ESP Advanced NDT Training Program

PHASED ARRAY AND TOFD

PART 1.2 : TOFD

DIGITIZATION PRINCIPLES
 Topics
Topics to be covered
◦ Sampling rate
◦ Probe characteristics
◦ Pulser Receivers
◦ Motion Control
◦ Encoders
and the Effects they have on Data Acquisition
Client LOGO
Advantages of Digital Recording
◦ Permanent record of all collected data
◦ Various signal processing options
◦ Easy comparison of results
◦ Re-analysis of raw data at any time
◦ Variety of visual displays available
◦ Integrated data acquisition and probe
manipulation control
◦ Multiple channel data can be viewed and
compared with an overlay
 Digitization of Analogue Waveforms
Analogue waveform
+100%

-100%
Separation set
by digitizer speed Points of sampling analogue data
Digital Amplitude
◦ Most contemporary instruments are
fitted with 8 bit digitizers: (2 8)
◦ In computer terms this means a digital
range of numbers from 0 to 255
◦ Full wave rectified data = 0 to 255 this
is used for phased arrays and pulse-echo
◦ RF data = -128 to +127. This is more
typically used for TOFD imaging
 Points of Amplitude
+127
+100%

Zero

-100%
-128
8 Bit digitizer in un-Rectified mode
Logarithmic Amplification Rectified
Amplification is usually logarithmic thus
signal heights can be expressed with the
following equation:
8 bit digitizers (28) = 255
20 log10 H2/H1
Rectified = 20 log10 255/1

= 48dB dynamic range

Logarithmic Amplification RF
Un-rectified

 Un-rectified data uses half of the digital numbers

available to produce the screen display
 For a range of 0 to 255 this represents approximately
+128 and – 128 digitized intervals
 RF = 20 log10 128/1 = 42dB
Sampling Rate

 Working from first principles

 1s = 1x10-6sec
 25MHz = 25 x106Hz
 Thus 1s = 25 samples
 So one sample = 1/25 = 0.04s
 Digitization at 25MHz
+100%

-100%
0.04s

Separation of 0.04s between sample points

Time Across One Wavelength

Time taken to complete 1 is termed a

period
If probe frequency = 5MHz (5x10 6Hz)
Then 1s = 5 cycles
Thus 1 period = 1/5 = 0.2s
 One Time Period

+100%

Time across one wave cycle is called a period

Distance across one wave cycle is wavelength

-100%
Samples Taken In A Period
 Using the previous data:
 1 period or cycle = 0.2s
(5mhz probe frequency)
 Digitization rate = 0.04s per sample
(25mhz sampling rate)
 Which gives: (0.2s/cycle)/(0.04s/sample)
= 5 samples/cycle
 Therefore 5 samples are taken in each period (full cycle)
Absolute Minimum Sampling

 Inorder to digitally recreate a sinusoidal wave from

sampling an analogue signal, at least 2 samples per
period must be taken ( Nyquist limit )
Potential Error Of Only 2 Samples Per Period

Sample points on analogue

waveform

No digitally recreated signal

Ideal Minimum Sampling

5 sample points on
analogue waveform

Digitally recreated
waveform within 10%
of analogue signal
 Greyscale Palette
+127
+100%

Zero

-100%
-128

8 bit digitizers(28) = 255 points

“A” Scan as Greyscale Image

Typically used for TOFD

Typical TOFD Image Using RF Waveform
Typical Phased Array Image using RF Waveform
Wavelengths Associated With Broad Band Probe
 Probe centre frequency and spectrum

100%
Peak 6.0 MHz
90%
value centre
80% frequency
70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
MHz

Low frequency High frequency

long wavelength Short wavelength
 Bandwidth
100%

90%

80%

70%

60%
Bandwidth Bandwidth ~ 4.0MHz
50%
measured
40%
at -6dB of
30%
peak value
20%

10%

0% 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
MHz

4.0 to 8.0 MHZ

Pulsers

Spike pulse

(Preferred)
Tone burst pulse

Square wave pulse

Effect Of Changing Excitation Pulse Width
 1st Scenario
◦ Low Amplitude
◦ Low bandwidth
◦ V=-497.647

 2nd Scenario
◦ Better (but)
◦ Increased ring on and lower
frequency components added
◦ Not optimized

 3rd Scenario
◦ Tuned
◦ Virtually the same V as 2 but
with twice the bandwidth and
ring on virtually eliminated
Pulse Repetition Frequency PRF
Rate of voltage pulses transmitted from
pulser to transducer

Not to be confused with probe frequency

Selectable PRF values typically range
from ~ 60Hz to ~ 15,000Hz
Effect Of Erroneously Low Pulse Rate

May lead to intermittent data imaging

Loss of lines of data
Serious risk of missing defects
 Lines of Missed Data

Missing lines
of Data

No Data
Missing

Causes: low PRF, high travel speed, high resolution,

high averaging, low communication speed, small
increments of data collection
Effect of Excessively High PRF
Low velocity materials or thick cross-
sections may not return pulses before
subsequent pulsed waves are transmitted
Potential to cause standing echoes from
colliding wavefronts called ghosts or
phantom echoes. (Usually restricted to 0
degree scanning)
Digitization overload on instruments as
well as data bottlenecks
Signal Averaging
Sample 1

Sample 2

Sample 3

Sample 4

Averaged
signal
Features Of Signal Averaging
◦ Random electronic noise is averaged out
reducing influence
◦ Grain interference not reduced
◦ Standing echoes not reduced
◦ True indications not affected
PRF & Scan Speed
If the collection rate is 1 scan per mm
If the material is thick, the total range of
‘A’ scan being collected can be quite
large. This must be taken into account
when determining maximum scan speed.
Typical maximum scan speed is 150
mm/sec
Use Of Averaging
Using an averaging of 16 requires each
‘A’ scan to be pulsed 16 times in order to
produce 1 ‘A’ scan image
Thus in order to scan at 150mm/sec the
PRF would need to be 16 x 150 = 2400
pulses per second
Practical Solution to Data Loss
Reduce the Averaging
Ensure PRF is not too low
Scan at slower speed
Reduce the range of the ‘A’ scan if
possible
Any Questions