Training Handbook

Eddycurrent Testing
Level 1

Manual No. : JCT-0187 For Training Purpose Only Rev. 0 : Jun 01, 2016
 EDDY CURRENT FORMULAE SHEET

% lACS = '72.4' F = RESISTIVITY

f'
Jl = PERMEABILITY
DP 503 1.7241
f x pr x % lACS f = FREOUENCY

5
f = 4 .36 x '0
DP' x %IACS x Jl

XI = 217fL f = FREOUENCY
1 Xc = _,_ L INDUCTANCE
2"fC
C = CAPACITANCE

RESISTIVITY OF 304SS IS 72 MICRO DHM·CM

PERMEABILITY OF 304SS IS ,

PHASE LAG = .1L x 57 DEGREES

SOP
X IS DEPTH IN MATERIAL

Z =j(XI. Xc),"+ R' " XI = INDUCTANCE

,, REACTANCE
;
.J Xc = CAPACITIVE
REACTANCE

R= RESISTANCE

TAN e XI· Xc
R e PHASE ANGLE

PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUIT XI = Xc

(2"fL = _'_1
2"fC
>, f = 1
"'
I
21 LC
~

THICKNESS MEASUREMENT

f = 1.6f/t' KHZ f' = RESISTIVITY

t = MATERIAL THICKNESS IN MM

,1
"~
i

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....J

INTRODUCTION
~ 1-
L
General
r t
1, Nondestructive testing utilizing the eddy current technique has gained world-
'Wide acclaim as a dependable method of examining a broad range of conduc-
tive materials for signs of discontinuities.
; .,
i ! Applications
w
,· ,, 2, Eddy current techniques may be applied to a variety of geometrical shapes
including wires, tubes, bars, cylinders, sheet metal and many other forms
U into which materials are fashioned during their cast or wrought stages of
production, and may be used to:-
: I

U (a) Monitor production techniques,

(b) Locate defects before too much work is done on materials.
r'
· I
(c) Check quality of finished products.
U Capabilities
,, 1, 3. Eddy Current techniques are capable of detecting both surface and, to some
I ~
~
extent, subsurface discontinuities associated with the many problems ex-
perienced in the production and working of metals . Le.
[i
L,; (a) Inherent Problems:- Discontinuities arising at the cast or wrought
stages of production such as bursts, inclusions, laps and porosity,
r ,
i j (b) Processing Problems:- Faults resulting from extruding, machining or
L.;
welding such as stringers, grinding cracks, shrinkage cracks, poor heat
treatment and inadequate stress relieving procedures.

(c) In-Service Problems :- Flaws occurring during the normal operation of

the component or material such as erosion, corrosion, wear and metal
r '~
;I fatigue.
u
Advantages
' -' 1
! i
4. Eddy Current testing is advantageous in that it provides instantaneous results
L.J
using portable equipment which may also be readily adapted to automation,
,, It is also intrinsically safe as an inspection tool, requiring only the coupling of
i, i '
an alternating magnetic field with the component under test to provide the
~
interrogatory medium, thus causing no damage to the material and present-
ing no health hazards to the operator.

Limitations

1 i
, I
5. lAS alreaay statea, t:aa y ~urren l1e sllng IS IImlleu to lnose
I , met als and carbon fibre composites which are considered to
'-- be cond uctors of electrical currents. Other limitations
· "
will become apparent as our understanding or Eddy Currents
f 1 progresses during the period of this course.
U

I;
U

I '
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I 1
I ;
i i
/ I-i
'--
 CHAPTER 1
.J BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENTS
i
i General
-'
1. ff'\ Eddy Currents are alternating electrical currents induced. into a conductive
J./materia l by an alternating magnetic field . Should the passage of the induced
currents within the material be modified in any way then the effects of the
change in value in the induced currents can be analysed and ~resented so
that the N.D.T. operator may interpret the possible cause of t elr modIfIca-
tion.

Alternating Current in a Coil

2. When a current is passed through a piece of wire. a magnetic field exists

around the wire. The strength of the magnetic field increases as the current
through the wire increases. Fig 1 shows the magnetic field around the wire.
If the wire is formed into a coil . the magnetic field surrounds the coil as
shown in Fig 2 . Should the direction of the current be reversed . the polarity
of the magnetic field also changes. When alternating current is passed
through a coil the magnetic field will therefore alternate at the same fre-
quency as the current .

:"' . ,ro.\ . I...

~
I
,,..
.• ,'"\
•
.~
' . ·• ''I!
•
: I
¢= current
•A.'• , • •
•It,,• 4'•
• •
"'.
\
lL! .~~
..... '

Magnetic Field around Conductor

FIG 1

_----to-- ---!~~ -- --
•
/-,
( , ... ~ ,
/EB-
~"
...\ -
J
~~....... _

-- _ _A:~

:...--::-~
~/;04
\, , -/'
-- - ,.- - -_. - ~,.--
-"

Magnetic Field around Coil

FIG 2
1-1
 Magnetic Coupling

3.;::, When a magnetic field is brought into close proximity with a conductive
o material the material is influenced by the magnetic flux such that, when the
flux changes, a current is induced into the conductor.

I Production of Eddy Currents

4. Faraday's Law relating to electromagnetic induction develops the magnetic
coupling a little further by stating: "When :a 'c onductor cuts, b an means,
~ the lines of 'force· of m ' :' I IV
\V induced into the can uctor. il'.he .magnitude :of.the induced EMF will depend
!Jpon:
~ .. ~

(a) The size, strength and proximity of the magnetic field.

(b) The speed at which the lines of force 'are cut.
(c) The qualities of the conductor."
. ;

5. Eddy Currents are generated obeying Faraday's Law. The alternating mag-
netic field of the probe coil is a means of moving the magnetic field through
the specimen so an EMF is produced. The magnetic field is oia circular
pattern, so circular currents are produced. The word "Eddy" describes a
circular pattern and hence Eddy Currents are produced. In the case of Eddy
Current inspection the size of th!! magnetic field is dictated by the probe £oil
size, ferrite and shield ina; its strengt h by the number ofturns and current in
the pr5be coil; and its proximity by lift-off, fill factor and geometry of the
~ probe coil design. Th e speed at which the lines of force cut the specimen is
(~) a function of frequency and the qualities of the conductor relate directly to
J --' conductivity and permeability of the specimen . .

6. Eddy Currents flow in circular paths around and normal to the axis of the coil
magnetic field as shown in Fig 3. Eddy Currents only exist in the material
within the area of the magnetic f ield, alternate at the same frequency as -the
coil current and travel In closed paths.
;
J

Alternati ng current 1\.;,/- _ _ _ _--,

j Probe coil----+++..J Conduclor

e· r- e •
Prim ary magnetic field
l
1
:.;--e·

'-7"-'-- Free el e ctron

e ·~
J
,
"

Eddy current --'--'--~

"

Eddy Currents Induced into Conducting Material

FIG 3
1-2
 I Lenz's Law
, 7. As eddy currents are electrical currents travelling in a conductor they will also
create a magnetic field. Lenz discovered that:- "The magnetic fields of the
- ® induced currents are in a direction so as to oppose their cause" (Lenz's Law).
Eddy Current magnetic fields therefore oppose the coil's magnetic field re-
sulting in a modification to the current passing through the coil. (Fig 4)
J

1
,
-
Ammeter~
"

Eddy __ -f-----'r
Currents
,,
-
Eddy current magnetic field
opposing coil magnetic field

Opposing Magnetic Fields

FIG 4

Eddy Current Inspection

~
8. If the coil is connected to a meter, the reading obtained when the coil is
placed on the material is a standard reading for that material condition. If
the needle is now moved to zero by means of a control on the test set, it
will remain at zero as the probe is moved over the matflrial until it is piaced
- 1
over a part of the material where the value of the eddy currents change.
This change can be due to several factors which will be discussed later. A
change in the value of the eddy currents will also change the value of the
- eddy current magnetic field, which will change the value of the coil magnetic
field and hence the current through the coil. Any chal'),ge in the coil current
., will cause the meter needle to be deflected from theierO pQsitLon .
d . . ". - .~,. - ~ .'. ~

...!

1-3
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CHAPTER 2
,'
:! FACTORS AFFECTING EDDY CURRENTS
u
, ,, General
,
l:
'-' 1: Life would be a lot easier for the NDT technician if discontinuities such as
cracks and corrosion were the only factors that affect the eddy currents.
, ,
However, there are several other factors which affect the eddy currents,
LJ some of the which are useful to us, others which are not. The factors which
affect eddy c!Jrrents are: <
•
,I :,
i ! a. Conductivity G (Sigma)
'-'

, , b. Permeability J1 (mu)
Iw! c. Frequency f
? [)
,, ,'
,I '
d.

e.

f.
Geometry

Proximity (Lift off/fill factor)

Discontinuities (Defects)
)
g. Probe Handling
f "
,i !,
'-' Conductivity

2. The conductivity of a material can be described as the ability of that material

to permit the flow of an electrical current throu~h it. The higher the conduc-
tivity, the greater the current. Therefore, as ed y currents are electrical
,r -,
currents, the higher the conductivity of a material, the greater will be the
value of the eddy currents. Hence a change in the conductivity of a material
~ will cause a change in the eddy currents. As this change can be measured,
. ... it follows that eddy currents can be used to measure the conductivity of a
! ! material. Conductivity changes in a material can be due to:
L
a. Heat treatment
,'
11 b. Age hardening
~

, . c. Chemical composition
1 :
, ,
L: d. Temperature (inc TO = red ~ or inc/)
, '
e. Work hardening (forging)
i'-'
f. Loading/stressing
,, ,'
i 3. Cond uctivity measurement is sometimes carried out when. it is susp9cted
'-'
that some components have been incorrectly heat treated. It is al so
,, sometimes used to test if a piece of structure has been overheated in use
! ~ and regularly used to check the conductivity of the specimen with the cali-
bration sample for crack/corrosion detection.

