Unit I: ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

(DC Circuits )
UNIT I: ELECTRIC CIRCUITS (DC Circuits )

• Dependent and independent sources

• Thevenin’s theorem
• Norton’s theorem
• Superposition
• Maximum power transfer
• Graph of a network – Trees-Chords and
branches
• Tie-set and cut-set of a graph
Table 2.1 Various elements of electric circuits.

Direct current circuits Alternating current circuits

Elements Representation Elements Representation

Voltage source or Voltage source ~

- + - +

(Battery)

Current source Current source

Resistor Resistor

Inductor

Capacitor
2.2 REFERENCE FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

Consider any two terminal element with terminals A and B as shown in Fig. 2.1.

i
A B

+ v -
Fig. 2.1 Two terminal element.

This two terminal element may be a resistor, inductor or capacitor. It is of fundamental

importance for an engineer to be very precise concerning the meaning of the reference
directions of element voltage v and element current i.
The reference direction for current is indicated by an arrow. Given the reference
direction for current, if the current flows in the direction shown, then i is a positive
number. On the other hand, if the current flows in the opposite direction, then i is a
negative number. Marking the reference direction as from A to B does not mean that the
current always flows from A to B.

In the two terminal element shown in Fig. 2.2, the current i is computed as 5 A, it is
clear that 5 A current flows from A to B. On the other hand, if the calculated value of the
current is – 4 A, it means that 4 A current flow from terminal B to terminal A.

A B
i

Fig. 2.2 Two terminal element.

For an element AB, voltage vAB is the voltage of terminal A with respect to terminal B.
Now consider the two terminal element shown in Fig. 2.3. If the voltages at terminals A
and B are measured as 10 V and 6 V with respect to the ground, then voltage v AB = 4 V.
In case if the voltages at terminals A and B are measured as 6 V and 10 V with respect
to the ground, then voltage vAB = - 4 V; alternatively we can write voltage vBA = 4 V.
vAB
+ -
A B

vA vB

Fig. 2.3 Two terminal element.

There are two types of elements found in electric circuits. They are ACTIVE elements
and PASSIVE elements.
An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not.
Typical active elements include generators, batteries and operational amplifiers.
Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors and inductors. Usually the
voltage across a passive element is represented as v(t) while that across a active
element is represented either as v(t) or e(t).

Taking the passive elements into consideration we choose the reference direction as
shown in Fig. 2.1.

i
A B

+ v -
Fig. 2.1 Two terminal element.

They are called Associated Reference direction. The reference directions for element
voltage and element current are said to be associated, if a positive current enters the
element at the terminal marked with + sign and leaves the element at the terminal
marked with - sign.
If associated reference directions are used, denoting v(t) and i(t) as element voltage
and element current, the product v(t) i(t) will be the power delivered to the element at
time t. It is also called as the power absorbed by the element. Two terminal element
may be called a Branch. In such case corresponding current and voltage are called as
Branch current and Branch voltage.

i(t) v(t) i(t) is the power absorbed

by the element

+ v(t) -

It is customary to use reference direction for the element voltage and element current of
active element as opposite of associate reference directions.

Therefore, for the active element the product v(t) i(t) denotes the power delivered by
the source to the circuit at time t.

i(t)

+ v(t) i(t) is the power delivered

v(t) ~ by the source
-
The most important active elements are voltage and current sources. There are two
kinds of sources namely INDEPENDENT and DEPENDENT sources.

2.3 IDEAL INDEPENDENT SOURCES

For the sake of convenience, ideal independent sources are simply referred as ideal
sources without the adjective independent. This should not cause confusion because
whenever dependent sources are encountered, they will be specifically stated as
dependent sources and denoted with special symbols.

Ideal sources are of two types namely,

i) Ideal voltage source

ii) Ideal current source

2.3.1 IDEAL VOLTAGE SOURCE

An element is called an ideal voltage source, if it maintains a prescribed voltage vs (t)

across the terminals of arbitrary circuit to which it is connected, whatever be the current
i (t) flowing through the source. The complete description of the voltage source requires
the specification of function vs (t). The symbol for ideal voltage source along with the
arbitrary circuit connected to it is shown in Fig. 2.4.

i (t)

+
Arbitrary
vs (t) ~
- circuit

Fig. 2.4 Ideal voltage source.

