Signals and Systems (K-Wiki - Signals)

Signals & Systems (Signals)
Signals
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Represent Continuous and Discrete Time Signals mathematically.

 Perform basic shifting and scaling operations on signals.
 Classify signals based on different characteristics.
Introduction
Signals are very common in our daily lives as human communication face to face happens
through the use of speech signal and also speech signal is transmitted over a telephone line.
Another form of human communication is electronic in nature over the internet via e-mail
and messages. Signals play an important role in medical sciences also where by monitoring
the ECG and EEG signals of a patient, a doctor is able to diagnose the disease. Similarly, a
probe sent to the outer space sends signals containing information about a faraway planet
back to earth.
A signal is a defined as a function of one or more variables that conveys information about a
physical phenomenon. If it is a function of a single variable like time, then it is said to be one
dimensional signal like speech signal.
Basic Classification of Signals
1. Continuous Time Signal or Analog Signal: Any signal which is continuous both in time
period & amplitude is known as continuous time signal. These signals represent most of
the commonly occurring signals in nature.
Ex. x  t  =t2
2. Discrete Time Signal: Signals which are continuous in amplitude but discrete in time
period are called as discrete signals. These signals are obtained from Analog Signals by a
process called as “Sampling” where certain samples of Analog Signals are considered at
regular intervals. Ex. x[n]=n
3. Digital Signal: Signals which are discrete in amplitude as well as in time period are called
as digital signals. These signals are obtained from Discrete Time Signals by a process
called as “Quantization” in which samples are approximated to certain discrete levels to
discretize the amplitude.
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Advantage of Discrete Time Signals over Continuous Time Signals
1. More SNR for better reconstruction of signal.

2. Greater accuracy.
3. Effective storage, more Discrete Time Signals can be stored in lesser space.
Sampling
Here we consider certain samples of Analog Signals equally spaced in time with a spacing of
Ts between them.
Where n = any integer, Ts = sampling interval
Solved Examples
  
Problem: A CTS x t  2cos 250t  60 is sampled at a frequency of 1KHz then discrete
signal x(n) is?

Solution: x nTs   2cos 250 nTs   60 
1
Ts   1ms
fs
 n  
x n  2cos   
 4 3
Standard Test signals
1. Unit Impulse   t  &  n
1 , n=0
   t  dt  1 ;  t  0  t  0

 n  
0 , n  0

Properties of   t 
 x  t    t   x 0   t 
x  t   t  dt  x  0 

 
 If the point of Impulse Function doesn’t lie in Integration limits then the integral is zero.
 x  t    t  t0   x  t0    t  t0 
x  t   t  t0  dt  x  t 0 

 
dk k d
k
x t 
    x t 

 
dtk
 t  t 0
dt  1
dtk t t0
Time – Scaling
1
   at    t
a
Convolution
 Convolution is a process of continuous multiplication where signal amplitudes are
multiplied at every instant of time
 x t *  t  x t
 x  t  *   t  to   x  t  to 
 x  t  to  *   t  to   x  t  2t o 
 ax  t  t1  * b  t  t2   abx  t  t1  t2 
Properties of  n
 x n  n  x 0   n


  x n  n  x 0
n 0

   n  n x n  x n 
n 0
0 0
  an   n (Time scaling is unaffected)

Convolution
 x n *  n  x n
 x n *  n  n0   x n  n0 
 ax n  n1  * b n  n2   ab x n  n1  n2 
Solved Examples
Problem: Simplify the functions mentioned below:
1. t2   t  3 
 
sin 3  t  1    2t  4  dt

2.  
1. t2  t  3   3   t  3  9  t  3
2
Solution:
1 1
  
sin 3  t  1   2  t  2  dt   
sin 3  2  1   sin9

2. 
 2 2
2. Unit Step u(t) & u[n]
1 , t>0 1 , n  0
ut   u n  
0 , t<0 0 , n<0
Heaviside Unit Step u(t)