,
f'

f 1
1 i 2-1
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-i ; 4. For the purpose of NDT, conductivity is measured usin g the International
Annealed Copper Standard (lACS) which is based on a specific grade of high
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purity copper said to have an electrical conductivity of 100%. Conductivity
readings are compared with this standard and are expressed as percentage
lACS. (Note : Improve ments in the purifying of copper have now resulted in
lACS readings slightly more than 100% for pure copper so do not be sur-
prised to see very pure copper occasionally expressed as high at 103%
lACS.)
, '.
I
5. Although most eddy current test sets will detect a change in conductivity,
this does not pose a problem iNhen hand scanning for cracks. ;Conductivity
, '. changes usually occur gradually and give a slow meter indication compared
I
: '~tothe tvilical flick indicabon associated vyltll 11 cracK. test sets are available
~
' wl'lich have been spMlflcally aeslgned as Conauctlvlty Meters . These sets
{
are very sensitive to changes in conductivity and are calibrated in % lACS.
I A typical Conductivity Meter is shown in Fig 1. With "measure" selected, the
~ probe is placed on the low conductivity test pad and the "set low" control
adjusted until the meter needle aligns w ith the "set low" mark on the meter
,, scale. The probe is next placed on the high conductivity test pad 'and the
;
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"set high" control adjusted until the meter needle aligns with the "set high"
mark on the meter scale. These actions are repeated until no further adjust-
~ ··1 ment is required . The set is now calibrated and ready for use.
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L:
low conductivity
test pad high conductivity
1i test pad
L.

Sel e ctor

-
i (Of f , battery
test and
measure )
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i-

,,
i
w
' [YJ~Meter
,, , 1 control

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I
;..., Set high
control
, Probe
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-'

,,{ ;, Typical Conductivity Meter

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FIG 1
,,
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C-
2-2

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~
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6. It should be noted that if comparative readings are being taken on a number
I ' of similar samples, this should be done with the probe at the same position
L on each sample to prevent differences due to geometry, .etc., giving incorrect
readings. Incorrect readings can also be obtained if samples are at different
temperatures.
'- .
7. Care should also be exercised on some machines, over the operating fre-
,t ' quency at which the conductivity of several specimens is being measured . It
! is possible to have erroneous results if there is too great a variation in tbick-
-,
i ; ness between the sp~cimens a nd the freQuency of the Test Me.teLJs_sJ,!£.h
fflat3 tlmeSffie stanoard de th of enet a ion oes outs[dg the thinner
--,,~
, '. speclm n
i'--: "
8. Some conductivity values (in % lACS) are approximately:
, ,
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Copper
6061-=1'6 Aluminium
100
42
Magnesium 37 (See TABLES 1 and 2 on
i ; 7075-=1'6 Aluminium 32 pages 2-16 and 2-17)
U Cast Steel '1 0.7
High Alloy Steel 2.9
Stainless Steel 2.5
,; :,
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9. Cladding Measurement The thickness of one conductive coating can also be
I , measured on top of another conductive material providing a good difference
! ,
~ i in conductivity exists. As with normal conductivity measurement. reference
'-' samples are required to calibrate from known cladding thickness.
,. ', 10. Units of Conductivity Resistivity is the reciprocal. of conductivit and is a
I ;
L- measure of the resistance 0 ere etween 0 oSlte ac 0 I
metal at a given temperature. Some clarification is needed to ensure that no
confUSion res'ults between these terms:

Resistance
[ ) Resistance "R" depends on the resistivity of a conductor "j>", its length "I"
and cross sectional area "A" .
; 1
,,
'--'
'
IR =~I I
Doubling the length of a w ire will double its resistance at a fi x ed cross sec-
tional area. Conversely, doubling the cross sectional area will halve the re-
sistance if the length is constant .
; ~ Resistivity
, '
W
Transposing the formula fo r resisti vity :
r '
i
'--'
I
jl = RAI (units o hm mm)

r 1

LJ
i:
I '
'-
2-3

, '
, i
 Here we have a fixed value for the resistance of a unit volume of a material
e.g. the number of ohms resistance per cubic cm. It would not matter how
many cubic cm of say copper we had, the resistivity is always the same per
unit volume. So, resistivity is a constant for a given material at constant
temperature and unlike resistance can be looked up in tables.

Conductivity

This is the inverse of resistivity:

.,
G = ..L or _,_ (units Siemen/mm)
RA .p
Like resistivity, conductivity is a fixed value for a unit cube of material. It
would not matter how many cubic cms of copper we had, conductivity
remains a constant for a given material at constant temperature and may be
looked up in tables.

Summary

The use of regular measurement of conductivity in seimens per mm is im-

, , practical for NOT; how could you measure the length and cross sectional
area of an aircraft wheel hub for example? We could cut a section into a
cube .,. but then it is not a non-destructive test and of no use to us! Hence
.. , the use of the simple I.A.C.S. comparative system for NOT.

Permeability

Wilhelm Weber propounded the theory that materials are made up of micro-
scopic magnetic "domains" - the smallest particles of an element which
exhibit North and South seeking poles. In the unmagnetized state the
magnetic moments of these domains lie in a random or haphazard fashion,
but upon being subjected to a magnetising force, they begin forming into
lines of magnetic flux and the material exhibits the total effect of the North
and South seeking poles. The number of lines of magnetiG.f!.u'5.per unit area
is referred to as flux densi!X relatea"'fCnl1e~ nLtmoei'''QrcfOrTiains peTTihit cI"Q.?s
~1ioJ1. PermeaDility IS the ease wlttIWhtcl1-a matenal can be magnetised -
the ease of domain alignment. It may be expressed as a ratio~ B/H where B
is the flux density in the material caused by a magnetising force in the air H.
(Fig 21

2-4
 ,
1 Unm.gnetiud
J

-- - ---
...J
------
---.:r5li3-----Flu;--=---
------
-- ----
- - - --
Oomalns Randomly
Orlenlated

Domain LIning Up

Density .• N of linn/unit area

, Magnetic Domain Theory

..J
FIG 2
.1

"
,
Magnetic flux density
+B

a saturation point

Residual magnetism
b

r I
/....+---- Reluctance
Magnetizing Magnetizing
Force -H --------::;;---l"l-'~+-------- +H Force
1 '

L Coercive force
, .
i l

u
,,r '
,
'-' -8
Magnetic flux density
r I
i i

Hysteresis Loop
f ~
FIG 3
L
2-5
 12. Hysteresis Loop: The hysteresis loop of a material is a graphical representa-
tion of the magnetic properties of a material and is formed by plotting the
changes in flux density (6) against variations in the magnetising force (H) as
shown in Fig 3 .

13. Starting at 0 with the material in the unmagnetising condition and increasing
the magnetising force, the flux density increases with domain alignment as
shown by the dotted line until point "a" is reached beyond which any in-
crease in the magnetising force will not increase the flux density here all
domains are now aligned. At this point the material is magnetically saturat-
ed. If the magnetising force is reduced to zero again, the flux density reduc-
es to point "b". The value of the flux density at position "b" represents the
amount of residual magnetism,remnance or retentivity remaining in the
material some domains remain aligned. When the magnetising force is re-
versed and increased in value, the flux density reduces to zero at point "c"
as all domains are once again haphazardly orientated and the coercive force
(the reverse magnetising force required to remove the residual magnetism) is
represented by the line O-C. Increasing the magnetising force still further
1 results in saturation point being reached at point "d", but this time in the
opposite polarity to that at point "a". On reducing the magnetising force to
zero again, the amount of residual magnetism is indicated by the position of
point "e". · .

When the magnetising force is again reversed and increased in value, the
flux density reaches zero at point "f" and then increases in the opposite
~
1'. ---polarity until saturation at point "a" is reached. The magnetising force and
\.:f.7 flux density throughout the cycle and this is called hysteresis . The area in
the hysteresis loop represents lost energy used to overcome the movement
., of the domains through 360 0 each cycle and exhibits itself as heating of the
material. Fig 4 shows two hysteresis loops for low and high permeability
materials.

Slender loop Wide loop

+H -H +H
-H

-8 -B

'-'

: : Soft Iron Hard Steel

~
(high fJ) (low fJ)

.- FIG 4
2-6
 !
-'

14.Whe~ [a .coil is place? ~n a material Of high permeability, the amount of flux'

density In the matenal IS greater than that produced solely by the coil, due to
i the a~ditiona l flux densi~y crElat~d by the magnetic domains. within th~ ' J
'. r:natenal , In non magnetic matenals the amount of flux denSity and hence
eddy currents is directly related to the magnetising force of the coil and any
change in the eddy currents is caused by the conductivity of the material or
the magnetising force of the co il. As can be seen from the line O-a in fig 2-
3, permeability 'is a varying factor and as such produces a variable effect on
the eddy currents. ,In a material of high permeability this effect may mask
defect indications. Problems iNheninspEl"ctihg materials .of high' permeability
,can sometimes be overcome by using saturation probes! which are discussed
'in a later chapter, but these are not generally used in the inspection of air-
c~ft. '

15. Relative Permeability Inspectors will come across the term "relative perme-
ability· rather than just "permeability" in their studies. Relative permeability
is unitless. Permeability 11 is the ratio of B in Gauss or Tesla divided by H in
ampere turns or .oersteds. Clearly, the units of permeability become complex
so relative permeability 11 is always used in ca lculations for NOT. Permeabili-
ty has its units removed, 'simply by dividing 8 and H both by 11 the perme-
ability of free space (Po = 4" x 10 .7) so: 0

11 = .JL whereas 11 = ..JJiJJ. (unitless)

H ' H I1100

16. Due to the problems when inspecting high permeability aircraft parts, an
alternative method of NOT (e.g. Magnetic Particle inspection) would normally
be used. Some permeability values are:
,
Copper 1 Cast Steel 175
Air 1 High Alloy Steel 750
Aluminium 1 Stainless Steel 1.02
Plastic 1
Stainless Steel 1.02

17. Ferrous, Non-ferrous, Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic Materials

Ferromagnetic When a material exhibits a strong attraction to ' a magnet we

call it ferromagnetic. It is easy to align the magnetic domains and therefore
easy to magnetise. It may have high retentivity, or it may not. Such materi-
als always have a high permeability but the volume and shape of the hyster-
esis loop may differ from one type of ferromagnetic material to another.

Paramagnetic Material The addition of small quantities of chromium to

ferromagnetic material turns it into stainless steel and it become non-ferrous .
However, the domains of the fe rrous steel have not disappeared . The add i-
tive elements, (chrome, in the case of stainless steel) have merely held most
of the domains in a rigid fixed haphazard orientation . Some domains are
in ariably free to orientate, although only a small percenta ge of the original
dOl'1ain s of the parent ferromagnet ic steel. We call this mLiterial paramagnet-
ic as it "tends" towards being ferromagnetic. (viz. paramedic, parachute,
paralegal) . Although we physically cannot feel an attraction to the magnet by
this material it is still there and in the weightlessness of space would be
observed attracted slightly to a magnet.

