Cracks R.C.C Eng - Bassem Jemmo

Cracks in r.c.
c members
Eng.Bassem Mohammad Jemmo
Types of defects and cracks in r.c.c structures
Terms Associated with Visual Inspection of Concrete
A- Construction faults
A-1. Bug holes A-2 Cold joints
ACI 309
Perhaps the most influential cause Cold joints are formed primarily between two
of bugholes is improper vibration. batches of concrete where the delivery and
Consolidation, usually through placement of the second batch has been
vibration, sets the air and water delayed and the initial placed and compacted
bubbles into motion. concrete has started to set.
A-3 Exposed reinforcing steel
Exposed reinforcing steel can result when detailing or construction problems reduce the
depth of concrete cover. These problems include rebar not fabricated to exact nominal
dimensions or placed at the exact location given in contract documents, workers stepping
on rebar before or during concrete placement, and failure to secure rebar adequately
enough to keep it in position during concrete placement and vibration
A-4 Honeycombing
Honeycombing is the term used to describe areas of the surface that are coarse and stony. It may
be caused by insufficient fine material in the mix, perhaps due to incorrect aggregate grading or
poor mixing. This can be corrected by increasing the sand and cement content of the mix and by
proper mixing, placing and compaction. Alternatively, honeycombing may be caused by leakage
of grout or mortar fraction from the concrete at construction or formwork joints. The obvious
solution here is to ensure that joints are well sealed and leak-free.
Small, shallow areas of honeycombing are probably mainly cosmetic. However, deeper areas
will lead to a local reduction in the protection to the reinforcement from the concrete cover and
hence possibly durability problems in the future.
B- Disintegration ACI 302.1R and ACI 305.

B-1 Blistering
Blisters may form on the surface of fresh concrete when either

bubbles of entrapped air or bleed water migrate through the
concrete and become trapped under the surface, which has been
sealed prematurely during the finishing operations. These defects
are not easily repaired after concrete hardens.
May be consider as an extreme case of blistering
B-2 Delamination Eng.Bassem Mohammad Jemmo
When fresh concrete is placed and compacted, the solids (cement and aggregate) settle.
This natural settlement causes excess mix water and entrapped air to be displaced (called
bleeding), and the lighter materials migrate toward the surface. If finishing operations
start prematurely and close or seal the surface before bleeding is completed, air and/or
water are trapped under the densified surface mortar. As concrete hardens, subsurface
voids develop where the water or air is trapped. These voids create weakened zones right
below the surface that can eventually detach during slab use. Very thin mortar layers over
delaminations may even detach when struck with a hammer, as you try to sound out the
extent of the delaminated area.
B-3 Scaling
When concrete scales from freezing and thawing, the finished surface flakes or
peels off. Generally it starts as localized small patches, which later may merge
and extend to expose large areas. Light scaling does not expose the coarse
aggregate. Moderate scaling exposes the aggregate and may involve loss of up
to 2.5 to 10 mm of the surface mortar. In severe scaling more surface has been
lost and the aggregate is clearly exposed and stands out.
B-4 Weathering
Weathering concrete is something more than concrete that is structurally durable. It

is also concrete that continues to be visually acceptable as it ages. If it undergoes
changes in color or surface texture, the change should be both predictable and
acceptable.
Permeability affects the amount of penetration of water, dirt, or chemical agents such
as acidic rainwater, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.
It will usually be necessary to choose concrete materials and mix proportions with
weathering specifically in mind rather than on the basis of just strength requirements.
It may also be necessary to give more than the usual amount of attention to
providing adequate cover for reinforcing steel.
C- Erosion
Erosion is a common concern in concrete construction. Experts generally divide erosion
into two categories: abrasion and cavitation. Abrasion is recognized by the smooth
surface it leaves behind on concrete. This is due to repeated rubbing and grinding of
debris, equipment, gravel, or other items against concrete. Repeated impact forces that
are caused by a collapse of a vapor bubble in rapidly flowing water cause cavitation.
Erosion caused by water does not generally leave a smooth surface on concrete. A rough,
pitted concrete surface is a sign of cavitation. In severe cases, cavitation can result in
structural damage. Statistics indicate that cavitation generally requires a water velocity of
at least 40 feet per second.
abrasion cavitation
D- DISTORTION or Movement
Distortion of concrete is also known as movement. Put simply, this is a change in
alignment of the components of a structure. This could be wall movement or sup- port
movement. When evaluating distortion, historic data is likely to be helpful. Assuming
that good records have been maintained over the years, your research may turn up a
history of continuing failure due to distortion.
Buckling
Curling or warping Faulting
Tilting
Settling
E- JOINT SEALS AND SEEPAGE