1, t>0

u  t   0, t<0
1
 , t=0
2

Relation between Unit Step and Impulse Function
d
ut   t
dt
u n  u n  1   n
u  t      t dt
t


u n    n  k 
k 0
Solved Examples
Problem: Represent the following sequence as sum of weight impulses. x n  { 3 ,0 ,2 ,1 ,3}
Solution: x n  3 n  2  2 n   n  1  3 n  2
3. Ramp Function, r(t)
t, t>0
r t  
0, t<0
d
 r t  ut
dt
d2
 r t   t
dt2
 u  t dt  r  t 
t


4. Parabola, p(t)
 t2
 , t>0
p(t)= p(t)   2
0 , t<0

d
 p t  r t
dt
 r  t dt  p  t 
t



d2
 p t  ut
dt2
d3
 p t   t
dt3
5. Gate Function or Rectangular function
t t
A   or Arect  
T T
t T T
Arect    A ,   t 
T 2 2
6. Triangular Function
  t
 A 1   Tt0
t   T
A    
T   t
A 1   0tT
  T

t  t
A    A 1   ; t T
T  T

7. Periodic Function
 Cycle: A complete set of values of an alternating quantity is called as cycle

T=indicate fundamental period

The time taken to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity is known as fundamental
period.
2
f  t   A sin  t    where ω= 2f =
T
For discrete time signals,
 m
f[n]  A sin  n    ;

2 N
where N is fundamental period and 'm' and 'N' have no common factors
Solved Example
Problem: Find fundamental period for following signals
 3 
1. x  t   2cos  t 
 5 
 3 
2. x n  2cos  n
5 
 3  2 3
Solution: 1. x  t   2cos  t  =  , T=3.33 msec
 5  T 5
3
 3   m m 10
2. x n  2 cos  n =>   5   N  m  N  10
5  2 N 2 N 3
8. Continuous exponential
x  t   Aeat
Case 1 : a>0 exponential decay
a=1 x  t   Ae t
Case 2 : a<0, exponential rising
a=-1 x  t   Aet

9. Discrete Exponential
x n  an
Case 1 : 0<a<1
x n   0.2 
n
a=0.2
For a  1, signal is exponentially decaying.
Case 2 : a>1
a=2 x n  2n
For a  1, signal is exponentially increasing.
10. Bounded & Unbounded Signal
For bounded signal For unbounded signal
x  t   M or x n  M x  t    for some t or x n   for some n
Solved Examples
Problem: Find whether the signals are bounded or unbounded?
1. x  t   e2tu  t 
2. x  t   e2tu  t 
3. x  t   e2tu  t 
4. x  t   e2tu  t 

Solution: 1. This signal has all values between 0 and 1 and hence it is bounded.
2. As t    , this signal tends to infinity and hence it is unbounded.
3. As t   , this signal tends to infinity and hence it is unbounded.
4. This signal has all values between 0 and 1 and hence it is bounded.
11. Signum Function
1 , t>0
sgn  t   
1, t  0
Solved Examples
Problem: For what values of ‘a’ following signals are bounded?
1. x  t   e 2. x  t   e sgn  t 
a t a t
Solution: For a > 0, the graphs of signals look like as shown and hence both signals are
bounded for a > 0.
Basic Manipulation of signals
 Time reversal or folding

For time reversing a signal, we need to take the mirror image of the signal about y-axis. This
operation is illustrated using some of the examples below:
x  t   x  t 

x n  x  n
 Time Shifting
A signal said to be time shifted of the signal if it is delayed in time or advanced in time. This
is called as translation in time domain.
To shift a signal, shift all points of the signal by the amount of shift introduced. For delay,
signal is shifted towards right and for advance signal needs to shifted left.
x  t  k   delayed by k units.
x  t  k   advanced by k units

 Scaling
1. Amplitude Scaling
If the signal is multiplied by a constant value then its amplitude is changed and it is called
as
Amplitude Scaling.
x  t   kx  t 
2. Time Scaling
x  t   x kt 
Note:-In amplitude scaling signal strength (area) varies in direct proportionality & in time
scaling the signal strength varies inversely proportional for time limited signed.
For discrete time signal, if x[n]  x kn , then it is called as Decimation and only those
samples of signal are included which lie at points which are integral multiples of “k”.
n
If x[n]  x   , then this process is called as Interpolation and here we insert 0’s between
k 
two successive samples of the signal.

