4 Strength and stiffness

Kick off
Look at the picture. Answer the questions.
1 Which parts of the system need to stretch a bit?
2 Which parts of the system need to bend a bit?
3 Can you name any forces that act on the system?

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Vocabulary f.i
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Forces and strain

Match the pictures, words, and diagrams.

1 tension 2 shear 3 compression

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 Strength and stiffness 23

ln this unit
o testing
O the Passive
o testing strength and stiffness
o the Millau Viaduct

2 Complete the sentences using the words in l.

When forces are applied to a material, its shape Joaquin Calvo Hernandez
t_ changes. The measure of the change in shape is called
strain. Forces on materials can be:
1- the material is stretched and you can
measure the change in the material
2
- the material is compressed and you
can measure the change in the material
3
- the forces are not in line with each
other

comoressron
t
deflection

tension
I I work for a company that designs and makes test
equipment for the aircraft and car industries. We have
This material is bending. When the material bends, offices in Barcelona and Madrid. I work in the Madrid
you can measure the change. The change is called office mainly on test equipment for a European aircraft
deflection. company. I graduated in mechanical engineering and
In the cable car picture on p.22, what examples of at the same time studied English, taking two technlcal
tension, compression, shear, and bending can you see? subjects in English. Durlng my degree course, I spent
nlne months in the west of England working for a *
company that make machine parts. After I graduated, I
It's my job was hired by my present company and I was assigned to
the design and operation of test equipment. Engineers
Before you read about Joaquin Calvo Hernandez,
from France and England often visit our offices. We
answer the questions. speak English together. Of course I taik with them about
1 What does a test engineer do? my own projects, but sometimes my co-workers ask me
2 What qualities are important for materials for to talk about their projects as weli. So I work informally
aircraft? as a kind of translatorl But I don't mind.

3 Why is testing extremely important for aircraft?
2 Read and check your answers.
3 Answer the questions.
1 What field is Joaquin's degree in?
L Where did Joaquin do work experience?
3 What'extra service'does Joaquin provide in his
office?
4 What three materials does Joaquin mention?
5 What measurement equipment does Joaquin
mention?
6 What test is done to see how a component will
perform over time?
4 Would you like to do Joaquin's job? Why / why not?
Right now, I'm testing aircraft fuselage panels that
are made from the latest carbon flbre composite
materials. These materials are light, with high
strength and stiffness, but they are harder to produce
than parts made from aluminium or titanium alloys.
However, improvements in their properties and
in manufacturing methods are made all the time.
Measured loads are applied at certaln polnts to put
stress on the component. We use different instruments
such as strain gauges, load cells, and pressure
transmitters. Sometimes we perform fatlgue tests
where the ioad is varied many times to simulate the
number of aircraft take-offs and landings.
Aircraft components are tested thoroughly because
any failure could end in disaster. I feel happy that my
job is keeping people safe.
 24 Unit4

The designer has to

account for all the loads
that are likely to occur.

o Language spot
The Passive
1 Look at1,-4.Tick (/) the sentences where we know Weigh the material
who does the action. The material
1 Aircraft components are tested thoroughly. tr
ffi
2 Sometimes my co-workers ask me to talk about
ìffi their projects tr
i:ìr: 3 Improvements in manufacturing methods are
:ì::i]i
made all the time. T
.a :.:ì
4 I work in the Madrid office tr
Study the rule about the Active and the Passive. Decide Paint the car.
i,ì.'ì
which sentences in I use the Passive. The car

e When we know and are interested in who does

something, we use the Active.
::l:l:il

XXAMPLE
?,:;
-
I'm testing aircraft fuselage panels.
* e If we don't know / don't care who does something,
f, we use the Passive. It is often used to describe
procedures and processes. It sounds impersonal. Cut the wood.
The wood
EXAMPIE
Fatigue tests are performed on aircraft wings.
to be + past participle
Study the sentences. How do we form the Passive in
the Past Simple?
I was assigned to the design and operation oJ test Listening
equipment. Test processes
The first sketches for the bridge were made in 1987. An engineer is explaining the process of testing
)) Go to Grammar reference p.120 aeroplane parts. Number the steps in order.
4 Look at the pictures and instructions. Explain the In this procedure, the panels are load tested.
procedure in each one. Use the Present Passive. An initial loading of 50 kilos is applied.
First, the load cylinders are attached to the
-panels.
- in stages and the strain
The load is increased
Weld the parts. and deflection values recorded for each load condition.
The parts are welded. - The strain gauges and load ceiis are connected
to the measuring equipment.
- Then the instrument readings are checked
against the expected values.
-f) tisten and check your answers.
 Strength and stiffness 25

Engineering loads are often

calibrated and measured as weights
in kilograms even though loads are
reaìly forces measured in newtons.

ii Match the sentences in I with the pictures. Talking about forces and stress
E 3Q fisten. Complete the text with the correct numbers
tr The unit of force is the newton (N).
i The unit of pressure, stress, and tensile strength is the
pascal (Pa).
aDo- b
megapascal (MPa).
n "MPa= d gigapascal (GPa).
Strain is not expressed in units. lt is the percentage change
in a material under stress.
u N.
The force of this tank on its base is
tr Pressure inside the tank is MPa.
The compressive strain on the concrete base is

E t
s o/o.