, ,
2-7
 Diamagnetic Materials Two or three elements show the surprising tendency
to be slightly repelled by magnetism. In these materials you can imagine a
few domains actually turning to a position 90° to the flux lines resulting in a
permeability less than 1! Gold and Iodine are known to exhibit this character-
istic making them diamagnetic.

These three types of magnetic material are described in Figure 5 which

shows their inter-relationship with non-ferrous permeability materials such as
plastic, aluminium, copper, wood etc.

H
FIG 5

Frequency

18. When a hiqh frequency current flows through a conductor, the electrons
tend to flow at the surface (Fig 6). This is known as "skin effect". As the
freQuency increases. the current flows closer to the surface. I his phenome-
non also applies to eddy currents; therefore, changing the frequency of the
current through the coil will alter the depth of penetration of the eddy cur-
rents (Fig 7).

StaN &P'P'£CT

AC

DC
~

~ \
FIG 6
2-8
~
 ,
;
;
J

1 00%
.J

37%~----1---~~

Attenuation and Phase Lag of Eddy Currents Penetrating

into a Conductive Material

FIG 7
.,
; 19. h rrents reduce in stren th ex onentially as they penetrate deeper
into the material until they reach a point were t e sensitivity 0 e signa
makes it difficult to detect small defects. So a "Standard Depth of Penetra-
tion'" is necessar to determine a de th at which the sensitivi of the si nal
remains powe u enoug to etect e ects 0 a slgni lcant y sma magni-
tude. Thus the "Standard Depth of Penetration" IS defined as "that POint
WItflin a material where the strength of the eddy currents has decayed to
37% of the strength of those at the surface of the material" and may be
calculated using the formula:

Dp = 503 ..; L mm
I
. . Ji.f

. where i
Dp = Depth of penetration (mm)
P = Resistivity of material under test ....
Ji = Permeability of material under test
f = Frequency of coil current (Hz)

." Resistivity is found be determining the conductivity (%IACS) and using the
formula:

p = 1.7241
/ % lACS

The frequency for a given thickness may be arrived at by trans posing the Dp
formula to give:
r-----------------~

f(Hz) = 4.36 x 105

Dp2 X % lACS x Ji

2-9
 ;
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From the previous formulas it can be seen that the factors that affect the
depth of penetration of the eddy currents are:
a. Material conductivity \
(increased conductivity = decreased Dp) \
i
J b. material permeability 1\,
':
(increased permeability = decreased Dp) ; .;

. I
c. Coil current frequency
(increased frequency = decreased Dp)

NOTE During some eddy current inspections we are not concerned with the
effects of thickness/thinness in fact geometric thickriess changes will cause
spurious indications. Typically, in conductivity testing of thin materials it is
important to note that the material thickness must exceed three "standard
depths of penetration" to avoid conductivity errors due to geometry effects.
Three "standard depths of penetration" is known as the "effective depth of
penetration" for it is at this depth and greater that geometry will not cause
significant errors.

20. Eddy Current test sets designed to detect surface cracks usually operate at
very high frequencies, perhaps as high as 5MHz. Generally, it is not possible
to vary the frequency when using these sets. Although they will not detect
sub-surface defects, they are extremely sensitive to surface defects.

21. Low (variable) frequency test sets have become increasingly popular in
recent years. The frequency range of these sets is usually in the order of
100Hz to the higher kHz. They are capable of detecting cracks and corro-
sion In remote layers 01' mUlti-layer structure although crack sensitivity will
not be as high as with surface crack detectors. In many cases these variable
frequency test sets have been used to replace radiographic techniques in
detecting cracks and corrosion in multilayer structure. Below is a table
which gives depths of penetration for different materials at various frequen-
cies.

Material Conductivity Permeability Depth of Penetration (mm)

% lACS 100Hz 1KHz 500KHz lMHz

Copper 100 1 6.6033 2.0882 0.093 0 .066

Magnesium 37 1 10.865 3.433 0.153 0 .108

Aluminium 32 1 11.673 3.691 0 .164 0.116

Cast Steel 10.7 175 1.526 0.482 0.016 0.015

. High Alloy Steel 2.9 750 1.416 0.448 0.016 0 .015

:
Stainless Steel 2.5 1.02 41.352 13.077 0 .585 0.413
.,
Note: In separating "high frequency inspection" from "lOW frequency inspec-
tion" there is no frequency rated criteria; we general term "high frequency
inspection" when we are seeking surface breaking discontinuities and "low
frequency inspection" when we are seeking sub-surface le.g. 2nd layer)
defects.

2-10
 Geometry
, 22. A change in the geometry of a specimen will affect the eddy current field as
-'
the probe passes over it. This factor sometimes poses problems as cracks
often occur where there is a chan e of section. Scans £lQng a uniform
c ange 0 section eg w ee ea seat ra IUS can be carried out without
difficulty provided the probe/change of section orientation remains the same.
However. scanning across a change of section may cause changes in the
eddy current field which results in violent meter needle fluctuations. It then
becomes difficult, if not impossible, to differentiate between fluctuations due
to cracks and those due to the change of section. Also, when the coil is
brought close to an edge the eddy current field becomes distorted. This is
generally known as edQe effect or end effect. However, fcracks 'runningfrom'
\ !l~ge can be detected by balancin) the equipment and Scaiinmgsarefully '
~ a~the edge at 'a unifqr.~ disJ.il..nce ro~ It. . -
23. The effect of 80 edge sharp chaoge of section or curve. effectively reduces
the volume of conductive material that will support eddy currents so less
eddy currents will be generated. This results in an upward meter movement
for It is similar to the characteristics of a crack in reducin r t
strengt (see Figure 8). Similarly, the thinning of material will reduce the
available volume of conductive material for induction of the eddy currents.
The reverse is true as we approach an increasing volume of material or move
the probe into a concave part of the specimen. Here a downscale movement
will result. Important When moving into an increasing volumetric area, the meter
must be readjusted continuously to maintain meter response at zero or positive.
Scanning_with nega!Lv.e meter readin.gs reduces ~sl~tY~19 d~t§c,ts__!l_o.g !!J.l!.st
b~ided. ~- -

Q '-, ' ........~

Meter Response to Changing Geometry

.FIG 8
2·"
 Proximity

24. As the coil is moved away from the surface of a specimen, the strength of
the eddy current field weakens dramatically with the result that there IS a
change in impedance in the coil. This change may cause a large meter
needle deflection for a small amount of movement of the coil from the
specimen. This IS generally known as "lift off" and could cause needle fluc-
tuations when scanning over paint of an uneven thickness (Fig 9). In prac-
tice, lift-off does not usually cause problems as it can be compensated for
either automatically through the test set circuitry or manually by providing
lift-off control on the set. However some test s stems are s ecificall
designed to make use of the lift-off e ect an can e use 10 accurately
measure paint or other non-conducting coating thickness.

Reduction in Eddy Current Strength with Lift-off results

in Positive Meter Movement unless Lift-off is Compensated

FIG 9

,
')

2-12
 Discontinuities

25. Discontinuities, such as cracks and corrosion, cause a distortion of the eddy
current field due to the fact that the eddy currents have to flow around
them, This results in an increased resistance path and a corresponding
..seduction in eddy current strength. A positive meter reading will result.
'::;>vrtf!ce crack leng!!U;:l'I,Q..be asses.s"eJLquite=e.a$J.ly, but it is not possible_~o
!accuratel\i: ileterminecrack d!1.p.1ti, despite the fact thaCusuaily the'deeper
"
tne cracl<:the greater the meter needle deflection. (Note: some text books
will correlate defect depth to phase angle change. Whilst this appears logical
in theory, in practice this is very inaccurate and can only be used for relative
sizing of defect depth i.e. larger than .. . smaller than .. , etc.) However. to
ensure that inspections are carried out at a known standard, calibration
blocks with artificial defects are used. These blocks which should be of
similar material specification (alloying, heat treatment, conductivity) and
thickness to the component under test, are known a "Standard Calibration
Blocks". "Standard Sensitivity Blocks" and even, in some instances, as
"Reference Standards". By calibrating the test set to give a set amount of
meter needle deflection from one of the artificial defects, an inspection can
J
be carried out repeatedly to the same standard. A standard calibration block
is shown in fig 10.

i
0.2 rom
J

0.5 mm

Slits at
varying depths

Standard Calibration Block

FIG 10

26. Failure to ensure calibration blocks are of the same material as the components
under test, and more specifically the percentage lACS, conductivity will result in
over or under sensitivity and poor technique control. A reasonable lACS accura·
cy would be +/- 10% or better. However, for repeated inspections it is always
best to have the same :;on ductivity standard calibrati on blocks. In the case of
low frequency test fo r c orrosion, the cali bration block may take the f orm of a
step-wedge. This type of block is often used for calibration prior to carrying out
an inspection for corrosion. In many instances calibration blocks, or test pieces.
are manufactured to meet a specific inspection and are exactly representative of
the structure under examination. The original equipment manufacturer normally
supplies these sometimes complex test pieces as they will contain original struc·
ture and fasteners and artificial defects typical of reject criteria for the inspec-
tion.

2-13
 27. Other Uses for Calibration Pieces/Blocks As well as the obvious purpose of
establishing uniform calibration amongst operators at different parts of the
globe, calibration pieces/blocks serve two other important purposes:

a. they establish the equipment's capability to detect the defects sought,

and;

b. they allow the operator to repeatedly reassure himself that all is well
during prolonged inspection of large areas when no signals are re-
ceived .

Probe Handling

28 . In aerospace nondestructive testing where the majority of inspections utilise the

hand held surface contact coil method, the influence of a bad probe handling
techniQue cannot be over emphasised and justifies being mentioned several
times in these notes. It is here that skills are developed and false reports of
defects are common. In fact the whole ability of the inspector to reliably inter-
., pret signals heavily depends on this single factor and his recognition of other
factors influencing signals discussed in this chapter as he handles his probe.

29. Due attention must be given to the angle at which the probe is presented to the
test surface, the hand pressure exerted upon the probe and even the effect of
hand capacitance upon the coil field .

..:

..J

2-14
 Depth of Penetrantion Calculation Record Sheet

Enter here the results from Depth of Penetration calculations for each frequency and
lACS combination.

Depth of Penetration (mm)

%I.A.C.S.

