Pressure Losses in The Circulating System

Chapter 6 P RESSURE L OSSES IN T HE
C IRCULATING S YSTEM
INTRODUCTION
The pressure at the surface is the summation of the frictional pressure losses in the
components of the circulating system. The pressure at the surface is given by Equation 6-1 and
is illustrated in Figure 6-1.
Ps = Psurf + Pdp + Pdc + Pbit + Pdpa + Pdca Equation 6-1
Figure 6-1. Pressure Losses in the System
Normally in good drilling operations, the pressure loss through the bit will be approximately 50
percent of the surface pressure. The flow regime through the surface connections and inside
the drill string is turbulent and is usually 60 to 80 percent of the remaining 50 percent of the
surface pressure. The flow regime in the annulus is generally laminar and is usually 20 to 40
percent of the circulating frictional pressure losses excluding the bit.
TURBULENT FLOW
The majority of the pressure losses in the circulating system are in turbulent flow. These
include the pressure losses in the surface connections, drill pipe and drill collars. A turbulent
Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 6-1

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Chapter 6
flow velocity profile is illustrated as Figure 6-2. The

velocity vectors are not ordered and the velocity profile
is very flat with the average velocity approximately
equal to the maximum velocity.
Since viscosity is a laminar concept with no meaning in

turbulent flow, the complicated viscosity concepts have
no bearing on the frictional pressure losses in turbulent
flow. Consequently, the frictional pressure losses in
turbulent flow are very accurate when compared to
laboratory data. Figure 6-3 is the classic Fanning
Friction Factor Diagram. Figure 6-4 is the Moody
correlation for roughness.
Figure 6-2. Turbulent Flow Velocity Profile
Figure 6-3. Classic Fanning Friction Factor Diagram
The Reynolds Number, Re, is given by Equation 6-2.
Dv ρ m
R e = 15.47 Equation 6-2
μ
6-2 Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

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Pressure Losses in The Circulating System
PV
In turbulent flow, the viscosity is μ = .
3.2
The frictional pressure loss is related to the friction factor by Equation 6-3.
ρ m v 2 lf
P= Equation 6-3
9.298(10 4 )D
0.100000
Riveted Steel
0.010000
Concrete
1
e=0.03
2
4 e=0.01
e/D
0.001000
e=0.003
e=0.001
0.000100 e=0.00085
e=0.0005
e=0.0004
5
e=0.00015
0.000010
e=0.000005
1 10 100
Pipe diameter, inches
Figure 6-4. Moody Correlation for Roughness

(1. Cast Iron 2. Galvanized Iron 3. Asphalted Iron 4. Commercial Steel or Wrought Iron 5. Drawn Tubing)

Drilling Practices
Chapter 6
Certainly, the friction factor diagrams can be used; however, for convenience, most draw a best
straight line and write the equation for that line. Equation 6-4 is the line for e / D = 0.0006 which
corresponds to commercial steel with a 4 inch diameter.
0.0458
f = 0.19
Equation 6-4
Re
For drawn tubing of a similar diameter which is hydraulically smooth, the relationship is given by
Equation 5.
0.058
f = Equation 6-5
R e 0.22
Combining Equations 6-2, 6-3, and 6-4 and substituting PV / 3.2 for viscosity gives Equation 6-
6 for pressure losses in commercial steel pipe with an inside diameter of approximately 4
inches.
7.68(10 −5 )ρ m
0.81
Q 1.81PV 0.19 l
P= Equation 6-6
D 4.83
Similarly, combining Equations 6-2, 6-3, and 6-5 and substituting PV / 3.2 for viscosity gives
Equation 6-7 for pressure losses in hydraulically smooth pipe such as plastic coated drill pipe of
approximately 4 inches in diameter.
7.86(10 -5 )ρ m
0.78
Q 1.78 PV 0.22 l
P= Equation 6-7
D 4.78
Equations 6-6 and 6-7 may be modified for annular flow and are given as Equation 6-8 and 6-9
respectively.
7.68(10 -5 )ρ m 0.81Q 1.81PV 0.19 l

P= Equation 6-8
(Dh − D p ) 3 (Dh + D p )1.81
7.86(10 -5 )ρ m
0.78
Q 1.78 PV 0.22 l
P= Equation 6-9
(Dh − D p ) 3 (Dh + D p )1.78
Hydraulic calculators offered by different service companies offer frictional pressure loss
calculations based on equations similar to Equations 6-6 through 6-9 and are considered
sufficiently accurate for field use.
The surface connections are the segment from the pressure gauge on the standpipe to the top
of the drill pipe and are composed of the standpipe, hose, swivel and kelly. Generally, one of
four cases or combinations is applicable. The four classes commonly considered are given in
Table 6-1. The frictional pressure loss in the surface connections may be determined by

