BI

OLOGYESSAYS
Photosynt
hesisoccursi
nt wost ages,t
hati s,l
i
ghtstageanddar kstage.Dur i
ngli
ghtstage,l
ight
energyistr
appedbychlorophy l
linthechloroplastandconv ertedint
ochemi calenergy.The
chemicalenergyi
susedt osplitwatermol ecul
esi nt
ohy drogenandoxy genatoms.The
hydrogenisusedinthedarkst age,whil
eoxy genmol eculesarer el
easedi nt
otheatmosphereas
oxygengasorusedf oraerobicrespir
ati
on.Someoft hechemi calenergyisusedtocombi nea
moleculecall
edadenosinediphosphatewi thaphosphat egr oupt ofor
mt her i
chenergy
moleculecall
edadenosinetri
-phosphate.

Dur
ingdar
kstage,t
hehydr
ogenat
omsformedi
nli
ghtst
agear
ecombi
nedwi
thcar
bondi
oxi
de
t
oform gl
ucoseusi
ngener
gyfr
om ATP.

Descri
beanyf
iveway
sinwhi
chapl
antl
eafi
sadapt
edt
oit
sfunct
ion.Youranswershoul
dbei
n
essayfor
m.

Fi
rstl
y,thel
eafhasbroadandfl
att
enedsur
face.Thi
sincr
easest
hesur
facear
eaf
orabsor
pti
on
ofcarbondioxi
deandsunli
ght
.

Secondl
y,thel
eafissupport
edbyast
em andapet
iol
e.Thi
sexposesasmuchoft
hel
eafas
possi
bletosunl
ightandair
.

Thir
dly
,thel
eafhast
hinl
amina.Thi
sreducest
hedi
stanceacr
osswhi
chcar
bondi
oxi
dedi
ff
uses
fr
om stomat
atophotosy
nthet
iccel
l
s.

Four
thl
y,t
heleafhasnet
workofvei
ns.Thi
spr
ovi
desagoodwat
ersuppl
ytot
he
phot
osynt
hesingmesophyl
lcel
l
s.

Last
ly,
thel
eafhasst
omat
aoni
tssur
face.Theseal
l
owcar
bondi
oxi
det
oent
ert
hel
eaf
.
Expl
ainf
iveway
sinwhi
chgl
ucosei
susedbyt
hepl
antaf
terphot
osy
nthesi
s.(
2004)

Fi
rstl
y,glucoseisusedf
orrespi
rat
ionwhi
chpr
oducesener
gyf
orgr
owt
handact
ivet
ranspor
tof
substancesacrossmembranes.

Secondl
y,glucosei
sconv
ert
edtocel
l
ulosewhi
chi
susedt
ofor
m cel
lwal
l
sthatpr
otectt
hecel
l
fr
om burst
ingduetoosmosi
s.

Gl
ucosei
scombi
nedwi
thni
tr
ogent
ofor
m pr
otei
nswhi
chi
susedt
ofor
m enzy
mes.

Fourt
hly
,gl
ucoseisconv
ertedt
ofat
swhi
char
eusedt
ofor
m cel
lmembr
anet
hatcont
rol
s
subst
ancesgett
ingi
ntothecel
l
.

Last
ly,
glucosei
str
anspor
tedt
ost
orageor
ganswher
eiti
sconv
ert
edt
ost
archf
orst
orage.

Descri
beanexperimentt
hatcouldbecarr
iedouttoshowthatfreshgr
eenleavescont
aint
hree
t
y pesofpigment
s.Youranswershoul
dincludepr
ocedur
es,result
sandconclusi
oninanessay
form.(2008)

Inthisasamet hod, onewoul

dcollectgr
eenleavesfrom pl
antsinaschool garden.Thel
eaves
shouldthenbegr i
ndedusingapest l
eandmor tar
.Thegr i
ndedleavesshouldthenbesqueezed
toobt ai
nanextract.Cuta2cm by10cm st ri
poffil
terpaper.Putadropoft heextr
actonthe
str
ipabout4cm f rom thebot
tom edge.Dipthebott
om edgeoft hefil
terpaperwithadropof
extracti
nalcoholinabeakerabout2cm f r
om thespotoftheext r
act
.

Aft
ersomef ewmi nutes,t
healcoholri
sesupthest r
ipoffi
lt
erpaperdissolv
ingtheleafext
ract.
Asalcoholpassesthespotofextract
,thedi
ff
er entpi
gmentsintheextractmov eupatdiff
erent
rat
es,small
eroneswi ll
mov efast
erthanthebiggerones.Thiswil
lseparat
et hepi
gment si
nt he
ext
ractint
othreediff
erentcol
ouredspots.

Thet
hreedi
ff
erentcol
our
edspot
sindi
cat
ethatl
eav
eshav
ethr
eedi
ff
erentt
ypesofpi
gment
s.
Tr
anspor
tinPl
ant
s

Descri
bebri
efl
ytheprocessbywhi
chwat
erent
erst
her
oothai
rsandescapesf
rom t
hel
eav
es
atthetopofatal
ltr
ee.(1995)

Becauseoft hehighersolute(sugarandsalt
s)concentr
ati
onoftheroothai
rcel
lsapthansoil
sol
ut i
on,waterisdrawnfrom thesoilint
otheroothair
.Thi
sdil
utesroothai
rcel
lsap.Sowater
mov esfurt
herintoneighbouri
ngcel l
sofcort
ex.Theprocesswil
lconti
nuesothatwatert
ravel
s
thr
oughcor t
exintot hexylem vessel
s.

Xyl
em vesselsarelongtubesmadeofelongatedcel
l
s.Thevessel
sext
entfr
om therooti
nto
st
em toleaves.Whent heabsor
bedwaterenterst
hexyl
em i
tmov est
hroughthestem,br
anches,
l
eafpeti
olesandf i
nall
yintol
eaves.

Themov ementofwatert
hroughthepl
anti
salsoassi
stedbyt
ranspi
rat
ionst
ream,
thepul
l
ing
(suct
ion)f
orceexer
tedduetolossofwat
erfr
om l
eaves.

Inthel
eaveswat erwouldbedist
ri
butedt
oallleafcel
lsbythenetworkofveins.Si
nceair
spacesi
nt heleafareconnect
edtoatmosphericai
rthroughst
omata,waterdiff
usesfr
om leaf
cel
lswhereitismoreconcentrat
edintot
heairspacesandoutintot
heatmospher ewhereitis
l
essconcentrated.

Descr
ibeanexperi
mentyouwoulddotoshowthattr
anspi
rat
ionf
rom l
eav
esaf
fect
supt
akeof
water
.Youranswershoul
dbeinessayf
orm.(2005)

Pr
epar
eashootandf
ixi
tinapot
omet
er.Fi
l
lthepot
omet
erwi
thwat
erofknownv
olume.

Leavetheplantonthegroundwhereai
risci
rculat
ingandwher ether
eisenoughli
ght.
Aswater
tr
anspi
resfrom theaer
ialsur
faceoft
heshoot,i
tdr awsitf
rom thepotometert
ube.The
potometerwil
lmeasuretheamountofwatertakenupt heplantasaresul
toftr
anspir
ati
on.
Thi
sthenshowst
hatt
ranspi
rat
ionaf
fect
swat
erupt
akei
npl
ant
s.

Descri
bet
hef
ivecondi
ti
onsi
ntheenv
ironmentt
hatspeedupt
her
ateoft
ranspi
rat
ioni
npl
ant
s.
(1997)

Lowhumi dit
yisoneconditi
onthatspeedsupt herateoftranspir
ati
oni npl
ants.Whent her
eis
l
owhumi dityi
sl owhumidit
ytherei
sabi ggerdif
ferenceinconcentr
ationofwat ervapour
bet
weenleafandat mosphere,suchthatmorewat erdif
fusesfrom theleafi
ntot heatmospher
e
soi
ncreasingtranspi
rat
ion.

Hi
ghli
ghti
ntensit
ycausest
heopeni
ngofst
omat
a.Themor
ethest
omat
aar
eopent
hemor
e
wat
erwil
lbelostfr
om thel
eaf
.

Windisanothercondi
ti
on.Wi ndcar
riesawaywatervapourf
rom ar
oundthel
eav
essor educi
ng
t
heconcentrati
onofwat erintheai
raroundt
heleaves.Thi
sencouragesmor
ewaterl
ossf r
om
t
heleavesthroughdif
fusion.

Hightemperaturei
sthefourt
hconditi
on.Hightemper
atur
eincreaseski
net
icener
gyofwat er
vapoursothatthewatervapourescapesfast
erfr
om t
heleaveshenceincr
easi
ngtranspi
rati
on
r
ate.

Hi
ghwatersupplyisthelastcondit
ionthatspeedsuptherateoftr
anspir
at i
oninplants.High
wat
ersupplymakest hel
eav esnotclosethei
rstomatatoall
owcar bondioxidetodif
fusef r
om
t
hesurr
oundingairintot
heleafforphotosynthesi
sevenift
het emperat
uresar ever
yhi gh.Thi
s
i
ncr
easesrateoftranspi
rati
onsincetranspi
rati
onmostlyoccurthr
oughst omata.

Descri
beanexperimentt
hatcouldbecarri
edouttoshowthatli
ghti
ntensit
yaff
ectsrat
eof
tr
anspir
ati
oninleaf
yshoots.Youranswershoul
dincl
udeprocedur
e,expectedr
esult
sand
concl
usion.(
2011)

Inthi
sasmethod,t
woleafyshootsofsimil
arstagesofgrowthshoul
dbepreparedandeach
shoul
dbefi
xedintoapotometer.Thepotometersshouldthenbefi
ll
edwit
hwaterofknown
vol
umes.Oneleaf
yshootshouldbeplacedont hegroundwheretherei
senoughli
ghtandthe
ot
hershoul
dbepl
acedi
nar
oom wher
ether
eisdar
k.

Afterei
ghthour
s,thetwol eaf
yshouldberemovedfr
om thepot
ometer
sandthenthe
tr
anspir
ati
onratesfrom eachleaf
yshouldbecal
cul
atedbymeasuri
ngtheamountofwaterlost
fr
om eachpotomet erf
oreighthoursandthendi
vi
detheamountofwaterl
ostbyei
ghthours.

Af t
ercalcul
ati
ngthetranspirat
ionrat
esperhourf orthel eaf
yshoot splacedonlightandindark,
thetranspir
ati
onratesshoul dbecompar ed.Theresultswouldshowt hatthetr
anspirat
ionrat
e
fortheshootthatwaspl acedonl i
ghtisgreatert
hant het r
anspir
ationratefort
heshoott hat
waspl acedindark.Thisgivesaconclusi
ont hatl
ightintensit
yincreasestherateof
transpi
rati
on.

Descri
beanyf
iveway
sinwhi
chaphl
oem i
sadapt
edt
oit
sfunct
ion.Youranswershoul
dbei
n
essayfor
m.

Fi
rst
ly,
thephl
oem hascompani
oncel
lwi
thnumer
ousmi
tochondr
iawhi
chpr
ovi
deener
gyf
or
tr
ansl
ocati
on.

Thephl
oem hassi
evepl
atewhi
chpr
ovi
dessuppor
ttot
hephl
oem t
issue.

Thephl
oem hassi
evepor
eswhi
chactasapat
hwayf
ormov
ementofmat
eri
als.

Thesiev
eelement
slackot
hercomponent
sofcel
lsuchusnucl
eus,
inor
dert
ocr
eat
espacef
or
tr
ansport
ati
on.

Last
ly,
thephl
oem hascy
topl
asmi
cfi
l
ament
swhi
chai
dint
hef
lowoff
oodal
ongt
hesi
evet
ube.