Joint seals can fail. The seals are intended to repel water. If a seal fails and water
invades a concrete joint, buckling, cracking, erosion, and other problems may
occur. Another purpose of joint seals is to prevent debris from entering an
expansion joint. When debris embeds in a joint, it can result in a failure with the
expansion joint.
Seepage consists of water or other fluids moving through pores or interstices.
F- SPALLING
Two special cases involve spalling.
F-1 popout
The first type is known as a popout. These defects are shallow and are usually conical
depressions in the surface of the concrete. When concrete is poured in freezing conditions,
especially if some unsatisfactory aggregate particles are present, you may find popouts.
A popout is created when water finds its way into coarse aggregate and then freezing
begins.The ice pushes off the top of the aggregate particle and the superjacent layer of
mortar.This leaves shallow pitting.
F-2 spalling involves the corrosion of reinforcement material
visual inspection for this type of defect is fairly simple. Evidence will be
exposed reinforcement materials that are protruding through the concrete.
Rust staining on the reinforcement material is also present in many cases.
G-CRACKING
Crack—a complete or incomplete separation, of either concrete or masonry, into two
or more parts produced by breaking or fracturing. (ACI 201.1R-08)
Cracking is a common problem in concrete construction. Homeowners see it
in basement floors, garage floors, and basement walls. Cracks occur in
sidewalks, dams, bridges, and retaining walls.
Any crack is a reason for concern and warrants a thorough inspection and
investigation.
Concrete cracks classification
Eng.Bassem
Mohammad Jemmo
Shrinkage in an unrestrained reinforced concrete member (Gilbert, 1986)

Long-Term Multiplier
Eng.Bassem Mohammad
Jemmo
CAUSES OF DETERIORATION AND DURABILITY ASPECTS
- HOLISTIC MODEL OF R.C.C DETERIORATION.
- PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE.
- AGGRESSIVE DETERIORATION CHEMICAL AGENTS.
- DURABILITY ASPECTS.

DAMAGE OF CONCRETE STRUCTURE
Physical disruption or change in the condition of a structure or its components,
brought about by external actions or influences.
Deterioration Defects
• A worsening of condition with time, • Defects caused by:
which may result in a progressive o Wrong detailing or design
reduction in the ability of the o Construction practices
structure or its components to o Faulty materials
perform some aspects of their • May result in inadequate
intended function. structural
• Typically occurs when the material capacity, premature deterioration
is exposed the weather, water or or aesthetic issues
other chemicals over an extended
period of time
CAUSES OF DETERIORATION AND DURABILITY ASPECTS
- HOLISTIC MODEL OF R.C.C DETERIORATION.
- PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE.
- AGGRESSIVE DETERIORATION CHEMICAL AGENTS.
- DURABILITY ASPECTS.
HOLISTIC MODELS OF R.C.C DETERIORATION.
MODEL-1.
MODEL-2.
MODEL-3.
A water-tight , reinforced concrete structure containing Environmental action
Discontinuous cracks, micro cracks , pores Stage-1 (no visible damage)
1- weathering effects( cyclic heating
/ cooling, wetting/ drying
Gradual loss of water-tightness 2- load effects (cyclic loading, impact
as cracks , micro cracks, and pores become more loading)
Environmental action
Interconnected Stage-2 (initiation and propagation of
damage)
A- expansion of concrete due to increasing hydraulic 1- penetration of water.
Pressure in pores caused by: 2- penetration of O2 and CO2.
• Corrosion of steel. 3- penetration of acidic ions.
• Sulfate attack on cement paste.
• Alkali attack on aggregate.
• Freezing of water.
Result
B: reduction in the strength and stiffness of concrete
Holistic model-1 of concrete
deterioration from
Cracking , spalling, and loss of mass
environmental effects
Holistic model-2
service life
Holistic model-3
PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE
As deterioration process in concrete beings with penetration of aggressive agents, low permeability is
the key to its durability.
Concrete permeability is controlled by many factors:
Permeability of concrete
Capillary Air voids Micro cracks Macro cracks

porosity
- Improper
placement.
- High w/c ratio. - Loading - Excessive loading
- Improper effects - Chemical attack.
- Inadequate curing compaction - Weathering - Corrosion of
reinforcement.
Aggressive Deterioration Chemical

The deterioration of R.C.C is basically related to loss of water
tightness of cover concrete and migration of aggressive chemical
through interconnected porosity, which in turn chemically attacks on
its constituents as under:
❑ Corrosion of reinforcing bars due to carbonation.
❑ Chloride attack.
❑ Sulfate attack.
❑ Alkali silica reaction.