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applying Equation 6-6 or 6-7 to each component or by utilizing one of the commercially available
hydraulic calculators. Consider Example 6-1.
Table 6-1. Surface Connection Combinations
COMPONENTS - LENGTH AND ID
CLASS # STANDPIPE HOSE SWIVEL KELLY

1 40' - 3" 45' - 2" 20' - 2" 40' – 2¼"
2 40' – 3½" 55' – 2½" 25' – 2½" 40' – 3¼"
3 45' - 4" 55' - 3" 25' - 2¼" 40' – 3¼"
4 45' - 4" 55' - 3" 30' - 3" 40' - 4"
Example 6-1
Given: Total Depth 17,193 feet
Hole Size 6½ inches
Rheology in Figure 4-16 and Table 4-5 of Chapter 4 Drilling Fluids
BHA 818 ft. 4.8" OD by 1½" ID
Drill pipe 3½" 15.5 #/ft If plastic coated, ID = 2.602"
Drill pipe length is 16, 375 feet
Surface Equipment is Class 2
Nozzles 2-11 and 1-12
Drilling with 147 gpm at 3,100 psi
Determine: Using Equations 6-6 and 6-7 and two hydraulic calculators, determine the
frictional pressure loss in:
A. The surface connections
B. The drill pipe
C. The drill collars
D. The drill pipe using the Fanning chart
E. The drill collars using the Fanning chart
Solution: A. Surface connections

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Chapter 6
The following data can be obtained from Table 4-5 (Chapter 4 Drilling
Fluids).
ρ m = 15 ppg
PV = 29 cp
Yp = 7 lbf/100ft2
The ID and lengths of each of the components can be found in Table 6-1.
Hydraulic Calculator A: Using Equation 6-6 for the standpipe:
7.68(10 −5 )ρ m
0.81
Q 1.81PV 0.19 l
P=
D 4.83
7.68(10 −5 )(15) 0.81 (147 )1.81 (29) 0.19 ( 40)

P= = 1 psi
(3.5) 4.83
Hose:
7.68(10 −5 )(15 ) 0.81 (147 )1.81 (29) 0.19 (55)

P= = 7 psi
(2.5) 4.83
Swivel:
7.68(10 −5 )(15 ) 0.81 (147 )1.81 (29) 0.19 (25 )

P= = 3 psi
(2.5) 4.83
Kelly:
7.68(10 −5 )(15) 0.81 (147 )1.81 (29) 0.19 ( 40)

P= = 1 psi
(3.25) 4.83
Psurf = 1 + 7 + 3 + 1 = 12 psi
Hydraulic Calculator B: Using Equation 6-7, the results for the standpipe:
7.86(10 -5 )(15 ) 0.78 (147 )1.78 (29 ) 0.22 ( 40 )

P= = 1 psi
(3.5) 4.78
7.86(10 -5 )(15 )0.78 (147 )1.78 ( 29 )0.22 (55 )

Hose: P = = 7 psi
( 2.5 ) 4.78

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Swivel:
7.86(10 -5 )(15) 0.78 (147 )1.78 ( 29) 0.22 ( 25)

P= = 3 psi
(2.5) 4.78
Kelly:
7.86(10 -5 )(15 ) 0.78 (147 )1.78 (29 ) 0.22 ( 40 )

P= = 1 psi
(3.25) 4.78
Psurf = 1 + 7 + 3 + 1 = 12 psi
Hydraulic Calculator A P = 15 psi
Hydraulic Calculator B P = 15 psi
B. Drill pipe
Equation 6-6
7.68(10 −5 )(15)0.81(147 )1.81(29 ) 0.19 (16,375 )

Pdp = = 1,766 psi
(2.602) 4.83
Equation 6-7
7.86(10 -5 )(15) 0.78 (147 )1.78 (29 ) 0.22 (16,375 )

Pdp = = 1,665 psi
(2.602) 4.78
Hydraulic Calculator A Pdp = 1,834 psi
Hydraulic Calculator B Pdp = 1,784 psi
C. Drill Collars
Equation 6-6
7.68(10 −5 )(15 ) 0.81 (147 )1.81(29) 0.19 (818 )

Pdc = = 1,262 psi
(1.5) 4.83
Equation 6-7
7.86(10 -5 )(15) 0.78 (147 )1.78 (29) 0.22 (818 )

Pdc = = 1,157 psi
(1.5) 4.78

Drilling Practices
Chapter 6
For Hydraulic Calculators A and B there is no 1½ inch ID

calculation possible.
D. Drill pipe using the Fanning chart.
The average velocity within the pipe must be calculated first.
24.5Q
v = Equation 6-10
D2
(24.5)(147 )
v = = 532 fpm
2.602 2
Calculate the Reynolds number.
Dv ρ m
R e = 15.47
μ
(2.602)(532)(15 )
R e = 15.47 = 35,445
(29 / 3.2)
From Figure 6-4, e / D = 0.000025 and from Figure 6-3,

f = 0.0057 . Using Equation 6-3:
ρ m v 2 lf
P=
9.298(10 4 )D
(15)(532) 2 (16,375 )(0.0057 )