HumanDi
gest
iveSy
stem

Descr
ibef
ivepr
obl
emsassoci
atedwi
thhumandi
gest
ivesy
stem andst
atehoweachpr
obl
em
canbecont
rol
l
ed.Youranswershoul
dbei
nessayf
orm.(
2007)

Thefir
stpr oblem associatedwit
hhumandi gestiv
esy st
em isconst i
pat
ion.Const
ipat
ionoccurs
whenonef acesdi ff
icul
ti
esinexpel
li
ngundigestedwast emat terf
rom t
hebody .I
tiscausedby
l
ackofr oughagei nthedietandnotdr
inki
ngenoughwat er.Itcanbecontrol
ledbydri
nking
enoughwat eraftermealsanddoingphysi
cal exerci
ses.Itcanalsobecont r
oll
edbyusingdrugs
suchasl axatives.

Anotherpr
oblem i
stheheartburn.Thi
sisaburningfeel
i
ngi nthechestf
oll
owedbyasouror
bi
ttert
asteinthemouth.I
tdev el
opswhentheaci dcont
entsoft hest
omachflowsbacki
ntot
he
oesophagus.I
tcanbecontroll
edbyt aki
ngant
i-aci
dmedi cati
on.

Ulcersareanotherpr
oblem ofhumandigesti
vesyst
em.Anul ceri
sanareaofdamaget ot
he
l
iningofthestomach, oesophagusandduodenum.I
tiscausedbyoverproduct
ionofaci
dsin
thestomachsot hattheacidcorrodest
hestomachwall
s.Itcanbeprev
entedbyeati
ngdiet
s
withlessaci
dsandspi ces.

Thefour
thprobl
em i
sappendi
cit
is.Thi
sisi
nfl
ammat
ionoft
heappendi
x.Thi
scanbecur
edby
removi
ngtheappendi
xinanoperati
on.

Thelastproblem i
sdi ar
rhoea.Thi
sisasituat
ionwherebythel
argeintesti
nef ai
l t
oabsorb
waterleadi
ngt oproducti
onofwat er
yfaeces.Iti
scausedbymicro-
organismsl ikebact
eri
a
takentogetherwit
hf oodorwat er
.Di
arrhoeacanbeprevent
edbydrinkingtreatedwaterand
observi
ngfoodhy gienerules.

Descr
ibeanexperimentt
hatcoul
dbeconductedtoshowthatgerminat
ingbeanseedscont
ain
anenzymethatdigest
sstar
ch.Youranswershoul
dincl
udeprocedur
eexpectedr
esult
sand
concl
usi
ons.(2009)

I
nthepr
ocedureforthi
sexperiment,crushgermi nati
ngbeanseedsinamor t
ar.Thenaddwater
t
oobtai
nthe(enzyme)extract
.Afterthatputstarchsoluti
onint
esttubesAandBandi ntest
t
ubeAaddt heext
ract,
butleavetesttubeBi ntact.Leavebot
htestt
ubestostandforsome
t
ime.
Later
,adddropsofiodinesolut
iontobot htesttubesandobser
v ecol
ourchanges.
Youwi l
lobserv
et hatint
estt
ubeAt herewil
lbebrowncol
our.Thi
sshowst hereisnostar
chin
testt
ubeA.I ntesttubeBabluebl
ackcolourwil
lbeobser
vedshowingthatstarchispr
esent
.
Thisgi
vesaconcl usiont
hatgermi
natingbeanseedscont
ainanenzymethatdigestsst
arch.

Descr
ibehowcookedst
archandpr
otei
nsar
echemi
cal
l
ydi
gest
edi
nthehumangut
.(1997)

I
nthemout
h,sali
varygl
andsproducesal
ivawhi
chcont
ainsanenzy
mecal
l
edsal
i
var
yamy
lase.
Sal
i
var
yamylasedigest
scookedstarcht
omaltose.

Whenthef
oodreachesthestomach,gast
ricgl
andspr
oducesgast
ri
cjui
cewhi
chcont
ainsan
enzy
mecall
edpepsin.Pepsi
ndigest
sprotei
nstopol
ypept
ides.

Whenthefoodreachestheduodenum,pancr
eat
icamylaseinpancr
eat
icj
uiceproducedby
pancr
easwill
conti
nuedigest
ionofstar
chtomalt
ose.Trypsi
ninpancr
eat
icjui
cedigest
s
pol
ypept
idestopepti
des.

Fi
nal
lyintheil
eum,thei
leum l
ini
ngsecreteint
esti
nal
juicewhi
chcont
ainsenzymesthat
complet
esdigest
ionofstar
chandproteins.Malt
asedigest
smalt
osetoglucoseandpepti
dase
di
gestspepti
destoaminoacids.

Expl
ainf
ivef
unct
ionsoft
hel
i
verr
elat
edt
odi
gest
ion.

Theli
vercontr
olsgl
ucoseconcentr
ati
oni
ntheblood.Theli
verconv
er t
sexcessgl
ucoseinthe
bl
oodtoglycogenforst
orage.I
fther
eisi
nsuf
fi
cientgl
ucoseintheglucosei
ntheblood,
theli
ver
conv
ertsgly
cogentoglucosefori
mmediat
euse.

Theli
verbr
eaksdownexcessaminoacids.I
ftoomuchprot
eini
seat
en,
theexcessami
noaci
ds
arebr
okendowninthel
iveri
ntoureaandcarbohy
drat
e.

Thel
iv
eract
sasastor
ageorgan.Theliv
erstoresv
itaminsA, D,
E,KandB12t oget
herwi
th
someminer
alel
ement
ssuchasiron,copperandpotassium unt
ilt
heyar
erequir
edbythebody
.
Theli
verregulat
esthelevel
ofli
pidscir
culati
nginthebl
ood.Theli
verconv
er t
sfat
tyaci
dsand
gl
ycer
ol i
ntofatsforst
orageundertheskin.Theli
veral
soconver
tsfatt
yacidsandgly
cerol
int
o
gl
ucosewhi chcanbeusedf orr
espirat
iontorel
easeenergy
.

Theli
verpr
oducesbi
lewhi
chemul
sif
iesf
atsandr
egul
atespHi
nthei
ntest
inesf
orpr
operact
ion
ofpancr
eati
cenzymes.

Stateanyf
ivev
itami
nsandt
hei
rrespect
ivef
unct
ions.Youranswershoul
dbei
nanswerf
orm.
(2013)

Thef
ir
stv
itami
nisr
eti
nol
.Thi
svi
tami
nisneededf
orseei
ngi
ndi
mli
ght
.

Anotherv
itamini
svi
tami
nB1.Thi
svi
tami
nisneededf
ornor
mal
funct
ioni
ngoft
hehear
tandt
he
ner
voussy st
em.

Thet
hir
dvi
tami
nisni
aci
n.Thi
shel
psi
nther
eleaseofener
gyi
ncel
l
s.

Anot
herv
itami
nisascor
bicaci
d.Thi
svi
tami
nmakest
hebl
oodv
essel
wal
l
sst
rong.

Thel
astvi
tami
nisvi
taminK.Thi
shel
psi
nmaki
nganenzy
mecal
l
edt
hrombi
nthati
sinv
olv
edi
n
bl
oodcl
ott
ingpr
ocess.

Descr
ibet
hef
ateoft
heendpr
oduct
sofdi
gest
ioni
nthebodi
esofhumanbei
ngs.

HumanCi
rcul
ator
ySy
stem

Wri
teanessaydescr
ibi
ngpr
obl
emsassoci
atedwi
thci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem andway
sofpr
event
ing
t
hem.
Highbloodpressurei
soneoftheproblemsassociat
edwi t
hci r
culat
orysyst
em.Theonsetof
hi
ghbl oodpressurei
saccumulat
ionofy el
lowfat
sinsidearter
iescall
edcholest
erol
.This
cholester
olcausesnarr
owingandhardeningofar
teri
es.Duet othenarrowi
ngofar t
eri
es
pressureri
sesup.Highbloodpr
essuremaydamaget hekidneysheartandarter
ies.

Heartatt
acki sanot
herproblem associatedwi t
hcircul
atorysyst
em.Thi sisacondit
ioninwhi
ch
heartmuscl
esar enotcontract
ingduet oinsuff
ici
entenergy.Heartatt
ackoccurswhena
coronar
yarteryisbl
ocked.Thepar tthehear twhichthecoronaryarter
yservesi
sdepr i
vedof
oxygenandnut ri
ent
s.I
fonlyasmal lareaoft hehearti
saffectedthepersonmayr ecover
,
otherwi
seal argear
eaimpliesaf at
al r
esult.

Thesepr oblemscanbepr eventedbyt akingexerci

ses,keepingthebodywei ghtatreasonable
l
ev elandav oidsmoki ng.Exercisesincreasetheflowofbloodt hrought hemuscl
eswhi chmay
stopt hefat
tysubst ancefrom set tl
i
ngdowni ntheinnerli
ningar t
eri
es.Keepingt
hebodywei ght
atreasonabl elevel
byav oidov ereati
nghel pstopreventcholesterol
from accumulati
ngi nthe
l
iningofar t
eries.Avoidsmoki ngr emov esthepossibil
it
yofbl oodclott
ingcausedbyni coti
ne
andcar bonmonoxi dei nthecor onaryar t
ery.

Wr
it
eanessaydescr
ibi
ngt
hepr
ocessofbl
oodcl
ott
ing.

Whenabloodvessel
isdamagedpl
atel
etsrel
easesachemicalcal
l
edthromboplasti
n.
Thr
omboplast
inconver
tsabl
oodprot
eincall
edprot
hrombi
nt oanenzymecall
edt hr
ombi
n.
Bot
hcal
cium i
onsandv i
tami
nKarenecessaryf
orthi
stooccur.

Theenzymethrombincataly
sestheconversi
onofsolubl
epl
asmaprotei
ncall
edfibr
inogeni
nto
i
nsolubl
eprot
einfi
bri
n.Fibri
nconsist
soffibr
ousstr
andswhichf
ormthread–likenetworkover
thedamagedbloodvessel.Bloodcel
lsgetcaughti
nthemeshworkoffi
bri
nfi
bres,f
orminga
bloodcl
ot.

Expl
ainhowt
hebloodcir
culat
orysystem i
sadapt
edtotr
anspir
ati
onofoxy
genf
rom t
heai
rto
cel
li
namammal .Youranswershouldbeinessayfor
m.(1998)

Int
helungstherear
enumerousbl
oodcapi
ll
ari
essurr
oundingeveryal
veol
us.Thi
sincr
easet
he
sur
faceareafordi
ff
usi
onandsomoreoxygenisabsorbed.Theredbl
oodcell
sareadapt
edto
oxygent
ransport
ationintwoway s.Theycont
ainanoxy
gencarr
yingcompoundcal
l
ed
haemogl
obin.Theirbiconcaveshapeprovi
desmoresur
facear
eaf ormor
ehaemoglobi
nand
hencemoreoxygeni scarri
ed.

I
nadditi
on,t
heredbloodcel
l
sar
elar
gei
nnumber
s.Thi
sal
soi
ncr
easest
heamountofoxy
gen
t
ranspor
tedtocel
ls.

Thetir
elessandconst
ant
lybeat
ingcar
diacmuscl
esenabl
eoxy
gent
obet
ranspor
ted
cont
inuouslyt
ocell
s.

Theext
ensiv
enetwor
kofar
ter
iesandar
ter
iol
esenabl
esal
lcor
ner
soft
hebodyt
obesuppl
i
ed
wit
hoxygen.

Anotheradapt
ationofci
rculat
orysystem isthecapill
aries.Ev
eryti
ssueoft
hebodyi s
sur
roundedbyadensenet workofcapill
ari
es.Thisincreasesthesurf
aceareaformoredi
ff
usion
ofoxygenfrom bloodt
otissuecell
s.Finall
ythecapill
ariesareone–cellt
hick.Thi
senabl
esfast
andeasymov ementofoxy genfrom bloodtotissuecells.

