CHAPTER 2
LIGHT-SENSITIVE MATERIALS
Many substances are affected in some way by light.
The light-sensitive substances used in photographic film
to record an image are silver salts and are called silver
halides. The silver halides react to ultraviolet radiation,
violet, and blue light only; however, they can be made
sensitive to other colors of light and infrared radiation
by the addition of dyes. Depending on the amount of
light and the type of silver halide, the light produces a
visible or invisible change in the halides of a film or
printing paper. An invisible change is made visible by
development.
Photographic films and papers are composed of two
basic parts: the emulsion and the base, or support. The
emulsion is the light-sensitive portion of a film or paper
that records the image. The emulsion contains the silver
halides and any special sensitizing dyes suspended in a
binder of gelatin. The gelatin holds the silver halides
evenly dispersed and prevents action by a developer
until the silver halides have been made developable
either by exposure to light or chemical action. Also, the
gelatin acts as a sensitizer for the silver salts.
In photographic films and papers, the primary
purpose of the base is to support or hold the emulsion in
place. The base, or support, may be transparent or
opaque, depending upon how the recorded image is to
be used. A transparent base is used for transparencies
that are viewed by transmitted light and for negatives
that are printed with transmitted light. An opaque base
is used for prints that are viewed by reflected light.
The latest state of the art in light-sensitive materials
used in photography is the use of the electronic medium.
Video disks do not contain an emulsion or a base. When
electronic mediums are used, light is converted to
electrical impulses and these impulses are stored
magnetically on a tape or disk. Since it is the camera
itself that converts light to electrical impulses, the
recording medium and all stages of the photographic
process can be carried out in normal room light.
BLACK-AND-WHITE FILM
The characteristics and use of black-and-white film
depend largely on the actual construction of the
emulsion. These characteristics include the following:
the degree of sensitivity to light, response to various
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colors of light (color or spectral sensitivity), contrast,
exposure latitude, emulsion latitude, and emulsion
definition.
There are many types of black-and-white films
available. Each type differs somewhat from the others.
You should become acquainted with the characteristics
of films. This knowledge is helpful in selecting the film
most suitable for each photographic assignment.
EMULSION SENSITIVITY TO LIGHT
The silver halides and sensitizing dyes of most film
emulsions are very sensitive to small amounts of light.
This light causes invisible changes to the emulsion and
is called the latent image. The latent image can be
physically made visible by the chemical step of
development. The extent of the reaction to the light of
the emulsion is affected greatly by the size of the silver
halide grains and the amount of light reaching the film.
The inherent property of a film emulsion to respond to
light is termed film speed.
Film Speed
Film speed is important, since it is related to the
amount of exposure required to produce an acceptable
image. Emulsions are rated as slow, medium, or fast,
depending on the amount of light required to produce an
image satisfactorily. Fast emulsions require less light to
produce an acceptable image than slow emulsions.
To calculate the exposure for a film emulsion
accurately and consistently with a light meter, the
manufacturer has developed a system of rating emulsion
speed. The rating system used is the IS0 film speed
system. ISO film speed is a numerical value assigned to
an emulsion used for determining exposures.
The International Standards Organization (ISO) is
a federation of all the national standard bodies of the
world. It has approved a uniform set of film speed
standards. The standards call for a universal expression
of both arithmetic and logarithmic speed values with the
ISO designation. The ISO designation generally looks
like the following:
ISO 100/21°

Figure 2-1.–IS0 of film.
The ISO assigned to a film is labeled on the
packaging material and on the film cassette or paper
backing (fig. 2-1). Some types of black-and-white films
are assigned one ISO number; others are assigned two
or more. Whether one or more film speeds are assigned
depends on whether the film responds differently to
different colors or color temperatures of light. Often,
this results in a film having one speed for daylight and
another for tungsten light. The ISO for a particular film
is valid for calculating correct exposure only when that
film is developed as recommended by the manufacturer.
An exposure index is another numerical value
assigned to some films for exposure calculation. The
exposure index is a more accurate method of film speed,
because it is determined by processing a particular film
through the actual process in an imaging facility.
Exposure indexes are generally assigned to films used
for copying or for technical applications.
SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY.–The response of an
emulsion to specific colors of light or radiant energy is
termed coIor or spectral sensitivity. You already know,
from our earlier study of light in chapter 1, that the
visible spectrum is made up of violet, blue, green, and
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302.258
red light. When speaking of film or emulsion sensitivity,
you are also referring to its sensitivity to ultraviolet and
infrared radiation. Spectral sensitivity of an emulsion
simply means that the emulsion is sensitive to some
energy of the electromagnetic spectrum. Also,
emulsions have color sensitivity, which means they are
sensitive to one or more colors of the visible spectrum.