Pdp = = 1,638 psi
9.298(10 4 )(2.602)
E. Drill collars using Fanning chart.
(24.5)(147 )
v = = 1,601 fpm
1.5 2
Calculate the Reynolds number.
(1.5)(1,601)(15 )
R e = 15.47 = 61,492
(29 / 3.2)
From Figure 6-4, e / D = 0.00004 and from Figure 6-3, f = 0.005 .
(15)(1,601) 2 (818 )(0.005 )

Pdc = = 1,127 psi
9.298(10 4 )(1.5)

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As illustrated in Example 6-1, the frictional pressure loss calculations made with the hydraulic
calculators are in good agreement with the calculated values. Generally, neglecting the
pressure loss in the surface connections will not result in significant error. Use of the calculators
for other parts may result in errors of ten percent or more. In addition, knowledge of drill pipe
condition can affect accuracy. Coated drill pipe should be hydraulically smooth or at least
approach those values of roughness for drawn tubing. However, uncoated or old drill pipe can
be very rough inside and under those conditions; the roughness of commercial steel should be
used. Diameters significantly different from the 4 inches assumed in developing Equations 6-6
and 6-7 demand that the friction factor chart approach be used. The friction factor charts are
most accurate. Equations 6-6 and 6-7 are more accurate within their defined limits than are the
hydraulic calculators. When in doubt, dig in and check it out.
It should be equally obvious that the turbulent frictional pressure losses are significantly affected
by the volume rate of flow. Pump efficiencies can be almost anything. Check pump efficiency
by isolating a tank of known volume such as a trip tank and measure the time required to pump
a known volume. This exercise is necessary if accuracy is required.
PRESSURE LOSSES THROUGH BIT NOZZLES
The calculation of pressure losses through the bit is the most accurate calculation in the entire
circulating system. The nozzle diameter is precisely known and the only mud property required
is the density. The pressure loss through the bit is caused by the change in kinetic energy.
Assuming a nozzle coefficient of 0.95 the pressure loss through a bit can be calculated using
Equation 6-11.
9 .14 (10 −5 ) ρ m Q 2
Pbit = 2
Equation 6-11
An
Example 6-2 shows how the Equation 6-11 can be used to calculate pressure loss through the
bit.
Example 6-2
Given: The data in Example 6-1
Determine: The pressure loss at the bit.
Solution: First, calculate the area of the bit nozzles.
(
An = π / 4 S12 + S 22 + S32 ) Equation 6-12
⎡⎛ 11 ⎞2 ⎛ 11 ⎞2 ⎛ 12 ⎞2 ⎤
An = π / 4 ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 0.2961 in2
⎢⎣⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Using Equation 11, the pressure loss at the bit is:

Drilling Practices
Chapter 6
9.14(10 −5 )ρ m Q 2
Pbit =
2
An
9.14(10 −5 )(15)(147 ) 2
Pbit = = 338 psi
(0.2961) 2
LAMINAR FLOW
Laminar flow is a smooth ordered flow. Fluids are either Newtonian, such as water, or non-
Newtonian such as drilling mud. Drilling muds most often follow the power law model of
behavior. That is, the shear stress-shear rate diagram is a straight line when plotted on log-log
paper with slope ' n ' and intercept ' k '.
The velocity profiles for laminar and turbulent

flow are compared in Figure 6-5. As
illustrated, the turbulent velocity profile is very
flat with the maximum velocity approximately
equal to the average velocity. For Newtonian
liquids, the maximum velocity is exactly twice
the average velocity. For non-Newtonian
fluids, the average velocity is more than one-
half the maximum velocity. Generally, the
more non-Newtonian behavior exhibited, the
flatter the velocity profile. Highly non-
Newtonian fluids are characterized by yield
point to plastic viscosity ratios greater than
one. They are also characterized by the
combination of very low power law ' n ' in
combination with a high ' k '. Expenditures to
do nothing more than flatten the velocity
profile cannot be justified. In addition, some
have suggested that "plug" flow can be
obtained such that over some finite portion of
the velocity profile, the change in velocity with
distance ( dv / dr ) is zero. (See Figure 6-5B.)
In other words, the center of the flow stream
would behave as a solid. Obviously, such a
condition cannot exist. However, since the
drilling fluid is shear thinning, the velocity
profile is flatter at low velocities. This concept
is well known in cementing to improve
displacement when turbulent flow is
impossible or undesirable. There is no known
procedure to quantify any (if there is any)
advantage to drilling.
Distinguishing between turbulent and laminar