Corrosion of reinforcing bars

A steel reinforcement in concrete is protected from corrosion by a combination of:
▪ The formation of a passivating protective layer on steel surface due to chemical

reaction Under highly alkaline environment and,
▪ The environment protection provided by concrete cover.
The two common conditions that lead to the loss of passivity of steel in concrete
are:
➢ Reduction of alkalinity of concrete surrounding the steel with PH lower than 11

to 11.5
➢ Presence of chemicals (e.g. chloride ions).
Concrete and the Passive Layer
Although steel’s natural tendency is to undergo corrosion reactions, the alkaline
environment of concrete (pH of 12 to 13) provides steel with corrosion protection.
At the high pH, a thin oxide layer forms on the steel and prevents metal atoms
from dissolving. This passive film does not actually stop corrosion; it reduces the
corrosion rate to an insignificant level. For steel in concrete, the passive corrosion
rate is typically 0.1 µm per year. Without the passive film, the steel would corrode
at rates at least 1,000 times higher (ACI222 2001).
The hydration reaction of Portland cement release

alkaline giving it in high PH in range (12.6-13.5)
The destruction of the passive layer occurs

when the alkalinity of the concrete is reduced
or when the chloride concentration in concrete
is increased to a certain level.
Carbonation
Alkalinity in concrete is provided by hydroxide of calcium, sodium and potassium
present in.
The hardened cement gel. Permeation of carbon dioxide into concrete through
interconnected pores and its reaction with these hydroxide causes chemical
reaction as:
Because of this reaction, the alkalinity of concrete gets reduced. This process is
called Carbonation of concrete.
Carbonation of concrete can be a problem in areas where the concentration of
CO2 is high and relative humidity is moderate (50-60)%.
The three elements needed for initiation of the corrosion of reinforcement bars
are:
❖ De-passivation of steel.
❖ Oxygen.
❖ Intermediate presence of water.
Corrosion is an electrochemical process involving the flow of charges
(electrons and ions). At active sites on the bar, called anodes, iron
atoms lose electrons and move into the surrounding concrete as
ferrous ions. This process is called a half-cell oxidation reaction, or
the anodic reaction, and is represented as:
The electrons remain in the bar and flow to sites called cathodes,
where they combine with water and oxygen in the concrete. The
reaction at the cathode is called a reduction reaction. A common
reduction reaction is:
To maintain electrical neutrality, the ferrous ions migrate
through the concrete pore water to these cathodic sites where
they combine to form iron hydroxides, or rust:
This initial precipitated hydroxide tends to react further

with oxygen to form higher oxides. The increases in
volume as the reaction products react further with
dissolved oxygen leads to internal stress within the
concrete that may be sufficient to cause cracking and
spalling of the concrete cover.
Chlorides
Chlorides are present in the fresh mix or may from external source into the hardened
concrete.
▪ The chloride content of the mix is limited to certain values in relation to cement.
▪ - During use of structures, chloride may penetrate into the concrete from various sources
like sea water.
Chloride ions
Depassivation of
steel
carbonation
The parameters having decisive influence on the chloride-induced corrosion of the
reinforcing steel are:
- Chloride content at steel surface.
- Chloride content in cement.
- Water cement ratio.
- Concrete cover.
- Temperature and relative humidity.
Sulphate Attack
The term, sulphate attack, is generally used to means the deterioration of concrete as result
of
Physical-chemical interactions between the minerals in hardened Portland cement paste
and sulphate ions from environment.
In combination with ammonium, chloride, and carbonate ions the sulfate ions attack is
more servere. Expansion &
cracking
Sulphate
attack Decrease the strength
& stiffness
Alkali silica reaction

