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Carbon fibre stress-ribbon bridge

Conference Paper · March 2007

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Carbon fibre stress-ribbon bridge

Authors:
Mike Schlaich Achim Bleicher
Professor Dr. sc. techn. Dipl.-Ing., Research assistant
Technical University of Berlin, Germany Technical University of Berlin, Germany
Institute of Conceptual and Structural Design Institute of Conceptual and Structural Design
Schlaich Bergermann und Partner
Berlin, Germany

Abstract:

Up to now, Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastics (CFRP) are used in structural engineering
mainly to reinforce existing structures. However, its economic and structural potential for
new structures is still unused. To show this potential, a stress-ribbon bridge with carbon fibre
ribbons was built in the laboratory hall of the institute of civil and structural engineering at
the Technical University of Berlin. Stress-ribbon bridges are among the most elegant and
lightest bridges. The ribbons are anchored in the abutments on both sides. Pedestrians walk
directly on the ribbons that are covered and stabilised by open-jointed concrete slabs. Usually
the ribbons are steel plates or steel cables. The use of carbon fibre ribbons instead of normal
steel ribbons gives an opportunity for progress in the design of stress-ribbon bridges.
Compared with normal structural steel, the tensile strength of this material is ten times higher
and the specific weight is five times lower. This allows building longer spans and smaller
cross sections. This paper starts with a description of stress-ribbon bridges in general. The
contents of the following sections are the anchorage of carbon fibre ribbons, the structural
design and the construction of the test bridge.

Keywords:

Footbridge, stress-ribbon bridge, carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP), non-laminated

CFRP strap, CFRP ribbon, tension strap, anchorage, GFRP

1 Introduction

Genesis of the idea using carbon fibre ribbons in the design of a bridge for the first time was
mainly the desire to point out that the high performance material carbon fibre does not only
reinforce existing structures but can also be used to build new ones. The stress-ribbon bridge
was chosen because the high strength of the carbon fibres can be used virtually ideally in this
easy and elegant structure. Most high strength materials can not be fully utilized according to
their maximum tensions because either stability problems or excessive deformations appear
caused by elastic elongation.
The influence of the elastic elongation is mitigated by the strain-less deformations that effect
the ribbon bridge simultaneously. The thin carbon fibre ribbons allow reducing the bending
stresses which appear in the loop areas to negligible values and are always relevant for the
design calculation.
An additional intention to build the bridge was the wish of the authors to design an
appropriately extremely lightweight and lively structure, to further research in the field of
active damping. By now the bridge is built: One millimetre thin ribbons span 13 meters and
are calculated for loads according to “DIN-Fachbericht 101”.
The decision to build the bridge initially in the impressive laboratory hall at the institute of
civil and structural engineering at the Technical University of Berlin was easily made. First,
the necessary experience can be gained quickly, which is a prerequisite to make such an
innovative structure safely accessible to the public. Second, it allows our research to be
carried out more easily.
This article deals with the description of the stress-ribbon bridge and its load bearing
behaviour in general. Initially we explain the structural design for an anchorage suitable for
the carbon fibre ribbons. Then the planning and the construction of the bridge are explained.

2 Stress-ribbon bridges

2.1 History

Some of the oldest bridges made were stress-ribbon bridges. If a ravine was too wide to fall a
tree across, a rope was thrown. By this simple bridge type the ropes or ribbons are stretched
between the bridge ends and directly accessed and loaded. There is nothing simpler. Walkway
and load bearing ribbon, which often consists of natural fibres, were one and the same. In
modern structures the ribbons consist of steel plates or cables, which are wrapped in concrete
or covered with concrete or stone slabs.
Since the development of high strength steels, it is possible to build stress-ribbon bridges
capable of carrying high loads. Early examples (Fig. 1) are the Bircherweid Bridge at
Pfäffikon by René Walther (1967), the bridge in Freiburg by Ulrich Finsterwalder (1970), and
the bridge at Geneva-Lignon by Weisz, Wenaweser, Wolfensberger (1971).