If the prescribed voltage vs(t) does not vary with time, the voltage source is called
constant dc voltage source and it is represented as shown in Fig. 2.5(a). This source
always maintains voltage V 0 irrespective of whatever be the current supplied by this

source as shown in Fig. 2.5(b). Direct current source voltage can also be represented
by E.

V
For all values of current
supplied by it
V0
V0

t
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.5 Direct current voltage source.

The other standard voltage source is ac voltage source and it is represented as shown
in Fig. 2.6(a). The source voltage vs (t) will be a sinusoidal voltage given by

vs (t) = Vm sin ωt (2.2)

whose waveform is represented as shown in Fig. 2.6(b).

vs (t) For all values of current

supplied by it
+
vs (t) = Vm sin ωt Vm
~
-
t

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.6 AC Voltage source.

The voltage waveform remains unchanged for all values of current supplied by the
voltage source. ac source voltage can also be represented by e(t).
2.3.2 IDEAL CURRENT SOURCE

An element is called an ideal current source, if it maintains a prescribed current is (t)

into the arbitrary circuit to which it is connected, whatever be the voltage v (t) across the
terminals of the circuit. The complete description of the current source requires the
specification of function is(t). The symbol for ideal current source along with the arbitrary
circuit connected to it is shown in Fig. 2.7.

v (t) Arbitrary
i s (t)
circuit
-

Fig. 2.7 Ideal current source.

If the prescribed current is(t) does not vary with time, the current source is called
constant dc current source and is represented as shown in Fig. 2.8(a). This source will
maintain current I 0 irrespective of whatever be the voltage across this source as shown

in Fig. 2.8(b).

I For all values of voltage

across it
I0 I0

t
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.8 Direct current current source.
The other standard current source is alternating current source and it is represented as
shown in Fig. 2.9(a). The source current is (t) will be a sinusoidal current given by

is (t) = Im sinωt (2.3)

whose waveform is represented as shown in Fig. 2.9(b).

is (t) For all values of voltage

across it
+
is (t) = I m sin ωt Im
~
-
t

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.9 AC Current source.

The current waveform remains unchanged for all values of voltage across the current
source.
2.4 DEPENDENT SOURCES OR CONTROLLED SOURCES

The two types of ideal sources we have discussed are independent sources. They are
called independent sources because the value of the source quantity is not affected in
any way by the voltage or current in other part of the circuit.

In contrast with the independent sources, there is another kind of source called
dependent source in which the source quantity (voltage or current) shall be determined
by the voltage or current existing at some other location in the electrical circuit under
study. Dependent sources are usually represented by diamond shaped symbols.
Since the control of dependent source is achieved by current or voltage of some other
element in the circuit, there are four possible types of dependent sources. They are

i) A voltage-controlled voltage source

ii) A current-controlled voltage source

iii) A voltage-controlled current source

iv) A current-controlled current source

Samples of such dependent sources are shown in Fig. 2.10.

+ +
2 v0 3 i0 4 v0 5 i0
- -

Fig. 2.10 Dependent sources.

Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements such as transistors, operational
amplifiers and integrated circuits. An example of circuit with current-controlled voltage
source is shown in Fig. 2.11.

R1 R2

+
+
5V 10i
R3
-
i -

Fig. 2.11 Circuit with a dependent source.

Voltage 10i volt of the voltage source depends on the current i amp. that flows through
the resistor R3. The solution of such circuits will be taken up later.
2.5 VOLTAGE CURRENT RELATIONS

I2.5.1. RESISTOR

Conductor is used to carry current from one point to another. For the conductor, at any
instant time t, the current i(t) passing through it and the voltage v(t) across it satisfies
the relation defined by the curve in the v-i plane as shown in Fig. 2.12(a).

i (t)

Slope = G

i (t) R
1
v (t) R=
G
+ v(t) -

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.12 Characteristics and representation of resistor.

Then i (t) α v(t)

= G v(t) (2.4)

The proportionality constant G is called as CONDUCTANCE of the conductor.