Durability aspects
Durability is define as the continued ability of the structure to withstand the expected
deterioration and perform satisfactorily in the normal conditions through out its intended life
without the need for undue maintenance.
The durability of structures is getting low under carbonation, chloride attack, sulphate attack.
In the codes the requirements on durability are expressed in terms of:

- Minimum cement content.
- Maximum water/cement ratio.
- Minimum grade of concrete.
- Minimum cover to reinforcement.
- The design and detailing aspects should aim minimizing the size and number of joints and
cracks due to thermal expansion, drying shrinkage, creep and loading.
Splitting cracks in reinforced concrete column are short

parallel vertical cracks with non-uniform width. Columns
with Insufficient steel reinforcement, and low concrete
quality are susceptible to experience such types of
cracks. Splitting cracks in concrete columns initiated as
a result of reaching its maximum load carrying capacity.
The ultimate Load carrying capacity of the column
surpassed when concrete cross section is inadequate
or reinforcement ratio is insufficient or combination
thereof.
Crushing Failure
When reinforced concrete columns are axially loaded, the reinforcement steel and
concrete experiences stresses. When the loads are high compared to cross-sectional
area of the column, the steel and concrete reach the yield stress and column fails
without undergoing any lateral deformation. The concrete column is crushed and
collapse of the column is due to the material failure. To overcome this, the concrete
column should have sufficient cross-sectional area, so that the stress is under the
specified limit. This type of failure is generally seen in case of pedestals whose height
to least lateral dimension is less than 3 and does not experience bending due to axial
loads.
Eng.Bassem
Mohammad Jemmo
Required tests
Compressive Strength
Rebound Hammer Test
Currently, the non-destructive and most commonly used test is the rebound hammer test. This method is based on
measuring the surface hardness of the concrete and, as the response variable, has an index that can be used to
estimate the resistance from correlation curves. The rebound hammer is portable, simple and inexpensive. This
equipment enables the fast acquisition of a large amount of data.
the most influencing factors in the results of the rebound hammer test are the type of surface treatments aggregate,
rebound hammer inclination, carbonation of the outer layers of concrete, age of structure, humidity, type of cement
and proportioning of the concrete.
It is necessary to calibrate the rebound hammer before carrying out the test on hardened concrete. The suitable methods for
checking the calibration of the rebound hammer is to test the concrete cube of size (150mm * 150mm * 150mm) with the help of
rebound hammer and then with the compression testing machine (CTM). If the strength results of rebound hammer test exactly
match with CTM results, then it is ready to use. But if the major difference found in results, then we need to calibrate the rebound
hammer before testing.
Average of six reading should

be taken for each point of
testing for the rebound
number.
Total average number>15

reading
Survey of weak and delamination concrete (quality)

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
Ultrasonic testing consists of measuring the travel time of an ultrasonic pulse or wave of 25 to 60 kHz. The ultrasonic
pulse or wave is produced and received by an electro-acoustical transducer. The transducer is held in contact with
one surface of the concrete member and receiving the same by a similar transducer in contact with the surface at the
other end.
The speed of the pulse or wave is the function of the density of the material. It allows the estimation of the porosity
and the detection of discontinuities like cracks in the house. Once the distance between two probes (path length) and
time of travel is known, it is possible to determine the average pulse velocity by the following equation.
Pulse velocity= Distance between the two probes (Path Length)/ Time of travel
The higher pulse velocity indicates higher elastic modulus, density and integrity of the concrete.
Pulse velocity also depends on the method of propagation and the arrangement of transducers. There are three
primary ways in which the transducers may be arranged.
The Relation between Pulse Velocity of Ultrasonic Testing and the Compressive
Strength of Concrete:
The pulse velocity basically does not directly measure compressive strength. The compressive strength of
concrete is influenced by many variables. It is influenced by the types of aggregates, age, moisture content, and mix
proportion of concrete. It is also influenced by curing of concrete and others factors. The factors affecting the
compressive strength have an influence on the pulse velocity. As a result, a statistical study is essential to relate the
pulse velocity and the compressive strength.
The Realistic Assessment of the Condition of Concrete

Surface:
The realistic assessment of the condition of the concrete surface can be done by
the combination of the results of UPV test and rebound hammer test.
Pullout test