10 20 30 40 50
F = Hz

100,000 c ,bE'> 6, L\ b7 6 , ~t 61"7"?

(100 kHz) , "\"
1>?9 -

j 10,000
(10 kHz) ~ 1 o&S \ ('11 L If l-
"
If ot.l<:J Ot ~1 ~

1,000
bJ, q\c" S,«!,l
(1 kHz)
~f ~ "2, I q[

400
,;
-'
l 0, 'i '-l \I., 7,1'6 (l o '/,..1 ,
fh ~ I ~:r

~ 1 ()11
"/ ~ l
300 11., 6f"8 ~r~
, -.1')7

200
\l.L 7} I \) )~ I..f &,I } --1;-~ ~ ( ~, ~

.J 100 J..p,'il~r \t-I,rr l ~ IDe t ll l LI~ 4,">t-I

2-15
 I. l. _ . ....: L .. L __ . . .; 1 __ _ L ,." . l ._. . _ L _.. t. L ,_. l .. L .. ... ... __ .' l,. . , ~

ALUMINUM BRONZE
~I
PH OR BRONl

IUM

:; :;0
CONDUCTlVITY"t. I.A .C.S.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF VARIOUS METALS

AND ALLOYS
TABLE 1

'"....I
'"
 I. L ... , l. L .._, L ... L_.._: L . L_ .. J \. '"Ii
Q
,
0
'2" 5~·
j
- _... ' ... L _ ., .. ..---. .- T ._....... . -.... •~ ..- L .... , I..

PURE T6
115
o
?
I
Irs I
,. 145

l
l4 I 35-
0

. "'
245
.-=
;'~-i-';.•-.-~-;
25
--I D
,. Q HI!' 0
220 5SS A
[EJ
14
CJ
liJa 0
t -1 T4 "f6 o
755 ~OE 380
AM-26~
A~M
m!HE ,- I
Ia Q ",. :r"" '" PURE
AM·260 All7
l1li ~ !. _, J

-
.
AM·240 319 113 BI95 -'hI I

_ j." [;~'-";I ly:,rW~;1:'!:1

T4 T6 CAST ~NNEAL£a
~M·2. 1 AM'2H 218 85 108 214 3351
iii II ~ mil ~. ewj~1 ....I+·'\~''':''
.J:. ~t.*''!I oro o WROUGHT ALUMINuM
AM'C58S
I,; ";,~~;:fI fuq CAST ALUMINUM

AM-C65S
tS'J WAOUGHT MAGNESIUM

o • CAST MAGNESiUM

AM-C~7S AM'C52S
NuMBERS ABOVE SQUARES ARE
EI 15,1
!l:Ll TRADE DESIGNATIONS
J$ · I NUMBERS BELOW SQUARES ARE
o CONDITIONS OF MATER'AL

70
CONDUCTIVITY !' I.A.C.S.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF ALU:MINUM AND

MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
TABLE 2

...'"
I
-.j
 ,
~

, I
l i
· 1 j
· '-'
CHAPTER 3
!
I , "'
,: J
; I COILS AND PROBES
U

, -1
General
! I
i l
- '-' 1. In all forms of eddy current testing, the eddy currents are induced into the
specimen being tested by a coil and changes in the eddy currents are sensed
by the same or a different coil. The coil therefore plays a very Important
part of any eddy current testing system. Coils are designed for use with
particular test sets which are compatible with their circuitry. The three main
types of calls which are used are:
· f 1
,
~
a. :, Surface coils
-I I b. Encircling coils
,U
c. 'Internal (inserted) coils _
: )
i ;
U
(j) Surface Coils

,,, ..
I
2. Surface coils are normally used on the surface of a material with the coil axis
normal to the material surface. Fig 1 shows such a coil. A probe consists of
;
'--' a coli or coils mounted in a suitably shaped case. Probes can be used either
close to or In contact With the mater@ being tested. They are hand held for
i: Ii most aircraft inspections, but may be automated. Probes can be manufac-
U tured to suit any particular requirement.

,· ,,
: !
'-'

,,
I I
,
,~

11\\ , ' ' \ '

\ , ~-.
,
U
I I "" \ \ I/ ~. \ \
· ,i
I 1 \ \
, I \\',
,, C'l
01
Magne t·1C F'1e ld
, ,
I II[ i!.-'-'_1 ,
1/1 c:. I • :;:r; III
I .
~

III ~ I ,I, k""-----

; , I I c;, ~. ;.!,; III
I I J
il llr.' L 1 II
w I I
\\~
' \
\,/11\'/1
\ ~/
, . ~
,,, ..-
\ ..,/ I /
\ I \ ~
U ....' '-'" 4-- Material
under test
· -.,
-
·, ;.
..J

! !
; [
~

,r I'
j ~
Surface Coil
,,
; i FIG 1
; i
, ~

,r .: 3-1
U
· 1

'High Frequency Surfai:eProbe~

3. These probes are very sensitive to surface cracks and corrosion and for the
majority of applications, three basic designs, as shown in Fig 2 are used,
they are:
,
- a. ', Pencil'. (or standard) probes

b. fSpade (or knife) probes

c. Bolt-hole probes (available in a range of diameters)

- --------\
~

Pencil Probe Coil

Spade Probe (spatula, knife, 90°)
.,;

I
j

.J
~

Bolt-hole Probe

FIG 2

,,
, 3-2
-'
 4. Pencil and spade probes are used depending on access to the specimen or, if
no access problems, the preference of the operat or. Bolt-hole probes are
available in a range of sizes and as their name implies. are used to inspect
bolt holes . They are sensitive to both laminar and longitudinal cracks in hole
bores. Other standard probes are also available.

..I 5. Although the probes already mentioned are suitable for most surface crack
inspections, sometimes it may be necessary. to manufacture a special probe
for a particular task. This usually involves designing a suitable probe in order
j to present the coil at the desired angle to the component under test.

6. The bolt-bole probe mentjoned at paragraoh 3 is sometimes known as an

"Inside Surface Probe". It is sensitive to cracks in all directions and can
- locate the radial position of a crack. Fig 3 shows an inside surface probe.
,;
,.;

l
J

Locate radial position of

t
;
internal discontinuities.
'"

,,;
,
J
..J

Inside Surface Coil (Bolt-hole Pro bel

FIG 3

3-3
 l, Low Frequency Surface Probes J:

7. Low frequency surface -probes have become increasingly popular in recent

years for use in detecting sub-surface cracks and corrosion. They are nor-
mally used with variable frequency test sets and each probe is designed to
operate over a stated range of frequencies. The contact part of a low fre-
quency probe is flat, in cootrastto the pointed end of a high frequency ,
,probe. Typical low. frequency probes are shown in Fig 4. iLow frequency':
: probes vary in size depending on 't heir frequency range.' Generally, the lower
,the fceguency, the lar~er the probe, The contact face of' a low frequency ;
probe may be as sma as Imm diameter or may be in excess of 25mm.

i,
;
~

,
J

"

.J

,
;
j

Typical Low Frequency Probes

FIG 4
,
~

3-4
 8, The probe shown in Fig 5 is a later development of low frequency probes,
Called a ,'ring probe"., it is designed to detect cracks propagating from fas-
:'1:ener holes in multi-layer structure with the fasteners installed, Although' the
position or direction of a crack cannot be established with the rjng probe,
this can usually be determined, if required, using a conventional low fre-
quency probe, by scanning circumferentially in close proximity to the fasten-
.J er,

clear plastic centre

to assist centring
over fastener

Ring Probe

FIG 5

C9:'-Encircling Coils ',

9, As their name suggests, encircling coils encircle the specimen being tested,
as shown in Fig 6, These coils are not generally used for the inspection of
aircraft structure but are used' as a'rt of a roduction rocess to ra idl test
:rod, wire, round bar and even tubing, ' When uSln enclr In 1 -
' currents travelclrcumferentlallaround the bar and will be disru ted b
: ongltu IDa crac s. , nClrc IDg COl shave t e \' Isa vantage of not being able
to determine the radial position ,of a crack as well as being mainly sensitive
.only to longitudinal cracks, The ring probe mention'ed earlier is sometimes
referred to as an encirCling probe.

Coil Magnetic Field

Eddy currents travel

---- - - - "
, \
circumferentially round
bar

j \ }
J J
,

.J 'n- j f I
, ( I ' J )
I l
/
, -
./
\'-"

-- - -
.- - . - ' ./
./

,,, --"""
~

Encircling Coil

FIG 6
3-5
 (2)hternal Coils

10. These differ from encircling coils in that they are placed inside a hollow
specimen. They are frequently the main source of condenser chiller or boiler
tube inspection. Like encircling coils, Lthey are mainl sensitive to Ion itudiri;
!
i al cracks 'and 'cannot locate the radial osition ese cal s
.J are woun ' on ,a sUlta e mandrel and are sometimes used in aircraft inspec-
tions. \.TheY are ofte'n known as "Bobbin" probes. An example is shown in
Fig 7. '

I
~
I

j
i

Eddy currents travel

circumferentially

1 around bore of hole

.,
I

Internal Coil (Bobbin Probe)

FIG 7

Fill Factor

11 . When using encircling and internal bobbin ' probes, their efficiency is dramati-
call affected b the roximit of the coil windin s to the material bein
teste . Ike II - 0 ,call prOXimity nee s to e minimise. e e IClency of
theWindin either surroundin or fillin the s ecimen is known as "Fill Fac-
tor" and is ex ressed as either a ercenta e fi ur or eClm num
(always less than 100% or less than 1) . Fill Factor is determined by the
ratio of the diameters squared.

IFill Factor = d'/D' I

The smaller diameter is always on the to p of t he rat io.