RESISTANCE, R is the opposing property of the conductor for the flow of current. Thus
R and G are the reciprocal of each other.

1
i(t) = v(t)
R

i.e. v(t) = R i(t) (2.5)

The statement corresponding to the above equation is called as OHM’S LAW. Thus
Ohm’s law can be stated as :

The current through the resistor and the voltage across it are related as

v(t) = R i(t) where R is called the resistance.

Consider a resistor with current and voltage markings as shown in Fig. 2.13(a). A
positive current will cause voltage drop from A to B. Then v A > v B and hence v which is
equal to vA - vB must be positive for any positive current. Thus the terminal relation
becomes

v = Ri (2.6)

i R i R
A B A B
+ v - - v +

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.13 Resistor with current and voltage markings.

Now consider a resistor with polarity markings as shown in Fig. 2.13 (b). A positive
current will result in voltage drop from A to B. Then v A > v B and hence v which is equal
to vB – vA must be negative for any positive current. Thus the terminal relation becomes

v =-Ri (2.7)
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length, inversely proportional
to its area of cross section. It also depends on the material of the conductor. Thus


R=ρ (2.8)
A

where ρ is called the specific resistance of the material by which the conductor is made
of. The unit of the resistance is Ohm and is represented as Ω. The unit of the specific
resistance ρ is Ohm-m. Resistance of a conductor depends on the temperature also. In
dc circuits, the power consumed by the resistor is given by

P=VI (2.9)

where V is the voltage across the resistor and I is the current through the resistor.

When the voltage is in volt and the current is in ampere, power will be in watt. Alternate
expressions for power consumed by the resistors are given below.

P = R I x I = I2 R (2.10)

V V2
P=Vx = (2.11)
R R
Two special conditions of resistors are of particular interest. They are OPEN CIRCUIT
and SHORT CIRCUIT.

In open circuit condition, current i(t) through the resistor will be zero irrespective of
whatever be the voltage v(t) across it. To satisfy this, as seen from equation i(t) = G v(t),
the value of G must be zero and hence the value of R must be infinity. Thus, in open
circuit condition

i(t) = 0, G = 0 and R =  . (2.12)

Note that in the open citcuit condition, there will be open circuit voltage across the
resistor.

In short circuit condition, voltage v(t) across the resistor will be zero irrespective of the
current i(t) flowing through it. To satisfy this, as seen from v(t) = R i(t), value of R
must be zero and hence the value of G must be infinity. Thus, in short circuit condition

v(t) = 0, R = 0 and G =  (2.13)

Note that when the resistor is short circuited, entire current is diverted through the short-
circuted path.
5.2 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

The idea of superposition rests on the linearity property. Superposition theorem is

applicable to linear circuits having two or more independent sources.

In a linear circuit having two or more independent sources, total response in an element
(voltage across the element or current through the element) is equal to the algebraic
sum of responses in that element due to each source applied separately while the other
sources are reduced to zero.

To make a current source to zero, it must be open circuited. Similarly, if any

voltage source is to be made zero, it must be short circuited. When this theorem is
used in circuit with initial conditions, they are to be treated as sources. Further,
dependent sources if any are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.
One disadvantage of analyzing a circuit using Superposition theorem is that it involves
more calculations. If the circuit has three independent sources, we need to solve three
simpler circuits each having only one independent source. However, when the circuit
has only one independent source, several short-cut techniques can be readily applied
to get the solution.

Major advantage of Superposition theorem is that it can be used to solve ac circuit

having more than one source with different frequencies. In such case, solution in time
frame is obtained corresponding to each source and added up to get the total solution.
Example 5.1 Calculate the current through the 1 Ω resistor in the circuit shown below.

2Ω

2V 2Ω 1Ω 5A

Solution: First calculate current I1 due to voltage source alone. The current source is
open circuited. The resulting circuit is shown below.
A

2Ω
I1
2V 2Ω 1Ω

B
2
Total circuit resistance RT = 2.6667 Ω. Circuit current IT =  0.75 A
2.6667
2
Current I1 = x 0.75  0.5 A from B to A
3
 2Ω

2V 2Ω 1Ω 5A

Now calculate current I2 due to current source alone. The voltage source is short
circuited as shown in Fig. 5.3.
A

2Ω

2Ω 1Ω 5A
I2

B
Fig. 5.3 Circuit - Example 5.1

Noting that two 2 Ω resistors are in parallel, current I2 = 2.5 A from A to B.

