofAl askaf rom Russi a, 1867( 479) .
    9.Acqui sit
    ionofTut uilainSamoangr oup,1899( 481-482).
    10.Annexat i
    onofHawai i
    ,1898( 484) .
    11.Acqui siti
    onofPor toRi co, thePhi l
    ippines, andGuam at
    closeofSpani shWar ,1898( 493- 494) .
    12.Acqui siti
    onofPanamaCanal strip,1904( 508-510).
    13.Pur chaseofDani shWestI ndi es, 1917( 593) .
    14.Ext ensi onofpr ot ect orateov erHai ti
    ,Sant oDomi ngo,and
    Nicaragua( 593- 594) .
    I
    I.Developmentofcol onial sel f-
    gov ernment .
    1.Hawai i(485) .
    2.Phi l
    ippines( 516- 518) .
    3.Por toRi co( 515- 516) .
    BI.Seapower .
    1.InAmer icanRev olut i
    on( 118) .
    2.Int heWarof1812( 193- 201) .
    3.Int heCi v i
    l War( 353- 354) .
    4.Int heSpani sh- Amer i
    canWar( 492) .
    5.Int heCar ibbeanr egi on( 512- 519) .
    6.Int hePaci fi
    c( 447- 448, 481) .
    7.Ther ôleoft heAmer icannav y(515) .

    TheWest
    war
    dAdv
    anceoft
    hePeopl
    e

    I
    .Beyondt heAppal achi ans.
    1.Gov ernmentandl andsy stem (217-231).
    2.Ther out es( 222- 224).
    3.Theset tl
    ers( 221- 223, 228-230).
    4.Relationswi tht heEast( 230-236).
    I
    I.Beyondt heMi ssissippi .
    1.Thel owerv alley( 271-273).
    2.Theupperv alley( 275-276) .
    BI.Pr
    airies,plains,anddeser t.
    1.Cat t
    ler angesandcowboy s(276-278,431-432)
    .
    2.Thef reehomest eads( 432-433).
    3.Ir
    r i
    gation(434- 436, 523-525).
    I
    V.TheFarWest .
    1.Pecul i
    ar i
    ti
    esoft heWest( 433-440).
    2.
    Therail
    ways(425-
    431).
    3.
    Rel
    ati
    onstotheEastandEurope(443-
    447).
    4.
    AmericanpowerinthePaci
    fi
    c(447-
    449).

    TheWar
    sofAmer
    icanHi
    stor
    y

    I.Indianwar s(57-59).
    AI.Ear lycolonialwars:KingWi l
    li
    am' s,QueenAnne' s,andKingGeor
    ge'
    s
    (59).
    III
    .FrenchandI ndianWar( SevenYear s'War),1754-1763(59-61)
    .
    IV.Rev olut
    ionaryWar ,1775-1783( 99-135).
    V.TheWarof1812, 1812-1815( 193-201).
    VI.TheMexi canWar ,
    1845-1848( 276-284).
    VII.TheCi vi
    l War,1861-1865( 344-375).
    VIII.TheSpani shWar ,1898( 485-497).
    I
    X.TheWor l
    dWar ,
    1914-1918[ Americanparti
    cipat
    ion,1917-
    1918](
    596-
    625) .