Solved Examples
Problem: If x(t) is given as shown below sketch x  2t  1  ?
Solution:
METHOD 1 METHOD 2
Time shifting is 1st priority Scaling is first priority
Applicable for both continuous & Applicable only for continuous time
discrete time signals signals
 So, priority is given to method-1
Problem: If x(t) is given as shown below Sketch x  2  3t  ?

Solution:
Problem: If a plot of signal x  t  is as shown in the figure then the plot of the signal x(1- t)
will be
Solution: The plot of given signal x(t) is shown below

First reflect the signal about the vertical axis to obtain x(-t) . Then shift x(-t) towards
Right by 1 unit to get x(-t+1) . Resultant signal is shown below
Waveform synthesis using unit-step function
1 , a<t<b
x  t   u  t  a  u  t  b    
0 , otherwise

x  t   e2t u  t  1   u  t  1  
Solved Examples
Problem: Common Data for Q.1 and Q.2:
Consider the triangular pulses and triangular wave of the figure
Q.1 The mathematical function for x1 (t) is
(a) 2tu  t  - 4  t+1 u  t -1 +2  t+2 u t - 2
(b) 2tu  t  - 4  t -1  u  t -1  +2  t - 2  u  t - 2 
(c) 2tu  t  - 4  t -1  u  t+1  +2  t - 2  u  t+2 
(d) None of the above
Solution: Correct option is (b)

x (t) can be obtained using following methodology
1
1. At t = 0 , slope changes from 0 to 2, so we write
x' (t) = 2tu(t)

1

2. At t =1 , slope changes from 2 to -2 for a change of -4 in slope; so we write
x'' (t) = -4(t -1)u(t -1)

1
3. At t = 2 , slope changes from -2 to 0 for a change of 2 in slope; so we write
x''' (t) = 2(t - 2)u(t - 2)

1
Thus, x(t) = x' (t)+ x'' (t)+ x''' (t)

1 1 1
= 2tu(t)- 4(t -1)u(t -1)+2(t - 2)u(t - 2)
Q.2 The mathematical function for waveform x  t  is
 
(a)  x  t+2k  (b)  x  t - 2k 
k=0 1 k=- 1
 
(c)  x1 t-2k  (d)  x1  t+2k 
k=0 k=-
Solution: Correct option is (a).

The expression for periodic waveform is,

x(t) =  x (t -kT )
k=- 1 0
but waveform is only shown in positive region

x(t) =  x (t -kT )
k=0 1 0
Here, T = 2 , therefore
0

x(t) =  x (t - 2k)
k=0 1
Waveform synthesis using ramp function

2 4  T 2
x t  r t  r  t    r t  T 
T T  2 T
Solved Examples
Problem: Find expression for x(t)?
Solution:
A
x t  r  t  b   r  t  a   r  t  a   r  t  b  
b  a   

Important Terms
 Average: DC present is signal calculated in terms of its average value.
1 T
f  t  dt
T 0
f(t) avg 
 RMS: The AC present in signal is calculated in terms of RMS value.
1 T 2
f  t  dt
T 0
f(t) 
RMS
 Form Factor: The content of AC present in a DC signal given as FF defined as
RMS value
FF=
Avg Value
Maximum value
 Peak Factor: PF 
RMS value
Signal Waveform Avg RMS FF PF
Vm sin  wt    0 Vm  2
2
Vm cos  wt    0 Vm  2
2
Square 0 Vm  1
Triangular 0 Vm  3
3

Solved Examples
Problem: Find RMS value if the given waveform?
2
 A  1 1 A2  1  2
    A  
2
  1  A 
2
Solution: MSV   
 3 2 2 2 3  3
2
RMS  MSV  A
3
Classification of CTS & DTS
1. Periodic and Non-Periodic Signal
Conditions for a signal to be periodic:
 Periodic signals must be ever-lasting

 Must have infinite time period
 Must satisfy the condition
x  t   x  t  kT  and x n  x n  kN where T & N are fundamental period
Note:
 Any periodic signal added or multiplied with DC signal, the overall signal is periodic
signal.
 Any periodic signal added or multiplied with unit-step signal, the overall signal is non-
periodic signal.
 All exponential signals are non-periodic but all complex CT exponential signals are
periodic.