When both the sources are simultaneously present:
Current through 1 Ω resistor = 2.5 - 0.5 = 2 A from A to B.
Example 5.3 In the circuit shown, find the voltage drop, V0 across the 2 Ω resistor
using Superposition theorem.
10 Ω 2Ω

+ V0 -

+
3Ω 5Ω
20 V 20 Ω +
- 4A 40 V
-

Solution: 20 V source alone present: The circuit will be as shown below.

10 Ω 2Ω

+ V1 -

+
3Ω 5Ω
20 V 20 Ω
- I1
I2

 30  20   I 1  20 
Mesh current equations :     =   On solving, I2 = 0.9756 A
 20 27   I 2   0 

Thus voltage V1 = 2 x 0.9756 = 1.9512 V

4 A source alone present:
The circuit will be as shown below.

10 Ω 2Ω IX

+ V2 -

3Ω 5Ω
20 Ω
4A

2 + 10 ││20 = 8.6667 Ω

5
Therefore current IX = x 4  1.4634 A
13.6667

Thus voltage V2 = - 2 x 1.4634 = - 2.9268 V

40 V source alone present:
Resulting circuit is shown below.

10 Ω 2Ω IY

+ V3 -

3Ω 5Ω
20 Ω +
40 V
-

Circuit resistance RT = 5 + 2 + (10││20) = 13.6667 Ω

Current IY = 40 / 13.6667 = 2.9268 A; Thus voltage V3 = - 2 x 2.9268 = - 5.8537 V

When all the three sources are simultaneously present,

voltage across 2 Ω, i.e. V0 = V1 + V2 + V3 = 1.9512 - 2.9268 - 5.8537 = - 6.8293 V

5.3 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

In many practical applications, we may not be interested in getting the complete

analysis of the circuit, namely finding the current through all the elements and
voltages across all the elements. Instead, we may be interested to know the details
of a portion of the circuit; as a special case it may be a single element such as load
impedance. In such a situation it is very convenient to use Thevenin’s theorem to get
the solution.

Let us say that the original circuit is divided into two sub-circuits A and B connected
by a single pair of terminals and it is required to analyze circuit B alone. Then sub-
circuit A can be represented by its Thevenin’s equivalent as shown in Fig. 5.16.

a a
ZTh
+
Circuit A Circuit B VTh ~ Circuit B

-
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.16 Thevenin’s equivalent.
 a a
ZTh
+
Circuit A Circuit B VTh ~ Circuit B

-
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.16 Thevenin’s equivalent.

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit consists of a voltage source VTh, in series with an

impedance ZTh. This voltage source VTh is called as the Thevenin’s voltage and the
impedance ZTh is called as the Thevenin’s impedance.

To obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, we need to find Thevenin’s voltage V th

and Thevenin’s impedance ZTh. Unique procedure is available to find the Thevenin’s
voltage VTh. When we need the Thevenin’s voltage of circuit A, measure or calculate
the OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE of circuit A. This will be the Thevenin’s voltage.
Example 5.6

Find the Thevenin’s voltage with respect to the load resistor R L in circuit shown in Fig.
5.18.

3Ω

6Ω RL
9V IL

Fig. 5.18 Circuit for Example 5.6.

Solution

The given circuit can be divided into two circuits as shown in Fig. 5.19.

3Ω

6Ω RL
9V
IL

Circuit A Circuit B
 a

3Ω

6Ω RL
9V
IL

Circuit A Circuit B

Thevenin’s voltage of circuit A can be obtained from the circuit shown in Fig. 5.20.

a
3Ω +

6Ω VTh
9V
-
b
Fig. 5.20 Circuit - Example 5.6.

6
Using voltage division rule VTh = V6Ω = x 9  6V
9
Thevenin’s impedance can be calculated in three different ways depending on the
nature of voltage and current sources in the circuit of our interest.