'1 ,,

i
3-6
J
 Coil Magnetic Fields
,j 12, When inspecting for cracks in some structures and components it is essential
.1 that they can be detected at a very early stage of their growth in order that
components can be replaced before cracks grow to a critical size when
1 failures may occur. Also, in some cases, if the crack is small enough' the
J component can be repaired easily by blending or, in the case of a crack in a
hole bore, the hole can be drilledand reamed oversize. For these reasons,
"
eddy currents coils and test sets are designed to detect the smallest possible
j defects. As can be seen in Fig 8 the smaller the area of influence of the coil
magnetic field (and hence the eddy current field), the smaller will be the
crack that will affect that field. The coils generally used with high frequency
test sets are therefore designed to produce very small, dense eddy current
fields .

i Large field crack has " . Small concentrated field crack"

~ Iittle sensitivity, : : has large sensitivity;: ,

i
..i

Plan View of Surface Coil Eddy Current Fields

FIG 8

Ferrite Core Probes

, Winding the coil on a ferrite core has the effect of nof'onl¥ 'concentrating,:the
..J
i Ima netic field towards the c6re but als6 increasin - the fluj( densi of the'
'magnetic Ie ,': ' e induced eddy current field from such a coil is con-
"
, centrated into a small area which makes it highly sensitive to small cracks,
,, At high frequencies the sensing diameter of a probe coil can be assumed to
..i
be equal to coil diameter.

i Air Core Probes

.J
14. Where a larger eddy current field is required, an air core probe is sometimes
used . In this instance the coil is wound on a material which has the same
permeability as air. The magnetic field from such a coil !s the same ~s t~at
from a coil without a core and covers an area of approXimately 1 Call Dia-
meter + 4 Dp. Fig 9 shows the magnetic f ield s associated-with ferrite and
air core cot/s ,

-,

3-7
 ,
j

1
oJ

",- .... , .....

I
/ /'-"',
~,'
\ /
",..-

....
~-,,,
-" \

I I I .:.;...;...:".. \ \ \
I f .J-I-Lt. • I, I
I
II, I/r
~

• ,TT" '.. I / I

"
- I \ •

...i
,i
\ \

.... '--
_-"
/1\'-/1
" ,-' .... _" /

Air Core Ferrite Core

Coil Magnetic Fields

FIG 9

Shielded Coil Probes

15, Shielded coils as shown in Figs 10 and 11 have the effect of shielding the
coil magnetic field, th,ere,by ~rodu~in,g a "!Jni"directioni'!I",fielcj, It ,also c~n­
Cemfi'!!,eS" the mClgnetlcfleld In a slmllClr, manner to a fernte core, iLow fre?
J quency s,u rface probes general!) use shielded coils, which permit worklnlJ'
\,nearer to edge before suffering rom "Edge Effect";. "
16, Hi h fre uenc shielded core robes are fairl common toda and are shield-
...i
e y h'lu metl! or stain liss stee seat s, u meta Wit Its Ig
permeability acts in a similar way to ferrite 'shielding on low frequency
probes but is stronger and not brittle, Stainless steel sheaths carry generat-
ed eddy currents which in themselves prevent magnetic fields from leaVing
the probe,

..J
!

Coil Windings , ••0--_ _ mu metal or

around ferrite stainless steel
core

i
J
", '.~<
Pr obe Tip Set i n Epo x y
~
i
High Frequency Shielded Core Probe

FIG 10
"

,
3-8
 Ferrite "pot" core

.J

Low Frequency Shielded Core Probe

FIG 11
Saturation Probes

17. As stated in an earlier chapter, testing' materials of high,. permeabilitY using

~eddy current can, give rise to problems due to large flux changes occurring in
~he material with small changes occurring in the coil current. These prob-
lems are 'sometimes overcome by 'winding a d« coil around ,he ac eddy
current coil and passing sufficient current through it to 'magnetically saturate
the material being tested. When the material 'is magnetically saturated it will
behave as though it were non-ferrous as the moments of the magnetic
"domains" are held aligned. These probes are common in ferrous tubing
inspection and may employ permanent magnetic or electromagnetic to locally
~aturate the ferrous material with lines of flux. \'rney"are ncifgeii'erally used; in
,{the inspection of aircraft and one would neeato ' considei'demagnetisation
!:proceduresif this method were ElVerta be employed. ~n alternative NDT ;
'method is normally used to test high permeability aircraft components,

18. It is important to appreciate that all steels contain magnetic domains in large
numoers. The domains are rigidly held in position by the addition of chrome
to ferromagnetic steel thereby making it Paramagnetic. Equally rigid align-
ment of the domains with a DC flux removes any hysteresis from the eddy
current test and penetration of the ferromagnetic material for corrosion
detection is similar to that of stainless steel tubing.

19. An example of this application follows. The material to be tested is steel

tubing, 3mm wall thickness, permeability 400, conductivity 2.8%IACS.

Dp = 3mm tJ r = 400 cr = 2.8%IACS

DC Saturation

f = 4.36 X 10 5 = 43.3 Hz! f = 4.36 X 105 = 173 KHz!

2
400 x 3 x 2.8 1 X 32 X 2.8

Conventional approach with saturation by DC

magnet or DC coil

Result: I)ot enough frequency Result: strong eddy currents

to general eddy currents with full penetration at high ,
frequency 3-9

"
 i
-,
-l

...J
i
20. Further explanation of this can be seen in figure 12 showing the change in
!
permeability as saturation is approached with superimposed eddy current ac
hysteresis loops .
J
·-1
I B
J DC Satura tion
Curve -.,u. - 8

J
Increasing ~.A~ 100
~ Domain
~
Alignment .----- Incremental Eddy Current
Hysteresis Loop

- .I'-' = 200

-,
, DC Field 8

,
Incremental Permeability of Sample with Increasing Magnetising Force
---'
FIG 12
21. Factors Effecting Eddy Current Probe Performance

Ferrite length
Chips in Ferrite
Position and shape of coil (lD/OD/length)
Non-uniform windings
Lift-off (wear on ferrite tip)
No. of turns
Temperature
Inductance value (see formula)
Shielding
Frequency
Ferrite Permeability Ji

Inductance value of a long coil typical of a high frequency proprietary probe:

~Lo = 4" x 10- 10 JlfN' A] I)

Lo = Self inductance in Henries (in Air)

Ji , = relative permeability of core
A = Coil's cross sectiona l area mm 2
I = Coil length mm
N = No. of turns
i
..J

1
i
..J

3-10
 CHAPTER 4

.)
: COIL ARRANGEMENTS

General

1. In order to gain an understanding of the terminology used later in this course

let us now consider the many different types of coil arrangements.

fSincile Absolute Coil' I

2. In this arrangement the same coil is used to induce eddy currents into a
material and to sense changes in the eddy currents . This .isthe type of coil
arrangement vvhichlslgenerally used In high frequency surface .probesJI¢
used for hand scanning. Fig' shows a single absolute coli.

Encircling Surface

Single Absolute Coil Arrangement

" FIG 1

Double Absolute Coil '

3. This arrangement uses two coils as shown in Fig 2. One coil induces the
J eddy currents into he material and the other senses changes in the eddy .
currents . As changes In the eddy currents are measured directly, wlthout' a
companso~·, this is termed an · Absolutf:1': .arrangement and may even be
u

'referred to 'as a " Reflection System". [probes with double coils are usually
~emperature stable~· · '

~ .~ ORIvjU,
PICKUP

:
I~ ,'
1 PICKUP ORIV.CWP I~
,,
I / ' I

,,
,,,
,
DRIVER

--'\..
"

Double Absolute Coil Arrangement

FIG 2
4-1
J

[Single Differential Coil ?

, 4. In this arrangement the same coil is uSed to induce,the eddy' currents and to
~

', sense changes in the eddy currents. - ",he coil' is divided into halves, each
, half being wound in the opposite direction to, "and _ h ' sicall se arated from;
,'eot er, as s own In If' . S eac a 0 t e CO l IS woun to oppose
~
the other, an Indication 0 the meter/CRT will only be obtained if the material
"
condition under one half is different to that under the other half.

5. A problem will therefore be undetected if the problem is a gradual change of

say dimensions or conductivity through production of many hundreds of
". meters of material. Equally, a continuous defect will only be located when
entering and leaving the coils .

"

Encircling Surface

,i
~ Single Differential Coil Arrangement

FIG 3

!Double Differential Coil "

"

6. This arrangement differs from the single differential coil arrangement in that
two coils are used in Fig 4. One coil is used to induce the eddy currents and
the other to sense the changes .

tnc:1rcl in 9
,_JI\"\_-.
I'~ I pickup
I I
'1
, I
"n , I
·Picltup Dri ver
I.: I
II I
\
~
~

1:1
:I
Id
I I I
I: I il :! : SUrtJlce

, : : I I I' t I

..; \_ ~ ,. ~ .N'·. /
Dd yor
"v
~

Double Differential Coil Arrangement

..J
FIG 4

7. Differential coil arrangements are now common in aerospace applications.

' Close proximity to -edges, ferrous fasteners and geometric changes can be ;-
...;
I-accomplished withvery little ,spurious indications provided thel coils are/ '
correctly orientated during scanning ,,· Note: there is no advant age ih double
'1
" differential surface coil arrangements, in having the driver coil differentially
wound . In fact this is detrimental to sensitivity as the eddy currents would
be travelling in opposition to each other.

4-2
 : Self Comparative System

8. This arrangement consists of either a single or double differential coil which

compares one part of a specimen with another part of the same specimen.
Typical examples are shown in Figs 3 and 4.

'External Comparative System

9. This arrangement is similar to the self comparative system but in this in-
stance the specimen is compared with a reference piece. This is achieved by
winding one half of the coil on the specimen under test and the other half on
the reference piece. An example of an external comparative arrangement is
shown in Fig 5. This system eliminates the danger of zeroing the differential
coil on a thin, even defect which runs the full length of the component under
test, and would thus give no indication of a defect when using the self
comparative differential system. Perhaps more importantly, this coil ar-
rangement will detect gradual changes in dimensions and conductivity.