Wr
it
eanessayst
ati
ngf
ivecomponent
sofhumanbl
oodandexpl
aint
hei
rfunct
ions.(
2005)

Plasmai
soneofthecomponent softhehumanblood.Pl
asmai st
heliqui
dpartofblood.I
t
tr
anspor
tsf
oodsubstancefrom theali
ment
arycanalt
oallpar
tsofthebody.I
tcontains
anti
bodi
est
hatf
ightagainsti
nfecti
ons.

Anothercomponentofhumanbloodiswhit
ebloodcel
ls.Therearetwotypesofwhi
tebl
ood
cell
si.
e.phagocy
tesandlymphocyt
es.Phagocyt
esengulfanddigestbact
eri
a;l
ymphocy
tes
produceanti
bodi
es.

Redbl
oodcell
sfor
m anothercomponentoft
hehumanbl
ood.Redbl
oodcel
l
sdet
ermi
net
he
bl
oodgroupofi
ndi
vidual
ssincetheyhav
eanti
gens.

Haemoglobi
nwhicht
ransportsoxy
gent
hroughoutt
hebodyt
issuesi
sanot
heri
mpor
tant
componentoft
hehumanbl ood.
Anot
hercomponentofhumanbloodcompr
isesofpl
atel
ets.Pl
atel
etspr
eventent
ryofger
ms
i
ntothebodybyf
ormingcl
ots.

Aheartbeati
smadeupofthr
eest
ages.St
atet
het
hreest
agesofahear
tbeatanddescr
ibewhat
happensduri
ngeachst
age.

Atri
asy st
oleist hef i
rststageofhear tbeat.Duri
ngt hi
sstaget heatriacontract
stherebyopeni
ng
thebicuspi
dandt ricuspidv al
ves.Bloodi sthenforcedintothev entri
cles.Theventr
icl
esare
rel
axedt orecei
v ebl ood.Thesemi -
lunarvalvesareclosed,preventingbloodf r
om fl
owingback
i
ntothev entri
clesf rom pulmonar yarteryandaorta.Thepulmonar yveinandv enacavacont
ract
s
topreventbloodf rom beingsqueezedoutoft heatriabackintot heveins.

Thesecondst ageistheventr
icularsystol
e.Dur
ingthestagethev entr
icl
escontr
actsthereby
creat
ingbl oodpressureintheventri
cleswhichopensthesemi -
lunarvalvesandcl
osesbicuspid
andtricuspidvalv
es.Bloodi
sf orcedintoaort
aandpulmonar yartery
.Theat r
iaar
erelaxedto
recei
vebl oodfrom venacavaandpul monaryvei
n.

Thelaststageisdiast
ole.Dur
ingthi
sstagetheatr
ial
andvent
ri
cleswall
srel
axbri
efl
y.Thesemi
-
l
unarvalvesclose.Morebloodfl
owsi nt
otheatr
iawhichar
edil
ated.Whentheyar
efil
lupanew
hear
tcy cl
ebegin.

Respi
rat
orySy
stem

Descr
ibeanexper
imentt
hatcouldbecarri
edouttoinv
est
igat
et heeff
ectofexer
ciseon
br
eathi
ngrat
einhumanbeings.Youressayshoul
dincl
udeprocedure,
expectedr
esult
sand
concl
usi
on.(
2010)

Inthi
sasamet hodonewouldneedastopwatch,aropeandastudent.Thestudentshoul
dbe
all
owedtobreathef
orfi
veminuteswhil
eseat
ing.Thenumberofbreathstakeni
nf i
veminutes
shoul
dberecordedandthenbreat
hingrat
eperminuteshoul
dbecalculat
edbydividi
ngthe
numberofbreathst
akenbyti
met aken.

Secondl
ythesamestudentshoul
dskipt went
yti
mest heropeandi mmediatel
ycountthe
numberofbreat
hst
akeninf i
veminutesandthenrecord.Thebreathi
ngrat
epermi nut
eafter
exer
ciseshoul
dbecalcul
atedbydi
vidingthenumberofbr eat
hstakenbytimetaken.

Aft
ercal
cul
ati
ngthebreathingrat
esperminutebefor
eandaf t
erexerci
se,
thebreat
hingrat
e
shoul
dbecompared.Ther esul
twoul
dshowt hatthebreat
hingratemadebefor
eexer ci
sei
s
l
owerthanaf
terexer
cise.Thisgiv
esaconclusi
onthatexerci
sestherat
eofbreathi
ng.

Expl
aint
hemechani
sm ofbr
eat
hingi
nfi
sh(
2004)

Forinhal
ati
on, afi
shopensi t
smout hwhil
emuscul arcontr
acti
onsl
owertheflooroft
hebuccal
cavi
tyandphar ynx.Thi
sincreasesthev
olumeof ,anddecreasest
hewaterpressurei
n,t
he
buccalcavit
yandphar ynx.Waterfl
owsintothemout hfr
om theoutsi
debecausethei
nter
nal
waterpressureislowerthanexter
nalwaterpressur
e.

Oper cul
um musclesbulge.Thi
sincreasesthevolumeanddecreasesthepr
essurei
nt hegil
l
region.Waterf
lowsfrom themouthcav it
yoverthegi
ll
s.Aswat erpasst
hegil
lfi
l
ament ,oxy
gen
diff
usesoutoft hewaterint
othebloodandcar bondi
oxidedi
ff
usesoutofthebloodintothe
water .

Forinhalation,
af i
shclosescouthwhi lethemusclesr ai
set hefl
oorofbuccal cavit
yandpharynx.
Thisdecr easesthev ol
umeof ,andincreasesthewat erpressureinthebuccal cavi
ty.The
i
nternalwat erpressureexceedsexternalwaterpressureandt heflexibl
eedgeoft heopercul
um
i
sfor cedopen.Ther emaini
ngwat eri
sf orcedoutoverthegi l
lsandt hroughopercul
um.

Descr
ibet
hebr
eat
hingmechani
sm i
nhumanbei
ngs.Youranswershoul
dbei
nessayf
orm.
(
2006)

Breathi
ngi nvolvest wophasest hati sinspi
r ati
onandexpi rat
ion.Dur inginspirati
onthemuscl es
ofthediaphr agm cont r
act.Thispul l
st hediaphr agm downwar dscausi ngitt
of lat
tenhence
i
ncreasingt hev olumeoft hethorax .Atthesamet ime,t
heext ernalintercostalmusclescontr
act
andinternal i
ntercostalmusclesr elax.Thispul lstheri
bcageupwar dsandout wards.Together,
thesemov ementi ncreasesthev olumeoft het horax.Asthevol umeoft hethoraxincreases,
the
pressureinsidei tfal
lsbelowatmospher icpr essurehenceairr ushesi ntothelungs.

Duringexpir
ationt hemuscl esoft hediaphragm rel
ax .Thi
sall
owst hediaphragm t
or et
urntoit
s
domeshape, whichdecr easesv olumei nthethorax.Theexter
nalintercost
almusclesrelaxand
i
nternalint
ercostal musclescont r
act.Thi spul
lstheribcagedownwar dsandi nwards.Thisal
so
decreasesthev olumeoft het horax.Ast hevolumeoft hethor
axdecr eases,thepr
essureinsi
de
i
trisesabov eatmospher icpressur esot hatai
risforcedoutofthelungs.

Expl
ainhowbr
eat
hingr
atei
scont
rol
l
edi
nhumanbei
ngs.

Breathingr ateiscont r
oll
edbypar tofthebr aincal ledmedul l
aoblongat
a.Themai nf actorthat
affectsbreat hi
ngr ateiscarbondioxideconcent r ation.Whentheconcentrat
ionofcar bon
dioxideinthebl oodincreasesduringexer ci
ses, ther eceptor
sintheaort
aandcar otidarteri
es
detectthis.Asar esult
,receptor
ssendt henerv ei mpul sest
othemedullaoblongata.The
medul laobl ongatasendsi mpulsestot heintercost al muscl
esanddiaphragm toincreasethe
rateanddept hofbr eathi
ng.Mor eairisforcedi nandoutoft helungsandf i
nal
ly,
thel evelof
carbondi oxidef al
lsandbr eathi
ngrategoesbackt onor mal
.

Duri
ngwi nter,afar
merdecidedtol
ightacharcoalbur
nertowarm cal
vesi
namoder ncatt
le
khola.Beforethechar
coalcomplet
elygotburnt,i
twastakeni
ntothekhol
awhichhadthe
windowscl osed.Thefol
lowingmorni
ngthecalveswerefounddead.I
nanessayform,expl
ain
thestepsthatleadtothedeathoft
hecalves.(2011)

Thecharcoalburnerproducedcar bonmonoxidewhichwasi nhaledbythecalves.Thecar bon

monoxidethendiffusedi ntotheredbloodcell
swhereitcombi nedwithhaemogl obintoform
car
boxyhaemoglobi n.Car boxyhaemoglobi
ndoesnotspl i
teasil
yhencei tl
oweredt hecapacit
y
ofr
edbl oodcell
stot akeupoxy gen.Lackofoxygenresult
edintonorespirati
onint hel
ivi
ng
cel
l
shencet hecalv eslackedener gy.Duetol
ackofener gy,t
hebodypr ocessesstoppedt aki
ng
pl
aceandt
hecal
vesdi
ed.

Locomot
ion

Fl
ighti
nbir
dinv
olvesdownwardbeatandupwar
dbeat
.Wr
it
eanessaydescr
ibi
ngwhathappens
duri
ngdownwardbeatandupwardbeat.

Duri
ngdownwar dbeatt
hepectoral
i
smaj ormusclescontr
act
,pul
l
ingt
hewingdownandt
he
pector
ali
sminormusclerel
ax.Thefl
ightf
eather
sov er
lapi
nawayastotr
apmuchairsot
hat
ther
eismoreresist
ancebel
owt hewingtogenerateli
ft
.

Duringupwar dbeat,
thepectoral
ismi normusclescontr
actsandpectoral
i
smaj ormusclesr
elax,
thusr ai
singthewingup.Thef l
i
ghtf eather
soverlapinawayast oletai
rpassbetweenthem so
thatairresi
stanceisreducedbelowt hewing.Asar esul
tther
eisnoupthrustbel
owt hewing
andt heforceofgravit
ypulldownt hebirdsothatitl
ossesheight
.

Descri
befi
vewaysi
nwhi
chabir
disadapt
edt oover
comi
nggr
avi
tyandef
fectofdr
agi
nfl
i
ght
youranswer
sshoul
dbei
nanessayf
orm.(2007)

Bi
rdshav
est
reaml
i
nedbodywhi
chr
educest
heef
fectofdr
ag.

Bir
dshavelargeandpowerpect
oral
muscl
est
hatpr
ovi
depowert
ofl
apwi
ngsi
nfl
i
ght
.Thi
s
hel
pstoovercomegravi
ty.

Thir
dlybi
rdscont
ainai
rsacsat
tachedt
othel
ungsandt
hesemaket
hem l
i
ght
erhence
overcomi
nggravi
ty.

Four
thl
y,bi
rdshav
ebonesl
i
ght
erhenceov
ercomi
nggr
avi
ty.

Last
lyt
hef
eat
her
sofabi
rdpr
ovi
deanaer
ofoi
lwhi
chgener
atesl
i
ghthenceov
ercomi
nggr
avi
ty.
Descr
ibef
iveway
sinwhi
chaf
ishi
sadapt
edf
orswi
mmi
ng.Youranswershoul
dbei
nessay
for
m.