    Gov
    ernment

    I
    .Dev
    elopmentoftheAmer i
    cansy stem ofgov ernment .
    1.
    Ori
    ginandgr owt hofst ategov ernment .
    a.Thet r adingcor por ati
    on( 2-4) , religi
    ouscongr egation(4-
    5),
    andpr opr ietar ysy stem ( 5-6) .
    b.Gov er nmentoft hecol oni es( 48- 53) .
    c.For mat ionoft hef irstst at econst it
    ut i
    ons( 108- 110).
    d.Theadmi ssi onofnewst at es( seeI ndexundereach
    state) .
    e.InfluenceofJacksoni anDemocr acy( 238- 247) .
    f.Growt hofmanhoodsuf frage( 238- 244) .
    g.Nul l
    ifi
    cat ionandst atesov er eignt y( 180- 182, 251-257).
    h.Thedoct ri
    neofsecessi on( 345- 346) .
    i.Effect soft heCi vilWaronposi tionofst ates( 366, 369-
    375) .j .Pol iti
    calr eform—di r ectgov ernment —initi
    ati
    ve,
    referendum, andr ecal l(540- 544) .
    2.
    Ori
    ginandgr owt hofnat i
    onal gov ernment .
    a.Britishi mper ialcont rol ov ert hecol oni es( 64- 72).
    b.Att empt sati ntercoloni al uni on—NewEngl and
    Conf eder ati
    on, Albanypl an( 61- 62) .
    c.TheSt ampActCongr ess( 85- 86) .
    d.TheCont i
    nent alCongr esses( 99- 101) .
    e.TheAr ticl
    esofConf eder ation( 110- 111, 139- 143) .
    f.Thef or mat ionoft hef eder al Const i
    tution( 143- 160) .
    g.Dev elopmentoft hef eder al Const it
    ut i
    on.
    (
    1)Amendment s1- 11—r ight sofper sonsandst at
    es
    (163) .
    (
    2)Twel fthamendment —el ect ionofPr esident(184,
    note)
    .
    (3)Amendments13-
    15—Ci
    vi
    lWarset
    tl
    ement(
    358,
    366,
    369,370,374,
    375)
    .
    (4)Si xt eent hamendment —incomet ax( 528- 529).
    (5)Sev ent eent hamendment —el ect i
    onofSenat ors
    (541-
    542) .
    (6)Ei ght eent hamendment —pr ohi biti
    on( 591- 592).
    (7)Ni net eent hamendment —womansuf f
    rage( 563-
    568) .
    3.Developmentoft hesuf frage.
    a.Col oni al rest ri
    ct ions( 51-52) .
    b.Prov i
    si onsoft hef irstst ateconst i
    tut ions( 110, 238- 240).
    c.Posi ti
    onunderf eder al Const i
    tuti
    onof1787( 149) .
    d.Ext ensi onofmanhoodsuf f
    rage( 241- 244) .
    e.Extensi onandl imi tat ionofnegr osuf frage( 373-375, 382-
    387) .
    f.Womansuf frage( 560- 568) .
    I
    I.Rel
    ati
    onofgov ernmentt oeconomi candsoci al wel fare.
    1.Debtandcur rency .
    a.Col oni al papermoney( 80) .
    b.Rev ol ut i
    onar ycur rencyanddebt( 125- 127) .
    c.Disor der sunderAr ticlesofConf eder ation( 140-141) .
    d.Power sofCongr essundert heConst i
    tutiont ocoi n
    money( seeConst itut i
    oni nt heAppendi x) .
    e.FirstUni tedSt atesbanknot es(167) .
    f.SecondUni tedSt at esbanknot es( 257) .
    g.Stat ebanknot es( 258) .
    h.Civil Wargr eenbacksandspeci epay ment( 352- 353,
    454) .
    i
    .TheCi vilWardebt( 252) .
    j
    .Not esofNat i
    onal Banksunderactof1864( 369) .
    k.Demonet i
    zat ionofsi lverandsi l
    v erl egi sl
    at i
    on( 452- 458).
    l
    .Thegol dst andar d( 472) .
    m. Thef eder al r
    eser venot es( 589) .
    n.Liber tybonds( 606) .
    2.Bankingsy st ems.
    a.Thef i
    rstUni t
    edSt at esbank( 167) .
    b.ThesecondUni tedSt atesbank—or iginand
    destruct ion( 203, 257- 259) .
    c.Uni tedSt at est r
    easur ysy stem (263) .
    d.Stat ebanks( 258) .
    e.Thenat i
    onal banki ngsy st em of1864( 369) .
    f.Serv icesofbanks( 407- 409) .
    g.Feder al reser v esy st em ( 589).
    3.Thet ari
    ff.
    a.Britishcol oni al sy st em ( 69-72) .
    b.Disor der sunderAr ticlesofConf eder ation( 140) .
    c.Thef i
    rstt ar if
    fundert heConst it
    ut ion( 150, 167-168) .
    d.Dev elopmentoft het ar i
    ff,1816- 1832( 252- 254).
    f.Tar i
    f fandnul lificat ion( 254- 256).
    g.Dev elopmentt ot heCi vilWar —at titudeofSout hand
    West(264,309-
    314,357).
    h.Republ
    icansandCivi
    lWart
    ari
    ff
    s(352,
    367)
    .
    i.Rev ival oft het ar iffcont rov er syunderCl evel and( 422).
    j.Tar i
    ffl egi sl
    at i
    onaf t
    er1890—McKi nleybi ll(422) ,Wi l
    son
    bill(459) , Dingleybi ll(472) , Pay ne- Aldr i
    chbi ll(528) ,
    Under woodbi ll(588) .
    4.Foreignanddomest iccommer ceandt ranspor tation
    (seeTar iff
    ,Immi gration, andFor eignRel at ions) .
    a. Bri
    tishi mper ial regul ations( 69- 72) .
    b. Conf usi onunderAr ticlesofConf eder ation( 140) .
    c. Provisi onsoff eder al Const itution( 150) .
    d. I
    nternal impr ov ement s—ai dt or oads, canal s, etc.(230-
    236).
    e. Aidtor ailway s( 403) .
    f.Ser vi
    ceofr ailway s( 402) .
    g. Regul at i
    onofr ailway s( 460- 461, 547- 548) .
    h. Cont rol oft r
    ust sandcor por at i
    ons( 461- 462, 589-590).
    5.Landandnat ur alresour ces.
    a. Bri
    tishcont rolov erlands( 80) .
    b. Earlyf eder al l
    andmeasur es( 219- 221) .
    c. TheHomest eadact( 368, 432- 445) .
    d. I
    rri
    gat ionandr ecl amat i
    on( 434- 436, 523- 525) .
    e. Conser vat i
    onofnat ural resour ces( 523- 526) .
    6.Legislati
    onadv ancinghumanr i
    ght sandgener al
    welfare(seeSuf frage) .
    a.Abol i
    tionofsl av ery: civilandpol i
    tical right sofnegr oes
    (357- 358, 373- 375) .
    b. Extensi onofci vilandpol iti
    cal right st owomen( 554-568).
    c. Legislat ionr elativ etol aborcondi tions( 549- 551, 579-581,
    590- 591) .
    d. Cont rol ofpubl icut il
    ities( 547- 549) .
    e. Social ref orm andt hewaronpov erty( 549- 551) .
    f.Taxat ionandequal i
    tyofoppor tuni ty( 551- 552) .

    Pol
    i
    tical
    Par
    ti
    esandPol
    i
    tical
    Issues

    I.TheFeder ali
    stsv ersust heAnt i-Federalists[Jeff
    ersonian
    Republicans]from about1790t oabout1816( 168-208,201- 203).
    1.Feder al
    istleader s:Hami l
    ton,JohnAdams, JohnMar shall,
    Rober tMor ri
    s.
    2.Ant i
    -Federalistleader s:Jefferson, Madison,Monr oe.
    3.Issues:f undi ng the debt ,assumpt ion ofst ate debts,f i
    rst
    UnitedSt atesbank,t axat i
    on,t ari
    ff,strongcent ralgov ernment
    versusst ates'rights,andt heAl i
    enandSedi t
    ionact s.
    AI.Eraof" GoodFeel ing"from about1816t oabout1824, a
    periodofnoor ganizedpar t
    yopposi ti
    on( 248).
    BI.TheDemocr ats[formerJef fersonianRepubl cans]v
    i ersust heWhi gs
    [
    orNat i
    onal Republicans]f r
    om about1832t o1856(238-265, 276-
    290,
    324-334).
    1.Democr aticleaders: Jackson, VanBur en,Calhoun, Benton.
    2.Whi gleader s:Webst erandCl ay .
    3. I
    ssues: secondUni tedSt atesbank, tariff
    , null
    ificat i
    on, Texas,
    internal impr ov ement s,anddi sposi tionofWest ernl ands.
    I
    V.TheDemocr atsv er sustheRepubl icansf rom about1856t othe
    pr
    esenttime( 334- 377, 388-389, 412- 422, 451- 475, 489- 534, 588- 620).
    1. Democr aticl eader s:Jef f
    ersonDav is,Tilden, Cl ev el
    and,
    Br yan, andWi lson.
    2. Republ icanl eader s: Lincoln,Bl ai
    ne, McKi nley, Roosev elt.
    3. I
    ssues: CivilWarandr econst ruction, currency , tarif
    f,taxation,
    trusts, rai l
    way s, f
    oreignpol icies, i
    mper i
    alism, laborquest ions,
    andpol icieswi thregar dt olandandconser vation.
    V.Minorpol itical par ties.
    1. Bef oret heCi v i
    lWar : FreeSoi l(319)andLaborPar t
    ies( 306-
    307) .
    2. Sincet heCi v ilWar :Gr eenback( 463- 464) ,Popul ist(464) ,
    Liber al Republ ican( 420) ,Social i
    sti
    c( 577- 579) ,Pr ogr essive
    (531- 534, 602- 603) .