In this chapter, the terms color sensitivity and color
response are used interchangeably. Color sensitivity or
color response refer to ultraviolet and infrared radiation
as well as visible light.
All silver halides are sensitive to ultraviolet
radiation, violet, and blue light. Color-blind emulsion is
the term given to emulsions sensitive only to these
radiations. The addition of sensitizing dyes to silver
halides can increase the sensitivity of emulsions and
extend their sensitivity to green and red light and
infrared radiation. Increasing the color sensitivity of an
emulsion to other than ultraviolet, violet, and blue is
called dye, color, or optical sensitization.
The color sensitivity of a black-and-white film is an
important characteristic, since it controls the way
colored objects record as tones of gray in the negative
or print. The color sensitivity determines how the film
is classed. There are four general classes of
black-and-white film emulsions. The four classes are as
follows: colorblind (monochromatic), orthochromatic,
panchromatic, and infrared. Some of these emulsions
respond to a wide range of wavelengths of light. Others
respond to only a narrow band of wavelengths.
Light-sensitive emulsions are sensitive to all
wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation. For all practical
purposes, the general classes of emulsions are
considered insensitive to the shorter wavelengths of
ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This is because glass lenses
and the gelatin in most film emulsions completely
absorb the shorter wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation.
When UV is to be used for photography, a special film
with a thin emulsion is required.
Color-blind Emulsions.–Black-and-white color-
blind emulsions are sensitive only to UV radiation,
violet, and blue light. Green and red objects record only
as clear areas in the black-and-white negative and
reproduce as dark areas in the print. Color-blind films
are used primarily for copying and graphic arts
photography and may be assigned three or more ISO
values; for example, ISO/50 for daylight, ISO/8 for
tungsten light, ISO/20 for white-flame arcs, and ISO/12
for pulsed xenon.
Orthochromatic Emulsions.–Orthochromatic
emulsions are sensitive to ultraviolet radiation, violet,
blue, and green light. The sensitivity to green light is
gained by the addition of a sensitizing dye to the
color-blind silver halides. The emulsions provide an
approximate correct reproduction of blue and green
objects as corresponding tones of gray in a print;
however, red objects record as clear areas in the negative
and black areas in the print. since the emulsion is not
sensitive to red. Various orthochromatic films with
different degrees of contrast, color sensitivity, and
emulsion speed are available. Their trade names usually
contain the word ortho. Orthochromatic emulsions are
used primarily for copying and graphic arts
photography.
Orthochromatic emulsions that may be used in
either daylight or tungsten light are assigned two
separate ISO film speeds. This is because these
emulsions are highly sensitive to the predominantly blue
colored daylight and less sensitive to the tungsten light
that has a higher content of red light.
Panchromatic Emulsions.–Panchromatic emulsions
are sensitive to UV radiation, violet, blue, green, and
red. The emulsion spectral sensitivity to green and red
light is gained by adding sensitizing dyes to the
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color-blind silver halides. Panchromatic film of varying
degrees of contrast, color sensitivity, and emulsion
speed is available. Panchromatic emulsions are used for
copying, portraiture, and general black-and-white
photography.
Panchromatic emulsions are assigned only one IS0
film speed. This is because panchromatic emulsions are
sensitive to red light and have an almost equal response
to predominately blue-colored daylight and
predominately red-colored tungsten light.
Infrared Emulsions.–Infrared (IR) emulsions are
sensitive to UV radiation, violet, and blue light, with
little or no sensitivity to yellow-green light but with
additional sensitivity to red and IR radiation. The
sensitivity to infrared radiation is gained by adding a
sensitizing dye to the color-blind silver halides. Infrared
emulsions are commonly used for aerial and medical
photography as well as forensic photography
(photography used for evidence). For best results a
black-and-white UV film should be exposed only with
IR radiation. To prevent any IR radiation or visible light
from affecting the infrared emulsion during exposure,
you must use a dark, red filter over the camera lens.
Since infrared radiation does not focus at the same
point as visible light, a lens focus adjustment is
necessary for critical focusing. Most lenses have a
calibrated infrared focusing position on the focusing
scale. This position is usually marked by a small, red dot
or the letter R in red.
Determining a useful exposure index becomes a
problem with infrared film, because exposure meters are
calibrated for visible light and similar light sources can
emit different amounts of infrared radiation. When using
infrared film, you should make trial exposures for each
particular film and photographic situation.