1 Production Test Material

..,
~~~~'er;fec:t Reference
Encircl.inq
Surface Accurate
Conductivity
Measurement Coil

Test Material
Perfect
Reference Piece

.J

External Comparative Coil Arrangement

. ,i FIG 5

10. External comparative systems are almost unknown for surface coil~. Howev-
er, one application used for high sensitivity mate rial sorting is sho~n. A,s
,.;
with ti',e encirciing arrang ement it cannot be used f or other matenals Without
replacement of the reference sample material.
~

4-3
 j
CHAPTER 5
-,,
, PRACTICAL EDDY CURRENTS
..;

General
,i
..J
1. This chapter discusses t ypical ways in which Eddy Currents are used in the
inspection of aircraft structures. The procedures are of a general nature and
are intended only for guidance. As test sets vary from one manufacturer to
j another, it is emphasised that the particular manufacturer's operating in-
structions should be followed .

High Frequency Crack Detectors

Calibration
i
;
..J 2. Calibration is normally carried out using the standard calibration block of
similar conductivity as follows:

a. If the test set does not automatically compensate for lift-off, this
would be carried out using the "lift-off" and "set zero" controls until
the needle remained in the same position with the probe both on and
off the surface of the block .
..;

b. The probe is placed on the block away from the EDM notches and the
needle is zeroed using the "Set Zero" control.
c. The probe is placed on the appropriate EDM notch and the "Sensitivi-
ty" control adjusted to give the required amount of needle deflection .
...i
d. Paragraphs band c are repeated until the needle remains at zero when
- , the probe is on the "defect free" area of the block and is deflected the
required amount when -the probe is on the EDM notch .
...
e. The audio/visual alarm setting, if required, can now be adjusted to
operate at the required threshold level.

3. For some tasks, special test pieces with artificial defects are used for calibra-
tion. These test pieces would probably be used where difficulty is experi-
enced calibrating on the standard calibration block, where the material is of a
special alloy, %IACS, or where it is necessary to simulate a defect more
-, accurately.

Balancing

4. When the probe is place on the specimen to be tested, it is necessary to

bring the needle to zero. However, it is possible that this may be done with
the probe on a crack. When using some equipments with a manual Set Zero
control, the needle will give a neg ative deflection if t he pro be has been
balanced on a crac k and is t hen mov ed awa y fro m it. How ever, when using
a test set with Automatic Zero, the needle will not be deflected w hen the
probe is moved off the cra ck. Therefore, when using automat ic Zero test
sets, the probe should be moved approximat ely 5mm away form the balance
..J
position on the specimen and then passed over it again. The needle will now
give a positive deflection as the probe passes over the crack.

5-1
1
I
J
Probe Handling

5. Ideally, the probe should always be held normal to the surface under inspec-
tion. ,:Scaris should be carried out with the probe' lightly ,touching', the SUr-
\ face. : Tfi~ probe shoUld not be pressed, on,t o the surface, as this offers n9
advantage and can result In damage ,to the probe ferrite core and/or the
', surface under test. ' When scanning along the edgesthepf05e 'should be ,
'kept a umform distance: from the edge, iotherwise meter fluctuations dueto
edge effect will give rise to interpretation difficulties " With practice, sc<:tns " "
can be carried out at a uniform distance from edges \using ,i"finger as ' a probe'
,. g~ide alth0!Jgh in some cases, a non-conducting jig or template is used for
tillS purposj:l.

6. It is not critical during scanning that the meter be maintained at zero, provid-
1
ed it is positive from zero during scanning and not allowed to drift too high.
! Discontinuity and other factors will be apparent from alarms or movement of
~ the meter. The meter should not be allowed to drift below zero when poor
sensitivity may result.

Scan Paths

6. Whenever possible, scans should be carried out so that they cross the ex-
pected crack direction. However. this is not always possible due to geomet-
ric conditions and in some cases, scans are carried out in the same direction
as the expected crack direction (See Fig 1).

Broken lines show scan paths

,, Scanning along anticipated Crack Direction

FIG 1

Paint
7. It is not generally necessary to remove paint finishes unless they are rough.
,.<'_uneven or chipped. However, if an extremely sensitive inspection is re-
fl~ ,.'J., quired, paint removal may be compulsory.
v_ V _v 1....0---1 .ve..
Flat Su rf<l.(:?'§' ~ - V

8. \OVhen looking for cracks on smooth flat surfaces, there are no troublesome
geometry changes to contend with. The equipment is zeroed with the probe
on the surface under test and the examination area inspected in a series of
parallel scans (raster pattern) at increments dependent on the size of cracks
being sought, as shown in Fig 2.

5-2
 ,,
J

"
,
;
; Broken lines
~

sho" scan paths

! . ........ ' .. . ... . .. :',. . ...
' . ', , ',' '. . ... " .... ,' .. :" .: : .
J
,
~
; Cracks in Flat Surface

FIG 2

Areas Around Fasteners

9, When inspecting for cracks propagating from fastener holes, the scans
.J shown in Fig 4 would be carried out, The probe is :zeroed as close 'as possi-
ble to the head of the fastener and a circumferential scan carried out with
the probe a uniform distance from it, To ensure the probe is maintained a
uniform distance from the fastener head, a template made from non-conduct-
ing material can be used as shown in fig 3, This type of inspection would
only be used to detect cracks which have propagated beyond the fastener
head, (The fastener material determines how close scans can be carried out
to the fastener,) If it is necessary to find cracks in the bore of the hole, the
inspection would probably be, carried out with the fastener removed using a
bolt-hole probe. l'n some
cases cracks in the bore can be detected withlhe i
,fasten-ar fitted ,using ,ultrasoniC orif non-ferrous low frequency eddy cLirrent~'i

Template Broken lines show

- i Scan paths
Crack

-,
- • ', ' ; ' : : ,', ',' ',' " ' ,·w ' , ' , . , ' .
.
• .. '.' •• ', •• ' .... ' , ' , ', ",'.
: .... " :.', , ,' ,' ..

Cracks from Fastener Holes

FIG 3
, Radii
-'

10 When inspecting for cracks in a radius, the scan path adopted would depend
...;
on the sharpness of the radius under examination. When inspecting a large
radius as shown in fig 4A the scans can be carried out at right angles to the
radius, However, when inspecting a sharp radius such as that shown in fig
48 it is not possible to scan at right angles to the radius because of the large
meter deflections that would occur due to the change of section . In this
instance, scans would have to be carried out along the radius .
5-3
"',
i
 - i

Broken lines show

scan paths

!
-
'"'

I
B- ~harp ~d;:~J
Cracks in Radii

FIG 4
,,
,,
-
"
11. Eddy Currents are used extensively to detect cracks in bores of holes. When
inspecting small holes, the inspection is carried out in a series of scans using
..
a suitable diameter bolt-hole probe. As shown in f ig 5, the probe is used in
J conjunction with a locking collar which is adjusted for each scan. Edge '
effect is a problem when scanning holes in thin gauge material and at inter-
,, faces in multi-layer structure, so the use of a locking collar is essential.
.J
~ Locking collar

'A-B-;

Bolt-hole Probe with Locking Collar

FIG 5

12. Scans in larger diameter holes can be carried out in a similar manner using a
, , bolt-hole probe mounted in a suitable diameter mandrel as shown in fig 6.
,
..

As an alternative to re-setting the locking collar for each scan, suitable

thickness washers made from non-conducting material can be placed on the
mandrel under the locking collar to enable a series of scans to be carried out
at increments dependent on the thickness of the washers. Washers can be
used in the same manner .. w ith bolt-hole probes.

5-4
 Bolt-hole
Locking Collar Probe
-
~~~::~~::~jL----~
i

J Mandrel (dia
to suit hole
being examined)
~LL~~LL~LLLLLL~~~~

Bolt-hole Probe in Mandrel

FIG 6
13. Scans in countersinks are sometimes carried out using a sub-miniature pencil
probe in conjunction with a mandrel as shown in fig 7. Countersink probes
can be manufactured, but these are not widely used as a different probe is
.', required for each hole diameter and angle of countersink. Calibration prior to
, inspecting a countersink is sometimes carried out using a test piece in the
form of a countersink with an artificial defect cut into it.

'1
!
..J

Countersink Mandrel

FIG 7

'1 4 . The are<l aroun d (I hole can be inspected as already described in paragra,.,h 9,
or alternatively by using a mandrel as shown in fig 8. A fi'1ger can bp. used
as a probe guide when scanning around larger holes.

5-5
 J
I

,
j

Mandrel used as
a Probe Guide

1 Use of Non-conducting Mandrels

FIG 8

Care of Probes

15 , In common with all electrical equipment. 'probes 'are fragile and vulnerable to';
.J '~abuse~ Frequent checks should be made of the condition of probe wiring
ano-t:onnections. 'The tips of surface c'o ntact probes suffer: from erosion; ,
'p articularly where abrasive surfaces are encountered; and attention should i
, be given to minimise tiP erosiOrlby the judicious use of teflon;!eQ\!. acetate
" sheet or polythene, film beneath the protie tip when surfaces are being
examined .

- !

-'

5-6
 ,
1

\ Low Freguency Test Sets !Variable Freguencyl!

16. Although low frequency (variable) 'test sets have been available for many
years, their use has increased quite dramatically in recent years. In many
cases, inspections which have traditionally been carried out by radiography
are now being made with low frequency eddy currents. The likely reasons
for the increase in popularity can probably be put down to improvements in
test sets and probes . The newer test sets available are generally more stable
and easier to use than their predecessors which in many cases required their
probes to be jig held. Currently available test sets are used mainly to detect
corrosion and sub-surface cracks but they can also be used to measure
metallic thickness, conductivity and metallic and non-metallic coatings.

iCalibratipn ]

17. Calibration of low frequency test sets is carried out in a similar 'fashion to
high frequency test sets with the exception of a frequency selection. As
frequency is selectable, compensation 'for lift-off is carried out in accordance
with the manufacturers instructions, the flee.dle s!lould. b,e_a~...z,eL!Llo:V...bml on
the sound -part of the test piece and be deflected the requir~d~Hl]Q,\!m_w.!1en
placed oyer t~JLatfj'fi:t;:ta l::gJ!te'ct""netest pieces- use<ffOf"calibration vary
ana generally simulate the type of defect being sought. Owing to the variety
of tasks and thicknesses of structures that can be inspected, there is not a
-' standard calibration block as is used with high frequency crack detectors.
I, \Frei:lliency Selection ]

18. Frequency selection can be determined be using calculation or a graph as

that shown in fig 9 where depth of penetration, is plotted against frequency.
However, there is no substitute for practical experiment and it is often
worthwhile experimenting at various frequencies with a suitable test piece in
order that the calculated frequency for a particular task can be confirmed
and optimised.
[Probe Handling ,

19. The points already made concerning, balancing, probe handling, scan paths
and surface finish, also apply when using low frequency test sets. However,
it is most important that low frequency probes are maintained at right angles
to the surface under inspection. As low frequency probes are usually flat
ended, this is not too difficult to achieve.

\¢orrosion DetectiiJr'l '

Single Layer
20. When looking for corrosion on the remote side of a single layer, the frequen-
cy selected should be such that the eddy currents at one "standard depth of
penetration" relate to the full thickness of t he layer. A t ypical test piece for
.this inspection m'ight be a step wedge as shown il1 Fig 10 . The thick part of
the step wedge would be the same thickness and materi al as""The 1;;I,yJ1L being
testlio and the thickness ,Qf1'netfirn ~art wom?OePe~~...2ntDe~.0.2~ia
anatfie amount of sensitivity require for the inspection. The test set IS
calibrated by balancing on the thick part and the sensitivity control adjusted
to give the required deflection when the probe is on the thin part. Following
calibration, the probe is placed on the layer under examination and a series
of parallel scans carried out. It should be noted that a loose article such as a
ferrous nut or pop-rivet mandrel lying on the remote side of the skin together
with geometric changes, will cause the meter needle to be deflected.