    TheEconomi
    cDev
    elopmentoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    ates

    I
    .Thel andandnat ural resour ces.
    1.Thecol onial landsy st em: freehol d, plantat i
    on,andmanor( 20-
    25).
    2.Dev el
    opmentoft hef reeholdi nt heWest( 220-221, 228-230).
    3.TheHomest eadactandi tsr esul ts( 368, 432- 433).
    4.Thecat tlerangeandcowboy( 431- 432) .
    5.Disappear anceoff reel and( 443- 445) .
    6.I
    rrigati
    onandr eclamat i
    on( 434- 436) .
    7.Mov ementf ort heconser vat i
    onofr esour ces( 523-526).
    I
    I.Industr
    y.
    1.Ther i
    seofl ocal anddomest ici ndust ri
    es( 28-32) .
    2.Briti
    shrest r
    ict i
    onsonAmer i
    canent erpri
    se( 67-69,70-72) .
    3.Protecti
    v etar if
    fs( seeabov e, 648- 649) .
    4.Dev el
    opmentofi ndust r
    ypr ev ioust ot heCi vi
    lWar( 295- 307).
    5.Greatpr ogressofi ndust r
    yaf tert hewar( 401-406) .
    6.Riseandgr owt hoft rustsandcombi nations( 406-412, 472-
    474) .
    BI.Commer ceandt ranspor tation.
    1.Extentofcol onial tradeandcommer ce( 32-35) .
    2.Briti
    shregul at i
    on( 69- 70).
    3.Effectsoft heRev ol ut i
    onandt heConst i
    tut i
    on( 139-140, 154).
    4.Growt hofAmer icanshi pping( 195- 196) .
    5.Wat erway sandcanal s( 230- 236) .
    6.Riseandext ensi onoft her ailwaysy stem ( 298- 300).
    7.Growt hofAmer icanf or ei
    gnt rade( 445- 449) .

    1.Ear
    lyphasesbeforetheCivilWar:
    localuni
    ons,ci
    ty
    feder
    ati
    ons,andnati
    onal uni
    onsinspecif
    ictr
    ades( 304-
    307)
    .
    2.TheNationalTr
    adeUni on,
    1866-1872(574-575).
    3.TheKnightsofLabor(575-576)
    .
    4.
    TheAmer
    icanFeder
    ati
    onofLabor(
    573-
    574)
    .
    a.Policiesoft heFeder at i
    on(576- 577)
    .
    b.Relationst opoliti
    cs( 579-581) .
    c.Cont estswi thsocialistsandr adical
    s(577-579)
    .
    d.Probl emsofi mmi gration(582-585).
    5.
    Therel
    ati
    onsofcapi t
    alandl abor.
    a.Thecor porati
    onandl abor(410, 570-571)
    .
    b.Companyuni onsandpr of
    it
    -sharing(571-
    572).
    c.Welfar ewor k(573) .
    d.Str
    ikes( 465,526,580- 581).
    e.Arbitr
    at i
    on( 581-582) .

    Amer
    icanFor
    eignRel
    ati
    ons

    I
    .Colonial period.
    1. Indianr elations( 57-59).
    2. Frenchr elations( 59-61).
    I
    I.Peri
    odofconf li
    ctandi ndependence.
    1. Rel ati
    onswi thGr eatBrit
    ain( 77-108, 116-125, 132-135).
    2. Est abli
    shmentofconnect i
    onswi t
    hEur opeanpower s(128).
    3. TheFr enchal li
    anceof1778( 128-130) .
    4. Assi stanceofHol l
    andandSpai n( 130) .
    BI.Rel
    ationswi thGr eatBr it
    ainsince1783.
    1. Commer cial settlementi nJayt reat yof1794( 177-178).
    2. Quest ionsar isingoutofEur opeanwar s[
    1793- 1801](176-
    177,
    180) .
    3. Blockadeandembar gopr oblems( 193-199) .
    4. Warof1812( 199- 201).
    5. Monr oeDoct rineandHol yAl li
    ance( 205- 207).
    6. Mai neboundar y
    —Webst er-Ashbur tont reaty(265).
    7. Or egonboundar y(284-286) .
    8. At ti
    tudeofGr eatBr i
    taindur i
    ngCi vilWar( 354-355).
    9. Ar bit
    rationofAl abamacl aims( 480- 481) .
    10. TheSamoanquest i
    on(481- 482)
    11. TheVenezuel anquest i
    on( 482-484) .
    12. Br it
    ishpol icydur i
    ngSpani sh-Amer icanWar( 496-497).
    13. Cont r
    ov ersyov erblockade, 1914- 1917( 598- 600).
    14. TheWor ldWar( 603-620).

    1. Thecolonialwars( 59-61).
    2. TheFrenchal l
    ianceof1778( 128-130).
    3. Contr
    oversiesov ertheFr enchRev ol
    uti
    on(128-
    130).
    4. Commer ci
    al questionsar i
    singoutoftheEuropeanwars
    (176-177,180, 193-199) .
    5. Att
    it
    udeofNapol eonI I
    Itowar dtheCivi
    lWar(354-
    355).
    6. TheMexicanent anglement( 478-479)
    .
    7. TheWor l
    dWar( 596-620).
    V.Rel
    ationswithGer many .
    1.
    Negot
    iat
    ionswit
    hFreder
    ick,ki
    ngofPrussi
    a(128)
    .
    2.
    TheSamoancontrov
    ersy(481-482)
    .
    3.
    Spani
    sh-
    AmericanWar(491).
    4.
    TheVenezuel
    ancontr
    oversy(512).
    5.
    TheWorldWar(596-
    620).

    1.
    Ear
    lytr
    adingconnecti
    ons( 486-487)
    .
    2.
    TheopeningofChina(447).
    3.
    TheopeningofJapan( 448).
    4.
    TheBoxerrebel
    li
    onandt he" opendoor"poli
    cy(499-
    502).
    5.
    Roosevel
    tandthecloseoft heRusso-JapaneseWar( 511)
    .
    6.
    TheOri
    entali
    mmi grat
    ionquest i
    on(583-584).