Finding periodicity of multiple signals

1. Find the individual fundamental period & denote them as
T1 , T2 , T3 . . . (or) N1 , N2 , N3 …. Nn
2. Obtain the ratio
T1 T2 T3 N1 N2
, , ….. (or) , …
T2 T3 T4 N2 N3
3. If any ratio is irrational, then non-periodic
If all ratios are rational, then periodic
T  xT1 ; N  xN1 ; where x=LCM of all ratios
Solved Examples
Problem: Find period of the waveform?
Solution: Semi-Periodic with T=2sec
3 
j  n 
7 2
Problem: Find the period of the following signal x n  e
 m 3 m 14
Solution:  =>  => N  m =irrational
2 N 14 N 3
Hence, non-periodic.
Problem: x  t   1  cos  25t   sin 30t   cos  40t  Find Period of the signal x(t)?
 2 2 2  2  1 1 1  1 1 1 2
Solution: T1 , T2 , T3    , ,    , ,  ; LCM of , , =1 => T 
 25 30 40  5 5 6 8  5 6 8 5
Problem: Match List I (Signal) with list II (Period of the signal) and select the answer using
the codes given below

List-1 (Signals) List-2 (Period of Signal)
 2π 
P. f (t) = sin  t 1. 15 Unit
1  3 
 2π  4π
Q. f  t  = sin  t  cos( t) 2. 3 Unit
2  3  3
R. f  t  = sin3t 3. aperiodic
3
S. f  t  = f  t  - 2f  t  4. 2π unit
4 1 3 3
Solution: Correct option is (d).
2π
Period of f (t) , T = = 3 unit
1 1 2π
3
1   2π 4π   2π 4π  
f (t) can be written as f2  t  = sin  -  t+sin  + t
2 2  5 3 
  5 3   
1   -14π   26π  
= sin   t+sin   t
2   15   15  
2
Let, f t  = f  t  +f  t 
21 22
2π 15
Period of f
21   , 21 14π
t T = =

15
7 
2π 15
Period of f
22   , 22
t T = =
 26π
15 13
T
Ratio, 21 = 15 7 = 13 (rational)
T 15 13 7
22

So, f (t) is periodic

2
 15 15 
Period of f (t) . T =LCM(T , T ) =LCM  ,  =15
2 2 21 22  7 3
2π
Period of f
3  t , T =
3
unit
3
f  t  = f  t  - 2f  t 
4 1 3
T 3 9
Ratio 1 = = (not rational)
T 2π / 3 2π
3
4
Therefore f t  is aperiodic. Codes P  2, Q  1, R  4, S  3
Problem: The period of the signal g  t  = 2cos 10t+1  +sin(4t -1) is equal to _ _ _ _ sec.
Solution: Correct answer is 3.14.
Let, g(t) = 2cos(10t +1) + sin  4t -1 

g (t) g (t)
1 2
2π π
Period of g (t) , T = =
1 1 10 5
2π π
Period of g (t) , T = =
2 2 4 2
T π5 2
Ratio, 1 = =
T π2 5
2
Therefore, g(t) is periodic
Period of g(t) , T =LCM(T , T )

1 2
π π
= LCM( , ) = π = 3.14
5 2

2 3
j n j n
Problem: A DT signal is given as x[n]  e 3
e 4
, then the signal has a period of
2
j n 2
Solution: Period of e 3
, N1  , where 0 is frequency and m is an integer
0
2
(m)  3 for integer m=1
(2 / 3)
2
j n 2 2
Period of e 4
, N2  (m)  (m)  8 , for integer m=3
0 (3 / 4)
Since N1 / N2  3 / 8 (rational), therefore x[n] is periodic and period of x[n]
N  LCM N1 ,N2 