Contrast
In the development process, the silver halide grains
in a black-and-white film exposed to light remain in the
film. These grains form the image of the original scene.
The colors of the scene are recorded in the negative as
densities of gray instead of appearing as their original
colors. These densities of gray can range from very
dense to very thin. This depends upon the brightness of
the objects in the scene, their color, and the color
sensitivity of the film. The ratio of the maximum to the
minimum brightness of objects in a scene is referred to
as the scene brightness range. Most long scale
black-and-white films are capable of recording scene
brightness ranges up to 128:1. In a negative, a
light-colored object records as a heavy-density (dark)
area, and a dark-colored object records as a low-density
(thin) area; therefore, a negative image is reversed
compared to the original scene. This reversal is
produced by a bright object in the scene reflecting more
light than a darker object. The greater amount of
reflected light from the brighter object affects more
silver halides in the emulsion.
The portions of the negative where the most silver
halides have been affected are referred to as
HIGHLIGHTS. The portions that are least affected are
referred to as SHADOW AREAS. The light reflections
from objects other than the brightest and darkest are
referred to as MIDTONES.
The amount of metallic silver deposit in any portion
of a negative is referred to as density. The amount of
light that a negative transmits in a given period of time
is controlled by the density of the metallic silver
deposits. Therefore, density is used to describe the
light-stopping ability of a negative.
The difference in densities between areas in a
negative is known as contrast. The total contrast
(density range) of a negative is defined as the difference
in density between the least-dense shadow area and the
most-dense highlight area in a negative.
Emulsion Latitude
The inherent ability of a black-and-white film to
record a range of scene brightness differences as
differences in density is termed emulsion latitude
Normal- and low-contrast emulsions can record a wide
range of scene brightness values and are considered to
have a wide emulsion latitude or long scale.
High-contrast emulsions record a short range of scene
brightness values and are considered to have a narrow
emulsion latitude or short scale.
Exposure Latitude
The amount the exposure can be varied (increased
or decreased) from the ideal exposure and still provide
an acceptable negative is termed exposure latitude.
The least amount of exposure that records sufficient
shadow detail generally provides the best quality
negative and is considered the ideal exposure. The use
of a determined exposure index leads to the ideal
exposure for a particular film and process combination.
Generally, the use of the assigned ISO speed provides
acceptable results.
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Emulsion Definition
Several factors, including graininess, resolving
power (resolution), and acutance, affect the definition
or capability of an emulsion to produce a clear, sharp
image.
GRAININESS. –The negative image consists of
nearly an infinite number of density deposits of metallic
silver. To the naked eye, these grains of silver appear as
a smooth, continuous deposit; however, when the image
is magnified significantly, a speckled, granular, or
mottledeffect becomes apparent. This appearance of the
enlarged image is called graininess.
The graininess of a negative depends upon the size
of the silver halides in the emulsion, the exposure the
emulsion received, and the clumping action of the
metallic silver grains during development. Although
each emulsion has an inherent grain size, the graininess
effect in a negative can be minimized by giving the film
correct exposure and proper development. As a general
rule, slower speed emulsions have a finer grain
(a smaller grain size) than faster speed emulsions.
The Eastman Kodak Company uses modem tabular,
or T-grain, technology in some of their emulsions. In
doing so, flat, tabular crystals are used which are very
efficient in absorbing light. In T-grain emulsions, fewer
silver halide crystals are needed, because the crystals
have a relatively large surface area for light to strike, but
are thin and contain a small amount of silver halides.
These properties provide higher resolution and lower
graininess compared to other films with the same
relative film speed.
Not all black-and-white films form the final image
in black metallic silver; for example, Ilford’s XP-1
black-and-white film produces a dye image. The
advantage of this technology is the film can be processed
in color-processing chemicals along with color film and
then printed on black-and-white paper.
RESOLVING POWER.–This is a term used to
define the ability of an emulsion to record fine detail.
The resolving power, or resolution, of an emulsion is
expressed as line pairs per millimeter. Resolving power
is determined by photographing a lined test chart at a
greatly reduced size then counting the lines present in
one millimeter of film.
ACUTANCE.–This is the ability of an emulsion to
produce sharp edges between image density differences.
Do not confuse this with the ability of an emulsion to
produce sharp images controlled by lens focus.
Although an image is in focus, the line between a

Figure 2-2.–Cross section of black-and-white film.
highlight area and a shadow area is not perfectly sharp.
This is because the high-density area tends to “bleed”
onto the low-density area due to the scattering or
diffusing of light in the emulsion during exposure.