    1.
    Mexicanr elations.
    a.Mexi cani ndependenceandt heMonr oeDoct rine( 205-
    207) .
    b. Mexi coandFr enchi ntervention—pol icyoft heUni ted
    Stat es( 478- 479) .
    c.Theov erthrowofDi az( 1911)andr ecentquest ions( 594-
    596) .
    2.
    Cubanr elations.
    a.Sl aver yandt he" OstendMani fest o"(485- 486).
    b.Ther ev olut i
    onaryper i
    od, 1867- 1877( 487) .
    c.Ther ev i
    v al ofrevolution( 487- 491) .
    d.Amer icani nterventionandt heSpani shWar( 491- 496).
    e.ThePl attamendmentandAmer icanpr otecti
    on( 518-
    519) .
    3.
    Cari
    bbeanandot herrelati
    ons.
    a.Acqui sitionofPor toRi co( 493) .
    b.Theacqui siti
    onoft hePanamaCanal stri
    p( 508-510) .
    c.Pur chaseofDani shWestI ndies( 593) .
    d.Venezuel ancont roversies( 482- 484, 512) .
    e. Extensi onofpr otect orateov erHai ti
    ,Sant o
    Domi ngo, andNi car agua( 513- 514, 592- 594).

    I
    NDEX
    Abol
    i
    tion,
    318,
    331

    Adams,
    Abi
    gai
    l
    ,556

    Adams,
    John,
    97,
    128,
    179f
    .

    Adams,
    J.Q.
    ,247,
    319
    Adams,
    Samuel
    ,90,
    99,
    108
    Adamsonl
    aw,
    590

    Agui
    nal
    do,
    497

    Al
    abama,
    admi
    ssi
    on,
    227

    Al
    abamacl
    aims,
    480

    Al
    amance,
    bat
    tl
    e,92

    Al
    amo,
    280

    Al
    aska,
    pur
    chase,
    479

    Al
    bany
    ,pl
    anofuni
    on,
    62

    Al
    gonqui
    ns,
    57

    Al
    i
    enl
    aw,
    180

    Amendment
    ,met
    hodof
    ,156

    Amendment stof
    eder
    alConst
    it
    uti
    on:
    fir
    stel
    even,
    163
    twelfth, 184not e
    thir
    teent h,358
    fourteent h,366,369,
    387
    fi
    fteent h,358
    sixteent h,528
    sevent eent h,542
    eighteent h,591
    nineteent h,563f.

    Amer
    icanexpedi
    ti
    onar
    yfor
    ce,
    610

    Amer
    icanFeder
    ati
    onofLabor
    ,573,
    608

    Amer
    icani
    zat
    ion,
    585

    Amnest
    y,f
    orConf
    eder
    ates,
    383

    Andr
    os,
    65

    Annapol
    i
    s,conv
    ent
    ion,
    144

    Ant
    iet
    am,
    357

    Ant
    i-
    Feder
    ali
    sts,
    169

    Ant
    i-
    slav
    er.SeeAbol
    y i
    tion

    Ant
    hony
    ,Susan,
    564
    Appomat
    tox,
    363

    Ar
    bit
    rat
    ion:
    internat
    ional
    ,480514,
    617
    l
    abordi
    sputes,582

    Ar
    izona,
    admi
    ssi
    on,
    443

    Ar
    kansas,
    admi
    ssi
    on,
    272

    Ar
    nol
    d,Benedi
    ct,
    114,
    120

    Ar
    ti
    clesofConf
    eder
    ati
    on,
    110,
    139f
    f.
    ,146

    Ashbur
    ton,
    treat
    y,265

    Assembl
    y,col
    oni
    al,
    49f
    .,89f
    .

    Assumpt
    ion,
    164f
    .

    At
    lant
    a,361

    Aust
    ral
    i
    anbal
    l
    ot,
    540

    Bacon,
    Nat
    hani
    el,
    58

    Ball
    ot:Aust
    ral
    i
    an,
    540
    short
    ,544

    Bal
    ti
    mor
    e,Lor
    d,6

    Bank:fi
    rstU.
    S.,
    167
    second,203,
    257ff
    .

    Bankingsystem:state,
    300
    U.S.nati
    onal
    , 369
    servi
    cesof,407
    SeealsoFeder al
    reserv
    e

    Bar
    ry,
    John,
    118

    Bast
    il
    le,
    172

    Bel
    l
    ,John,
    341

    Bel
    l
    eauWood,
    611

    Ber
    li
    ndecr
    ee,
    194

    Bl
    ockade:byEngl
    andandFr
    ance,
    193f
    .
    Sout
    hernport
    s,353
    l
    awandpr
    act
    icei
    n1914,
    598f
    .

    Bondser
    vant
    s,13f
    .

    Boone,
    Dani
    el,
    28,
    218

    Boston:massacr
    e,91
    evacuat
    ion,
    116
    portbi
    ll
    ,94

    Bowdoi
    n,Gov
    ernor
    ,142

    Box
    err
    ebel
    l
    ion,
    499

    Br
    andy
    wine,
    129

    Br
    ecki
    nri
    dge,
    J.C.
    ,340

    Br
    ight
    ,John,
    355

    Br
    own,
    John,
    338

    Br
    ownUni
    ver
    sit
    y,45

    Br
    yan,
    W.J.
    ,468f
    .,495,
    502,
    503,
    527

    Buchanan,
    James,
    335,
    368

    Budgetsy
    stem,
    529

    Bul
    lRun,
    350

    BunkerHi
    l
    l,102

    Bur
    goy
    ne,
    Gener
    al,
    116,
    118,
    130

    Bur
    ke,
    Edmund,
    87,
    96f
    f.
    ,132,
    175

    Bur
    r,Aar
    on,
    183,
    231

    ness.SeeI
    Busi ndust
    ry

    Cal
    houn,
    J.C.
    ,198f
    .,203,
    208,
    281,
    321,
    328

    Cal
    i
    for
    nia,
    286f
    .

    Canada,
    61,
    114,
    530

    Canal
    s,233,
    298,
    508

    Canni
    ng,
    Bri
    ti
    shpr
    emi
    er,
    206
    Cannon,
    J.G.
    ,530

    Cant
    igny
    ,611

    Car
    ibbean,
    479

    Car
    petbagger
    s,373

    Cat
    tl
    eranger
    ,431f
    .