 LCM(3,8)  24
2. Even & Odd signals
a) Even signals
These signals are symmetric about y-axis (x = 0).
x  t   x  t  (or) x  n  x n
b) Odd signals
These signals are symmetric in 1st and 3rd Quadrant i.e. they are symmetric about y=x
line.

x  t    x  t  (or) x  n  x n
 Any signal can be represented as a combination of even & odd signals and if the signal is
even, then its odd part is zero & vice versa.
x  t   xe  t   x0  t 
x  t   x  t  x  t   x  t 
xe  t   ; x0  t  
2 2
Solved Examples
Problem: The signal x  t  is shown in figure below
 3  3
The odd part of the signal g  t  = x  t -  + x  t +  will be
 4  4
Solution: Shift x(t) 3/4 units to the left and 3/4 units to the right and then adding both
together, we get g(t) as shown below:

The signal g(t) is symmetrical with respect to vertical axis so odd part g (t) = 0 .
0
Problem: Match the List-I(Discrete time signal) with List-II(type signal) and choose answer
using the codes given below
List-I List-II
(Discrete time signal) (type signal)
P. x[n]  3u[n 2] 1. Even
Q. x[n]=-n 2. Odd
n
R. x[n]  (0.2) 3. Neither even nor odd
n n
1 1
S. x[n]  6      
5 5
Solution: (P)
x[n]  3u[n 2]
x[  n]  3u[  n 2]
x[n]  x[  n], x[n]   x[  n]
So this is neither even nor odd.
(Q)
x[n]   n
x[  n]  n
x[  n]   x[n]  odd
(R)
n
1
x[n]   
5
n n
1 1
x[  n]     
5 5
x[ n]  x[n]  even

(S)
n n
1 1
x[n]  6      
5 5
n n
1 1
x[ n]  6      
5 5
x[  n]  x[n]  even
3. Conjugate anti symmetric or symmetric
*
x n  x *  n
xe n  Conjugate symmetric
2
x n  x *  n
x0 * n  Conjugate anti-symmetric
2
4. Deterministic & Random signals
 Signals whose output can be estimated at any instant of time are known as deterministic
signals.
 All deterministic signals can be expressed mathematically.
 Signals whose output cannot be estimated at any instant are known as random signals.
They are modelled in terms of probability of occurrence of a particular symbol. More the
randomness in the signal, less is probability of occurrence of a symbol and more is the
information content.
5. Causal & Non-Causal signals
 Any signal which starts at a pre-determined t>0 for CTS & n  0 for DTS are known as
causal signals. Signals other than causal are known as non-causal.
 u(t)  causal, u(-t)  Anti-Causal, u(t+2)  Non-causal.
 All periodic or everlasting are non-causal signals.
6. Energy & Power Signals

 A signal is said to be energy signal, if it radiates finite energy. ( 0  E   )
 A signal is said to be Power Signal, if it posses finite non-zero power.
 The energy of signal is calculated as

2
 
T
E x  t   lim  x  t  dt
T   T
N
 
2
E x n  lim
N 
x n
nN
 Power of a signal is calculated as,
1 T 2
Pxt  lim
T  2T  T
x  t  dt
1 N 2
Px n  lim
  N 2N  1 
nN
x n
Note:
 If the signal is energy signal, then average power=0.

 If the signal is power signal, then it has infinite energy.
 The bounded signal radiate finite energy & periodic signal radiate finite average power.
 Condition when signal is neither energy nor power signal :
i. E   ,P  
ii. E   ,P  0
iii. E  0,P  
 All periodic signals are power signals but not vice versa.
Solved Examples
n
1
Problem: Determine whether the signal is Energy or Power Signal x n    u n
3
2
n
N
1
Solution: E  lim    u n
nN  3 
N
2n 2n
N
 1  1
N
E  lim    u n  lim   
nN  3  n 0  3 
N N
1
E 9 J
1 1 8
9