CONSTRUCTION OF
BLACK-AND-WHITE FILM
Light-sensitive materials are composed of two basic
parts: the emulsion and the base. The emulsion is the
light-sensitive portion that records the image. The base
is the support to which the emulsion is coated. Also,
negative materials have additional layers that perform a
special purpose. They are as follows: overcoating,
antihalation backing, and noncurl coating (fig. 2-2). The
purpose of the five parts of photographic film are as
follows:
1. Overcoating–The overcoating protects the film
from friction, scratches, or abrasions before develop-
ment. The overcoating is a clear, gelatin layer that is
sometimes called the antiabrasion layer.
2. Emulsion–thin layer of gelatin that suspends
and supports the light-sensitive silver halides.
3. Base-This supports or holds the emulsion in
place. The base may be transparent, translucent, or
opaque, depending upon how the recorded image is to
be used. The base is generally made of a cellulose
acetate.
4. Antihalation backing-The antihalation backing
prevents light from reflecting from the base back into
the emulsion. The antihalation dye is sometimes
incorporated in the anticurl backing. The dye used to
eliminate halation is a color to which the emulsion is
least sensitive. This dye is water soluble and is com-
pletely dissolved during processing.
5. Noncurl coating-The noncurl coating is a
hardened gelatin, about the same thickness as the
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PROTECTIVE OVERCOATING
BLUE SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER - PRODUCES
YELLOW DYES
YELLOW FILTER - ABSORBS BLUE LIGHT
GREEN SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER -
PRODUCES MAGENTA DYES
RED SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER - PRODUCES
CYAN DYES
BASE
ANTIHALATION BACKING
NONCURL COATING
Figure 2-3.-Cross section of ordinary color negative film.
Figure 2-4.–Modern high-speed color film.
emulsion, and is applied to the back of the film. A film
emulsion swells when wet and shrinks when dry. This
contraction produces a strain on a film base because it
is highly flexible. The noncurl coating prevents the film
from curling during the drying process.
COLOR FILM
Modern color films are constructed much the same
as black-and-white film, but color films consist of three
separate emulsions on a single film base. Each of the
three emulsion layers records one of the three additive
primary colors-red, green, or blue. The top emulsion
layer is sensitive to blue light and produces yellow dyes.
Between the top emulsion layer and the middle emulsion
layer is a yellow filter (fig. 2-3). The yellow filter
absorbs the blue light that would otherwise affect the
middle and bottom emulsion layers. During processing,
this yellow filter is dissolved. The middle emulsion layer
records green light and produces magenta dyes. The
bottom emulsion records red light and produces cyan
dyes. Many of the modern high-speed color films have
fast and slow emulsion layers for each primary color
(fig. 2-4).
 In some color films where tabular-grain (T-grain)
emulsions are used, high speed and increased sharpness
are combined. When these films are manufactured, the
overall thickness of the film is reduced By reducing the
overall thickness, you also reduce the scattering of light
within the film, resulting in improved sharpness. Also,
double-emulsion layers, one fast and one slow, may be
incorporated to improve film speed in color films.
Each emulsion layer of color film either has an
incorporated dye coupler or a dye that is put into the
emulsion during processing. A dye coupler is a chemical
that produces a dye by combining with the oxidized
products that occur during color developer.
Color Negative Film
A color negative film records a scene in image
densities opposite to the brightness of objects in the
scene-the same as a black-and-white negative film.
Color films can be recognized because they contain the
suffix “color,” such as Vericolor, Kodacolor, and
Fugicolor. These color films are used when a print is the
final product. Most color negatives (other than color
film used for aerial photography) have an orange mask
This orange mask increases the color separation that
reproduces colors more accurately in the final print.
During development, colors are formed in the
emulsion that are complementary to the color of the
original scene; for example, a red object in the scene is
recorded as cyan in the negative. It is a combination of
yellow, magenta, and cyan that records all the other
colors that you see in the scene. Color dyes in the
emulsion layers control the colors of light passing
through the color negative.
Color negative film images can be printed on color
positive materials, such as color paper and color print
film, to produce color prints or color transparencies.
Color negatives can also be printed on a special
panchromatic black-and-white paper to produce
black-and-white prints.
Color Reversal Film
Color reversal films produce positive images in
densities directly proportional to the reflective
brightnesses of objects and in the same colors as those
in the original scene. Reversal films are recognized by
the suffix “chrome” in their names, such as Ektachrome,
Kodachrome, and Fujichrome.