flow has always been a problem. With classic
Figure 6-5. Velocity Profiles

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fluids such as water, turbulence occurs at a Reynolds Number of 2,000. With non-Newtonian
fluids, the transition can occur anywhere between Reynolds Number of 2,000 to 4,000. Below a
Reynolds Number of 2,000, turbulent flow is not possible. Critical velocity is normally defined as
that velocity at which the flow regime becomes turbulent. In drilling operations, the critical
velocity should be defined as that annular velocity below which turbulence is impossible and
above which turbulence is possible. It is important to distinguish that turbulence is possible but
not certain. By this definition, the critical velocity would be the velocity at Reynolds Number
equal to 2,000. Equations 6-13 and 6-14 define the velocity at Reynolds Number equal 2,000
above which turbulence may occur.
Pipe Flow
1 n
⎡ 3.88(10 4 )k ⎤ ⎡ 1.6 ⎛ 3n + 1 ⎞ ⎤ 2 − n
V2,000 = ⎢ ⎥ 2− n ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥ Equation 6-13
⎢⎣ ρm ⎥⎦ ⎣ D ⎝ 4n ⎠ ⎦
Annular Flow
1
⎡ 2.59(10 4 )k ⎤ ⎡ 2.4 ⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞⎤ n
V2,000 = ⎢ 2− n ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ 2− n
⎥ ⎢ Equation 6-14
⎢⎣ ρm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Dh − D p ⎝ 3n ⎠⎥⎦
The equations for calculating n and k were given earlier in Chapter 4 Drilling Fluids, but are
repeated here.
⎛θ ⎞
n = 3.32 log⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ θ1 ⎠
where θ 2 = 2θ1
θ1
k= n
⎛ dv ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dr ⎠1
Example 6-3 shows how the equations can be used to determine the velocity where the flow
may be turbulent.
Example 6-3
Given: The data is given in Example 6-1
Determine: a. Drill pipe annular velocity when the Reynolds Number is 2,000.
b. Velocity inside the drill pipe when the Reynolds Number is 2,000.
Solution: a. From Table 4-5 (Chapter 4 Drilling Fluids)
n = 0.43

Drilling Practices
Chapter 6
k = 2.45
1
⎡ 2.59(10 4 )k ⎤ ⎡ 2.4 ⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞⎤ n
V2,000 = ⎢ 2− n ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ 2− n
⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ ρm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Dh − D p ⎝ 3n ⎠⎥⎦
1 0.43
⎡ 2.59(10 4 )(2.45) ⎤ ⎡ 2.4 ⎛ (2)(0.43) + 1 ⎞⎤ 2−0.43
V2,000 = ⎢ ⎥ 2−0.43 ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥ = 212 fpm
⎣⎢ 15 ⎦⎥ ⎣ 6.5 − 3.5 ⎝ (3)(0.43) ⎠⎦
The annular velocity in the drill pipe annulus at 147 gpm can be
calculated as follows:
24.5Q
v = Equation 6-15
(D h 2 − D p 2 )
(24.5)(147 )
v = = 120 fpm
( 6.5 2 − 3.5 2 )
Since the actual annular velocity is less than the critical velocity,
the flow in the drill pipe annulus is laminar.
b. Calculate the critical velocity inside the drill pipe.
1 n
⎡ 3.88(10 4 )k ⎤ ⎡ 1.6 ⎛ 3n + 1 ⎞ ⎤ 2 − n
V2,000 = ⎢ ⎥ 2− n ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎢ ρm ⎦⎥ ⎣ D ⎝ 4n ⎠ ⎦
1 0.43
⎡ 3.88(10 4 )(2.45) ⎤ ⎡ 1.6 ⎛ (3)(0.43 ) + 1 ⎞⎤ 2−0.43
V2,000 = ⎢ ⎥ 2−0.43 ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥ = 250 fpm
⎣⎢ 15 ⎦⎥ ⎣ 2.602 ⎝ ( 4)(0.43) ⎠⎦
The velocity inside the drill pipe can be calculated using Equation
6-10.
(24.5)(147 )
v = = 532 fpm
2.602 2
Since the velocity inside the drill pipe is greater than the critical
velocity, the fluid is in turbulent flow.
Example 6-3 illustrates that the annular velocity of 120 fpm is below 212 fpm which is the
annular velocity at Reynolds Number 2,000 and, therefore, could not be turbulent. By similar
analogy, the velocity inside the drill pipe of 532 fpm is well above 250 fpm, the velocity at
Reynolds Number equal to 2,000; therefore, the flow inside the drill pipe could be turbulent.
The flow regime is best determined by analyzing the frictional pressure losses. Consider the
representative friction factor chart in Figure 6-6. Remembering from Equation 6-3 that the
frictional pressure loss is to be determined at points '”A” and “B” and that the flow regime is