    Caucus,
    245

    Censor p.SeeNewspaper
    shi s

    Char
    lesI
    ,3

    Char
    lesI
    I,
    65

    Char
    lest
    on,
    36,
    116

    Char
    ter
    s,col
    oni
    al,
    2ff
    .,41

    Chase,
    Just
    ice,
    187

    Chât
    eau-
    Thi
    err
    y,611

    Checksandbal
    ances,
    153

    Chesapeake,
    the,
    195

    Chi
    ckamauga,
    361

    Chi
    l
    dlaborl
    aw,
    591

    Chi
    na,
    447,
    499f
    f.

    Chi
    nesel
    abor
    ,583

    Chur
    ches,
    col
    oni
    al,
    39f
    .,42,
    43

    Ci
    ti
    es,
    35,
    36,
    300f
    .,395,
    410,
    544

    Ci
    tymanagerpl
    an,
    545

    Ci
    vi
    ll
    iber
    ty,
    358f
    .,561

    Ci
    vi
    lser
    vice,
    419,
    536,
    538f
    .

    Cl
    arendon,
    Lor
    d,6

    Cl
    ark,
    G.R.
    ,116,
    218

    Cl
    ay,
    Henr
    y,198,
    203,
    248,
    261,
    328
    Cl
    ayt
    onant
    i-
    tr
    ustact
    ,489

    Cl
    er .SeeChur
    gy ches

    Cl
    evel
    and,
    Grov
    er,
    421,
    465,
    482,
    484,
    489,
    582

    Cl
    i
    nton,
    SirHenr
    y,119

    Col
    orado,
    admi
    ssi
    on,
    441

    Combi
    nat
    ion.SeeTr
    ust
    s

    Commer ce, coloni


    al,
    33f.
    di
    sordersaf ter1781,140
    Constit
    uti
    onal provi
    sionson,154
    Napoleonicwar s,176,193f
    f.
    domest i
    cgr owthof,307
    congressi
    onal r
    egul
    ationof
    ,460f.
    ,547
    SeealsoTr ustsandRai l
    ways

    Commi
    ssi
    ongov
    ernment
    ,544

    Commi
    tt
    eesofcor
    respondence,
    108

    Commonsense,
    pamphl
    et,
    103

    Communi
    sm,
    col
    oni
    al,
    20.

    Company
    ,tr
    adi
    ng,
    2f.

    Compr omises:ofConst
    it
    uti
    on,
    148,
    150,
    151
    Missouri
    ,325,332
    of1850,328f.
    Cri
    tt
    enden, 350

    Conci
    l
    iat
    ion,
    wit
    hEngl
    and,
    131

    Concor
    d,bat
    tl
    e,100

    Conf
    eder
    acy
    ,Sout
    her
    n,346f
    .

    Conf
    eder
    ati
    on:NewEngl
    and,
    61.
    Seeal
    soArt
    icl
    esof

    Congr
    egat
    ion,
    rel
    i
    gious,
    4

    Congress:stampact,85
    conti
    nental
    , 99f
    .
    underArti
    cles,139.
    underConst i
    tut
    ion,
    152
    power
    sof
    ,153

    Connecti
    cut
    :founded,4f
    f.
    sel
    f-
    government,49
    SeealsoSuff
    rage,const
    it
    uti
    ons,
    stat
    e

    Conser
    vat
    ion,
    523f
    .

    Const
    it
    uti
    on:
    for
    mati
    onof
    ,143f
    .
    Seeal
    soAmendment

    Const
    it
    uti
    on,
    the,
    200

    Const
    it
    uti
    ons,
    stat
    e,109f
    .,238f
    .,385f
    .

    Const
    it
    uti
    onal
    uni
    onpar
    ty,
    340

    Cont
    ractl
    aborl
    aw,
    584

    Conv
    ent
    ion:
    1787,
    144f
    .
    nomi
    nat
    ing,
    405

    Conv
    ict
    s,col
    oni
    al,
    15

    ConwayCabal
    ,120

    Cor
    nwal
    l
    is,
    Gener
    al,
    116,
    119,
    131

    Cor
    por
    ati
    onandl
    abor
    ,571Seeal
    soTr
    ust
    s

    Cot
    ton.SeePl
    ant
    ingsy
    stem

    Cowboy
    ,431f
    .

    Cowpens,
    bat
    tl
    e,116

    Cox,
    J.M.
    ,619

    Cr
    isi
    s,The,
    pamphl
    et,
    115

    Cr
    it
    tendenCompr
    omi
    se,
    350

    Cuba,
    485f
    .,518

    Cumber
    landGap,
    223

    Cur
    r .SeeBanki
    ency ng

    Dani
    shWestI
    ndi
    es,
    pur
    chased,
    593

    Dar
    tmout
    hCol
    l
    ege,
    45
    Daught
    ersofl
    i
    ber
    ty,
    84

    Dav
    is,
    Jef
    fer
    son,
    346f
    .

    Deane,
    Sil
    as,
    128

    Debs,
    E.V.
    ,465,
    534

    Debt
    ,nat
    ional
    ,164f
    .

    Decat
    ur,
    Commodor
    e,477

    Decl
    arat
    ionofI
    ndependence,
    101f
    .

    Def
    ense,
    nat
    ional
    ,154

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    49

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    260
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    soAnti
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    sts

    Dewey
    ,Admi
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    ,492

    Di
    plomacy:oft
    heRev
    olut
    ion,
    127f
    .
    Ci
    vi
    l War
    ,354

    Domest
    ici
    ndust
    ry,
    28

    Donel
    son,
    For
    t,361

    Dor
    rRebel
    l
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    243

    Dougl
    as,
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    ,333,
    337,
    368

    Dr
    aft
    :Ci
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    lWar
    ,351
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    605

    Dr
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    Dr
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    335,
    338

    Dr
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    ,523

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    For
    t,60

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    ,93

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    43f
    .,557,
    591

    El
    ect
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    ,245

    El
    ki
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    547

    Emanci
    pat
    ion,
    357f
    .

    Embar
    goact
    s,186f
    .

    England:Colonialpoli
    cyof,
    64f
    .
    Revoluti
    onaryWar ,99f.
    Jayt r
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    Warof1812, 198f .
    Monr oeDoct ri
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    Ashbur t
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    eat y
    , 265
    Civi
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    Alabamacl aims, 480
    Samoa, 481
    Venezuelaquest ion,482
    SpanishWar ,
    496
    Wor l
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    596f .