Penetration resistance tests ASTM C-803
Penetration resistance tests on concrete offers a means of determining relative strengths of concrete in the same
structure or relative strength of different structures. Because of nature of equipments, it can not and should not
be expected to yield absolute values of strength.
Windsor Probe pin penetration test
In this technique a gunpowder actuated driver is used to fire a hardened alloy probe into the concrete. During testing,
it is the exposed length of probe which is measured by a calibration depth gauge. But it is preferable to express the
coefficient of variation in terms of depth of penetration as the fundamental relation is between concrete strength and
penetration depth.
Core Sampling and Testing of Concrete BS 1881: Part 4: 1970 or ASTM C 42-77.
Concrete cores are usually cut by means of a rotary cutting tool with diamond bits. In this manner, a cylindrical
specimen is obtained usually with its ends being uneven, parallel and square and sometimes with embedded pieces of
reinforcement.
The core should then be soaked in water, capped with molten sulphur to make its ends plane, parallel, at right angle
and then tested in compression in a moist condition
The core samples can also be used for the following:
◦ Strength and density determination
◦ Depth of carbonation of concrete
◦ Chemical analysis
◦ Water/gas permeability
◦ ASHTO Chloride permeability test
Factors Affecting Strength of Concrete Cores
- Size of stone aggregate
- Presence of transverse reinforcement steel
- H/D ratio (2<H/D<0.95)
- Drilling operations
- Strength of concrete :
The effect in reducing the core strength appears to be higher in stronger concretes and reduction
has been reported as 15% for 40 MPa concrete
chemical tests
Carbonation test
The affected depth from the concrete surface can be readily shown by the use of phenolphthalein indicator
solution.
The phenolphthalein indicator solution is applied to a fresh fracture surface of concrete.
If the indicator turns No-carbonation

PH> 8.6 carbonation
purple
remains colorless PH< 8.6 carbonation suggestions
PH< 8.4 Full-carbonated

Chloride content test ASTM C1218 / C1218M - 17
There are two types of chlorides present in concrete, fixed (Water insoluble) and free (water soluble).
Both are of importance from corrosion risks point of view.

Corrosion potential assessment
Cover meter survey
Using an electromagnetic cover meter the position, depth and size of reinforcement buried in concrete
floors can be estimated.
Half Cell Potential Survey ASTM C876
The schematic in Figure 2a represents a cell where each side is referred to as a half-cell. Each half-cell is represented
by an electrode in a solution (electrolyte) and both half-cells are connected together. Since one of the electrodes has a
higher tendency to corrode compared to the other, that electrode (anode) will oxidize and in turn will donate electrons.
To keep the system in equilibrium and balance the charges in the electrolytes, there will be an exchange of ions through
the salt bridge. The voltmeter will measure the potential difference (voltage) between both electrodes, which indicates
the rate of dissolution of the anode.

Resistivity Measurement
The electrical rsistance of concrete plays an important role in determining the quality of concre from the point of view
‘corrosion susceptibility potential’ at any specific location. This parameter is expressed in terms of “Resistivity” in
ohm-cm.
Conventional repairing method
Important note:
First, before any repair and/or strengthening can be applied, the cause of or the mechanism
of damage must be identified as clearly as possible through field inspection, investigation
and evaluation.
the ultimate choice of method of repair and/or strengthening of a concrete structure may
also be influenced by the following factors:
cause of damage and the results of the assessment. 