Fig. 1. Early stress-ribbon bridges: Pfäffikon (Switzerland), Freiburg (Germany), Genf-Lignon (Switzerland)

Some stress-ribbon bridges were planned for road traffic, best known among these is the
design of the bridge over the Bosporus by the civil engineer Ulrich Finsterwalder. Most
stress-ribbon bridges, however, are designed for pedestrian use because pedestrians cope
better with the comparatively strong gradients at the bridge ends and the vibrations of these
rather lively bridges. The bridges get their stiffness almost exclusively from the bridge's own
dead load of the walkway slabs.
Mostly, the ribbons have poor damping quality which is the reason why the bridges are
strongly dependant on secondary structural components to control the rocking. For example
the installation of wire mash railings on the Glacis Bridge in Ingolstadt has doubled the
damping values [1]. The deformation and vibration behaviour can also be improved by
increasing the mass. The stress-ribbon bridge in Pforzheim (1991) and Rostock (2003)
(Fig. 2) consist of steel ribbons (S355 or S690) and heavy concrete slabs as walkway [2], [3].
Fig. 2. Pforzheim III, North Bridge Rostock (Germany)

Until now, no stress-ribbon bridges with carbon fibres [2], [4] have been realized due to
doubts of the clients with regard to the innovative nature of the material and time and cost
considerations. Further information about stress-ribbon bridges is found under [1], [3], [5],
[6], [7].

2.2 Design and calculation

The force in the stress-ribbon is dependent on the span L, the distributed load q and on the sag
f. The constant horizontal component H is:

q ⋅ L2
H=
8⋅f

Fig. 3. Horizontal force in a stress-ribbon

Evidently the force H is equal to the maximum moment of the single span girder under equal
load (M = q·L2/8), divided by the maximum sag f. It is also obvious that the ribbon can not be
stretched straight because the horizontal force component H of the stress-ribbon would
become infinite. Consequently the chosen sag represents a compromise between costs and
comfort, between a costly anchorage and an easily manageable inclination. This is the reason
stress-ribbon bridges are almost exclusively for pedestrian use. Acceptable inclines are bigger
than for highway bridges or even train bridges. As a rule, one accepts a sag f for pedestrian
bridges to be f ≤ L/50, because the inclination of the unloaded structure remains smaller than
8 % even in the steepest areas at the abutments.
The cable form created by a uniformly distributed load is a parable. Balance is only achieved
through this form. If the uniformly distributed load is increased, the force in the ribbon
increases which leads to elastic elongation and increasing sag. However, the parable form
remains unchanged. If the load is otherwise distributed, the geometry of the ribbon will
change until equilibrium is achieved. These deformations which arise without an elastic
elongation are described as "strain-less deformations".
Fig. 4 shows the strain-less deformations and the deformations from the elastic elongation of
a stress-ribbon bridge with ribbons made of carbon fibres (CFRP) and steel. The
dimensionless relationship vz/f of the vertical deformation vz to the maximum sag
f = constant, is shown over the half span and for different relationships of f/L. The strain-less
deformations result from a single point load assuming that the extensional stiffness is infinite
and the dead load of the ribbon is negligible. They are almost independent of the f/L
relationship studied here. The deflection resulting from elastic elongation arise from an
evenly distributed load of q = 5 kN/m.
Comparing a bridge with carbon fibre ribbons (EA = 48 MN, σ = 1800 N/mm2) with a steel
ribbon bridge (EA = 520 MN, σ = 327 N/mm2), both with a relationship of f/L = 1/50, the 11
times smaller extensional stiffness of the carbon fibre ribbons leads to 4 times larger
deflections in the middle of the span resulting from elastic elongation. In contrast the strain-
less deformation is bigger in the abutment area. The inclination difficulties at the abutment
mentioned above are relevant and therefore the low extensional stiffness of the carbon fibre
ribbons less problematical for its Service Limit State (SLS).

vz/f
2

1,5

0,5

0 L/2 [m]

CFRP f/L=1/70 CFRP f/L=1/50 CFRP f/L=1/20 Steel f/L=1/70 Steel f/L=1/50 Steel f/L=1/20 Strain-less

Fig. 4. Vertical deformations vz/f of strain-less deformations versus deformation

from elastic elongation

2.3 Complex stress distribution at the anchorage

Special attention has to be put on the anchorage of the stress-ribbon. The ribbon cannot be
simply clamped, because high amounts of alternating bending caused from traffic loads
together with tension would lead rapidly to fatigue failure. This can be compensated by the
use of saddles at the abutments and over the supports in case of multi span bridges (Fig. 5).
By carefully choosing of the saddle radius the bending stress which develops in the ribbon
can be controlled and safely be brought under the endurance limit.