The positive image of most color reversal film is
produced by a two-stage development process. This
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process causes chemical fogging and color developing
of the portions of the silver halide emulsions that were
not affected by camera exposure or the first
black-and-white developer. Like color negative film,
color reversal film has three emulsion layers that are
sensitive to blue, green, and red light and produces
yellow, magenta, and cyan dyes, respectively. The film
contains dye-forming chemicals that are put into the
emulsion layers during manufacturing. A color
developer produces three dye images in the emulsion
layers. The three dye images in a developed color
reversal film control the colors of light passing through
the film.
Kodachrome film does not contain dye-forming
chemicals in the emulsion layers. They are introduced
during processing from three separate color developer
solutions. Kodachrome film has high resolving power
and tine grain and produces a fine image. Processing
Kodachrome film is a complex operation and can only
be performed by a Kodak processing plant.
Developed color reversal film can be used as a
transparency (slide) for direct viewing, printed directly
onto a color reversal paper, copied on a black-and-white
film for producing black-and-white prints, or copied to
a color internegative (copy negative) for producing
color prints.
Color Balance
Color balance is the acceptable relationship among
the three color images in a positive color print or slide.
This means that when the color print or slide looks
correct, color balance has been achieved.
To help achieve this acceptable relationship, the
manufacturer balances color film emulsions for
exposure with a specific Kelvin temperature (K).
Remember, daylight usually has a higher content of blue
light than red light, while tungsten illumination usually
has a higher content of red light than blue light. To
compensate for the lower proportion of red light in
daylight, the manufacturer balances color films for
daylight, so they have a higher sensitivity to red light
than to blue light. To compensate for the lower
proportion of blue light in tungsten illumination, the
manufacturer balances color films for tungsten
illumination, so they have a higher sensitivity to blue
light than to red light.
Generally, color films are referred to as daylight
(outdoor) or tungsten (indoor), indicating their broad
use without filters. Specifically, daylight films are
balanced for use in sunlight or with an electronic flash
that averages approximately 5400 K. Tungsten films are
balanced for use with illumination of 3200 K without
filtration.
The Kelvin temperature of the exposing light for
reversal films is much more critical than the color of the
exposing light for color negative films. When an
exposing light is used other than that for which color
negative film is balanced, adjustments to the filter pack
can be made during printing to achieve proper color
balance. With color reversal film, however, a slide is
usually the final product. When the color of the exposing
light is other than that for which the film is balanced, the
transparencies are off-color. You should strive to expose
all color films with the color light for which the films
are balanced.
Although color films have three separate emulsions,
only one ISO film speed is assigned. An ISO film speed
for color film is most accurate when the illumination
used is the one for which the film is balanced.
Amateur and Professional Color Films
Much of the color film used in the Navy is
manufactured by Eastman Kodak Company. Kodak
markets color films for both professional and amateur
photographers. Color films intended for use primarily
by professionals are identified by the word professional
in the name; for example, Kodak Vericolor III
Professional Film, Type S (VPS).
Both professional and amateur films have similar
color quality, sharpness, and granularity characteristics.
Also, they have emulsions made up of many different
chemicals that tend to change slowly with time. Starting
from the day they are made, all color films begin to
change; and as the films age, their color balance
changes.
Amateur films are manufactured to age and reach a
peak color balance much later than professional films.
The manufacturer allows for the time amateur film will
be in storage, on the store shelf, and in the camera before
it is developed. The ISO speed assigned is adequate for
calculating exposure for normal picture-taking
situations.
Professional films are manufactured so they are
very near their optimum color balance at the time they
are shipped from the factory. These films should be kept
refrigerated or frozen until shortly before use.
Refrigeration keeps film near the optimum point until
used and provides the photographer with confidence in
consistent results. Precise film speeds are provided for
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professional films. The film is intended for prompt
processing to prevent any significant shift in color
balance after exposure.
If you require optimum color balance and precise
film speed within about 1/6 f/stop professional film is
appropriate for your work; however, when you intend to
be away from home base for an extended period of time
without refrigerated storage or processing facilities,
amateur film should be your choice.
Instant Picture Film
Currently, the only manufacturer of instant picture
film is Polaroid. There are two basic types of instant
picture film: peel apart and integral. After exposure and
removal from the camera, peel-apart film must be timed
while the film develops. After it has developed for the
specified period of time, the negative backing is peeled
away and discarded. Integral films develop outside the
camera and have no negative backing to be removed.