    Er
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    ,233

    Esch-
    Cummi
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    l,582

    Espi
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    ,607

    Excesspr
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    606

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    al,
    plansf
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    151

    Expungi
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    260

    Far
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    ,589

    Feder
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    ,589

    Feder
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    on,
    590

    Feder
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    st,
    the,
    158

    Feder
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    sts,
    168f
    .,201f
    .

    Feudal
    element
    sincol
    oni
    es,
    21.

    Fi
    l
    ipi
    nor
    evol
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    l
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    Fi
    l
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    e,Pr
    esi
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    ,485

    Finances:colonial
    ,64
    revoluti
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    disorders,140
    Civil
    War ,347,352ff.
    Wor l
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    Seeal soBanki ng

    Fi
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    31

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    ,515

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    134,
    204

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    Gener
    al,
    611

    Foodandf
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    law,
    607

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    384f
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    ,375

    For
    est
    s,nat
    ional
    ,525f
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    Four
    teenpoi
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    605

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    ,C.
    J.,
    132

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    FrenchandI ndianWar ,60f
    .
    Amer i
    canRev ol
    uti
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    .
    FrenchRev oluti
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    Quarrelwit
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    Louisi
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    Civi
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    354
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    ,478
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    Fr
    anchi
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    ,548

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    62,
    82,
    86,
    128,
    134

    eedmen.SeeNegr
    Fr o

    Fr d.SeeLand
    eehol

    Fr
    ee-
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    319

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    ,J.
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    288,
    334
    ench.SeeFr
    Fr ance

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    5

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    ,329

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    Rober
    t,231,
    234

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    5

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    95,
    100

    Gar
    fi
    eld,
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    ,416

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    oyd,
    318

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    92

    Gat
    es,
    Gener
    al,
    116,
    120,
    131

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    ,177

    Geor
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    ,66

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    4,66,
    82

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    ,77f
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    stateconst i
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    Seeal soSecession

    Germans:colonial
    immigr
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    on,
    9ff
    .
    i
    nRev ol
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    102f.
    l
    ateri
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    Germany:Samoa, 481
    Venezuel
    aaffai
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    WorldWar,596

    Ger
    ry,
    Elbr
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    148

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    Gi
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    d,133
    Gol
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    Gomper
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    ,573,
    608

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    49f
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    Gr
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    386.

    Gr
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    s,460f
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    Gr
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    ,Gener
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    361,
    416,
    480,
    487

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    eatBr
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    and

    Gr
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    Hor
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    420

    Gr
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    454f
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    Gr
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    s,462f
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    Gr
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    Gener
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    117,
    120

    Gr
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    79f
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    Habeascor
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    358

    Hagueconf
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    514

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    ,593

    Hami
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    ,95,
    143,
    158,
    162,
    168f
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    ,389,
    619

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    339

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    484

    Har
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    ,198,
    263f
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    Har
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    201f
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    Har
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    Hawai
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    ,484.
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    477,
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    Hay
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    Rober
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    Hay
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    ,416.

    Henr
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    85

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    ,523

    Hi
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    ,429

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    130

    Hol
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    iance,
    205

    Homest
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    ,368,
    432

    Hooker
    ,Thomas,
    5

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    Sam,
    279f
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    Howe,
    Gener
    al,
    118

    Hughes,
    Char
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    ,602

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    s,10

    Hume,
    Dav
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    132

    Hut
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    5

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    442

    I
    ncomet
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    459,
    466,
    528,
    588,
    606

    I
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    606

    I
    ll
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    226

    I
    ll
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    ,585

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    1-17
    beforeCivi
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    302,367
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    vil
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    problemsof,582f.

    I
    mper
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    sm,
    494f
    .,498.
    ,502f
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    I
    mpl
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    s,212
    I
    mpr
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    194

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    ndent
    uredser
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    s,13.

    I
    ndependence,
    Decl
    arat
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    ,107

    I
    ndi
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    on,
    226

    I
    ndi
    ans,
    57f
    .,81,
    431

    Industry
    :coloni
    al,28f.
    growthof ,
    296f.
    duringCivi
    lWar ,366
    after1865,390f.
    , 401f
    .,436f
    .,559
    Seeal soTrusts

    I
    nit
    iat
    ive,
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    543

    I
    njunct
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    465,
    580

    I
    nter
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    impr
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    s,260,
    368

    I
    nter
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    ,461,
    529

    I
    ntol
    erabl
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    s,93

    I
    nvi
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    ,537

    I
    owa,
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    on,
    275

    I
    ri
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    11,
    302

    I
    ron.SeeI
    ndust
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    I
    rr
    igat
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    434f
    .,523f
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    Jackson,
    Andr
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    201,
    204,
    246,
    280

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    ns,
    174

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    ,3

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    65

    Jamest
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    3,21

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    447,
    511,
    583

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    ,John,
    128,
    158,
    177

    Jef
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    son,
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    Decl
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    107
    Secr
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    yofSt ate,162f.
    pol
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    ical
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    asPresi
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    MonroeDoctrine,206,231

    Jews,
    migr
    ati
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    ,11

    Johnson,
    Andr
    ew,
    365,
    368,
    371.

    Johnson,
    Samuel
    ,132

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    i
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    59

    Jones,
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    ,118

    Judiciar
    y:Br
    it
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    stem,
    67
    federal,
    152

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    admi
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    441

    Kansas-
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    askabi
    l
    l,333

    Kentucky:admissi
    on,
    224
    Resolut
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    ,59

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    ,59

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    45

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    ,575f
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    121

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    uxKl
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    382

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    iseoforganized,304
    part
    ies, 462f.
    question, 521
    Amer icanFederati
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    l
    egislation,590
    WorldWar ,
    608f
    .

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    ayet
    te,
    121

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    l
    ett
    e,Senat
    or,
    531
    Land: tenur e20f.
    salesr estri
    cted, 80
    West ernsur vey,219
    federal salespol icy,220
    West ernt enur e,228
    disappear anceoff ree,445
    newpr oblems, 449
    Seeal soHomest eadact

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    e,59

    Lawr
    ence,
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    ain,
    200

    LeagueofNat
    ions,
    616f
    .