Case 1

The circuit for which Thevenin’s impedance is to be calculated consists of impedances

and one or more independent sources. That is, the circuit does not contain any
dependent source. To determine Thevenin’s impedance, circuit shown in Fig. 5.21 (b)
is to be used.
a a
+

Circuit A VTh Circuit AA

- ZTh
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.21 Determining Thevenin’s equivalents.

The circuit AA in Fig. 5.21 (b) is obtained from circuit A by replacing all the independent
voltage sources by short circuits and replacing all independent current sources by open
circuits. Thus in circuit AA, all the independent sources are set to zero. Then,
Thevenin’s impedance is the equivalent circuit impedance of circuit AA which can be
obtained using reduction techniques.
The methods of finding the Thevenin’s impedance depend on the nature of the circuit
for which the Thevenin’s equivalent is sought for. These methods are summarized
below:

Circuit with independent sources only - ANY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING

1. Make independent sources zeros and use reduction techniques to find ZTh.

2. Short circuit terminals a and b and find the short circuit current Isc flowing from
a to b. Then ZTh = VTh / Isc

3. Set all independent sources to zero. Apply 1 V across the open circuited terminals
a-b and determine the source current Is entering the circuit through a. Then ZTh = 1 / Is.
Alternatively introduce a current source of 1 A from b to a and determine the voltage
Vab. Then, Thevenin’s impedance ZTh = Vab.
Example 5.7

Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.24.

20 Ω 4Ω
a
+
10 V 30 Ω 2A
-
b

Fig. 5.24 Circuit for Example 5.7.

Solution:

Open circuit voltage Vab is the Thevenin’s voltage VTh.

To find Thevenin’s voltage:

Note that there is no current flow in resistor of 4 Ω. Therefore, voltage V Th is same as

the voltage across 30 Ω resistor. Then, the node voltage equation is

VTh  10 VTh
  2  0 On solving this, we get VTh = - 18 V
20 30
To find Thevenin’s impedance: Since the circuit has only independent sources, it falls
under case 1

Reducing the sources to zero, the resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 5.25.
a
20 Ω 4Ω

30 Ω RTh

Fig. 5.25 Circuit - Example 5.7.

Thus RTh = 4 + 20││30 = 16 Ω Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5.26.
16 Ω
a
-
18 V
+
b
Fig. 5.26 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit - Example 5.7.

RTh can be obtained by two other methods also

Example 5.10 Using Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, calculate the current I0 through the
2 Ω resistor in the circuit shown below.
1Ω 3Ω

2V I0 2Ω 3V

Solution: Circuit by which VTh and RTh can be calculated are shown in Fig. 5.34.

1Ω 3Ω 1Ω 3Ω

a +
RTh
2V VTh 3V
b -

Fig. 5.34 Circuits for VTh and RTh - Example 5.10.

 1Ω 3Ω 1Ω 3Ω

a +
RTh
2V VTh 3V
b -

Knowing the anticlockwise current as 0.25 A

(1 x 0.25) + 2 - VTh = 0. i.e. VTh = 2.25 V; Also RTh = 1││3 = 0.75 Ω

With these Thevenin’s equivalent circuit becomes

a

0.75 Ω

2.25 V 2Ω I0 Current I0 = 2.25 / 2.75 = 0.8182 A

b
5.4 NORTON’S THEOREM

Much similar to Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem is also used to obtain the
equivalent of a two terminal sub-circuit.

In Fig. 5.50 (a) a circuit partitioned into two parts, namely circuit A and circuit B, is
shown. Detail analysis is required on circuit B. In Fig. 5.50 (b), circuit A is replaced by
its Norton’s equivalent.

a a

Circuit A Circuit B IN ZN Circuit B

b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.50 Norton’s equivalent.

Norton’s equivalent circuit consists of a current source IN parallel with an impedance ZN.
Looking at the Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalents shown in Fig. 5.51 (a) and (b), it is
clear that one can be obtained from the other through source transformation.

a a
ZTh
+
VTh ~ Circuit B IN ZN Circuit B

-
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.51 Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalents.
It is to be noted that

ZN = ZTh (5.3)

VTh VTh
IN =  (5.4)
Z Th ZN

To obtain Norton’s equivalent circuit, we need to find current IN and the impedance ZN.
They can be obtained from Thevenin’s voltage and impedance.
Otherwise Norton’s current can be obtained by finding the short circuit current as
indicated in Fig. 5. 52.
a

Circuit A
ISC

Fig. 5.52 Getting short circuit current.