5-7
 H'~'T
"' -T'_I~~'--~/~I'~'r,/I~'~
n ~/~
;/~~f/~--~~
I I I I , I I V i I I I I II /
I I I I / .I: I v 1/ / ' I ' I
I I I I· ! ! I i II ;I I II !I
III I I I I I / III V7 ! l
1 1 1111 I l ltVVVI/I
) .

I 1/1/ /I} IVI

I II I f7 7 / I 1/1 I
,I
I V 111!1'1
;
-' I II / 111/ / II I
I I / II II A7 / I I 1I I I I

I I I / 1/ / I I I I I
1/ IIIVI / II I
Iii !Iii I I I I I
11 171 I II II
J I I I
VI V L I I I III
1/ I/V 1/ II I II I I I I

...:

Depth of Penetration (rom)

Depth of Penetration at Varying Frequencies and Conductivities
,
-- FIG 9
5-8 .
 i
-'

~
, Steo Wedge

FIG 10
Multi-layer

21. Inspection to detect corrosion in remote layers of multilayer structure is car-

ried out in Cl similar manner to 1hat described for single layer structure but
with some severe limitations. Obviously, the frequency selected would have
to suit 'the structure under inspection and a suitable 1est piece would be
.J required for calibration. A 1Ypical test piece might be as shown in fig 11 to
represent 1he structure being inspected, with an appropriate area of one or
more layers milled to simulate loss of metal due to corrosion.

Milled Area

.....
. ,
/
t
•

Test Piece

.. FIG 11

22. In multi-layer structures, especially where thin skins are used, it is possible
that buckling and separation of the skins may occur which will give rise to
spurious indications. Also, when corrosion occurs, the skins may be forced
apart as shown in fig 12 due 10 1he volume of the corrosion products and a
small area of corrosion may appear to be much larger due to the localised
separation of the skins. However, by carrying out further tests at varying
frequencies, it may be possible to assess the size of the corroded area,
especially when there is access to both sides of the structure.
" ,,
, Skins forced apart by corrosion
-'

\
i
-!

Skin Separation

FIG 12
5-9
 - ,

Corrosion Depth Assessment

23. As corrosion is indicated principally due to the loss of material under the
probe, it follows that a large shallow area of corrosion can give the same
needle deflection as deep corrosion over a small area. Where the corrosion
extends over a large area Igr:.eatel _tb~D.Jhe_,PI R.9.su;iJameter) its dept~ can be
assessed by reference to a graph such as that sho-wn"iWflg 13:' Tfiegrapn
C'an-be constroctecJSiiiiPly"-oy pfOffing the ari'iourit=orneeale~il eflection
against the steps of suitable step wedge, but it should be noted that the
resultant graph can only be used for a given thickness of a given material
.. ~
using one specific probe and frequency. This process will not however, be of
any use if corrosion products remain in the layer of inspection.

1.0

1.5 ...---- V--

/

- , Skin 2.0 /
Thickness
(rom) /
2.5 - /

-
,
I

3.0 /
o 20 40 60 80 100%

%Full Scale Needle Deflection

Corrosion Depth Assessment Graph

FIG 13

24. When assessing the depth.9f smaILcor.c.o.!1e.d areJ.1.~.".Jhe.<grR.B9.,.sho.'1'nJD.~fjg

13 cannot be used . It has been found experimentally that if the frequency is
graoiTallV"mcreaseCl and the probe passed over the corroded area, when a
specific frequency is reached the needle will be deflected in the opposite
direction i.e. negatively. By constructing another graph as shown in fig 15
where the depth of remaining material is plotted against frequency, an
assessment of corrosion depth can be made. This second graph can be
constructed by using a test piece as shown in fig 14 with drillings at differ-
ing known depths. The probe is passed over the first drilling and the fre-
quency gradually incre?sed until needle reversal occurs. This point is plotted
on the graph and the process repeated on the remaining driliings. The re-
sultant graph can only be u.sed_ f or the test piece material using the prob",
- that was used to construct the graph.

5-10
-' Test Piece for Corrosion Depth Graph

FIG 14
~
i

50
, This graph is only suitable for the
~

40 same material as the test piece and

,
, probe used to construct the graph.
...J
I 30 I
i
-l 20

-'
......
~
I ~ 10
! '-'
~
tl
I'l
QJ
.J ~
0'
, QJ
\.<

-'
;
"" ~ ......
,
~
-,
...:

; ~ :--
...J ......
I--- -
-

-----1-----
i-
iI
.J

1
o 0.5 1.0 1. 5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Thickness of Sound Material above Pitting (mm)

Typical Graph for the Assessment of Pitting Corrosion Depth

FIG 15
5-11
.J

,
..J ,.
Sub-Surface Crack Detectiori,

25. . '· ?Lib-Sur~ce crat:.~s ca.n be detectedtoawax irnurri depth of approx . 12JJl[l"
In ·alumlnlum alloys uSing low frequency e .dy currents ! Unfortunately, as the
depth of penetration of the eddy currents increases, ttiey also tend to spread
out laterally which results in a decrease in crack sensitivity. Also, probes
capable of very low frequencies are generally physically larger.

26. The quickest way of inspecting structures to detect cracks in sub-surface

layers from fastener holes with the fasteners fitted, is by using the "ring" or
"donut" probe as shown in fig 16.

~;~~'~ £A
~ ...,~
-i- .~:i~ -...
,,
I
I
- Crack

.J

Ring Probe over Fastener

FIG 16

27. The test piece used with this type of probe should simulate as accurately as
J possible the structure being examined in terms of fastener types/sizes fitted,
material specification, thickness and geometry. An old piece of the structure
i under examination is ideal for this purpose. It would contain a crack-free
.J fastener hole and at least one hole with an artificial defect propagating from
it. After selecting the correct frequency, the probe is accurately centred
over the crack-free fastener (by viewing through the centre of the probe)
and after compensating for lift off, the test set is balanced. The probe is
then accurately centred over the fastener from which the artificial crack is
propagating and the sensitivity adjusted to give the required amount of
needle deflection. The inspection can now be carried out by placing the
probe over each fastener in turn. Holes from which cracks are propagating
will cause the needle to deflect.

tr:he main. disadvantages wite this type of inspection are as fgllo"'{s:}

a. It is not possible to determine the radial position of a crack.

b. meter readings may be obtained from "defect-free" holes due to dif-

ferences in fasteners and countersink depths. Therefore, in a struc-
ture where large differences exist, it may be necessary to use a low
sensitivity setting, i.e. the artificial crack in the test piece would have
to be relatively large, in order that reliable interpretation could be
carried out.

5-12
~

,
!
LJ
c. On structures containing different fastener types/sizes, re-calibration
,, would probably be necessary for each type/size. The test piece used
.! ;
would therefore need to contain suitable fasteners for this purpose.
~

28. : To overcome the disadvantages of the ring ' probe andprpvidea more sEHisi-
,
, Itive lOirt'Sloliver) inspection, small diameter conventional low frequency
...; probes are sometimes used to detect cracks io sub-surface Jay-ersfrom '
fastener holes with fasteners Tltted:. They are generally used in conjunction
, . with a template such as tfiiit used with high frequency probes . The wobe is
~eG-amund_the fastener using the template as a guide. The test piece
used with these probes is the same as tfie one u'seCf"for calibrating the ring
.. 1 probe. These probes can also be used to determine the radial position of a
crack which has been detected using the ring probe.
-'
29. Low frequency probes are also useful for plotting the length and direction of
i a visible crack which disappears under a top layer such as a doubler plate.
--.i
30. When inspecting for cracks in a change of section such as that shown in 'fig
:--, 17, it is important that the scan is carried out with the probe/change of
. !
section orientation constant, i.e. the scan must be carried out along the
U change of section and not across it. If the probe is allowed to move onto
r , the thin or thick part, needle fluctuations will occur. A non-conducting
,, straight edge can sometimes be used as a probe guide but in some cases a
'-' special template may be required .

...;

r " Straight edge

/
r- "
::
L.:
. /~~ 2)2>1v~
Crack

r-'
L
Probe over Change of Section
r-l FIG 17
L

,! ;
L..;

r "1.
;

LJ
"
Iw !
"

f
~

r1
U
rI ,I 5-13
U
roo'

,
 '-

. r

CHAPTER 6
: f
EDDY CURRENT REPORT WRITING AND TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT

1. NDT technicians at all levels are at some time in their careers, if not regularly,
going to be asked to report on an inspection they have carried out ,
2. The object of an NDT report is to convey information primarily on the results
of an inspection, The contents of a report are brief but comprehensive and
the originator can assume a good basic NDT method knowledge together
with a sound metallurgical or materials background in the reader, The mark
of a good report like any document is that the reader has all pertinent infor-
mation and would not be expected to call the originator for clarification or
information not provided in the report.

3. A suggested format that works well follows this chapter. This format pres-
ents a title block identifying the method, component, object of test, reject
criteria etc., a section describing the test performed, calibration, scanning,
view conditions etc. and a final section with the result. Technicians produc-
ing reports should use the example and marking guide for direction and
crosscheck. It is not essential to follow the format exactly as long as the,
" ~
objectives covered by the marking guide are met. Incidentally, over 40% of
the marks on an examination report are for correct reporting and plotting of
defect indications so this is a real test of your method skills as well,

4. D~g this course YOJ:!...~il~,ske_d-tQ_p.LOduq~,.aLiei,lg 9n_e, yveIL. ~rj~e.Q

reporrfi'Oril~~Pectedcomponent. the res~~.9..f.yvh!£~_"Yl!L.t:>_e_ ,?.§~ess~d
'byy-O'Uf instructor.------------..:·- - --- ""-
- - - : - ..
--~--.