    LeBuf
    ,For
    t,59

    Lee,
    Gener
    alChar
    les,
    131

    Lee,
    R.E.
    ,357

    Lewi
    sandCl
    arkexpedi
    ti
    on,
    193

    Lexi
    ngt
    on,
    bat
    tl
    e,100

    Li
    ber
    alRepubl
    i
    cans,
    420

    Li
    ber
    tyl
    oan,
    606

    Lincoln:
    Mexi canWar ,
    282
    Douglasdebat es,336.
    electi
    on,341
    Civil
    War ,344f.
    reconstr
    uction,371

    Li
    ter
    acyt
    est
    ,585

    Li
    vi
    ngst
    on,
    R.R.
    ,191

    Locke,
    John,
    95

    LondonCompany
    ,3

    LongI
    sland,
    bat
    tl
    e,114

    Lor
    dsoft
    rade,
    67f
    .

    Loui
    sXVI
    ,171f
    .

    Louisi
    ana:cededt
    oSpai
    n,61
    purchase,
    190f.
    admi
    ssi
    on,
    227

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    ali
    st SeeTor
    s, ies

    Lusi
    tani
    a,t
    he,
    601f
    .

    McCl
    ell
    an,
    Gener
    al,
    362,
    365

    ochv
    McCul
    l s.Mar
    yland,
    211

    McKi
    nley
    ,Wi
    l
    li
    am,
    422,
    467f
    f.
    ,489f
    .

    Macaul
    ay,
    Cat
    her
    ine,
    132

    Madi
    son,
    James,
    158,
    197f
    f.

    Mai
    ne,
    325

    Mai
    ne,
    the,
    490

    Mani
    l
    aBay
    ,bat
    tl
    e,492

    Manor
    s,col
    oni
    al,
    22

    Manuf
    act
    ur SeeI
    es, ndust
    ry

    Mar yv
    bur s.Madi
    son,
    209

    Mar
    iet
    ta,
    220

    Mar
    ion,
    Franci
    s,117,
    120

    Mar
    quet
    te,
    59

    Mar
    shal
    l
    ,John,
    208f
    .

    Mar
    ti
    neau,
    Har
    ri
    et,
    267

    Mar
    yland,
    founded,
    6,49,
    109,
    239,
    242

    Massachuset
    ts:
    founded,
    3ff.
    SeealsoI
    mmi gr
    ati
    on,Royal
    provi
    nce,
    Indust
    ry,
    Rev
    olut
    ionar
    yWar
    ,Const
    it
    uti
    ons,
    stat
    e,
    Suf
    frage,
    Commer ce,
    andIndust
    ry

    Massachuset
    tsBayCompany,3
    founded,
    3ff
    .
    SeealsoImmigr
    ati
    on,
    Royalpr
    ovince

    May
    flowercompact
    ,4

    Mer
    cant
    il
    etheor
    y,69
    Mer s.SeeCommer
    chant ce

    Mer
    ri
    mac,
    the,
    353

    Meuse-
    Argonne,
    bat
    tl
    e,612

    Mexico:andTexas,278f
    .
    l
    aterrel
    ati
    ons,594.

    Mi
    chi
    gan,
    admi
    ssi
    on,
    273

    Mi
    dni
    ghtappoi
    ntees,
    187

    Mi
    l
    anDecr
    ee,
    194

    Mi
    l
    iti
    a,Rev
    olut
    ionar
    yWar
    ,122

    Mi
    nimum wages,
    551

    Mi
    nnesot
    a,admi
    ssi
    on,
    275

    Mi
    ssi
    ssi
    ppi
    Riv
    er,
    andWest
    ,189.

    Mi
    ssour
    iCompr
    omi
    se,
    207,
    227,
    271,
    325,
    332

    Mol
    assesact
    ,71

    Money
    ,paper
    ,80,
    126,
    155,
    369

    Moni
    tor
    ,the,
    353

    Monr
    oe,
    James,
    204f
    .,191

    Monr
    oeDoct
    ri
    ne,
    205,
    512

    Mont
    ana,
    admi
    ssi
    on,
    442

    Mont
    gomer
    y,Gener
    al,
    114

    Mor
    ri
    s,Rober
    t,127

    Mot
    her
    s'pensi
    ons,
    551

    Mohawks,
    57

    Muckr
    aki
    ng,
    536.

    Mugwumps,
    420

    Muni
    cipal
    owner
    shi
    p,549
    Napol
    eonI
    ,190

    NapoleonII
    I:Ci
    vi
    lWar
    ,354.
    Mexico,477

    Nat
    ional
    LaborUni
    on,
    574

    Nat
    ional
    road,
    232

    Nat
    ional
    i
    sm,
    col
    oni
    al,
    56f
    .

    Nat
    ural
    right
    s,95

    Nav
    igat
    ionact
    s,69

    Navy:i
    nRev olut
    ion,
    188
    Warof1812, 195
    Civ
    ilWar,353
    WorldWar ,
    610
    SeealsoSeaPower

    Nebr
    aska,
    admi
    ssi
    on,
    441

    Negro:Ci
    vilri
    ghts,
    370f
    .
    i
    nagr i
    cul
    ture,393f
    .
    st
    atusof,396ff.
    SeealsoSlavery

    NewEngl
    and:col
    onial
    times,6f
    f.
    ,35,40ff
    .
    Seeal
    soI
    ndustry
    ,Suff
    rage,Commerce,andWar
    s

    NewHampshi
    re:f
    ounded,
    4ff.
    Seeal
    soI
    mmigrat
    ion,
    Royalpr
    ovi
    nce,
    Suf
    frage,
    andConst
    it
    uti
    ons,
    stat
    e

    NewJersey
    ,founded,
    6
    Seeal
    soImmi gr
    ati
    on,Roy
    alpr
    ovi
    nce,
    Suf
    frage,
    andConst
    it
    uti
    ons,
    stat
    e

    Newl
    ands,
    Senat
    or,
    524

    NewMexi
    co,
    admi
    ssi
    on,
    443

    NewOr l
    eans,
    59,
    190
    bat
    tl
    e,201

    Newspaper
    s,col
    oni
    al,
    46f
    .

    NewYork:f
    oundedbyDutch,3
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    ansf
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    edtoEngl
    ish,49
    Seeal
    soDutch,
    Immigr
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    alpr
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    ce,
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    e

    NewYor
    kCi
    ty,
    col
    oni
    al,
    36
    Ni
    agar
    a,For
    t,59

    Ni
    car
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    orat
    e,594

    Non-
    int
    ercour
    seact
    ,196f
    .