It is to be noted that the short circuit current is from terminal a to terminal b while
Norton’s current is from terminal b to terminal a.

The impedance ZN can be got exactly same way we got ZTh as discussed in previous
section except that the method indicated under Case 2 is not applicable as it requires
the value of VTh.
Example 5.15

Using Norton’s theorem, determine the current through the resistor R L when RL = 0.7,
1.2 and 1.6 Ω in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.53.
a
1Ω
3V 4Ω RL
IL
b
Fig. 5.53 Circuit for Example 5.15.
Solution:

Circuits to determine ISC and RN are shown in Fig. 5.54 (a) and (b).
a a
1Ω 1Ω
3V 4Ω ISC 4Ω RN

b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.54 Short circuit current and Norton’s resistance.
 a a
1Ω 1Ω
3V 4Ω ISC 4Ω RN

b b
(a) (b)
It is to be noted that since there is a short circuit parallel to 4 Ω no current flows in it.

Norton’s current IN = 3 A; Norton’s resistance RN = 1││4 = 0.8 Ω

Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5.55.

a

RN can be obtained
by another method
3A 0.8 Ω RL IL
also.

b
Fig. 5.55 Norton’s equivalent - Example 5.15.

When RL = 0.7 Ω, IL = (0.8 / 1.5) x 3 = 1.6 A; When RL = 1.2 Ω, IL = (0.8 / 2) x 3 = 1.2 A

When RL = 1.6 Ω, IL = (0.8 / 2.4) x 3 = 1.0 A

5.5 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

There are some applications wherein maximum power needs to be transferred to the
load connected. Consider a linear ac circuit A, connected to a load of impedance ZL as
shown in Fig.5.65 (a). It is required to transfer maximum real power to the load. The
circuit A can be replaced by its Thevenin’s equivalent as shown in Fig. 5.65 (b).

a a
ZTh
+
Circuit A ZL ZL
VTh ~
IL
-
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.65 Maximum power transfer theorem - Illustration.

Let ZTh = (RTh + j XTh) and ZL = (RL + j XL)

The following maximum power transfer theorems determine the values of load
impedance ZL for which maximum real power is transferred to the load impedance.
 RTh + j XTh

Case 1: +

Load is a variable resistance RL VTh ~ RL

-
IL

VTh VT h
Load current IL = This gives │IL│ =
(R Th  R L )  j X Th ( R T h  RL )2  X T h
2

2
2 VTh RL
Real power delivered to the load PL = │IL│ RL = (5.7)
( R Th  R L ) 2  X Th
2

2
VTh
This can be written as PL = 2 2
(5.8)
R Th X
 2 R Th  R L  Th
RL RL
2 2
R X
For power PL to be maximum, Th  2 R Th  R L + T h must be minimum. Thus power
RL RL
PL will be maximum when
2 2 2 2
d R Th XTh R X
(  2 R Th  R L + ) = 0 i.e. when  Th2  1  Th2  0
dR L R L RL RL RL

RTh  XTh  ZTh

2 2
i.e. when RL2 = RTh2 + XTh2 i.e. when RL = (5.9)

Using this value of RL, the current IL and hence maximum power can be computed.
Example 5.19 Consider the circuit shown below. Determine the value of R L when it is
dissipating maximum power. Also find the value of maximum power dissipated.

6Ω
+
4V 2Ω RL

Solution:

As a first step, Thevenin’s equivalent across the load resistor is obtained.

2
VTh = x 4  1 V ; RTh = 6││2 = 1.5 Ω Resulting circuit is shown.
26

1.5 Ω
+
1V RL

For PL to be maximum, RL = 1.5 Ω; Then circuit current = 1/3 = 0.3333 A

Maximum power dissipated Pmax = 0.33332 x 1.5 = 0.16667 W

Example 5.37 2.5 Ω 10 Ω
Using Thevenin’s find the + +
current I0 in the circuit shown. 16 V 1Ω 32 V
I0
- -

Circuits to find VTh and R Th are shown in Fig. (a) and (b).