Drilling Practices
unknown. At point “A”, the laminar friction factor, “fL” and therefore, the laminar frictional
pressure loss, “PL” is greater than corresponding “fL” and “PT”. By examination, the flow is
laminar. At point “B”, the opposite is true. The turbulent friction factor, “fT”, and corresponding
frictional pressure loss, “PT”, are greater than the values, assuming laminar flow and by
observation the flow is turbulent. Therefore, to determine the flow regime and determine the
proper calculation, calculate both the laminar and turbulent pressure losses. The greater
numerical value is more accurate and determines the flow regime.
Figure 6-6. Friction Factor Chart
The appropriate laminar Equations are as follows:
Pipe Flow
(PV )v l Yp l
Bingham Plastic: P= 2
+ Equation 6-16
90,000D 225D
n
⎡1.6v ⎛ 3n + 1 ⎞⎤ kl
Power Law: P =⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥ Equation 6-17
⎣ D ⎝ 4n ⎠ ⎦ 300D

Drilling Practices
Chapter 6
lθ γ
Direct Shear Stress: P= Equation 6-18
300D
1.6v ⎛ 3n + 1 ⎞
γ = ⎜ ⎟ Equation 6-19
D ⎝ 4n ⎠
γ
rpm = Equation 6-20
1.7
Annular Flow
(PV )v l Yp l
Bingham Plastic: P= + Equation 6-21
60,000(Dh − D p ) 2 200(Dh − D p )
n
⎡ 2.4v ⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞⎤ kl
Power Law: P =⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥ Equation 6-22
⎣⎢ Dh − D p ⎝ 3n ⎠⎦⎥ 300(Dh − D p )
lθ γ
Direct Shear Stress: P= Equation 6-23
300(Dh − D p )
2.4v ⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞
γ= ⎜ ⎟ Equation 6-24
D h − D p ⎝ 3n ⎠
Example 6-4 will demonstrate the use of the above equations in calculating the frictional
pressure loss in the drill pipe annulus.
Example 6-4
Given: See Example 6-1
Determine: The frictional pressure losses in the drill pipe annulus using:
a. The Bingham Plastic Model
b. The Power Law Model
c. The direct shear stress approach
d. Hydraulic Calculator
e. Determine the frictional pressure losses in the drill collar annulus

using the Power Law Model.
f. Determine the total system pressure losses (standpipe pressure).

Drilling Practices
g. Determine the volume rate of flow that would result in a total

system pressure loss of 3,100 psi.
Solution: a. The Bingham Plastic Model using Equation 6-21.
(PV )v l Yp l
Pdpa = +
60,000(Dh − D p ) 2 200(Dh − D p )
(29)(120 )(16,375 ) (7)(16,375)

Pdpa = + = 297 psi
60,000(6.5 − 3.5) 2 200( 6.5 − 3.5)
b. The Power Law Model using Equation 6-22.
n
⎡ 2.4v ⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞⎤ kl
Pdpa = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎢ Dh − D p ⎝ 3n ⎠⎦⎥ 300(Dh − D p )
0.43
⎡ (2.4)(120 ) ⎛ (2)(0.43) + 1 ⎞⎤ ( 2.45 )(16,375 )
Pdpa = ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥ = 371 psi
⎣ 6.5 − 3.5 ⎝ (3)(0.43) ⎠⎦ 300(6.5 − 3.5)
c. The direct shear stress approach using Equations 6-23, 6-24 and
6-20.
2.4v ⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞
γ= ⎜ ⎟
D h − D p ⎝ 3n ⎠
(2.4)(120 ) ⎛ (2)(0.43) + 1 ⎞
γ= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 138 sec -1
6.5 − 3.5 ⎝ (3)(0.43) ⎠
γ
rpm =
1. 7
138
rpm = = 81 rpm
1 .7
From Figure 4-16 (Chapter 4 Drilling Fluids), the shear stress at

81 rpm is 20 lbf/100ft2.
(16,375 )(20 )
Pdpa = = 364 psi
300(6.5 − 3.5)
d. Using the hydraulic calculator.
Pdpa = 98 psi

Drilling Practices
Chapter 6
e. The frictional pressure losses in the drill collar annulus using the
Power Law Model can be calculated using Equation 6-22, but first
calculate the velocity in the drill collar annulus.
( 24.5)(147 )
v = = 187 fpm
( 6 . 5 2 − 4 .8 2 )
0.43
⎡ (2.4)(187 ) ⎛ (2)(0.43) + 1 ⎞⎤ (2.45)(818 )
Pdca = ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥ = 51 psi
⎣ 6.5 − 4.8 ⎝ (3)(0.43) ⎠⎦ 300(6.5 − 4.8)
f. Determine the standpipe pressure.
From Example 6-1:
Psurf = 12 psi
Pdp = 1,665 psi
Pdc = 1,157 psi
From Example 6-2:
Pbit = 338 psi
From Solution b and e above in this example:
Pdpa = 371 psi
Pdca = 51 psi
The standpipe pressure can be determined using Equation 1.
Ps = Psurf + Pdp + Pdc + Pbit + Pdpa + Pdca
Ps = 12 + 1,665 + 1,157 + 338 + 371 + 51 = 3,594 psi
g. Determine the flow rate that will result in a standpipe pressure of