Fi
shhasst
reaml
i
nedbodywhi
chr
educesdr
agasi
tmov
est
hrought
hewat
er.

Fi
shhasmucusgl
andswhi
chsecr
etesl
i
mysubst
ancewhi
chmoi
stent
hescal
es.

Fi
shhasf
lexi
blev
ert
ebr
alcol
umnwhi
chal
l
owst
hef
ish’
sbodyt
ocur
ve.

Fi
shhasswi
m bl
adderwhi
chcont
rol
sbuoy
ancyanddept
hatwhi
cht
hef
ishswi
msi
nwat
er.

Thescal
esoff
ishov
erl
apf
aci
ngbackwar
ds.Thi
sreducesdr
agast
hef
ishmov
est
hroughwat
er.

Repr
oduct
ion

St
ateanyfi
vecont
racepti
vemet
hodsandexpl
ainhoweachonewor
ksy
ouranswershoul
dbei
n
anessayf
orm.(
2003,2009)

Thefirstcontr
acept
ivemethodiscontr
acepti
vepil
l
s.Contracept
ivepi
l
lscont
ainoest
rogenand
progesterone-
li
kehormones.Thesehormonespreventov
ulati
on.

Anothercont
racepti
vemethodisvasect
omy.Thi
sisanoperat
ionthati
scarri
edoutonaman
wherethesperm ductsar
ecut.Thi
sprevent
sfer
ti
li
zat
ionasspermsfrom t
esti
scannotpasst
o
vagi
na.

Thethirdt
ypeofcont
racept
ivemethodsistheuseofthediaphr
agm.Thisisadome- shaped
rubbercapwit
hanelasti
cri
mi nser
tedonthetopofthevaginaandpl
acedov erthecerv
ixint
his
wayt hedi
aphr
agm prev
entsspermsfrom ent
ryint
outer
ushencepreventsfert
il
izat
ion.
Anothercontraceptiv
emet hodistheuseofthecondom.Acondom i
sathi
nrubberwhi
chis
usedtocov ererectbef or
ei nt
ercour
sesothatfer
ti
li
zat
ionshoul
dnott
akepl
aceasthesper
ms
cannotenterthev agina.

Thelastcont
racept
ivemethodi
sther
ythm met
hod.Ry
thm met
hodpr
event
sfer
ti
li
zat
ionas
sexuali
nter
courseoccur
sinsaf
edaysonl
y.

Expl
ainanyf
iveway
sinwhi
chbr
eastf
eedi
ngi
simpor
tant
.(2012)

Br
eastfeedi
ngact
sasabir
thcont
rol
.Br
east
feedi
ngdel
ayst
heonsetofmenst
ruat
ionf
ort
he
motherhencedel
ayi
ngpr
egnancy
.

Breastmi
lkprovi
despassi
venatur
ali
mmunit
ytoaninf
antensur
ingt
hatt
hei
nfanti
sabl
eto
resi
stdi
seaseinf
ecti
onsini
tsearl
yst
agesasit
sbodydevel
ops.

Thebabydevelopssenseofcl
osenesst
othemot
herwhi
l
efeedi
ngandt
hishel
psi
nbaby
’s
emoti
onaldevelopment.

Breastmil
kcont
ainssubstancest
hatcl
eansandact
ivat
est
heal
i
ment
arycanal
ofani
nfantt
o
enablei
ttocar
ryoutdigest
ion.

Breastmilkr
educesinf
antmor
tal
i
tybyensur
ingt
hatt
hei
nfant
sgr
owwi
thoutanynut
ri
ti
onal
defi
ciencydi
seases.

Descr
ibeanyf
iveadapt
ati
onsoft
hehumanmal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem.Youranswershoul
dbe
i
nessayform.

Thehumanmalereproducti
vesystem hastesti
sthathavehighl
ycoi
l
edt
ubul
escal
l
ed
semi
nif
eroust
ubules.Thesetubul
espr oducespermatozoa.
Secondly
,thetest
isl
iesout
sidetheabdominal
cavi
tyi
nthescr
otum.Thi
skeepst
hem atl
ower
temperat
urethanthebodywhichisconduci
vefort
hesper
m pr
oducti
on.

Thir
dly,
themalereproduct
ivesyst
em hasepi
didy
mi swhichi
shi
ghl
ycoi
l
edandl
i
enextt
othe
test
is.I
ntheepi
didymisiswherethespermsarestore.

Four
thl
y,t
hemaler
eproduct
ivesy
stem hassper
m ductwhi
cht
ransf
ert
hesper
msf
rom
epi
didy
mistot
heuret
hra.

Lastl
y,t
hemaler
eproduct
ivesyst
em hassemi
nalvesi
clethatsecr
etesanal
kal
i
nesecr
eti
on
thatf
ormssemen.Thesecret
ionhel
psinnour
ishmentofsperms.

Descr
ibet
hepr
ocessofmi
tosi
s.Youranswershoul
dbei
nessayf
orm.

Mitosisoccur
si nf ourstages.Thef i
rststageiscall
edpr ophase,dur
ingthisstagethe
chromosomesshor t
enandbecomev i
sibl
eunderthel i
ghtmi cr
oscope.Thecent r
iol
edivi
des,
separateandstar ttomov etot heopposi t
epolesofthecel lf
ormingspindlefi
bres.Each
chromosomei sseent ocont ai
ntwost randsjoinedtogetheratthecentromere.Nuclear
membr anedi
sintegrates.Nucleolusdisappearsmaki ngtheendofpr ophase.

Thesecondst
agei
smetaphase.Dur
ingt
hisst
agethespi
ndlefi
bresincr
easeinlength.
Chromosomesmoveandarr
angethemsel
vesatt
heequatorofthecell
.Eachcentri
olei
satt
he
pol
e.

Thethir
dst
ageisanaphase.Duri
ngthi
sstagechromosomessepar ateintosi
sterchr
omati
ds
andthenmovetotheopposit
epolesofthecel
l.Shor
teningofspi
ndlefibr
esbringsaboutt
he
movementofthechromati
ds.Attheendofanaphase,spindl
efi
bresdisappear
.

Thelaststagei
stel
ophase.Dur
ingt
hisst
agethesisterchr
omat i
dshav
ereachedt
heopposi
te
pol
esoft hecel
l
,thenucl
earmembraneref
ormsaroundeachoft hetwoset
sofchromat
ids
whichhavenowbecomechr omosomes.Nucl
eolusreappears.
Descr
ibef
ivef
unct
ionsoft
hepl
acent
a.Youranswershoul
dbei
nessayf
orm.

Theplacent
aisaplaceforexchangeofsubstancesbetweenthemother’
sbloodandt
he
embryo’sbl
ood.Theplacent
aallowsdi
ssolvedfoodsubstancessuchasglucose,
ami
noaci
ds
andoxygentodiff
usefrom t
hemot her
’sbl
oodi nt
othatoftheembryo.

Theplacent
aallowsanti
bodi
est
odif
fusefr
om t
hemot her
’sbl
oodi
ntot
hatoft
heembr
yo.
Ant
ibodiesprot
ecttheembry
oagai
nstcer
tai
ndi
seases.

Theplacent
asecret
espr
ogest
eronehor
monet
hatmai
ntai
nspr
egnancybyensur
ing
prol
i
ferat
ionofut
eri
newall
.

Thepl
acentasecr
eteshumanplacentall
actogenhor
monewhi
chst
imul
atest
hedev
elopmentof
mammar ygl
andsinprepar
ati
onoflactat
ion.

Lastl
y,theplacentaformsabarri
erseparat
ingt
heembryo’
sbloodsy st
em andt
hemother’
s
bl
oodsy st
em.Thi sprevent
sthemother’
shighbl
oodpr
essurefrom damagingt
heembryo’
s
del
icatebloodv essel
s.

Descr
ibet
hepr
ocessofmei
osi
s.Youranswershoul
dbei
nessayf
orm.(
10mar
ks)

Descri
bet
hepr
ocessoff
ert
il
izat
ioni
nhumanbei
ngs.Youranswershoul
dbei
nessayf
orm.(
10
marks)

HumanDi
seases
Supposet
her
eisanout
breakofdi
arr
hoeainaboardingschool
.Descr
ibehowyouwoul
d
est
abli
sht
hecauseoft
heoutbr
eakyouranswershouldbeinanessayfor
m.(2005)

Toest
abl
i
sht
hecauseofdi
arr
hoeal
diseases,
thef
oll
owi
ngcanbedone:

Fi
rst
ly,
Iwouldfi
ndoutaboutper
sonal
hygi
eneofst
udentbecauseunhy
gieni
ccondi
ti
onsr
esul
ts
i
nbreedingofv
arioust
ypesofger
ms.

Iwouldal
soest
abl
i
shhowf
oodi
spr
epar
edatt
hecaf
eter
iaandsur
roundi
ngswher
efoodi
s
prepar
ed.

Iwoul
dalsofi
ndoutaboutthesour
ceofwat
erusedbystudentswhetheri
tisf
rom ahygieni
c
sour
ce.I
fiti
sfrom bor
ehol
es,t
henIwoul
dadvi
sethatt
hebor ehol
esshoul
dber e-
locat
edaway
fr
om pi
tlat
ri
nes.

Knowingwhethert
hest
udent
shadbeenv
acci
nat
edagai
nstdi
seasesl
i
kechol
erabef
orewoul
d
benecessar
y.

Besidesal
lthese,Iwouldfindoutt
hemethodsofwastedi
sposal
usedattheschool
.Wast
e
managementi scrucialsi
ncewastedi
sposalar
easar
ebreedi
nggroundsf
ormicrobest
hat
causediar
rhoealdiseases.

Themodeoft
ransmi
ssionofadi
seasedet
ermineshowpeopletr
ytoprev
enti
t.Di
scusst
he
abov
estat
ementbyr
eferr
ingt
osl
eepingsi
cknessandchol
era.(
1994)

Sl
eepi
ngsi
cknessi
scausedbyTr
ypanosomar
hodesi
encewhi
chi
str
ansmi
tt
edf
rom one
persontoanot herbyt setsefl
ies.Sleepingsicknesscanbecont r
oll
edbyki l
li
ngthetset
sefl
ies
andpr eventi
ngt hei
rmul ti
pli
cati
on.Thi scanbedonebyst er
il
izi
ngthemal etset
sefli
essothati
f
themat ethefemal es,thelatt
ershoul dnotlayeggs.Tset sefli
escanbeki l
ledbysprayi
ngthe
busheswi ththepest i
cides.Anotherwayofpr eventi
ngsleepingsicknessistoavoidmaking
settl
ement sclosetohumi dconditi
onsal ongtheriverbanksandt hickerv
egetat
ionwherethe
tsetsefl
iesli
ve.Thishel pstopreventt hetsetsefl
iesbit
es.

Cholerai
scausedbyabacter
ium cal
ledVibr
iocholer
aewhichistransmitt
edtohumansby
i
nfectedwater
.Chol
eracanbepreventedbychlor
inat
ingorboil
ingdrinki
ngwaterandby
ensuri
ngthathumanwastesdonotcontaminatewatersuppl
ies.

Choleracanalsobetransmittedbyfl
iesfr
om infect
edfaecestofood.Thi
scanbepreventedby
maintaini
ngproperhygienesuchascov er
ingfoodsandalsoproperuseoflat
ri
nes.I
nadditi
on,
keepingthepubli
cplacescleanhelpstopreventthefl
i
esfrom f
indi
ngthebreedi
ngplaces.