    Non-
    impor
    tat
    ion,
    84f
    .,99

    Nor
    th,
    Lor
    d,100,
    131,
    133

    Nort
    hCarol
    i
    na:founded,6
    Seeal
    soRoyal
    provi
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    mmigr
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    on,
    Suf
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    it
    uti
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    stat
    e

    Nor
    thDakot
    a,admi
    ssi
    on,
    442

    Nor
    thwestOr
    dinance,
    219

    Nul
    l
    ifi
    cat
    ion,
    182,
    251f
    f.

    Ogl
    ethor
    pe,
    James,
    3

    Ohi
    o,admi
    ssi
    on,
    225

    Okl
    ahoma,
    admi
    ssi
    on,
    443

    Opendoorpol
    i
    cy,
    500

    Or
    egon,
    284f
    .

    Ost
    endMani
    fest
    o,486

    Ot
    is,
    James,
    88,
    95f
    .

    Paci
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    103,
    115,
    175

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    1857,
    336
    1873,
    464
    1893,
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    527

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    196f
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    Rev
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    413,
    607
    mother
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    551

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    Per
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    ,200

    Per
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    Gener
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    610

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    116

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    492f
    .,516f
    .,592

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    330

    Pi
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    287

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    4

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    148

    Pi
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    79,
    87,
    132

    Pl
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    389,
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    21

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    265,
    285f
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    Pol
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    ,290.
    Popul
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    464

    Por
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    515,
    592

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    529

    Pr
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    ess.SeeNewspaper
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    ,541

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    Uni
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    572

    Pr
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    531

    Pr
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    591

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    3,6

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    Publ
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    538f
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    Pul
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    465

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    40f
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    ,83

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    ,94

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    ,59

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    425,
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    ,547,
    621

    Randol
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    Edmund,
    146,
    147,
    162
    Rat
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    ofConst
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    156f
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    Recal
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    ,543

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    523f
    .

    Reconst
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    370f
    .

    Ref
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    543

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    174

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    334f.
    supr
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    99f
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    4ff
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    SeealsoSuff
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    ,531,
    570

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    207,
    355,
    479,
    619

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    ,511

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    ,612

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    481

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    280

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    ,287

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    480,
    513,
    592

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    130

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    116,
    131

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    278
    s.SeeEducat
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    283,
    330

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    7ff
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    118
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    353
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    Pacif
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    WorldWar ,610f.

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    344f
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    Sedi
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    180f
    .,187
    of1918,
    608

    Senat
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    popul
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    527,
    541f
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    ,60f
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    ,John,
    218

    Sewar
    d,W.
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    322,
    342

    Shaf
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    ,Gener
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    492

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    142

    Sher
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    361

    Sherman:ant
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    461
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    ,458

    Shi
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    361

    Shi ng.SeeCommer
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    Shi
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    ,607

    Si
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    455f
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    16.
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    i
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    ,219
    decli
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    growt hinSouth,320f
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    324
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    compromises,
    350
    abol
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    Smi
    th,
    Joseph,
    290

    Soci
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    sm,
    577f
    .

    Sol
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    Hay
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    82

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    Spai
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    Loui
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    MonroeDoct r
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    Spani
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    244,
    250,
    418,
    536f
    f.

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    ,82f
    .

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    Eli
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    ,564

    Stat
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    li
    mits
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    SeealsoSuffr
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    ,234

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    H.B.
    ,332

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    600f
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    col
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    42,
    51
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    239
    Whit
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    Negr
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    .,385.
    Woman, 110,562ff.

    Sugaract
    ,81

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    ,Char
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    319

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    For
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    3,13

    Taf
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    527f
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    TammanyHal
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    ,306,
    418

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    357

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    167
    of1816, 203
    devel opmentof ,251f.
    abomi nat i
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    null
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    of1842, 264
    Sout her nv i
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    of1857, 337
    Civi
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    Wilsonbi ll
    ,459
    McKi nl eybill,422
    Dingleybi l
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    Pay ne-Al dri
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    andr epresent
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    149
    andConstit
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    andwealth,522,551
    andWor l
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    606

    Teaact
    ,88

    Teapar
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    92

    Tenementhouser
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    Tennessee,
    28,
    224

    Ter
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    Nor
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    ,219
    Sout
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    219
    Seeal
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    Texas,
    278f
    .

    Ti
    ppecanoe,
    bat
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    Tocquev
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    le,
    267

    Tol
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    rel
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    42

    Tor
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    al,
    84
    i
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    112

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    s,80,
    87

    Tr
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    al,
    70
    l
    egi
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    ce

    Tr
    ansy
    lvani
    acompany
    ,28

    Tr
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    ,263

    Treaties,of1763, 61
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    of1783wi thEngland, 134
    Jay ,
    177, 218
    Louisianapur chase,191.
    of1815, 201
    Ashbur ton, 265
    of1848wi thMexi co,283
    Washi ngt onwi thEngland,481
    withSpai n, 492
    Versaill
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    bat
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    Tr
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    ,268

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    .,461,
    472f
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    ,521,
    526,
    530

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    W.M.
    ,418

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    ,Pr
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    ,264f
    .,281,
    349

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    Uncl
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    "332

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    365

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    290f
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    442

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    ,548

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    360

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    116,
    129

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    a,482f
    .,512

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    ,223

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    57f.
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    of1812, 199f.
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    ,344f .
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    World, 596f .

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    166

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    442

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    256,
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    328

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    78
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    ,83
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    340

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    171

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    284

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    45

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    42

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    326

    Wi
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    147

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    admini
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    3

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    274

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    ,41

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    suff
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    549

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    88

    Wy
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    442

    X,
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    fai
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    Yal
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    Young,
    Bri
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    290

    Zenger
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    48
    Pr
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    FOOTNOTES:

    [
    1]Nor
    thCar
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    fi
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    ,1789,
    andRhodeI
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    [
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    [
    3]Par
    tl
    ysuper
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    he14t
    hAmendment
    ,p.639.

    [
    4]Seet
    he17t
    hAmendment
    ,p.641.

    5]I
    [ bid.
    ,p.641.

    [
    6]Seet
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    hAmendment
    ,p.640.

    [
    7]Thef
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    [
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    [
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    [
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    [
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    [
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    [
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    [
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