3,100 psi.
Theoretically, when the system pressure losses are plotted against flow
rate on log-log paper, a straight line will result. By plotting two points on a
piece of graph paper and drawing a straight line through those points, the
flow rate at any pressure can be determined. It has already been
determined that a flow rate of 147 gpm will result in a standpipe pressure
of 3,594 psi. An arbitrary flow rate of 100 gpm was chosen for the second
point on the graph. A standpipe pressure of 1,942 psi was calculated
using the procedure for the pressure at 147 gpm. Figure 6-7 can be

Drilling Practices
constructed using these two data points. From this figure, a flow rate of
134 gpm will yield a standpipe pressure of 3,100 psi. If the flow rate of
147 gpm represents a pump efficiency of 92%, then the actual pump
efficiency in this case is 85%.
As illustrated in Example 6-4, the Bingham Plastic Model does not result in accurate solutions.
The Power Law Model and Direct Shear Stress approach should result in the same answer.
Part "e" illustrates that the value obtained using the hydraulic calculator is considerably less
than that obtained from any other approach. All hydraulic calculators assume a turbulent model.
Pursuant to the previous discussion, the assumption of a turbulent model will result in low
values when the flow is actually laminar.
The total system pressure loss is calculated to be 3,594 psi. In this actual field example, the
surface pressure was observed to be 3,100 psi. The pump efficiency was assumed to be 92%.
As illustrated in Figure 6-7, an actual volume rate of flow of 134 gpm, which represents a pump
efficiency of 85%, would result in a surface pressure of 3,100 psi. Another source could be the
effect of temperature in the annulus. Another source could be eroded drill pipe. It should be
obvious that blindly calculating without considering these variables can lead to garbage for
answers. An accuracy of plus or minus 10 percent should be easily obtained.
Figure 6-7. Plot of Flow Rate versus Pressure for Example 6-4

Drilling Practices
Chapter 6
EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY
The equivalent circulating density ( ECD ) is another way to express the friction losses in the
annulus. The annular friction losses are converted to an equivalent mud weight and added to
the existing mud weight. Equation 6-25 can be used to calculate the equivalent circulating
density at any point in the annulus. Usually, the ECD is calculated at the bottom of the hole but
may be calculated at other points in the wellbore. Remember, friction losses are calculated
using the measured depth of the wellbore. The hydrostatic pressure (due the weight of a
column of fluid) is calculated using the true vertical depth. Therefore, the true vertical depth
must be used when calculating the ECD . In Equation 6-25, TVD is the true vertical depth at
any point of interest in the annulus.
Pdpa + Pdca
ECD = ρ m + Equation 6-25
(0.052)(TVD )
The equivalent circulating density is just a way of making it easier to understand annular friction
losses. While circulating, the annulus sees higher pressures. The pressures within the annulus
are equal to a column of mud with the density equivalent to the ECD and the pump off.
Therefore, the annulus experiences pressure increases while circulating. In most cases, the
ECD is small but the ECD can be significant in deep wells with smaller diameter holes.
Example 6-5 illustrates the calculation of the equivalent circulating density for the well in
Example 6-1.
Example 6-5
Given: Example 6-1 and the annular friction losses in Example 6-4 b. and e.
Determine: The equivalent circulating density at total depth of 17,193 ft.
Solution: From Example 6-4b, the friction losses in the drill pipe annulus are 371
psi and from Example 6-4e, the friction losses in the drill collar annulus
are 51 psi.
Pdpa + Pdca
ECD = ρ m +
(0.052)(TVD )
371 + 51
ECD = 15 + = 15.47 ppg
(0.052)(17193 )
In Example 6-5, the annular friction losses are equivalent to 0.47 ppg and the equivalent
circulating density is 15.47 ppg. If the hydrostatic pressure was close to the frac gradient, the
ECD in this well could make a significant difference.
PROBLEMS
1. If the casing shoe in Example 6-5 is at 15,500 feet, what is the ECD at the casing seat?