Fig. 5. Saddle of the three-span stress-ribbon bridge

in Rostock (Germany)
In the saddle area bending stresses σM are added to the tensile stresses σH. The complete
stress σ at the saddle is in initial approximation:
H M
σ = σH + σM = ±
A W
H H q ⋅ L2
σH = = = b: ribbon width, h: ribbon thickness
A b ⋅ h 8⋅f ⋅ b ⋅ h
The bending stress σM arises from the bending moment M, which results from the
curvature κ of the ribbon on the saddle. The curvature is the inverse proportion of the
radius R of the saddle.
1 M
κ= = E: elasticity modulus, I: moment of inertia
R EI

M M⋅h /2 E⋅h
σM = = =
W I 2⋅R
Obviously the bending stress is inversely proportional to the radius and proportional to the
ribbon thickness. Therefore a saddle radius as large as possible and a ribbon thickness as
small as possible have to be chosen. For the elastic limit fyd the necessary saddle radius can
then be determined in dependence of sag, ribbon thickness and width, load and span as
follows:
⎛ b ⎞
R = 4 ⋅ E ⋅ h2 ⋅ f ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 8 ⋅ f yd ⋅ f ⋅ b ⋅ h − q ⋅ L ⎟
2
⎝ ⎠
Another advantage of the carbon fibre ribbon is evident: Due to its higher strength it can not
only be stressed higher, but also be constructed considerably thinner, which leads to a
reduction of the bending stress, correspondingly the saddle radius.
The stress-ribbon bridge is a virtually ideal bridge type for the use of high strength carbon
fibre ribbons. Another favourable quality of the material, its low weight, has not yet been
utilized. To master the vibrations of the test bridge, the ribbons were weighed down with
concrete slabs, as will be shown later. The difficulties associated here are to be part of further
research done by the Institute of Conceptual and Structural Design. The next step will be to
examine the use of "intelligent" damping methods which without use of mass "calm" these
very lively bridges. The material carbon fibre would then really be used optimally.

3 Prototyp with carbon fibre ribbons

3.1 Composition of carbon fibre reinforced plastic strips

Up to now carbon fibre reinforced plastics have mainly been used for structural purpose as
strips or cables. These profiles are produced in the pultrusion process. It is possible to
produce strips with thicknesses from ~ 0.11 to 3 mm and widths from 50 to 300 mm. The
fibres, as long as the strip itself, are embedded in the matrix unidirectional and held together
by the matrix. Thermosetting resin (epoxy resin) or thermoplastic resin (polyamide) are used.
The matrix protects the fibres from environmental influences and damage during processing
[8].
The qualities of fibre composite materials depend on the fibres used and the fibre volume
fraction. The final strip has tensile strengths between 1500 - 3200 N/mm2 and elasticity
modulus between 300.000 N/mm2 - 170.000 N/mm2 at a breaking elongation of 0.5 % - 2 %.
The fibre volume fraction is between 60 - 70 %.
The efficiency of this material is revealed by the breaking length. A thread reaches its
breaking length, when it breaks under dead load. The dead load of CFRP is 16 kN/m3, so with
a strength of 3000 N/mm2 it has a breaking length of 188 km, approximately eight times of
tendons made of steel.
The CFRP strips used for the test bridge were developed in the 1990's at the graduate school
"Polymer Materials" at the TU Berlin [9]:
Carbon fibres: Typ Toray T700S (~60 Vol-%)
Matrix: Polyamide PA12
Tensile strength: 3000 N/mm2
Elasticity modulus: 170.000 N/mm2
Breaking elongation: 1.8 %

3.2 Previous application areas of CFRP in structural engineering

Until now carbon fibre reinforced plastics are used in structural engineering mainly to
reinforce existing structures. They can be applied loose or pre-stressed on the components to
be strengthened.
Already 1996 CFRP tendons were installed as a structural element at the Storchen Bridge in
Winterthur, Switzerland [10]. For this bridge 2 of the 24 existing steel cables were replaced
by 35 m long CFRP tendons which respectively consist of 241 "parallel wires" each with a
diameter of 5 mm. Similar tendons were used on further bridges as external tendons.

3.3 Anchorage possibilities of CFRP strips

Friction locked anchorages between CFRP strips and the structural element to be connected
are considerably more difficult to construct than for tendons made of steel. The isotropic,
elastic-plastic and ductile material behaviour of steel allows different material processing
methods without losing strength. Furthermore the strain differences which always appear
between tendon and anchorage structure can be compensated by plastic deformations of the
steel. Unlike unidirectional CFRP have an anisotropic, linear elastic and brittle material
behaviour. In addition, the material reacts very sensitive to high lateral pressure and notching.
The established anchorages for steel structures cannot be simply transferred. It is not possible
to simply transfer the solution of clamping the strip to the anchorage with a clamping plate
and thus establishing a connection through friction. Arising through this anchorage, the high
shear stress (Fig. 6) and the lateral pressure would reduce the load capacity of the strip
enormous.