 future life requirement of the structure.
 the overall quality of repairs and the size of individual repairs.
 access for repair.
 requirement for continued use of the structure during repair and the time available for
repair.
 relative costs.
 client requirements including future maintenance and economic considerations.
 the ease of application.
 available labor skills and equipment.
Repair materials
A- Compatibility requirements of new and old materials
A-1 Compatibility in dimensional stability
- SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE.
- THERMAL EXPANSION OF CONCRETE.
- UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS.
This means that the stress distribution will not be uniform in the repaired
section. Before the repair, the stress in the column was uniformly
distributed. After the repair, the load can be considered as being transferred
from the old concrete to the new concrete. If the strength of the new
material with higher modulus is not sufficient to bear the load, the new
materials may fail earlier than the old concrete. This is one of the important
mechanisms that are responsible for pre-matured failures of repair work in
the new material.
On the other hand, if a repair material (e.g. a polymer mortar) with low modulus of elasticity but high compressive strength is
used to repair an old concrete, it could lead to the failure of the old concrete due to the stress transfer to the old concrete,
assuming that the old concrete has higher modulus of elasticity than the new concrete. The failure mechanism can be explained
by the same model shown in Figure 4.2. In this case, the calculation of the stresses remains the same, and since
Enew < Eold, we have σnew < σold, which means more stress would be transferred to the old concrete. So, the load carried by
the old concrete would be even higher than before.
Another possibility of repair failure due to the non-uniform stress distribution is the bond failure
between the new and old material
A-2 Compatibility in chemical stability
If the repair material and the existing material have different chemical properties , the repaired concrete may
not be durable.
if the existing concrete is made of low alkaline cement and reactive aggregate, and the repair material is made
of high alkaline cement, the so-called alkali–silica
Usually the chloride content in the old concrete is relatively high for the concrete exposed to deicers and the
chloride content in the new concrete is very low. A large chloride concentration gradient exists between the new
and old concrete, which may form a “concentration cell” for the onset of steel corrosion in concrete. This
“concentration cell” will accelerate the rate of corrosion and cause premature failure of the patch or adjoining
concrete.
there are two types of methods that can be used to prevent the premature failure of the repaired system. One is to
lower the chloride in the old concrete by using available chloride removal techniques (which are usually expensive).
The other is to install a cathodic protection system in the new concrete..
A-2 Standard testing methods and requirements for repair materials
General repair strategies
Basically, the repair procedure for reinforced concrete structures consists of some or all of
the following four steps:
- Removal of damaged concrete to expose all damaged portions of the structure. The
damaged concrete portion may contain cracks, delamination, and etc
- if there is reinforcing bars in the damaged portion of the structure, the surface of the steel
should be cleaned to remove any rusting layers, and additional steel should be incorporated
if necessary. A protective coating may also be applied to the existing and new steel surfaces
- Application of repair mortar or concrete to replace removed concrete, which serves two
purposes: (a) the repair material prevents the ingress of corrosive agents (physical
protection); and (b) to re-passivate the steel (chemical protection). Primer may need to be
applied first to improve bond between existing concrete and repair material.
- To enhance protection for steel, external membranes may be applied over the repaired
section, or the whole concrete surface. .
Repair of concrete surface
A- Shotcrete
Repair of concrete surface normally uses shotcrete or gunite, and, sometimes, this technique is also referred to
as sprayed concrete.
sprayed concrete can provide excellent bond, high strength, and a protective
cover of low permeability to the existing steel reinforcement and concrete.
When sprayed concrete for surface repair is used, pre-treatment of the old
concrete surface is important.
- the existing concrete surface should also be pre-moistened.
- If reinforcement steels are exposed after removing the deteriorated
concrete, the rust on the steel must be removed and the steel must be
cleaned down to the bare metal
- Bonding agents, such as epoxy bonding agents, latex-modified cement
slurries, or pure cement slurries can be used as a base coating to improve
the bond between the sprayed concrete and the existing concrete
substrate. But there are some arguments that there is no need for these
bonding agen
One important note in the application of shotcrete is that the thickness of the concrete layer should be
considered. If the thickness is large, multi-layer sprayed concrete is needed, which requires the preceding layer
to achieve a sufficient hardness. If the thickness is more than 50 mm, minimum reinforcement is required.
B- Replacement
When the damaged concrete is in a large volume, especially when the thickness of the damaged concrete is
large, the damaged concrete may be replaced by new cast of repair concrete
When damaged old concrete is intended to be replaced, the compatibility between old and new concrete should
be taken into account.
The surface of the old concrete requires adequate preparation, careful cleaning and pre- moistening.
For large-volume replacement of old concrete, sometimes minimizing the temperature difference between old and new
concrete may require special procedures (cooling of new concrete and/or heating of old concrete).
In general, the replacement of concrete should have final properties, such as strength and modulus of elasticity,
that match the existing concrete as closely as possible. Thus, the mix design of the repair concrete, such as type
of cement, cement content and the water–cement ratio should be carefully chosen.
C- Grinding
This method is often used to repair concrete driveways, sidewalks, and roadways when a concrete slab is not
levelled very well with the surrounding slabs.
Excessive surface grinding, however, may result in weakening of the concrete surface and exposure of easily
removed aggregate particles.
Grinding of surfaces subject to cavitation erosion (hydraulic surfaces subject to flow velocities exceeding 40 feet
per second) should be limited in depth so that no aggregate particles more than 1/16 inch in cross- section are
exposed at the finished surface.
Grinding of surfaces exposed to public view should be limited in depth so that no aggregate particles more than
1⁄4 inch in cross-section are exposed at the finished surface.
D-Surface patching
This technique has been used for many years and is typically used to restore concrete
sections damaged by delaminating and spalls.
There are several steps in the patching repair process:
1- Cut out the area to be repaired:
The main surface-breaking work is usually undertaken by pneumatic or electric

tools. Cutting by high pressure water jet is an alternative for surface breaking
which causes less damage to the substrate and less noise
2- Surface preparation:
- cementitious repair mortars.