Drilling Practices
NOMENCLATURE
An = Area of nozzles (jets), in

D = Inside diameter of pipe, inches
Dh = Diameter of hole, inches
Dp = Outside diameter of pipe, inches
dv = Shear rate, sec
dr
e = Pipe roughness, inches
ECD = Equivalent circulating density, ppg
f = Fanning Friction Factor, dimensionless
k = Power Law consistency index, lbf/100 ft2
l = Length, feet
n = Power Law constant, normally the slope of shear stress-shear rate diagram
on log-log plot
P = Pressure loss, psi
Pbit = Pressure drop at the bit (through jet nozzles), psi
Pdc = Pressure loss in the drill collars, psi
Pdca = Pressure loss in the drill collar annulus, psi
Pdp = Pressure loss in the drill pipe, psi
Pdpa = Pressure loss in the drill pipe annulus, psi
Ps = Pressure at the surface (standpipe pressure), psi
Psurf = Pressure loss in surface connections from the gauge to the top of the drill
pipe, psi
PV = Plastic viscosity, cp
Q = Flow rate, gpm
Re = Reynolds Number, dimensionless
rpm = viscometer speed, rpm
S1 = Diameter of nozzle 1, inches
TVD = True vertical depth, feet
V2,000 = Critical velocity where the Reynolds Number is equal to 2,000, fpm
v = Average fluid velocity, fpm
Yp = Yield point, lbf/100ft
γ = Average annular shear rate, sec

Drilling Practices
Chapter 6
μ = viscosity, cp
ρm = Mud density, ppg
θ1 and θ 2 = Are any two viscometer readings with the requirement θ 2 = 2 × θ1
θγ = Viscometer reading at the average annular shear rate γ , lbf/100 ft2
SI UNITS
The Equations given in the chapter are given below in SI units
Dρ f Vs
Equation 6-2: Rp = Equation 6-26
60 μ e
ρ m v 2 lf
Equation 6-3: P= Equation 6-27
1,804D
5,310,000 ρ m
0.81
Q 1.81PV 0.19 l
D 4.83
6,190,000 ρ m
0.78
Q 1.78 PV 0.22 l
D 4.78
4,980,000 ρ m
0.81
Q 1.81PV 0.19 l
(Dh − D p ) 3 (Dh + D p )1.81
4,570,000 ρ m 0.78Q 1.78 PV 0.22 l

(Dh − D p ) 3 (Dh + D p )1.78
1,273,000Q
Equation 6-10: v = Equation 6-32
D2
153,000 ρ mQ 2
Equation 6-11: Pbit = Equation 6-33
An 2
1 n
⎡ 9,720,000k ⎤ 2−n ⎡ 41⎛ 3n + 1 ⎞⎤ 2−n
Equation 6-13: V2,000 = 0.3048 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥ Equation 6-34
⎣ ρm ⎦ ⎣ D ⎝ 4n ⎠ ⎦

Drilling Practices
1 n
⎡ 6,490,000k ⎤ 2−n ⎡ 61 ⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞⎤ 2−n
Equation 6-14: V2,000 = 0.3048 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ Equation 6-35
⎣ ρm ⎦ ⎢⎣ Dh − D p ⎝ 3n ⎠⎥⎦
1,273,000Q
Equation 6-15: v = Equation 6-36
Dh 2 − D p 2
(PV )v l 5.33Y p l
Equation 6-16: P= + Equation 6-37
1.88D 2 D
n
⎡133v ⎛ 3n + 1 ⎞⎤ 4kl
Equation 6-17: P =⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥ Equation 6-38
⎣ D ⎝ 4n ⎠ ⎦ D
4lθ γ
D
133v ⎛ 3n + 1 ⎞
Equation 6-19: γ = ⎜ ⎟ Equation 6-40
D ⎝ 4n ⎠
(PV )v l 6.05Y p l
Equation 6-21: P= + Equation 6-41
1.23(Dh − D p ) 2 ( Dh − D p )
n
⎡ 200v ⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞⎤ 4kl
Equation 6-22: P =⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥ Equation 6-42
⎢⎣ Dh − D p ⎝ 3n ⎠⎥⎦ (Dh − D p )
4lθ γ
( Dh − D p )
200v ⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞
Equation 6-24: γ= ⎜ ⎟ Equation 6-44
Dh − D p ⎝ 3 n ⎠
Pdpa + Pdca
Equation 6-25: ECD = ρ m + Equation 6-45
(0.0098 )(TVD )

Drilling Practices
Chapter 6
NOMENCLATURE FOR SI UNITS
An = Area of nozzles (jets), mm