Fig. 6. Shear stress distribution with clamping

Within the last few years different research facilities and enterprises have developed new
anchorage solutions for this material using different approaches. These different approaches
are briefly introduced:
The engineers of Leonhardt, Andrä and Partner developed in various stages using both
clamping and gluing a "Strain clamp anchor" which transfers the force by several clamp
plates connected in series. Between the clamp plates flexible areas are arranged to create a
consistent shear stress in the load distribution area (Fig. 7), [12].
The Institute for Structural Engineering at the Technical University of Wien developed the
"Composite wedge system" which corresponds to the anchorage principles of tendons for pre-
stressed concrete structures. The contact pressure is distributed evenly by a special wedge
designed with two different material layers with different thicknesses and elasticity modules.
The force in the strip can be evenly transmitted creating a consistent shear stress (Fig. 8),
[13].

Fig. 7. „Strain clamp anchor“ Fig. 8. „Composite wedge system“

The developments in anchoring described up to now use friction bonding for force
transmission. To get a high degree of effectiveness a relatively complex anchorage is
necessary to provide an even distribution of shear stress along its length as well as width. For
the stress-ribbon bridge testing in our own institute confirms the difficulties in using glued or
clamped anchorages [11].
A completely different anchorage version was developed at the EMPA Dübendorf near
Zurich: A CFRP strap without an additional anchorage body [14]. For this a very thin strip is
led around two anchorage bolts repeatedly, so that a multilayered strap is created. The strip
(e.g. ~ 0.11 mm x 50 mm) consists of carbon fibres ordered unidirectional in a matrix of
polyamide, a thermoplastic resin. Both ends of the multilayered strap are welded with the
layers above and below. Outside the welded seam the strips are not laminated. This "two-in-
one" element utilizing only one anchor bolt, is a very fibre friendly anchorage and a simple
version without clamping and notching.
The CFRP strap with 5 layers used for the test bridge is fixed at the anchorage bolts of the
abutments (Fig. 9). In this case the welded seam must transmit only ~ 1/10 of the total tensile
force. The non-laminated strap with CFRP strips described in chapter 3.1, were made by
Carbo-Link, a spin-off company of the EMPA Dübendorf.

Fig. 9. Non-laminated CFRP strap

As described in chapter 3.1, CFRP strips are available in different thicknesses. Fig. 10 shows
the bending stress σM for the three most prevalent strip thicknesses in dependence of the bolt
radius. It clearly shows the advantages of having a very thin strip at the anchorage bolt. For
the test bridge a relatively low bolt radius (40 mm) was chosen with a bending stress
σM = σmax/10 with σmax = 3000 N/mm2.
 3000

Bending stress [N/mm ] 2500

2

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Bolt radius [mm]
h = 1,4 mm h = 1,2 mm h = 0,11 mm

Fig. 10. Bending stress dependent on strip thickness and bolt radius

However, it has to be taken into account that lateral compressive stresses σ⊥ reduce the load
capacity of the strip. In the case of the thin bolt chosen here only 60 % of the strength,
1800 N/mm2, can be used [14]. Further research is necessary.

H 2 E⋅h H 2 ⋅ e − µ⋅ϕ E ⋅ h
σ = σ N ± σM σ= ± σ* = ±
b⋅h 2⋅R b⋅h 2⋅R

H2 H 2 ⋅ e − µ ⋅ϕ
σ⊥ = σ*⊥ =
R ⋅b R ⋅b

τll = 0 τ*ll = µ ⋅ σ*⊥

* with friction between bolt and CFRP strip [14]

Fig. 11. Stresses at the anchorage bolt

3.4 Design of the prototype

The boundary conditions for the test bridge were substantially defined by the size and load
restraints of the test field in the laboratory hall (Peter-Behrens-Hall) [15]. A sag/span ratio
1/60 was selected in such a way that a gradient of ~ 7.5 % at the abutments will not be
exceeded. The clear span L is 13.05 m. The CFRP straps were pre-stressed to establish a sag
of f = 0.21 m due to elastic elongation after loading with the walkway slabs. These slabs were
made of GFRP reinforced white concrete.