2.5 Ω 10 Ω 2.5 Ω 10 Ω

+ + +
16 V VTh 32 V RTh
- - -

(a) (b)
2Ω

VTh = 32 - (10 x 1.28) = 19.2 V; +

R Th = 2.5││10 = 2 Ω 19.2 V 1Ω
I0
-

Using the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit shown, current I0 = 19.2 / (2 + 1) = 6.4 A

Example 5.38

Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across AB for the circuit shown.

5Ω 7Ω 5Ω
A
+
8Ω
5V 6Ω +
- 8V
-
B

Solution: 5Ω 7Ω 5Ω
A
+
+
8Ω
5V 6Ω + VTh
- 8V
I1 I2
- -
B

 11 - 6  I1   5 
  6 21   I   - 8 
Using the circuit shown above,    2  

On solving I2 = 0.2974 A Thus, VTh = 8 - (8 x 0.2974) = 5.6208 V

Circuit shown is used to determine RTh .
5Ω 7Ω 5Ω
A

8Ω
6Ω RTh

5││6 = 2.7273 Ω; 2.7273 + 7 = 9.7273 Ω; 9.7273││8 = 4.3897 Ω

9.3897 Ω
RTh = 5 + 4.3897 = 9.3897 Ω A
+
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is
5.6208 V
-
B
Example 5.39

Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent across AB for the circuit shown.

4Ω
B
- +
10 V 2Ω 1Ω 5V
-
+
5Ω
A

Solution:

Given circuit can be redrawn as shown .

5Ω 4Ω
A B
+ + VTh - +

10 V 2Ω 1Ω 5V
-
-
 5Ω 4Ω
A B
+ + VTh - +

10 V 2Ω 1Ω 5V
-
-

2 1
VTh = ( x 10) - ( x 5) = 1.8571 V; RTh = (5││2) + (1││4) = 2.2286 Ω
7 5
2.2286 Ω
A
Thevenin’s equivalent is: +
1.8571 V
-
B
Example 5.40

Applying Thevenin’s theorem, determine current Iab in the circuit shown.

a a

2Ω 4Ω 2Ω 4Ω
+

12 Ω VTh Reference

-
8Ω 3Ω 3Ω
8Ω

b b

0.1 Ω + 24 V - 0.1 Ω + 24 V -

To find V Th, the circuit shown above is used. 6││11 = 3.8824 Ω

24
Current supplied by the battery =  6.0265 A
0.1  3.8824

11
Current flows from a to reference = x 6.0265  3.8995 A
17

6
Current flows from b to reference = x 6.0265  2.127 A
17

VTh = Va - Vb = (4 x 3.8995) - (3 x 2.127) = 9.217 V

To find RTh , .
a

2Ω 4Ω
RTh
0.1 Ω
Reference

8Ω 3Ω

b
Converting delta 0.1 Ω, 8 Ω and 3 Ω into star, the circuit will be as shown.
a

2Ω 4Ω
RTh

Reference

0.0721 Ω 0.027 Ω

2.1622 Ω

RTh = 2.1622 + (2.0721││4.027) = 1.3681 +n 2.1622 = 3.5303 Ω

9.217
Using Thevenin’s equivalent, current Iab =  0.5935 A
12  3.5303
Example 5.43

Using Norton’s theorem, determine current Iab in the circuit shown.

5Ω 10 Ω
+
2.5 Ω
25 V a b

-
20 Ω 15 Ω

Circuit by which Norton’s current and RN can be obtained are shown in Fig. (a) and
(b)

5Ω 10 Ω 5Ω 10 Ω
+ I2

a IN
25 V b a b

- I1 I3
20 Ω 15 Ω 20 Ω 15 Ω

RN

(a) (b)
 5Ω 10 Ω 5Ω 10 Ω
+ I2

a IN
25 V b a b

- I1 I3
20 Ω 15 Ω 20 Ω 15 Ω

RN

(a) (b)

 25  5 - 20   I 1  25 
  5 15 0   I 2  =  0  On solving I2 = 0.7 A and I3 = 1.2 A

- 20 0 35   I 3   0 

Current I N = I3 - I2 = 0.5 A; RN = (5││20) + (10││15) = 10 Ω

Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown:.