Problem: A signal, defined over the range , has energy equal to 12 units. Match List I (signal)
with List II (Energy of the signal and select correct answer using the codes given below
List I (Signal) List II (Energy)
P. 2x(t) 1. 48 Unit
Q. x(3t) 2. 12 Unit
R. x(t - 4) 3. 4 Unit
S. x(2t) 4. 24 Unit
Solution: Energy Ez of signal x(t) is given as
3 2
Ez =  x(t) dt = 12 unit
-3
Energy of 2x(t) ,
E = (2)2 ×Ex = 4×12 = 48

1
Let, x (t) = x(3t)
2
So, x (t) is defined over the range -1  t  1
2
1 2 1 2
Energy E =  x (t) dt =  x(3t) dt
2 -1 2 -1
1
Let 3t = α  dt = dα
3
13
So E =  x(α) 2 dα
2 3
-3
1
= ×Ex = 4 unit
3

Energy of x(t - 4) is same as x(t)
Energy of 2x(2t)
1
E = (2)2 × Ex = 24 unit
4 2
Problem: Match the List-I(Discrete time signal) with List-II(Energy of the signal) and select
the correct answer using the codes given below
List-I List-II
(Discrete time signal) (Energy of the signal)
P. 2 u[  n]
n
1. 9/8
Q. 2 u[  n 1]
n
2. 4/3
n
1
R.   u(n) 3. 4
3
S. u[n]  u[n 4] 4. 1/3
n
1
Solution: (P) x2 [n]  22n u[  n]    u[  n]
4
n
1

1 4
Energy, E1      
n  4  1 1 / 4 3
n
1
(Q) x [n]  2 u[  n 1]    u[  n 1]
2 2n
4
n n
1
1 
1 1/4 1
Energy, E2         
n  4  n1  4  1 1 / 4 3
2n n

1 
1 1
(R) E3          9/8
n 0  3  n 0  9  1 1 / 9
(S) E4  (1)2  (1)2  (1)2  (1)2  4

Signals and Systems (K-Wiki - Signals)

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Signals & Systems (Signals)

Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:

 Represent Continuous and Discrete Time Signals mathematically.

Basic Classification of Signals

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Advantage of Discrete Time Signals over Continuous Time Signals

1. More SNR for better reconstruction of signal.

Where n = any integer, Ts = sampling interval

1. Unit Impulse   t  &  n

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 x n  n  x 0   n

  an   n (Time scaling is unaffected)

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Problem: Simplify the functions mentioned below:

2. Unit Step u(t) & u[n]

Heaviside Unit Step u(t)

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Relation between Unit Step and Impulse Function

Solution: x n  3 n  2  2 n   n  1  3 n  2

3. Ramp Function, r(t)

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5. Gate Function or Rectangular function

 Cycle: A complete set of values of an alternating quantity is called as cycle

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For discrete time signals,

Problem: Find fundamental period for following signals

Case 1 : a>0 exponential decay

Case 2 : a<0, exponential rising

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For a  1, signal is exponentially decaying.

For a  1, signal is exponentially increasing.

10. Bounded & Unbounded Signal

For bounded signal For unbounded signal

x  t   M or x n  M x  t    for some t or x n   for some n

Problem: Find whether the signals are bounded or unbounded?

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2. As t    , this signal tends to infinity and hence it is unbounded.

3. As t   , this signal tends to infinity and hence it is unbounded.

11. Signum Function

Problem: For what values of ‘a’ following signals are bounded?

Basic Manipulation of signals

 Time reversal or folding

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Problem: If x(t) is given as shown below sketch x  2t  1  ?

Time shifting is 1st priority Scaling is first priority

 So, priority is given to method-1

Problem: If x(t) is given as shown below Sketch x  2  3t  ?

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Solution: The plot of given signal x(t) is shown below

Waveform synthesis using unit-step function

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Problem: Common Data for Q.1 and Q.2:

Consider the triangular pulses and triangular wave of the figure

Q.1 The mathematical function for x1 (t) is

(a) 2tu  t  - 4  t+1 u  t -1 +2  t+2 u t - 2

(c) 2tu  t  - 4  t -1  u  t+1  +2  t - 2  u  t+2 

(d) None of the above

Solution: Correct option is (b)

1. At t = 0 , slope changes from 0 to 2, so we write

x' (t) = 2tu(t)

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