Descr
ibet
wodi
seasesofhumanbei
ngscausedbypr
otozoa,
andexpl
ainhoweachaf
fect
sthe
bodyandhowi
tmaybecontrol
l
ed.(
1999)

Malari
aisoneoft hediseasescausedbypr otozoa.Malari
aiscausedbyplasmodi
um whichis
tr
ansmittedbyfemaleanophelesmosqui to.Whent heplasmodiumenter
sthebodythr
ough
mosquitobit
es,theymul t
ipl
yandenterthebloodst r
eam wheretheydestr
oyther
edbloodcells.
Thedestruct
ionofredbloodcellsl
eadst oanaemi a.Apartf
rom anaemia,t
hewasteproduct
s
l
eftbyplasmodium leadtofever
,headacheandhi ghbodytemperatur
eaccompaniedby
excessi
vesweating.

Malariacanbecont rol
l
edbyr educingthepopul at
ionofmosqui toest hr
oughspr ay
ingtherooms
withinsect
idesthatkil
lmosqui t
oes,drainingstagnantwat ertopreventeggl ay
ingby
mosqui t
oesbydest roy
ingtheirbreedi
nggr ounds,breedi
ngf i
shandducksi nslowrunningwater
toeatmosqui t
ol ar
vaeandspr ayingoi
l stagnantonst agnantwat erthatcannotbedrainedto
preventthelar
vaefrom breat
hinghenceki ll
ingthem bysuffocati
on.

Anotherdiseasecausedbyprotozoaissleepi
ngsi
ckness.Sleepingsicknessiscausedby
Trypanosomar hodesi
encewhichistransmitt
edfr
om oneper sontoanot herbytsetse
fl
ies.
Whent heTrypanosomarhodesienceenterst
hebodyt hroughtsetsefli
esbites,i
tleads
fever
,severeheadache,swol
l
enl ymphnodesandi nsomniaatnight.
Sleepi
ngsicknesscanbecont rol
ledbykill
ingthetsetsefli
esandpr event
ingt heirmultipl
icati
on.
Thiscanbedonebyst er i
l
izi
ngthemal etsetsefl
iessot hatifthematethef emal es,
thel atter
shouldnotlayeggs.Tsetsefli
escanbeki ll
edbyspr ayi
ngt hebusheswi t
ht hepest i
cides.
Anotherwayofpr ev
entingsleepi
ngsicknessistoav oidmaki ngsett
lementscl osetohumi d
conditi
onsalongtheri
verbanksandt hickervegetat
ionwher et het
setsefl
iesl i
ve.Thishel psto
preventthetset
sefl
iesbites.

Supposeyouar
eaHealthAssi
stanti
nacommuni
tywher
et her
eishi
ghpr ev
alenceofmal
ari
a,
whatadvi
cewouldyougi
vetothecommuni
tyonpr
event
ionofmalar
ia.Expl
ainanyfi
vepoi
nts
i
nessayform.(
2008)

HumanPopul
ati
on

Descri
befiv
eprobl
emswhichresul
tfr
om rapi
dgr
owt
hofhumanpopul
ati
onandhowt
heybe
contr
oll
ed.Youanswershoul
dbeinessayfor
m.

Thefi
rstproblem f
rom rapi
dgr
owt hofhumanpopulat
ionisdefor
est
ati
on.Thisisthecleari
ng
ofl
argeareasofnat ur
alwoodl
andandf or
estei
therf
orsettl
ementoragr
icul
ture.Defor
estati
on
di
stur
bsrainfall
patter
nwhicheventual
l
yleadst
odeserti
fi
cati
on.

Anotherprobl
em i
sov ergr
azing.Whenpeoplehaveoccupiedalmostalll
andsi
ncl
udingwhere
ani
mal swouldbefeeding,t
heanimalsareforcedtogr
azeonsmal lpieceofl
andforlongt
ime.
Thi
sl eadstosoi
ltosoiler
osionandther
eforelossoffer
ti
lit
y.

Scarci
tyoflandf
orcespeopl
eandcompaniestodumpwastemat er
ial
someofwhichcanbe
toxi
cintotheenv
ironment
.Thispol
l
uti
oncanleadtocont
aminat
ionandther
efor
ediseases.

Overpopul
ati
oncanalsol
eadtofoodi
nsecur
it
y.Thi
sisduet
oscar
cit
yofl
andandduet
o
l
oweringofqual
i
tyofagri
cul
tur
all
and.

Ov
erpopul
ati
oncanl
eadt
oov
ercr
owdnessandt
hiscanencour
agespr
eadofdi
seasese.
g.
t
uber
cul
osi
s.

Rapi
dpopulat
iongrowt
hcanbecontr
oll
edbyreduci
ngbir
thrat
e,conser
vat
ionofr
esour
ces,
i
mprovedsani
tati
onandreduci
ngov
er–consumpt i
onoffood.

Expl
ainanyf
ivef
act
orst
hatmayi
ncr
easehumanpopul
ati
ongr
owt
h.

Tr
opi
sms

Descr
ibeanexperi
mentthatwoul
dbeusedt
ofindouttheeff
ectofunequal
distr
ibut
ionofl
ight
ongrowingshoot
.Inyouransweri
ncl
udemet
hod,expect
edresul
tsandconcl
usion.(2004)

I
nt hi
sasamet hod,onewoul dneedtwopottedbeanseedli
ngsofsi
milarst
agesofgrowth,one
ofwhichisplacedincardboardboxwi t
hawi ndowcutinonesidet
oallowli
ghttopenet
rate
fr
om onedirecti
on.Theot hershoul
dbei nasimil
arsit
uati
onbutpl
acedonar ot
ati
ngcli
nostat.
Thisexposeseachsi deoftheshoottoli
ghtequall
y.Thisi
sacontr
ol.

Aft
ert
woday s,t
hetwoplantsshouldber
emov edfrom boxesandcompared.Theresul
tswould
showthatt
hestem oft
heplantwithone-
sidedil
luminat
ionhaschangeddi
rect
ionofgrowthand
i
sgrowingtowar
dstheli
ght.Theoneincli
nostatdoesnotbend.

Thisgivesaconcl
usiont
hatunequal
dist
ri
buti
onofl
i
ghtaf
fect
sagr
owi
ngshootsi
ncei
thas
respondedtoone-
sidedl
ight
ingbygrowi
ngtowar
dsit
.

Desi
gnanexper
imentt
haty ouwouldconductt
ofi
ndoutther
egionthatr
espondst
ost
imul
us
ofgr
avi
tyi
nbeanseedl
ings.Youranswershoul
dbeinessayf
orm.(2006)
Inthi
sasamet hod,onewoul dneedt wonewl ygerminatedbeanseedlingswi t
hst rai
ghtr adi
cles,
oneofwhi chispi nnedt oacor kwhi chisthenplacedinthemout hofaj ar.Thejarist henlefton
i
tsside.Ther adiclebeinghor i
zontal wil
lbesubjectedtogravi
tat
ionalforceperpendi culart
oi t
s
l
ength.Theot hershoul dbei nsimilarsituat
ionbutplacedonrotati
ngcl i
nostat.Thisensur es
thatgravi
tyactsequal lyonallsidesoft heradicl
e.Inbothcases,putmoi stcottonwool soast o
keept heseedli
ngsmoi st.Theappar atusshouldthenbel ef
tindarknesst oeli
mi natethe
possibil
it
yofphot otropicresponse.

Af
tert
wodays,t
hebeanseedlingsshouldberemovedfr
om thejarsandcompared.Theresul
ts
woul
dshowthatther
adicl
e(root)ofseedl
ingsi
nthest
ati
onar yj
arhaschangedit
sdirect
ionof
gr
owthandi
sgrowingtowardsgravit
y.Theoneonthecl
inostatdoesnotbend.

Thi
sgi
vesaconcl
usi
ont
hatr
oot
srespondst
ogr
avi
tybygr
owi
ngt
owar
dsi
t.

Excr
eti
on

Oneofthef
ormsoft
reat
mentforpeopl
ewhohavelostbotht
hei
rki
dneysi
sthr
ought
heuseof
di
aly
sismachi
ne.Wr
it
eanessaydescri
binghowadi
alysi
smachi
neworks.

Adi alysismachi nereceivesbloodthrought ubeconnect edtoanar t

ery.Insidethemachi ne,
bloodf lowst hroughdi al
ysi
st ubi
ng.Thet ubinghaspar t
lyper meabl
ewal lsandi sbathedin
dial
y sisfluid,
whi chhast hesameconcent r
ationofsubst ancesfoundinbl oodplasmabutdoes
notcont ainanywast esubstances.Thismeanst hatwast eproductssuchasar eaaremor e
concent ratedint hebloodthandi al
ysi
sfluidsot heydiff
useoutofbl oodi ntodial
ysis.Useful
subst ancessuchasgl ucoseandsal tsdonotdi f
fuseoutofbl oodbecauset heconcentrat
ionof
thesesubst ancesindi al
ysi
sf l
uidandbloodar ethesame.Lar gemolecules, suchasbl ood
proteinsandr edbloodcel l
s,aretoolar
get opasst hrought hedial
ysi
st ubewal l.

Aftert
hebl
oodhascircul
atedt
hrought
hedialy
sismachi
ne,mostofwastesubst
ancesare
removedfr
om i
t.Thepuri
fi
edbloodisr
e-i
ntr
oducedi
ntothepat
ient
’sbodyvi
aav ei
nofthear
m.

Descr
ibehowni
tr
ogenat
omseat
eni
nabeanmeal
canev
ent
ual
l
ybeexcr
etedi
nur
ine.(
2002)
Whenonehast akenabeanmeal,theprot
einsi
nthemeal ar
edigestedi
ntopoly
pepti
desby
pepsi
ninthest
omach.Polypept
idesaredigest
edtopepti
desbytrypsi
nintheduodenum whi
ch
arel
aterdi
gest
edi nt
oaminoaci
dbypept i
daseinthei
leum.

Ami noaci dsarethenabsor bedintothesmal li

ntest
inewher etheyaretr
anspor
tedtogetherwith
bloodt othel i
verbythehepat i
cvein.Hereexcessami noacidsaredeaminat
edbythel i
ver,
wher enitr
ogeni sremov edfrom theami noacid.Theni t
rogenouscompoundscombi newith
carbondi oxidetoform urea.Ureaistransport
edt othekidneysthroughbl
oodbyther enalar
tery.
Theki dneyremov esureat hroughultr
af i
lt
rat
ionandr eabsorpti
on.Ureai
sthenexcr
et edasurine.

Descr
ibehowur
inei
sfor
medi
ntheki
dney
soft
hehumanbody
.Wr
it
eyouransweri
nessay
for
m.(2010)

Urineisf ormedi nt wost ages, namely:ul

tr
af i
l
trati
onandsel ect iv
er eabsor ption.Ult
rafi
ltr
ationis
amechani cal processt hatt akesplaceintheBowman’ scapsul epr oducinggl omerularfil
trat
e.
Ultraf
ilt
rationoccur sduet oacombi nati
onofhi ghbl oodpressur ei nthegl omer ul
us,andt he
structureofgl omer ulusandBowman’ scapsul e.Thehi ghbloodpr essuredev el
opsint he
glomer ulusbecauset heaf f
erentarter
iol
eiswi dert hantheef ferentar t
eriole.Thehighbl ood
pressuresqueezest hebl oodagai nstthewal l
soft hecapill
ariesofgl omer ulus.Thewal l
sof
thesecapi llar
iesaresemi -permeabl esothatsubst anceswi thsmal lmolecul essuchwat er
,
glucoseandur eaaref orcedoutofcapi l
l
ariesandBowman’ scapsul eintot herenaltubulewhile
bloodcel lsandbl oodpr otei
nsr emaininthebl oodi ntheglomer ul
ussi ncet heyhav elarge
mol ecules.

Asglomerul
arf i
lt
ratepassesal ongtherenaltubul
e,somesubstancesthatareuseful
t othe
bodyareselecti
velyreabsorbedintothebloodcapill
arynet
worksurr
oundingthenephron.These
subst
ancesar ereabsorbedeitherreabsor
bedbyosmosi s(f
orwater
)ordiff
usionoractive
tr
ansportl
eavingbehi ndsubstancesintherenaltubulecal
l
eduri
ne.