D = Inside diameter of pipe, mm
Dh = Diameter of hole, mm
Dp = Outside diameter of pipe, mm
dv = Shear rate, sec
dr
e = Pipe roughness, mm
ECD = Equivalent circulating density, kg per cubic meter
f = Fanning Friction Factor, dimensionless
k = Consistency index, Pa secn
l = Length, meter
n = Power Law constant, normally the slope of shear stress-shear rate diagram
on log-log plot
P = Pressure loss, kPa
Pbit = Pressure drop at the bit (through jet nozzles), kPa
Pdc = Pressure loss in the drill collars, kPa
Pdca = Pressure loss in the drill collar annulus, kPa
Pdp = Pressure loss in the drill pipe, kPa
Pdpa = Pressure loss in the drill pipe annulus, kPa
Ps = Pressure at the surface (standpipe pressure), kPa
Psurf = Pressure loss in surface connections from the gauge to the top of the drill
pipe, kPa
PV = Plastic viscosity, mPa sec
Q = Flow rate, cubic meters per minute
Re = Reynolds Number, dimensionless
rpm = viscometer speed, rpm
S1 = Diameter of nozzle 1, mm
TVD = True vertical depth, meter
V2,000 = Critical velocity where the Reynolds Number is equal to 2,000, meters per
minute
v = Average fluid velocity, meters per minute
Yp = Yield point, Pa

Drilling Practices
γ = Average annular shear rate, sec

μ = viscosity, mPa sec
ρm = Mud density, kg per cubic meter
θ 1 and θ 2 = Are any two viscometer readings with the requirement θ 2 = 2 × θ 1
θγ = Viscometer reading at the average annular shear rate γ , Pa

Pressure Losses in The Circulating System

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Pressure Losses in The Circulating System

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Chapter 6 P RESSURE L OSSES IN T HE

Ps = Psurf + Pdp + Pdc + Pbit + Pdpa + Pdca Equation 6-1

Figure 6-1. Pressure Losses in the System

Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 6-1

flow velocity profile is illustrated as Figure 6-2. The

Since viscosity is a laminar concept with no meaning in

Figure 6-3. Classic Fanning Friction Factor Diagram

The Reynolds Number, Re, is given by Equation 6-2.

6-2 Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Figure 6-4. Moody Correlation for Roughness

Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 6-3

7.68(10 -5 )ρ m 0.81Q 1.81PV 0.19 l

6-4 Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Table 6-1. Surface Connection Combinations

COMPONENTS - LENGTH AND ID

CLASS # STANDPIPE HOSE SWIVEL KELLY

Hole Size 6½ inches

Rheology in Figure 4-16 and Table 4-5 of Chapter 4 Drilling Fluids

BHA 818 ft. 4.8" OD by 1½" ID

Drill pipe 3½" 15.5 #/ft If plastic coated, ID = 2.602"

Drill pipe length is 16, 375 feet

Surface Equipment is Class 2

Nozzles 2-11 and 1-12

Drilling with 147 gpm at 3,100 psi

A. The surface connections

B. The drill pipe

C. The drill collars

D. The drill pipe using the Fanning chart

E. The drill collars using the Fanning chart

Solution: A. Surface connections

Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 6-5

Hydraulic Calculator A: Using Equation 6-6 for the standpipe:

7.68(10 −5 )(15) 0.81 (147 )1.81 (29) 0.19 ( 40)

7.68(10 −5 )(15 ) 0.81 (147 )1.81 (29) 0.19 (55)

7.68(10 −5 )(15 ) 0.81 (147 )1.81 (29) 0.19 (25 )

7.68(10 −5 )(15) 0.81 (147 )1.81 (29) 0.19 ( 40)

7.86(10 -5 )(15 ) 0.78 (147 )1.78 (29 ) 0.22 ( 40 )

7.86(10 -5 )(15 )0.78 (147 )1.78 ( 29 )0.22 (55 )

6-6 Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

7.86(10 -5 )(15) 0.78 (147 )1.78 ( 29) 0.22 ( 25)

7.86(10 -5 )(15 ) 0.78 (147 )1.78 (29 ) 0.22 ( 40 )

Hydraulic Calculator A P = 15 psi

Hydraulic Calculator B P = 15 psi

7.68(10 −5 )(15)0.81(147 )1.81(29 ) 0.19 (16,375 )

7.86(10 -5 )(15) 0.78 (147 )1.78 (29 ) 0.22 (16,375 )

Hydraulic Calculator A Pdp = 1,834 psi

Hydraulic Calculator B Pdp = 1,784 psi

7.68(10 −5 )(15 ) 0.81 (147 )1.81(29) 0.19 (818 )

7.86(10 -5 )(15) 0.78 (147 )1.78 (29) 0.22 (818 )

Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 6-7

For Hydraulic Calculators A and B there is no 1½ inch ID

D. Drill pipe using the Fanning chart.

The average velocity within the pipe must be calculated first.

Calculate the Reynolds number.

From Figure 6-4, e / D = 0.000025 and from Figure 6-3,

(15)(532) 2 (16,375 )(0.0057 )

E. Drill collars using Fanning chart.

Calculate the Reynolds number.

From Figure 6-4, e / D = 0.00004 and from Figure 6-3, f = 0.005 .

(15)(1,601) 2 (818 )(0.005 )

6-8 Copyright © 2008 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

PRESSURE LOSSES THROUGH BIT NOZZLES

Determine: The pressure loss at the bit.