- polymer mortars.
3- Curing for the repaired concrete

Repair of cracks in concrete
As a general rule, cracks in reinforced concrete wider than those allowed by building codes or
specifications should be repaired or sealed. A number of codes of practice specify maximum permissible
crack widths for various service conditions. Tolerable crack widths according to varying exposure
conditions specified by ACI 224R-90 are shown in Table 4.8 (Emmons 1994).
Under loading, the crack width in concrete
members depends on loading conditions. In the
latest version of the ACI code (ACI 224.1R-07),
the following formula was given for
calculating the maximum crack width under
bending:
A- Resin injection
Resin injection is used to repair concrete that is cracked or delaminated and to seal cracks
in concrete to stop water leakage. Because of the high costs (generally about $200.00 per
linear foot of injected crack), resin injection is not normally used to repair shallow, drying
shrinkage, or pattern cracking. Two basic types of resin and injection techniques are used
to repair cracked concrete.
A-1 EPOXY RESINS
Important properties of any injection resin are its resistance to moisture penetration, to
alkaline attack, a similar tensile strength to concrete and a similar modulus of elasticity with
concrete. The tensile strength of the repair material should approach that of concrete as
closely as possible.
The bond between the epoxy and the concrete should be stronger than the concrete itself,
so the repaired concrete should be as good as new concrete.
A-1-1 PACK THE SEAL
A-1-2 ROUTE THE CRACK
A-1-3 USE A HYDRANT
When applying an epoxy gel or paste, it’s often difficult to get the epoxy placed before it
stiffens. Because the bond strength of a stiff epoxy is severely reduced (it can’t
thoroughly wet into the surface), this is a serious problem.
A-1-4 USE MANlFOLDS
Rather than inject one port at a time, inject numerous ports simultaneously. Nine ports
(sometimes as many as 12 ports) are commonly injected at once.
If the cracks are over 0.02-in. (0.5-mm) wide, they will usually fill quickly. A worker will
therefore be kept busy relocating only two or three connections. If the cracks are very
narrow, however, injection may take 5 minutes or more. In that case, the leisurely pace
will enable a worker to inject at least six ports simultaneously.
Evaluate the injection quality by TAKE CORES

B- Stitching
Instead of gluing a crack together, repair can be done by stitching a crack together as
shown in Figure, in which the crack is stitched by iron or steel dogs.
When stitching a crack, a series of stitches are sufficient to make the total tensile strength
of the repaired concrete equal to or greater than the original one.
The following considerations should be made when using stitching:
- Stitch both sides of the concrete section where possible to prevent bending of the stitching
dogs.
- Bending members may only require stitching on the tension side of the member.
- Members in axial tension must have the stitching placed symmetrically.
- Stitching that may be placed in compression must be stiffened and/or strengthened to carry
the compressive force
Repair of corrosion-damaged reinforced concrete structures

A- Restoration of concrete surrounding corroded bars
A-1 removal of concrete

If the removal of concrete is selected, care must be taken to prevent the chloride
redistribution. It is better to remove more concrete than needed to ensure all the chloride-
contaminated concrete and all the carbonated concrete has been removed.
After the distressed
concrete is removed, the
condition of the rebars
must be checked. For
uncoated steel bars, the
rust on the surface must be
cleaned, and the fresh
metal surface must be
exposed,
For epoxy coated bars, an inspection must be made to make sure the epoxy coating is not
severely damaged. If there are damages and scratches as shown in Figure, the damaged
areas on the coating must be repaired first by epoxy resins. Otherwise, the corrosion of
steel bars will start from the damaged areas.