Descr
ibeanyf
iveadapt
ati
onsofanephr
ont
oit
sfunct
ion.Youranswershoul
dbei
nessayf
orm.

Ecosy
stems

Ni
tr
ogeni
sani
mpor
tantel
ementi
nsy
nthesi
sofpr
otei
nswhi
char
eessent
ial
forgr
owt
h.
St
art
ingwi
that
mospher
icni
tr
ogen,
descr
ibehowt
hisel
ementi
srecy
cledi
nnat
ure.(
1990)

Atmosphericni t
rogenisconvert
edt onit
ratesbyf ree–l i
vingbact er
iai
nthesoi landby
nitr
ogen–fi
xingbact eri
aintherootnodul esoflegumes.Theni trat
esarethenabsorbedby
plantsandlatertheplantsconvertthem intoorgani cmat eri
al.Theseorganicmat er
ial
sf orm
ti
ssuesofpl ants.Animalsfeedonpl ant
sandobt aint heseorgani cmateri
als.Whenbot hplants
andanimalsdi e,theorganicmaterial
sformi ngthet issuesarebr okendownt hroughdecayand
decompositiont orel
easeammoni um compoundsi ntothesoi l
.Theammoni um compoundsi n
thesoilar
eint urnconv er
tedbacki nt
onitrateswhi char eusual l
yavai
labletotheexisti
ngpl ant
s.
Someoft heseni trat
esarelostbyleachingpr ocessorconv ertedtonitr
ogenoft heairthrough
theprocesscal l
eddenitri
fi
cati
on.

Descr
ibehowthepopul
ati
onofapl
anti
nanopenf
iel
dcanbeest
imat
ed.Youranswershoul
d
beinessayf
rom.(
2007)

Fi
rstl
ychooseonetypeofweedfrom t
hefield.Usea0. 25squar emetrequadr
attoestimatet
he
populat
ionsi
zeoftheweedbydroppi
ngitany whereint hefi
eld.Thencountandrecordthe
numberofchosenplantsi
nsi
dethequadr
at .Dropthequadr atatrandom i
ndiff
erentpart
softhe
fi
eldsothatyouhavetenr
eadi
ngsalt
ogether.Usey ourt enr
eadingstoworkouttheav er
age
numberofplantsi
naquadrat.

Secondlymeasureandcalcul
atethetotal
areaoft
hef
iel
dinsquaremetr
e.Thepopul
ati
onofa
pl
antisthenesti
mat edbymult
iplyi
ngtheareaoft
hef
iel
dbyaveragenumbersofpl
ant
sina
quadratdi
vi
dedbyt heareaofthequadrat
.

Desi
gnanexperi
mentt
hatwoul
dbeusedt
oest
imat
ethedensi
tyofgr
asshopper
sinaschool
gar
den(2003)

Inthi
sasamet hod,onewouldusethesweepnett ocapt ur
ethegrasshopper
sin15mi nutes
from t
hegarden.Thecapt
uredgrasshoppersshoul
dt henbekeptinwellvent
il
atedcontai
ners
andtheyshouldnotbeharmedinanyway .Car
eful
l
ymar keachgrasshopperwithanailvarni
sh
andthencountthetot
alnumberofgr asshoppermarked.Thenrel
easethegrasshopper
si nto
thegarden.
Aftertwohours,repeatthecaptur
ingexerci
seinwhichoneshoul dcol
lectbot hmarkedand
unmar kedgrasshoppers.Therecapturi
ngexer
ciseshouldal
sot ake15mi nutesinthesame
garden.Oneshoul dthencountthemar kedandunmar kedgr
asshoppersint hesecondsample.
Thepopul at
ionofgrasshopperswillthenbeest
imatedbymul t
iplyi
ngthenumberof
grasshoppersinthefir
stcatchbynumberofgr asshoppersi
nthesecondcat chdiv
idedby
number sofmar kedgrasshoppersrecaptur
ed.

Afterest
imati
ngthepopul
ati
onofgrasshopper
s,measureandcalcul
atet hetot
alareaofschool
gardeninsquaremetr
eandthencalcul
atethepopul
ati
ondensi
tyofgr asshoppersbydivi
ding
thetotal
populat
iont
ograsshopper
sbyt ot
alar
eaoftheschoolgarden.

Supposeyouareanenvironmentaloffi
ceri
nanar eawher
epeopl
earenotawareofthecauseof
envi
ronmentaldegr
adat
ion.Explai
nanyf i
vecausesandeff
ect
sofenvi
ronmentaldegr
adat
ion
youwouldincl
udeinyouradvice.Youranswershouldbei
nanessayf
orm( 2009)

Overgr
azingisanenvi
ronment
aldegr
adati
onthatr
esul
tsfr
om feedingl
argeher
dofani
mal
son
asmallpieceofl
andconti
nuousl
y.I
tcausesdepl
eti
onofplantspeci
esormayleadt
o
desert
if
icat
ionorsi
lt
ati
onofri
ver
ssil
tat
ioncancausef
loods.

Deforest
ati
onr
esul
tsfrom wantoncutt
ingdownoftr
ees.Itl
eav
esthesoilbare.Whenther
eis
heavywindorr
ain,
topsoili
slostthr
oughsoiler
osi
on.Lossoftopsoi
lcanleadtosil
tat
ioni
n
ri
verandalsol
ossofsoil
fert
il
it
y.

Anotherenvi
ronmentaldegradati
onar
isesfr
om pol
l
uti
on.Thisi
swhenhumansorindust
ri
es
dumpwast etoxi
cmat eri
alsintheenv
ironment
.Pol
lut
ioncancausedeat
hofor
ganismsorloss
ofhabit
atoracidrai
ns.

Int
roducti
onofal
ienspeci
estoahabi
torcommunit
ymayl eadtonewspeciesfeedi
ngon
i
ndigenousspeci
esorcompetingf
orf
oodandli
ghtwit
hindigenousspi
ces.Thi
smayl eadt
o
exti
ncti
onofindi
genousspeci
es.

Bushfir
esareenvi
ronmental
degr adat
ionwhi
chdestroystheecosyst
em.Thi
smayal sor
educe
tot
alnumberofspeciesi
ntheenv ir
onmentorcausesoiler
osionorsi
lt
ati
onofr
iver
sorair
pol
lut
ion.Thesemayleadtoglobalwarmingorlossofhabit
at.
Expl
aint
heway
sinwhi
chShi
reRi
vercoul
dbecomepol
l
utedbyhumanact
ivi
ti
es.(
1991)

Agri
cul
tur
al,
indust
ri
alanddomest
icact
ivi
ti
esar
esomeoft
hehumanact
ivi
ti
eswhi
chcan
causepol
lut
iontoShi
reRiv
er.

Whenf ert
il
izer
sareusedonagr icul
tur
eland,
rai
nwat ermaycarr
ynit
ratesandphosphatesint
o
theri
ver.Thismayresul
tint
or apidi
ncreasei
nalgaepopulat
ionandcausereducti
oninthe
amountofdi ssol
vedoxygeninthewat er
.Theoxygenisdepl
etedbybacter
iawhichdecompose
thedeadalgae.

Pesti
cidesusedi
nfarmingmayalsobewashedint
otheri
verbyrai
nwater.Thesemaypoison
theorgani
smsathighertr
ophi
clevel
sint
hefoodchai
n.Thi
seffecti
scausedbypestici
des
suchasDDTwhi chdonotcomposeandbecomemor econcentr
atedal
ongt hefoodchai
n.

Industr
ialact
ivi
tieswhi
chcouldcausepoll
uti
onincl
udedischargingofchemical
sintothewater
.
Thesemaypoi sonthel
ivi
ngorgani
smsi ntheri
ver
.Heatedwat erfr
om indust
ri
alprocessesmay
affectr
iverorganismsby,f
orexample,
incr
easingalgaegr
owt h.

Domest
icact
ivi
ti
esl
ikedi
sposalofhumanwast
esintotheriv
ermayresul
tintor
api
dincr
easei
n
al
gaepopul
ati
onandcausereduct
ioni
ntheamountofdissol
vedoxy
genint hewat
er.

Di
scusst
heener
gyf
lowi
ntr
opi
cal
woodl
and.Youranswershoul
dbei
nessayf
orm.(
1992,
2008)

Descr
ibeanyfi
vechar
acter
ist
icst
hatenabl
efr
eshwat
erpl
ant
stosur
viv
eint
hei
rhabi
tat
.Your
answershoul
dbeinessayfor
m.(2013)

Co-
ordi
nat
ion

Descri
befi
veprobl
emsassociat
edwit
ht henerv
oussy
stemandst
atehoweachpr
obl
em canbe
contr
oll
ed.
Youranswershoul
dbeinessayform.
Thefi
rstproblem i
spol
iomy el
iti
s.Thi
sisasi tuati
onwher ether
eisapermanentdamageoft he
motorneuronestothelegs,armssothatt hereisnor esponseoft
heseorgans.Thi
sleadsto
poordevelopmentofbonesandl imbswither.Polioiscausedbyav i
ruswhichmult
ipl
iesi
nthe
spi
nalcord.Poli
ocanbepr eventedbyvaccinatingthechildr
en.

Tet
anusi sanotherproblem.Thisisasit
uati
onwherebyther
eisapermanentcont
ract
ionof
muscles.TetanusiscausedbyCl ostr
idi
um t
etani
whichmulti
pli
esi
ndeepwounds.Inj
ecti
onsof
ant
it
oxinsandmuscl er elaxi
ngdrugshelpt
ocuretet
anus.

Leprosyisanotherpr
obl
em.Theinfect
ionattackstheskinandthesensoryneuronessothatt
he
sensati
onislostinsomepar
tsoftheskin.LeprosyiscausedbyMy cobacter
iumlepr
ae.I
tcanbe
control
l
edbydr ugs.

Meningit
isi
sanot herprobl
em.Meni ngi
ti
sisthei
nfl
ammat i
onofthemeninges.I
tmaybe
causedbyphysicalinj
ury,areact
iontocert
aindr
ugsorinf
ecti
onbycert
ainvir
uses,
bact
eri
a,
fungiorpar
asi
tes.Useofant ibi
oti
cssuchasbenzylpeni
cil
l
inhel
pstocuremeningi
ti
s.

Thelastpr oblem isstr

oke.Str
okeisbraindamagecausedbyl ackofbloodflowtoanypartof
thebrain.Itoccurswhenbl oodflowtoapartofbrai
nisinter
ruptedbecauseofblockageofan
arter
yint hebr ai
norbur st
ingofcapi
ll
aryinthebr
ainl
eadingtoabl oodclot
.Thebr ai
ncell
s
starv
et odeat hduet olackofoxygen.St
rokecanbemanagedbypr omptmedi calatt
ent
ionto
remov ethebloodcl ot.

I
mmuni
ty

Descr
ibefi
vebar
ri
erswhichthebodyusest
opr
eventent
ryofdi
seasecausi
ngor
gani
sm i
ntoi
t.
Expl
ainhoweachworks.(2003)

Thefi
rstbar
ri
eri
stheski
n.Theski
nsecr
etesanoi
l
ysubst
ancecal
l
edsebum whi
chki
l
ls
bact
eri
a.
I
ncasetheski
niscut
,themechani
sm ofbl
oodcl
otti
ngactasanotherbar
ri
er.Bl
oodcl
ott
ing
pr
event
stheentr
yofgermsi
ntothebl
oodstr
eam t
hroughcut
sintheskin.