Instant picture color films are tripack materials with
built-in processing. Peel-apart film uses a system
whereby the exposed silver halides develop to a metallic
silver negative. When no metallic silver is present, dyes
pass to form the color image. Integral films use a
reversal process in which the areas of unexposed silver
halides are the locations where the dyes are produced to
form the positive image.
Instant picture film is a very useful medium in an
imaging facility, particularly when still electronic
technology is not available. Instant picture film is used
commonly for identification and passport photographs,
but it is also valuable in determining test exposures.
Before you make your final exposures on conventional
film, a Polaroid photograph can be taken to confirm
composition, lighting, and exposure.
FILM SIZES
There are two types of film formats used commonly
in photography. They are roll film and sheet film. Both
formats come in a variety of sizes.
Roll Film
All roll film is packaged so the film can be loaded
and unloaded from a camera in daylight. Number 120
film has a paper backing that prevents the film from
being exposed in daylight; 35mm film is wound in a
lighttight cassette that prevents the film from being
exposed by ambient light.

Figure 2-5.–Notch codes used to identify the type of film.
Figure 2-6.–Location of notch code that indicates the emulsion
is toward you.
The most popular medium-size format film is No.
120. This film, depending on the camera format,
provides negatives that are 6x6 cm (2 1/4 x 2 1/4
inches), 4.5x6 cm, or 6x7 cm. No. 220 roll film is used
for making the same size negatives, but because most of
the paper backing is eliminated, the roll is longer than a
120 roll and provides twice as many frames as 120 film.
Still picture 35mm films come prepackaged in
cassettes in lengths for producing 12, 20, 24, and 36
frames per roll. Also, 35mm films come in rolls 100 feet
long that can be bulk-loaded into reusable cassettes.
Sheet Film
Sheet or cut film is made in a variety of sizes from
4x5 to 11x14 inches and larger. The most common sizes
are 4x5 and 8x10 inches. Most sheet film has no paper
backing and must be loaded into and removed from film
2-8
holders in the darkroom in total darkness or under the
appropriate safelight. Eastman Kodak does market the
Kodak Readyload Packets that provide two sheets of
film in a paper packet. These packets can be loaded into
a Kodak Readyload Packet film holder or a Polaroid film
holder, Model 545. The Kodak Readyload Packets are
available only in 4x5 format.
Most sheet films have reference notches in one edge
of the film. In the dark, this allows identification of the
film type and the emulsion side of the film. Every film
type has a different notch code (fig. 2-5). The emulsion
side of the film is toward you when the notches are along
the top edge in the upper right-hand corner, or on the
bottom right edge in the lower right-hand corner of the
film (fig. 2-6).
For those sheet films that do not have notches, the
emulsion side of the film can be identified under a
safelight. The emulsion side is lighter in color than the
base side. If the emulsion side of the film must be
identified in total darkness, wet your lips and place the
edge of the film between them. The emulsion side of the
film will stick to one of your moistened lips.
FLOPPY DISKS
Although the floppy disks used in electronic
imagery are not light sensitive, they are, however, a
commonly used image-recording medium. All floppy
disks are the same. There are no black-and-white and
color floppy disks. The camera and the printer being
used determine whether the image is black and white or
color. Images are stored as magnetic impulses on
compact 2-inch still-video floppy disks.
The pictures are recorded on tracks on a still-video
floppy disk. Each picture is recorded either as a FRAME
or FIELD (the frame or field mode is selected on the
camera). When the frame mode is selected, each picture
is recorded on two tracks. Twenty-five images can be
recorded on a floppy disk in the frame mode. When the
field mode is selected, each picture is recorded on one
track In the field mode, 50 images can be stored on each
disk. The result of using one track per photograph is the
images are less detailed than those recorded on two
tracks (frame mode). The quality of the frame-recorded
image is superior to that of the field-recorded
photograph. A combination of field and frame images
can be stored on the same disk; however, for higher
quality use the frame mode.
Sound can also be recorded on a floppy disk. Sound
is not recorded on the same track as the image. It is
recorded right after the image is recorded. The sound
associated with the picture can be heard during
playback
Floppy disks used in electronic imaging can be
reused for endless times-the same as any other magnetic
recording medium. No chemicals or darkroom tech-
niques are required to produce these images. Once the
image is captured on the floppy disk, it can be
transmitted over the telephone lines, edited, and printed
using a video printer-all under normal room-lighting
conditions.
BLACK-AND-WHITE PRINTING PAPER
The performance and use of black-and-white
photographic printing paper, like black-and-white films,
depends on the characteristics of the paper material.