A-2 corrosion protection system with cement mortar
it is better to use polymer-modified cement mortars with high quality mix as the repair
material, which can be placed in individual layers whose thickness does not exceed 5 mm.
The water–cement ratio for the repair cement mortar is normally less than 0.4
A-3 Epoxy resin mortars
Epoxy resin mortars may be useful for small repairs with thin layer thick- nesses.
These mortars are able to prevent carbonation or the access of corrosive agents.
B- Cathodic protection methods
Cathodic protection, an electrical system designed to stop corrosion by applying an electric

current to the affected metal surfaces, has been extensively used to protect steel pipelines
and tanks from corrosion for many years and has been applied in the protection of the
reinforcing steel in concrete in recent years.
The principle of the cathodic protection (CP) is to enforce the rebar to become a cathode
and another metal as an anode. Since corrosion only occurs at the anode, the rebar will be
protected.
B-1 THE SACRIFICIAL ANODE SYSTEM
In this method, the structure or the structural member to be protected is connected to a
more reactive metal as shown in Figure
Anodes of magnesium or zinc can be

used in this way to provide protection
to buried reinforcing steel
C- Realkalization techniques
Realkalization is a technology to provide the long-term restoration of alkalinity to

carbonated but otherwise sound concrete under the passage of an electric current.
Realkalization is achieved by applying a
potential across a temporary anode, external to
the concrete, and an internal cathode – the
reinforcing bar. The electrolyte, which is an
alkaline solution of sodium or potassium
carbonate, diffuses into the concrete towards
the reinforcement. The electrochemical
production of hydroxyl ions caused by the
electric current creates more alkalinity at the
surface of the reinforcement which
repassivates the steel, and reduces the risk of
further corrosion.
D- Chloride removal techniques
Same principle of Realkalization techniques

Thank you
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Cracks R.C.C Eng - Bassem Jemmo

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Cracks in r.c.

B- Disintegration ACI 302.1R and ACI 305.

Blisters may form on the surface of fresh concrete when either

Weathering concrete is something more than concrete that is structurally durable. It

E- JOINT SEALS AND SEEPAGE

F-2 spalling involves the corrosion of reinforcement material

Shrinkage in an unrestrained reinforced concrete member (Gilbert, 1986)

- HOLISTIC MODEL OF R.C.C DETERIORATION.

- AGGRESSIVE DETERIORATION CHEMICAL AGENTS.

Eng.Bassem Mohammad Jemmo

CAUSES OF DETERIORATION AND DURABILITY ASPECTS

- HOLISTIC MODEL OF R.C.C DETERIORATION.

- AGGRESSIVE DETERIORATION CHEMICAL AGENTS.

HOLISTIC MODELS OF R.C.C DETERIORATION.

Capillary Air voids Micro cracks Macro cracks

Aggressive Deterioration Chemical

❑ Corrosion of reinforcing bars due to carbonation.

❑ Alkali silica reaction.

Corrosion of reinforcing bars

▪ The formation of a passivating protective layer on steel surface due to chemical

▪ The environment protection provided by concrete cover.

➢ Reduction of alkalinity of concrete surrounding the steel with PH lower than 11

The hydration reaction of Portland cement release

The destruction of the passive layer occurs

This initial precipitated hydroxide tends to react further

Alkali silica reaction

In the codes the requirements on durability are expressed in terms of:

Splitting cracks in reinforced concrete column are short

Average of six reading should

Total average number>15

Survey of weak and delamination concrete (quality)

The Realistic Assessment of the Condition of Concrete

Eng.Bassem Mohammad Jemmo

The phenolphthalein indicator solution is applied to a fresh fracture surface of concrete.

If the indicator turns No-carbonation

remains colorless PH< 8.6 carbonation suggestions

PH< 8.4 Full-carbonated

Eng.Bassem Mohammad Jemmo

Eng.Bassem Mohammad Jemmo

cause of damage and the results of the assessment. 

There are several steps in the patching repair process:

1- Cut out the area to be repaired:

The main surface-breaking work is usually undertaken by pneumatic or electric

- cementitious repair mortars.

3- Curing for the repaired concrete

Eng.Bassem Mohammad Jemmo

A-1 EPOXY RESINS

Evaluate the injection quality by TAKE CORES

Repair of corrosion-damaged reinforced concrete structures

A-1 removal of concrete

Eng.Bassem Mohammad Jemmo

Cathodic protection, an electrical system designed to stop corrosion by applying an electric

Anodes of magnesium or zinc can be

Realkalization is a technology to provide the long-term restoration of alka- linity to

Same principle of Realkalization techniques

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