Tearsal
soactasabarri
er.Tear
scontai
nanenzymecalledly
sozymewhichdi
gestsandbreak
downharmfulmicr
o-or
ganismsint
oharmlesssubst
ances.Ther
efor
e,har
mful
mi cr
o-or
ganisms
cannotent
ert
hebodythroughtheopeni
ngsaroundtheeye.

Anotherbarri
eri
smucus.Mucusisasti
ckyl
iqui
dincert
ainbodyopeni
ngsli
kethenoseand
thr
oat.I
ttrapsmicro-or
gani
smsent
eri
ngthr
oughtheseopeni
ngshenceprevent
ingt
heentr
yof
micro-
organismsintothebody
.

Thelastbar
ri
eriscil
ia.Ci
li
aaret
inyhai
rli
kest
ruct
urest
hatl
i
net heinsi
deofsomepartsoft
he
bodysuchastrachea.Cil
iamovebackandfor
thtosweepmicr
o-organi
smsinthet
racheaand
prev
entthem f
rom enteri
ngthel
ungs

Descr
ibehowonecanacqui
renat
ural
andar
ti
fi
cial
immuni
ty.(
1998)

Nat uralimmunityoccur swhenl ymphocytesproducestheanti

bodiesinresponset oarri
valof
foreignant i
gens(pathogens).Whent helymphocy t
escomei ncontactwiththeforeignanti
gen
theypr oduceplasmacel l
clonesandmemor ycell
s.Plasmacellcl
onespr oduceantibodies
whi chdest r
oythepat hogens.Memor ycell
sremaininacti
veandremainint hebloodforav er
y
l
ongt i
meaf t
ertheinfecti
on.Ifthesamepat hogengetsintot
hebodyagai n,thememor ycel
ls
recognisei tatt
hesamet ime.Thei mmuner esponseisimmediatetothepat hogen,ki
ll
ingit
befor eithasanychanceofbr eeding.

Natur
alimmuni
tyal
sooccur
swhenant i
bodi
esarepassedfr
om mothertochi
ldthrough
pl
acentaandal
sobreastmi
l
k.Theseanti
bodi
esprot
ectthebabyagai
nstcert
aininfect
ions.

Art
if
ici
ali
mmunit
yisest
abl
ishedbyinj
ect
ingasmallquant
it
yofanti
gens,thev
acci
ne,
int
othe
body.Thi
sst
imul
atest
hebodytorecogni
seant
igensandtorespondtothem.

Ar
ti
fi
ci
ali
mmunityisal
soacqui
redwhenserum contai
ningant
ibodi
esisext
ractedfr
om one
or
gani
sm andi
nject
edi
ntoanot
herorgani
sm,protecti
ngitf
rom aspeci
fi
cdisease.
Supposeyouareamedicaldoct
orandyouhaveapatientwhorequi
resbloodtransfusion.
Expl
ainanyf
ivef
act
orsthatyouwouldconsi
derbef
orecarry
ingoutabloodtransfusion.You
shoul
dbeinessayfor
m.( 2010)

Ev
olut
ion

UsingDarwi
n’stheoryevolut
ion,
descr
ibehowapopulat
ionoff
astrunningZebraswouldi
nvol
ve
fr
om slowrunningancestori
nanenv i
ronmentwher
eli
onsarepredat
ors.Youranswershoul
dbe
i
nanessayf orm.(2007LeakedPaper)

Accordi
ngt oDar win’st
heor yofev ol
uti
on, speciesar i
sebynaturalsel
ect i
onactingonawi de
rangeofinherit
ablev ar
iations.Inasuchapopul ati
onofsl owrunningZebr as,t
herewer esome
Zebrasthatwer ebor nfastrunners.Insuchenv i
ronmentwher eLionsar epredat
ors,thefast
runni
ngZebr aswi l
lbeabl et osurvi
veandpr oducey oungones.Slowr unningZebraswillbe
caughtandsl owlybeel i
mi natedfrom thepopul ati
on.Thegenef orfastrunninginthefast
runni
ngzebr aswillther
ef orebepreserv edandext endedtosuccessivegener ati
onsandt he
geneslowr unningwi l
lbeel iminat
edf r
om t hepopulation.

Aft
eralongper
iodoft
imet
hepopul
ati
onwi
l
lbel
eftwi
thonl
ythespeci
esoff
astr
unni
ng
Zebras.

Expl
ainanyf
iveev
idenceofev
olut
ion.Youranswershoul
dbei
nessayf
orm.

Thef i
rstevi
denceisfossi
lrecords.Fossil
sar etheremainsofdeadorganismsthathavebeen
preservedi
nsedi mentar
yrocks.Ther ecordsfrom fossi
lsshowthegradualchangei
nanimals
overaper i
odoft i
me.Fossilr
ecordsal sorevealtheexti
ncti
onoforgani
smsduet opresenceof
fossi
lsoforganismsthatdonotexi sttoday.

Anotherevidenceiscomparati
veanatomy.Comparati
veanatomylooksforst
ruct
ures,though
mayser v
edi ff
erentf
uncti
onsinadult,
andissimi
lar
,suggesti
ngacommonancest ralorigi
n.For
examplethef orel
i
mbsf ordi
ff
erentvert
ebr
ateshavesimi
larbonesbuil
tonthesamepl anwhi ch
suggestthattheyshareacommonancest or.
Geographicaldi
str
ibuti
onisanotherevi
dence.Themammalsthatarefoundonal
lcont
inent
s
ar
esimi l
ar.Thesimilar
it
iessupportt
heideathatt
heyar
osefrom acommonancestormany
mil
li
onsy earsagoandhav eev ol
veddif
fer
entl
yduetogeogr
aphical
isolat
ion.

Compar at
iveembryol
ogyisthefourt
hevi
dence.Thisr
efer
stocompari
sonofembr y
osin
dif
fer
entorganisms.Whenthedev el
opmentpat
ternsi
nembr y
osofvert
ebrat
esarecompared,
manysimilari
ti
esarenot
edi ntheearl
yst
agesofembryonicdevel
opment.Thesi
milar
it
ies
suggestacommonancest ralori
gin.

Cellbiol
ogyi
sthelastevi
denceofevol
uti
on.St
udyofcel
l
smakingupliv
ingorgani
smsshow
thattheyhav
esimilarcel
lor
ganel
lese.
g.nucl
eusandcel
lmembrane.Pr
esencesofdescr
ibi
ng
theprocessofphotosynt
hesi
s.

Photosynt
hesisoccursi
nt wost ages,t
hati s,l
i
ghtstageanddar kstage.Dur i
ngli
ghtstage,l
ight
energyistr
appedbychlorophy l
linthechloroplastandconv ertedint
ochemi calenergy.The
chemicalenergyi
susedt osplitwatermol ecul
esi nt
ohy drogenandoxy genatoms.The
hydrogenisusedinthedarkst age,whil
eoxy genmol eculesarer el
easedi nt
otheatmosphereas
oxygengasorusedf oraerobicrespir
ati
on.Someoft hechemi calenergyisusedtocombi nea
moleculecall
edadenosinediphosphatewi thaphosphat egr oupt ofor
mt her i
chenergy
moleculecall
edadenosinetri
-phosphate.

Dur
ingdar
kstage,t
hehydr
ogenat
omsformedi
nli
ghtst
agear
ecombi
nedwi
thcar
bondi
oxi
de
t
oform gl
ucoseusi
ngener
gyfr
om ATP.

Descri
beanyf
iveway
sinwhi
chapl
antl
eafi
sadapt
edt
oit
sfunct
ion.Youranswershoul
dbei
n
essayfor
m.

Fi
rstl
y,thel
eafhasbroadandfl
att
enedsur
face.Thi
sincr
easest
hesur
facear
eaf
orabsor
pti
on
ofcarbondioxi
deandsunli
ght
.

Secondl
y,thel
eafissupport
edbyast
em andapet
iol
e.Thi
sexposesasmuchoft
hel
eafas
possi
bletosunl
ightandair
.
Thir
dly
,thel
eafhast
hinl
amina.Thi
sreducest
hedi
stanceacr
osswhi
chcar
bondi
oxi
dedi
ff
uses
fr
om stomat
atophotosy
nthet
iccel
l
s.

Four
thl
y,t
heleafhasnet
workofvei
ns.Thi
spr
ovi
desagoodwat
ersuppl
ytot
he
phot
osynt
hesingmesophyl
lcel
l
s.

Last
ly,
thel
eafhasst
omat
aoni
tssur
face.Theseal
l
owcar
bondi
oxi
det
oent
ert
hel
eaf
.

Expl
ainf
iveway
sinwhi
chgl
ucosei
susedbyt
hepl
antaf
terphot
osy
nthesi
s.(
2004)

Fi
rstl
y,glucoseisusedf
orrespi
rat
ionwhi
chpr
oducesener
gyf
orgr
owt
handact
ivet
ranspor
tof
substancesacrossmembranes.

Secondl
y,glucosei
sconv
ert
edtocel
l
ulosewhi
chi
susedt
ofor
m cel
lwal
l
sthatpr
otectt
hecel
l
fr
om burst
ingduetoosmosi
s.

Gl
ucosei
scombi
nedwi
thni
tr
ogent
ofor
m pr
otei
nswhi
chi
susedt
ofor
m enzy
mes.

Fourt
hly
,gl
ucoseisconv
ertedt
ofat
swhi
char
eusedt
ofor
m cel
lmembr
anet
hatcont
rol
s
subst
ancesgett
ingi
ntothecel
l
.

Last
ly,
glucosei
str
anspor
tedt
ost
orageor
ganswher
eiti
sconv
ert
edt
ost
archf
orst
orage.

Descri
beanexperimentt
hatcouldbecarr
iedouttoshowthatfreshgr
eenleavescont
aint
hree
t
y pesofpigment
s.Youranswershoul
dincludepr
ocedur
es,result
sandconclusi
oninanessay
form.(2008)

Inthi
sasamethod,onewoul
dcoll
ectgr
eenl
eavesfrom pl
antsinaschoolgarden.Thel
eaves
shoul
dthenbegri
ndedusi
ngapestl
eandmortar
.Thegr i
ndedleavesshoul
dthenbesqueezed
toobtai
nanext
ract
.Cuta2cm by10cm st
ri
poffil
terpaper.Putadropoftheextr
actonthe
str
ipabout4cm f
rom t
hebottom edge.Di
pthebott
om edgeofthefi
lt
erpaperwi
thadr
opof
extr
acti
nalcohol
inabeakerabout2cm from t
hespotoftheext
ract
.

Aft
ersomef ewmi nutes,t
healcoholri
sesupthest r
ipoffi
lt
erpaperdissolv
ingtheleafext
ract.
Asalcoholpassesthespotofextract
,thedi
ff
er entpi
gmentsintheextractmov eupatdiff
erent
rat
es,small
eroneswi ll
mov efast
erthanthebiggerones.Thiswil
lseparat
et hepi
gment si
nt he
ext
ractint
othreediff
erentcol
ouredspots.

Thet
hreedi
ff
erentcol
our
edspot
sindi
cat
ethatl
eav
eshav
ethr
eedi
ff
erentt
ypesofpi
gment
s.

Tr
anspor
tinPl
ant
s

Descri
bebri
efl
ytheprocessbywhi
chwat
erent
erst
her
oothai
rsandescapesf
rom t
hel
eav
es
atthetopofatal
ltr
ee.(1995)

Becauseoft hehighersolute(sugarandsalt
s)concentr
ati
onoftheroothai
rcel
lsapthansoil
sol
ut i
on,waterisdrawnfrom thesoilint
otheroothair
.Thi
sdil
utesroothai
rcel
lsap.Sowater
mov esfurt
herintoneighbouri
ngcel l
sofcort
ex.Theprocesswil
lconti
nuesothatwatert
ravel
s
thr
oughcor t
exintot hexylem vessel
s.