While the many types of photographic papers differ in
their characteristics, they all basically consist of the
emulsion on a paper support or base. Photographic
printing papers (both black and white and color) are
manufactured in both various cut sheet sizes, ranging
from 5x7 to 20x24 inches and rolls up to 1,000 feet long.
Photographic papers used in Navy imaging
facilities are either coated with polyethylene or are
resin-coated. These papers are coated on both sides of
the base. This clear coating is treated so the paper does
not stick to the surface of other prints during processing.
Polyethylene-coated papers (manufactured by Ilford)
can be marked on with pencils and pens. Coated papers
have water-resistant bases that provide short processing
times. Most black-and-white papers with these coatings
have developing agents incorporated in the emulsion.
The developing agents are activated when the paper is
exposed to an alkali solution. The characteristics of
resin-coated paper make it ideal for machine processing,
but they may also be tray-developed in a regular print
developer.
The image on black-and-white film is usually
negative or recorded in tones of gray in reverse of the
reflective brightness values of a scene. When the
negative image is projected onto black-and-white paper,
the resulting image is positive or recorded in tones of
gray relative to the reflective brightness values of the
original scene. A negative is usually used or viewed by
transmitted light. A paper print (or simply a print) is
usually viewed by reflected light and may be referred to
as a reflection print or reflection positive.
Emulsion Sensitivity
The emulsions used for printing paper are much
slower (less sensitive to light) than most film emulsions.
2-9
Figure 2-7.–Cross section of variable-contrast black-and-white
paper.
A high sensitivity to light is not needed. Prints are often
manipulated by providing additional exposure or by
holding back exposure to selected areas of the print. If
the paper emulsions were fast, exposure times would be
extremely short and print manipulation would not be
possible.
The color or spectral sensitivity of a paper emulsion
indicates the response to specific colors of light or
radiation-the same as that for a film emulsion. The terms
colorblind, orthochromatic, and panchromatic are also
used to describe the spectral sensitivities of paper
emulsions. The response of a paper emulsion to
wavelengths other than ultraviolet radiation, violet, and
blue light is achieved by the addition of sensitizing dyes
to the emulsion during manufacturing.
The ranges of sensitivity for all paper emulsions
begin in the near-ultraviolet region of the invisible
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The color
sensitivity of undyed silver emulsions extend to blue and
blue-green. Panchromatic printing papers are sensitive
to ultraviolet radiation, violet, blue, green, and red light.
The color sensitivity of a black-and-white paper is NOT
a determining factor for selecting a paper to print a
specific black-and-white negative. Panchromatic
papers, however, are normally used to produce
black-and-white prints from color negatives. Color
sensitivity DOES determine whether or not a safelight
is required an, if so, what color of safelight can be used.
Variable Contrast Papers
Variable contrast papers are used almost exclusively
in Navy imaging facilities. The contrast of the print
image on variable contrast papers is controlled by the
specific color of the exposing light. Variable contrast
papers have two emulsion layers. The top layer is a
high-contrast emulsion and is sensitive to blue light. The
second emulsion layer is a low-contrast emulsion and is
sensitive to green light (fig. 2-7). When a normal
contrast negative is exposed through a variable contrast
filter with blue light, a harsh, contrasty print is produced.
 RED SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER - PRODUCES
CYAN DYES
GREEN SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER -
PRODUCES MAGENTA DYES
BLUE SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER - PRODUCES
YELLOW DYES
Figure 2-8.–Cross section of color printing paper.
When the same negative is exposed on another sheet of
paper with green light, a flat or not enough contrast print
is produced. When the normal-contrast negative is
printed with the proper combination of blue and green
light, a print with natural contrast is produced; therefore,
to control contrast when using variable contrast papers,
you can use a series of yellow and magenta filters to
control the amount of blue and green printing light
during exposure.
COLOR PRINTING PAPERS
Color printing papers are for printing color
negatives or color transparencies. Like color negative
films, color printing paper can be identified by the
suffixes “color” and “chrome.” These papers are
designed for printing color negatives and color
transparencies, respectively.
Like color films, color papers have three emulsion
layers. The order of the emulsions is reversed in
comparison to color films (fig. 2-8). The top emulsion
layer is sensitive to red light and produces cyan dyes,
the middle emulsion layer is sensitive to green light and
produces magenta dyes, and the bottom emulsion layer
is sensitive to blue light and produces yellow dyes.
Figure 2-9.–Reflection of light of different surface paper.
2-10
PAPER SURFACES
Photographic papers are available in a variety of
paper surfaces, such as matt, semimatt, lustre, high
lustre, pearl, and glossy. The use of different paper
surfaces depends on the final application of the
photograph. There are two paper surfaces that arc used
frequently in Navy imaging facilities: glossy and matt.