Fig. 12. Plan and elevation of the prototype

3.5 Dimensioning, details und construction

The bridge was dimensioned for loads according to “DIN-Fachbericht 101”, i.e. for traffic
loads of 5 kN/m2. In the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) a tensile force of Nd = 530 kN has to be
carried by ribbons. For this force 6 ribbons, 3 per abutment, were chosen using the
multilayered strap described before.
Size and number of the abutments were selected in dependence of the test field. Vertical and
horizontal forces can be transferred into the baseplate of the test field over stress points in a
grid of 1 m x 1 m. One abutment is fixed by two stress points. A ground plate, two side plates
and a lug from steel S235 form a triangular box which is open to one side. Two crossbeams in
the open side transfer the forces from the U-shaped connection into the side plates. These
crossbeams were also used to attach the presses during the pre-stressing of the CFRP straps.
The multilayered straps with a thickness of 1.1 mm are lead across a deviating roll with a
diameter of 100 mm at the abutment (Fig. 13). At each abutment three straps over three
sleeves with a diameter of 80 mm are fixed with a bolt of 60 mm diameter (Fig. 14). The
sleeves are designed that the single layers of the strap cannot displace laterally.

Fig. 13. Section through abutment / anchorage Fig. 14. Anchorage

The walkway, consisting of 16 white concrete slabs in two sizes lined up in a row, was
produced in the concrete laboratory of the institute. Two small slabs are arranged near each
abutment of the bridge to compensate the bigger inclination changes. To avoid notching in the
CFRP ribbons, high quality requirements were made on the concrete surface. A very smooth
surface was attained by using steel formwork. Additionally the shape of the slab was
optimized by smoothing the long edges on the underside of the slab (Fig. 15). We wanted to
design this bridge without steel except for the abutments. Therefore GFRP reinforcement was
used as an alternative to steel reinforcement and GFRP components for fixing the CFRP
ribbons.

Fig. 15. Smooth edge at concrete slabs Fig. 16. Connection of ribbons / concrete slab
To avoid movements of the individual strips among each other the straps were clamped to the
slab with low force by a flat GFRP profile. This is placed across to the three straps and
clamped with GFRP screws turned in embedded GFRP nuts (Fig. 16). A soft plastic is placed
between the concrete slab and the CFRP straps as well as between the flat profile and the
CFRP straps for their protection.
The assembly of the bridge proceeded in three phases:
First the four abutments were anchored to the test field with tension bars.
In the second phase the prefabricated CFRP straps, three per abutment, were laid over the
deviating roll and anchored with the bolts. This assembly step showed clearly the advantages
of this anchorage principle as well as the advantage of low self-weight compared with steel.
Using steel ribbons hoists and supports would have been necessary. Pre-stressing was the next
step (Fig. 17). Therefore presses, which support themselves over the crossbeams at the
abutment, pull the U-shaped connection including the anchorage bolt with the three straps
attached. Thus the CFRP straps receive an elongation of 6.5 % by pre-stressing. The pre-
stressing was monitored with strain gauges. For tolerance compensation packing plates were
placed between crossbeams and U-shaped connection. With pre-stressed screws the
connection between U-shaped connection and crossbeams was fixed. The second pair of
abutment was treated similar.

Fig. 17. Pre-stressed ribbons

In the third phase the concrete slabs were placed on the ribbons, starting in the centre of the
bridge. Two EPDM pads were placed between the individual slabs to avoid a chipping of the
concrete edges. Finally the ribbons were clamped with GFRP flat profiles to the concrete
slabs.

3.6 Load test

In December 2006 the first load tests were carried out with cement bags, followed by
members of the institute for civil and structural engineering.
Fig. 18. Load test with cement bags

Fig. 19. Load test with the institute of civil and structural engineering

4 Conclusion

The described developments only touched the immense potential of carbon fibre reinforced
plastics. The need for further development and research in this field becomes obvious.
- CFRP ribbons behave very sensitive against mechanical influence and fire. Such a
bridge can only be built in public if the ribbons are protected or these influences can be
excluded.
- The anchorage chosen here is certainly suitable for the material and not only for stress-
ribbon bridges an optimal solution. However, further research is necessary to examine
the influence of different bolt radius on the behaviour of lateral pressure, wear and tear
and friction of the ribbons.
- To carry lightweight structures to the extremes not only light ribbons but also a light
superstructure is necessary. This leads to extreme lively and rocking bridges. Thus
further research will examine the possibilities of intelligent damping of such structures.
Therefore, as a prerequisite, the optimal combination of ribbon and superstructure
material as well as the respectively best connection between them has to be found.
The gained experience and knowledge can surely be transferred to other lightweight
structures like guyed masts, suspension and cable stayed bridges. In any case the design and
construction of this first CFRP stress-ribbon bridge demonstrates impressively that this new
and innovative material is especially suitable for this bridge type.
 Acknowledgment

The authors would like to thank the Deutschen Institut für Bautechnik for its financial support
and the sponsors Carbo-Link, Schöck, Röchling Engineering Plastics and Aalborg White for
the material support.

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