Xyl
em vesselsarelongtubesmadeofelongatedcel
l
s.Thevessel
sext
entfr
om therooti
nto
st
em toleaves.Whent heabsor
bedwaterenterst
hexyl
em i
tmov est
hroughthestem,br
anches,
l
eafpeti
olesandf i
nall
yintol
eaves.

Themov ementofwatert
hroughthepl
anti
salsoassi
stedbyt
ranspi
rat
ionst
ream,
thepul
l
ing
(suct
ion)f
orceexer
tedduetolossofwat
erfr
om l
eaves.

Inthel
eaveswat erwouldbedist
ri
butedt
oallleafcel
lsbythenetworkofveins.Si
nceair
spacesi
nt heleafareconnect
edtoatmosphericai
rthroughst
omata,waterdiff
usesfr
om leaf
cel
lswhereitismoreconcentrat
edintot
heairspacesandoutintot
heatmospher ewhereitis
l
essconcentrated.
Descr
ibeanexperi
mentyouwoulddotoshowthattr
anspi
rat
ionf
rom l
eav
esaf
fect
supt
akeof
water
.Youranswershoul
dbeinessayf
orm.(2005)

Pr
epar
eashootandf
ixi
tinapot
omet
er.Fi
l
lthepot
omet
erwi
thwat
erofknownv
olume.

Leavetheplantonthegroundwhereai
risci
rculat
ingandwher ether
eisenoughli
ght.
Aswater
tr
anspi
resfrom theaer
ialsur
faceoft
heshoot,i
tdr awsitf
rom thepotometert
ube.The
potometerwil
lmeasuretheamountofwatertakenupt heplantasaresul
toftr
anspir
ati
on.

Thi
sthenshowst
hatt
ranspi
rat
ionaf
fect
swat
erupt
akei
npl
ant
s.

Descri
bet
hef
ivecondi
ti
onsi
ntheenv
ironmentt
hatspeedupt
her
ateoft
ranspi
rat
ioni
npl
ant
s.
(1997)

Lowhumi dit
yisoneconditi
onthatspeedsupt herateoftranspir
ati
oni npl
ants.Whent her
eis
l
owhumi dityi
sl owhumidit
ytherei
sabi ggerdif
ferenceinconcentr
ationofwat ervapour
bet
weenleafandat mosphere,suchthatmorewat erdif
fusesfrom theleafi
ntot heatmospher
e
soi
ncreasingtranspi
rat
ion.

Hi
ghli
ghti
ntensit
ycausest
heopeni
ngofst
omat
a.Themor
ethest
omat
aar
eopent
hemor
e
wat
erwil
lbelostfr
om thel
eaf
.

Windisanothercondi
ti
on.Wi ndcar
riesawaywatervapourf
rom ar
oundthel
eav
essor educi
ng
t
heconcentrati
onofwat erintheai
raroundt
heleaves.Thi
sencouragesmor
ewaterl
ossf r
om
t
heleavesthroughdif
fusion.

Hightemperaturei
sthefourt
hconditi
on.Hightemper
atur
eincreaseski
net
icener
gyofwat er
vapoursothatthewatervapourescapesfast
erfr
om t
heleaveshenceincr
easi
ngtranspi
rati
on
r
ate.

Hi
ghwat
ersuppl
yist
hel
astcondi
ti
ont
hatspeedsupt
her
ateoft
ranspi
rat
ioni
npl
ant
s.Hi
gh
wat
ersupplymakesthel
eav esnotcl
oset hei
rstomat
atoall
owcar bondioxi
detodi
ffusefr
om
t
hesurr
oundingai
rintot
heleafforphotosynthesi
sev
enift
het emperat
uresarever
yhigh.Thi
s
i
ncr
easesrateoft
ranspi
rat
ionsincetr
anspirati
onmostl
yoccurthr
oughst omat
a.

Descri
beanexperimentt
hatcouldbecarri
edouttoshowthatli
ghti
ntensit
yaff
ectsrat
eof
tr
anspir
ati
oninleaf
yshoots.Youranswershoul
dincl
udeprocedur
e,expectedr
esult
sand
concl
usion.(
2011)

Inthi
sasmet hod,t
woleafyshootsofsimil
arstagesofgrowthshoul
dbepreparedandeach
shouldbefi
xedintoapotometer.Thepotometersshouldthenbefi
ll
edwit
hwaterofknown
volumes.Oneleaf
yshootshouldbeplacedont hegroundwheretherei
senoughli
ghtandthe
othershoul
dbeplacedinaroom wherethereisdark.

Afterei
ghthour
s,thetwol eaf
yshouldberemovedfr
om thepot
ometer
sandthenthe
tr
anspir
ati
onratesfrom eachleaf
yshouldbecal
cul
atedbymeasuri
ngtheamountofwaterlost
fr
om eachpotomet erf
oreighthoursandthendi
vi
detheamountofwaterl
ostbyei
ghthours.

Af t
ercalcul
ati
ngthetranspirat
ionrat
esperhourf orthel eaf
yshoot splacedonlightandindark,
thetranspir
ati
onratesshoul dbecompar ed.Theresultswouldshowt hatthetr
anspirat
ionrat
e
fortheshootthatwaspl acedonl i
ghtisgreatert
hant het r
anspir
ationratefort
heshoott hat
waspl acedindark.Thisgivesaconclusi
ont hatl
ightintensit
yincreasestherateof
transpi
rati
on.

Descri
beanyf
iveway
sinwhi
chaphl
oem i
sadapt
edt
oit
sfunct
ion.Youranswershoul
dbei
n
essayfor
m.

Fi
rst
ly,
thephl
oem hascompani
oncel
lwi
thnumer
ousmi
tochondr
iawhi
chpr
ovi
deener
gyf
or
tr
ansl
ocati
on.

Thephl
oem hassi
evepl
atewhi
chpr
ovi
dessuppor
ttot
hephl
oem t
issue.

Thephl
oem hassi
evepor
eswhi
chactasapat
hwayf
ormov
ementofmat
eri
als.
Thesiev
eelement
slackot
hercomponent
sofcel
lsuchusnucl
eus,
inor
dert
ocr
eat
espacef
or
tr
ansport
ati
on.

Last
ly,
thephl
oem hascy
topl
asmi
cfi
l
ament
swhi
chai
dint
hef
lowoff
oodal
ongt
hesi
evet
ube.

HumanDi
gest
iveSy
stem

Descr
ibef
iveprobl
emsassociatedwi
thhumandigest
ivesyst
em andst
atehoweachpr
obl
em
canbecontr
oll
ed.Youranswershoul
dbeinessayfor
m.(2007)

Thefir
stpr oblem associatedwit
hhumandi gestiv
esy st
em isconst i
pat
ion.Const
ipat
ionoccurs
whenonef acesdi ff
icul
ti
esinexpel
li
ngundigestedwast emat terf
rom t
hebody .I
tiscausedby
l
ackofr oughagei nthedietandnotdr
inki
ngenoughwat er.Itcanbecontrol
ledbydri
nking
enoughwat eraftermealsanddoingphysi
cal exerci
ses.Itcanalsobecont r
oll
edbyusingdrugs
suchasl axatives.

Anotherpr
oblem i
stheheartburn.Thi
sisaburningfeel
i
ngi nthechestf
oll
owedbyasouror
bi
ttert
asteinthemouth.I
tdev el
opswhentheaci dcont
entsoft hest
omachflowsbacki
ntot
he
oesophagus.I
tcanbecontroll
edbyt aki
ngant
i-aci
dmedi cati
on.

Ulcersareanotherpr
oblem ofhumandigesti
vesyst
em.Anul ceri
sanareaofdamaget ot
he
l
iningofthestomach, oesophagusandduodenum.I
tiscausedbyoverproduct
ionofaci
dsin
thestomachsot hattheacidcorrodest
hestomachwall
s.Itcanbeprev
entedbyeati
ngdiet
s
withlessaci
dsandspi ces.

Thefour
thprobl
em i
sappendi
cit
is.Thi
sisi
nfl
ammat
ionoft
heappendi
x.Thi
scanbecur
edby
removi
ngtheappendi
xinanoperati
on.

Thelastproblem i
sdi ar
rhoea.Thi
sisasituat
ionwherebythel
argeintesti
nef ai
l t
oabsorb
waterleadi
ngt oproducti
onofwat er
yfaeces.Iti
scausedbymicro-
organismsl ikebact
eri
a
takentogetherwit
hf oodorwat er
.Di
arrhoeacanbeprevent
edbydrinkingtreatedwaterand
obser
vingf
oodhy
giener
ules.

Descr
ibeanexperimentt
hatcoul
dbeconductedtoshowthatgerminat
ingbeanseedscont
ain
anenzymethatdigest
sstar
ch.Youranswershoul
dincl
udeprocedur
eexpectedr
esult
sand
concl
usi
ons.(2009)

I
nthepr
ocedureforthi
sexperiment,crushgermi nati
ngbeanseedsinamor t
ar.Thenaddwater
t
oobtai
nthe(enzyme)extract
.Afterthatputstarchsoluti
onint
esttubesAandBandi ntest
t
ubeAaddt heext
ract,
butleavetesttubeBi ntact.Leavebot
htestt
ubestostandforsome
t
ime.
Later
,adddropsofiodinesolut
iontobot htesttubesandobser
v ecol
ourchanges.

Youwi l
lobserv
et hatint
estt
ubeAt herewil
lbebrowncol
our.Thi
sshowst hereisnostar
chin
testt
ubeA.I ntesttubeBabluebl
ackcolourwil
lbeobser
vedshowingthatstarchispr
esent
.
Thisgi
vesaconcl usiont
hatgermi
natingbeanseedscont
ainanenzymethatdigestsst
arch.

Descr
ibehowcookedst
archandpr
otei
nsar
echemi
cal
l
ydi
gest
edi
nthehumangut
.(1997)

I
nthemout
h,sali
varygl
andsproducesal
ivawhi
chcont
ainsanenzy
mecal
l
edsal
i
var
yamy
lase.
Sal
i
var
yamylasedigest
scookedstarcht
omaltose.

Whenthef
oodreachesthestomach,gast
ricgl
andspr
oducesgast
ri
cjui
cewhi
chcont
ainsan
enzy
mecall
edpepsin.Pepsi
ndigest
sprotei
nstopol
ypept
ides.

Whenthefoodreachestheduodenum,pancr
eat
icamylaseinpancr
eat
icj
uiceproducedby
pancr
easwill
conti
nuedigest
ionofstar
chtomalt
ose.Trypsi
ninpancr
eat
icjui
cedigest
s
pol
ypept
idestopepti
des.

Fi
nal
lyintheil
eum,thei
leum l
ini
ngsecreteint
esti
nal
juicewhi
chcont
ainsenzymesthat
complet
esdigest
ionofstar
chandproteins.Malt
asedigest
smalt
osetoglucoseandpepti
dase
di
gestspepti
destoaminoacids.

Expl
ainf
ivef
unct
ionsoft
hel
i
verr
elat
edt
odi
gest
ion.
Theli
vercontr
olsgl
ucoseconcentr
ati
oni
ntheblood.Theli
verconv
er t
sexcessgl
ucoseinthe
bl
oodtoglycogenforst
orage.I
fther
eisi
nsuf
fi
cientgl
ucoseintheglucosei
ntheblood,
theli
ver
conv
ertsgly
cogentoglucosefori
mmediat
euse.

Theli
verbr
eaksdownexcessaminoacids.I
ftoomuchprot
eini
seat
en,
theexcessami
noaci
ds
arebr
okendowninthel
iveri
ntoureaandcarbohy
drat
e.

Thel
i
veract
sasast
orageor
gan.Thel
i
verst
oresv
itam