Paper that has a smooth, glossy surface provides a print
with higher contrast and higher densities or color
saturations, resulting in an apparently sharper image.
This is due to the direct reflection quality of the paper
surface (fig. 2-9, view A). Glossy papers are always
used for photographic prints that are used to show fine
detail, such as equipment damage or intelligence
photographs.
Light reflected from MATT paper is diffused and
provides a softer, lower contrast image (fig. 2-9, view
B). Because of the lower contrast, subject detail does not
appear as sharp as an image on glossy paper. Matt papers
are used commonly for portraiture and scenic
photographs.
PROPER HANDLING AND STORAGE OF
FILMS AND PAPERS
Care in handling films and papers prevents
fingerprints, abrasions, and scratches on the surfaces of
these materials. You should particularly avoid
unnecessary contact between an emulsion surface and
any other object. Only handle light-sensitive materials
by the edges.
Light-sensitive materials should be removed from
their packages in a room that is clean, dust-free, and
lightproof. The workbench and your hands should be
clean and dry. Light-sensitive materials should be
handled in total darkness or under safelight conditions
specified by the manufacturer.
Unexposed light-sensitive materials deteriorate
slowly with time even when the materials are stored
under ideal conditions. High temperatures and high
relative humidity accelerate this deterioration. You
should protect light-sensitive materials from the
harmful effects of temperature, humidity, x rays, gases,
and vapors that may be present in darkrooms, transport,
and adverse storage conditions. Storage instructions are
printed on the packaging materials of most photographic
products.
Kodak papers and sheet film are packaged in
humidity-sealed boxes to protect them from changes in
relative humidity (RH). Keep these materials in their
original packaging until you are ready to use them.
When the RH gets at 60 percent or higher for long
periods of time, not only do cardboard packages, labels,
and metal containers become damaged, but mold,
fungus, and bacteria start to grow. Fungi can destroy
film and paper by digesting the gelatin in them. Ideally,
film and paper should be stored below 50 percent RH.
The usable life of a light-sensitive material varies
with the type of material, but generally, color materials
deteriorate more rapidly than black-and-white
materials, and black-and-white materials with
high-speed emulsions deteriorate more rapidly than
black-and-white materials with slow-speed emulsions.
Cold storage in a refrigerator or freezer is
recommended for all light-sensitive materials; however,
refrigerators and freezers that contain food or unsealed
containers of liquids have a high relative humidity.
Therefore, food should never be stored in the same
refrigerator as film and paper.
Paper and professional film should be stored at
about 50°F (10°C) or lower in the original sealed
package. All film, including amateur film, must be
protected from extreme heat. Never store photographic
materials in extreme heat, such as in a glove
compartment, trunk, or the back window of a car. Once
opened, the original package should be used as soon as
possible. After opening, the materials are no longer
protected from humidity or chemical fumes.
2-11
When film or paper, black and white or color, is
removed from cold storage into a warmer atmosphere,
allow a warm-up time before opening the original
packaging; otherwise, moisture condensation may form
on the film or paper. The warm-up time for
light-sensitive material depends on the type of material
packaging, the size of the package, and the amount of
material.
The warm-up times for packages of paper is
considerably longer than for film. Paper is usually
packaged in larger quantities, 100 to 500 sheets per box
and in rolls up to 1,000 feet long. Short roll film and
magazines take 1 to 1 1/2 hours to warm-up. Large
packages and rolls of film and paper should be allowed
to warm-up to room temperature overnight or about 10
hours.
FILM AND PAPER EXPIRATION DATES
Each package of film is marked with an expiration
date. Ideally, the film should be processed before this
date for best results. If the film has not been used by this
date, it should be tested photographically to confirm and
determine its adjusted film speed and performance.
Much of the film and paper found in Navy inventory
has, in fact, expired. When not subjected to adverse
storage and handling conditions, the film is probably
still usable for a reasonable time. You should consider
the expiration date as a guide only.
Use light-sensitive materials of the same type in the
order of their expiration dates. The material with the
earliest expiration date should be used first. One
exception to this is when you know that a material of the
same type with a later expiration date has been subjected
to improper storage conditions; for example, if film or
paper has been sitting on a pallet on the flight ramp in
Diego Garcia for several weeks before being delivered
to the ship, you should test the material before using it.
Film and paper stored under unfavorable conditions or
film that has expired may have a loss of emulsion speed,
undesirable contrast changes, stains, color shifts, or high
gross fog.