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ttt I

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tr !

tr

4 \Mhy are stress tests on aircraft components extremely

4 (fu tisten again and check your answers.
important?
5 Work in pairs. Student A, go to p.107. Student B, see
below.
[§armber ta§§« 1 Look at the picture. Answer Student As questions
Numbers
I Match each number with its pronunciation.
a 1 000 000 000 ten
b 10 ten thousand
c 100 000 000 one thousand
Look at the picture. Ask Student A questions to
d 10 000 ten million complete the information.
e 1000 one hundred a The force on the crane
f 1 one million hook:
g 10 000 000 one b The tensile strength
h 1 000 000 zero point one
ofthe crane hook:
i 100 one hundred miilion
- on
The strain
j 0.1 zero point zero one
the crane hook:
k 0.01 one billion

! Q risten and check your answers.

I
26 Unit 4

Common bridge types

truss bridge arch bridge suspension bridge

Speaking Read the text. Write T (true) or F (fatse) for each

statement. Justify your answer.
Testing strength and stiffness
1 The French President ordered the construction of
Work in pairs. Explain the tests. Student A, go to p.107. the bridge in2OO4.
Student B, go to p.112.
2 The bridge is for road traffi.c.
EXAMPLE
3 The design of the bridge was completed in 1996.
Aforce of 100 newtons was appliedto the panel.
4 The bridge cables are carbon flbre.
5 Two of the major design considerations were wind
Reading loading and the features of the site.
The Millau Viaduct 6 The bridge is just over three kilometres long.

I tabei the picture. Use the words in the list. Answer the questions.
cabies deck pier pylon span 1 How long did it take to design the bridge?
2 What are the sources of stress on the bridge?

The Millau Viaduct

More like flying than driving
The Millau Vladuct, in southern France, was described
by French President Jacques Chirac as'a marvel of
art and architecture'when he opened the bridge in
2004. The cable-stayed bridge is the highest bridge in
France. It's 2460 metres }ong and supports a four-lane
motorway. Some people say that crossing the brldge is
more like flying than driving.
Bridge design considerations
The flrst sketches for the bridge were made in 19gZ but
serious design work didn't begin until 1996 when the
design team was chosen. The design considerations
are the same for most bridges. The structure has to
withstand natural forces such as wind and seismic
activity (earthquakes) as weti as loads from its own
weight and from traffc. After careful design and
testì.ng, the flnal plans were approved in 199g.

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 Strength and stiffness 27

§&aeck§§s&
Assessyour progress in this unit. Tick (/) the
statements which are true.
I can talk about testing in engineering
I can understand and use the Passive
I can discusstests ofstrength and stiffness

3 Why is concrete used for the piers? I can discuss the engineering of the Millau
Viaduct
4 The deck on the Millau Viaduct is more flexible than the deck
on some suspension bridges. \Nhy?
5 How did they test that the design would withstand high winds?
6 What is the length of the main spans? Key words
Nouns
4 Work in small groups. Discuss the questions.
bending
1 Why can't you place the piers on steep slopes?
component
2 The Millau Viaduct is a cable-stayed bridge. Dj.scuss how it is compression
different from a suspension bridge. compressive strain
3 Why aren't all bridges cable-stayed bridges? deflection
4 Discuss what you think were the main activities fatigue
during the
design. load
load cell
newton (N)
stiffness
strain gauge
strength
stress
Materials
tensile strain
The designers of the Miliau Viaduct chose steel-reinforced concrete tensile strength
for the piers with a steel deck and support cables. Concrete
is a common material for bridge construction. It withstands
compressive forces very well. But it must not be used alone in
tension so it is reinforced with steel, which is strong in tension.
Design challenges and solutions
The site consists of steep slopes. The piers needed to be placed
either at the top or bottom of slopes. This limited the number
of piers that could be used. With a limited number of piers, the
height of each pier needed to be higher than on usual bridges, to
support longer spans. The result is that pier 2 (2A5 m) and pier 3
(223m) were the highest bridge piers ever built at that time.
The viaduct is very high, which means wind stress was a very
important consideration. On some cabte-stayed bridges, the piers
and pylons are flexible, and the deck is thick and rigid. However,
the piers and pylons of the Miltau Viaduct are rigid, which
means the deck can be relatively thin and flexible. Computer
modelllng showed that a bridge of this design would perform
better in the strong winds of the Tarn Valley.
The Millau Viaduct in numbers
. total length :2460 m
.Tpylons-340mhigh
. stay cables: 22per pylon
. deck: steel girders,270 m above the ground
. main spans: 342 m long