Practical Tasks:
, -
5. Level I Report Writing
, ,
\. The instructor will give you sample process details, calibration details, scan
<details, materials to be used and reject criteria. Produce a well written,
\documented report on your findings using the guides and sample report.
·Have your instructor assess the report.
L.
,, ' 6. Level 11/111 Reoort Writing
, '
L The difference between Level II and III is the complexity of the task and
difficulty in assessing defect size. Level 111111 candidates are also normally
required to derive their own calibration, process scan details and sometimes
reject criteria assuming no assistance from another party, manufacturer or
design office, Produce a well written documented report on your findings
using guides and sample reports. Have your instructor assess the report.

Ed dy Current Techr.!que Development

7, As the requirements demanded by each particular company vary so much it is

beyond the scope of these notes to list all the possible information required
of an Eddy Current technique. The British Standard M38 and the ATA Spec
100 both give excellent guidelines on the recommended information which
should ensure the accurate repetition of examinations and the student is
urged to make himself familiar with these standards,
6-1

, '
 ..
..... 8. Before developing a technique, it is necessary to obtain information from the
fracture mechanics engineers in the appropriate design department. Typical
information required would include the following:
L
a. The type of defe ct being sought (e.g. fatigue crack , stress corrosion
crack, corrosion, etc.) .

b. The likely crack/corrosion initiation point.

L.... c. The expected crack/corrosion propagation.

d. The critical crack or corrosion size (length and lor depth) .

e. Applicability to modified components.

f. Any other relevant information.

9. To reduce the likelihood of missing a defect, ease of interpretation and

( : ensured repeatability of inspection, technique work sheets should be as
comprehensive as possible. Particular care should be taken to ensure that
they are not ambiguous. Techniques should be supported by comprehen-.
,. sive, assorted diagrams showing scan areas and paths, etc., and should
include the following information.

a. Company name and address .

b. Aircraft type, system, component .

c. Servicing schedule identification number.

d. number of pages in technique.

e. The technique number (and issue date)

f. the component to which the technique is to be applied .

g. the part of the component to be inspected.

. '. h. the purpose of the inspection (i.e. details of the type of defect being
sought) .

j. The equipment required to apply the technique.

k. The preparation required to enable the technique to be applied e.g .

removal of components for access, paint removal etc) .

I. The sensitivity setting of t he equipment (e.g. the amount of needle

deflection to be obtained from a specific artificial d,efect) .

m. The test set buzzer/lamp setting, if required .

n. The procedure to be carried out (scan details, etc).

o. The inspection standard or reject criteria (i .e. the indications that are
to be reported and/or render the part unserviceable). These should be
. ! i objective in nature.
 ~

p. The estimated time required to apply the technique.

•
q. Any other relevant information.

r. Signature of originator and checker or approver of the technique.

s. Date.

10. Where possible, techniques should be kept as simple and straight-forward as

the task permits. The more complicated a technique becomes, the more
chance there is of error. It should also be remembered that carrying out a
technique "insitu" on a main assembly without component or structure
removal, is often much more difficult than carrying out the same technique
on a piece of structure in a laboratory. Techniques should therefore be
proven on an inservice aircraft before issue.

11. On the following pages you will find a sample report and technique together
with marking guides which can be used for content evaluation and compre-
hensiveness. Remember that a technique has to be read by perhaps a tech-
nician with very little training and experience and should be clear enough .for
him to follow without error or misinterpretation of your instructions - keep it
simple to understand and use plenty of diagrams to present the procedure (a
picture is worth a thousand words).
, ,

,~
: :-.J
MARKING GUIDE FOR EDDY CURRENT REPORTS
LEVELS I, II AND III

Heading

1. Is the company name recorded?

2. Is a unique reference number recorded for the report?
3. Is t he date recorded?
· :" .
4. Is the component uniquely identified?
5. Is the probe type identified?
6. Is the equipment type identified?
7. Is the fact that is a report from an .eddy current test clearly defined?
!'-..;
Procedure

8. Is a calibration level clearly defined?

i .
l.... 9. Is a defect indication level clearly defined?
10. Is a scan path defined?
;
.L Report

11. Has an " indication" been defined ?

12. Is a diagram supplied showing the location of indication(s)?
13. Is the diagram on a separate sheet?
14. Is the indication sized?
15, Does each page of the report have a page number?
16. Does the . page with the drawing have a complete reference to the report
number and date?
17. Is the drawing titled?
18. Has a statement of serviceability been made?
19. Has the report been signed and name printed?

Overall

20. Is the presentation good?

21 . Is the presentation unambiguous?
22. Are defects located with no false indications?

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Form # NOT. 090-4/91 ®
page 1 of 2

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Customer: Aero Inspection Co. Test report #: AMRC-ET-921
Customer POI: ET-100-1-0 Date: 4-26-91
AMRC WO#: 987654-400
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Test component Identification ®
Description: Wheel Half Manufacturer: Bendix
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Serial #: B.3H3 ~ ASsy. #: 2601571-1
Test Equipment Identification ~
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Eddy Current Instrument Model #: ED-1S0D, Serial # 001
Probe Description: _Magnaflux ED 150012, NFE Surface
@----probe
Calibration Standard: Standard Calibration Block,
WI IACS 33%, SIN 4288
Inspection Standard

Report indications exceeding 60% FDS _____ eD ®

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Details of Inspection
\
Calibrated instrument on test block named above, with 80% FSD on the
O.Smm notch. lACS difference between block and wheel less than 10%.
Lift-off and zeroing accomplished per manufacturers instructions.
Scanned areas around bolt holes and plug holes on mating surface of
wheel (See Fig 1). Total of 14 bolt holes and 3 plug holes. Scanne
around all holes circumferentially beginning at approx. 2mm from the
edge (the outer circumference of the chamfer of bolt hole) of the ho
(see Fig 1) with the last scan being no less than 5mm from the
edge of the hole. Report any indications exceeding 60% FSD.

Test Report
® IIi\
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All bolt holes werelrree of craCK indications greater than 2mm in
length. One indication was found in the plug hole on the opposite
side of the ~!neel from the "ArT" reference marking. Crack indi-
cation begins at the edge of the hole and continues for approx.\
25mm towards the centre of the wheel. As craCK length exceeds
2mm, the part is rejected.", '
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INSPECTOR:
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A. N. Other
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DATE: 4-26-91
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page 2 of 2

® Eddy Current Inspection Report

Test report # AMRC-ET-921
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Dated': 4.26.91 '\.
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\ '4(
.:~mm ~
Crack Indication
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- ~) " .......
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Details of scan paths - _ _ _ _ _ _ -------:=

--@

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, . Figure 1: Bendix wheel half - Assy # 2601571-1 showing
Crack Indication Location
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MARKING GUIDE FOR EDDY CURRENT - TECHNIQUE WRITING

LEVEL II and III

1. Aircraft identified / main assembly identified

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2. Technique title/no. identified/method identified

3. Component to be examined, identified & drawing produced

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4. Area of examination identified & drawing produced.

5. Purposes of examination identified

6. Equipment, probe and calibration blocks identified

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7. Preparation of a/c or component identified

8. Examination procedure
Instrument
Inst Cal described objectively
Sensitivity setting described
Alarm setting described
Procedure
Can the procedure be clearly followed without ambiguity
Does the procedure fully cover the objectives of the inspection
L.
Are drawings used where helpful
Are scan paths described.
Exam Standard
Does an objective statement of unserviceability exist

9. Reporting procedure mentioned

10. Man-Hours mentioned

11. Additional information is useful & relevant

12. Signature blocks are correct with oversignature

13. Dated

14. Ref No. on each page of Technique

15 . Page no. present on each page

16. Is company name shown at heading page and each subsequent page

17. Does the technique o\'!lriill give a good impression of correct flow and pre-
sentation

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41-30-00 page ~ of 5
BOEING 747 LAVATORY FLOOR ATTACHMENT) <D
EDDY CURRENT (SAMP.LE) TECHNIQUE )

1. Technique 747/LFET/C8 ...... (1)

2. component to be Examined R/H Lavatory floor attachment-@
(Fig ~)
3. Area of Examination Fuselage outer skin, sta. 540 to
sta. 640, stringers ~OR to ~2R.
See Fig 2, page 4. __ ~
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4. Purpose of Examination Examine sub-surface 2nd layer skin

for corrosion . ....... @

5. Equipment Required i. suitable lowfreguency eddy .

current set operable at 1.5
kHz.
ii. Reflective probe operable at
~.5 kHz, dia. 10 rom to 20 rom
iii. Test piece, see Fig 1 page 3,
P. N. 9:1.31~2 available .from Test
Research Inc. 2:1. Foundit Lane,
Nowhere, CA 90761.

6. Preparation Component : Ensure area to be

inspected is cleaned of any dirt,
grease or loose paint.

7. Examination Procedure

a. Instrument Calibration i. Set frequency to 1.5 kHz, set

lift off . Carry out initial
setting up and balancing
procedure as per test set
service notes.

Set probe on test piece

section 1, see Fig 2,
and calibrate meter to zero.
, ; Place probe on test piece
a bove arti f icial defect a rea,
_secti on 2 , Fi g 2, and s e t
meter to 80 % d ef lection.
Reset probe on section 1 and
section 2 to recheck
calibration.
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iii. Set alarm setting to trigger
at 80% deflection of the meter
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41-30-00 page 2 of 5
~ Technique: 747/LFET/C8

c :
•
Exam~nat~on
• Procedure •
(cont~nued)
\11.7\\"
~

b. Inspection Procedure Scan area of skin to be inspected

~ ~over stringer locations only as per
, ; ~ Fig. 3 page 5.
~

c. Examination Standard Any indication exceeding 80%

! : deflection of the meter, not
~attributed to geometry, edge
effect, ferrous effects or probe
handling is suspect and the suspect
area should be radiographed for
further evaluation.

10. Reporting Procedure Notify Engineering and Maintenance

®- of inspection evaluation.

11. Manhours 1.5 hours

Compiled by: \

Checked by: "-.... @

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4~-30-00 page 3 of 5

: . BOEING 747
Technique: 747/LFET/CB
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Section 2

Sectionl

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P/N - 91342
CALIBRATION TEST PIECE

.Fig. 1

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41-30-00 @ page 4 of 5
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BOEING 747 /
Technique: 747/LFET/C8
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Stn 640 Stn/540

- - -- - - --
-- --
Stn lOR

Stn 11 R

AFT FWD

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! Stn 12R

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Inspection Area

Fig. 2
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41-30-00 'lge 5 of 5
BOEING 747 \
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1 Technique: 747/LFET/C8 @
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L Full Area

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Pitch one Probe Dia

.- --- -- -0
..... _--------
t

Fig 3
Scan Pattern

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