10
Current Iab = x 0.5 A = 0.4 A 0.5 A 10 Ω 2.5 Ω Iab
12.5
Example 5.44

Find the current IX in the circuit shown by obtaining Norton’s equivalent.

15 Ω

5Ω 5V
+ -

IX
10 A 15 Ω 15 Ω 10 Ω

15 Ω
5Ω

To find the current IN circuit shown is:.

15 Ω

5Ω 5V 0.3333 A
+ -

I1

10 A 15 Ω 15 Ω
IN
10 A 15 Ω I2
5Ω
Mesh current equations are:

15 (I1 - I2 ) + 15 (I1 - 10) + 5 = 0; i.e. 30 I1 - 15 I2 = 145

15 (I2 - 10) + 15 (I2 - I1 ) + 5 I2 = 0; i.e. - 15 I1 + 35 I2 = 150

On solving, I N = I2 = 8.0909 A

Circuit shown in is used to calculate RN:

15 Ω

5Ω

RN = 5 + 15 + (15││15) = 27.5 Ω
15 Ω 15 Ω
RN
15 Ω
5Ω

Norton’s equivalent circuit is:

27.5
8.0909 A 10 Ω
Current I0 = x 8.0909 = 5.9333
27.5 Ω I0 37.5
A
Example 5.46

In the circuit shown , find the value of R for which the power absorbed by it
is maximum. Also calculate the maximum value of power.
2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 4Ω

+ +
10 V 2Ω R 4Ω 20 V
- -

Solution:

Doing source transformation given circuit reduces as:

2Ω A 2Ω

5A 2Ω 2Ω R 4Ω 4Ω 5A

B
 1Ω 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω

+ A + +
0.7143 A
5V ETh 10 V
- B - -

Fig. 5.149 Circuit - Example 5.46.

Circuit current = (10 - 5) / (2 + 2 + 2 +1) = 0.7143 A

ETh = 10 - (4 x 0.7143) = 7.1428 V and RTh = 3││4 = 1.7143 Ω

1.7143 Ω
Thevenin’s equivalent is shown.
A
+
7.1428 V R
I
-
B

For the power absorbed by the resistor R to be maximum, R = R Th = 1.7143 Ω

Current I = 2.0833 A; Maximum power absorbed P max = 2.08332 x 1.7143 = 7.4403

W
9.1 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK TOPOLOGY

A network consists of elements such as

i) Voltage source

ii) Current source

iii) Resistance

iv) Inductance

v) Capacitance and

vi) Transformer

Network topology concerns itself with the manner in which the various elements are
grouped and interconnected.

In the network topology, each element in a network is represented merely by a line with
small circles or dots at the two ends denoting the terminals as shown in Fig. 9.1.

Fig. 9.1 Representation of an element.

9.2 GRAPH

Graphical portrayal, showing the geometric interconnection of elements of the network

is called the GRAPH of the given network. Fig. 9.2 shows a network and the
corresponding graph.

5
6 5 7
6 7
2
3 2
1
4 + 5 1 3
3 4 5
1 2 ~ 2
- 1 3

4
4
Fig. 9.2 A network and its graph.
The terminals of the elements are referred as NODES.

A sequence of elements travelled from one node to another is called a PATH.

If there exists at least one path from each of the node of the graph to every other node
of the graph, the graph is said to be CONNECTED or said to be in one PART;
otherwise the graph is UNCONNECTED or in more than one part.

The graph shown in Fig. 9.2, has seven elements and six nodes. In this
5
4-2-3 is the path from node 1 to 3.
6 7
4-5 is a path from node 1 to 3.
2
2-3-7 is a path from node 2 to 5. 1 3
4 5
2
5-7 is a path from node 2 to 5. 1 3

4
If the elements in a graph are assigned orientations, the resulting graph is called
ORIENTED GRAPH. Fig. 9.3 shows an oriented graph.

6 7
2
1 3
4 5
2
1 3

Fig. 9.3 Oriented graph.

In a network having N nodes, one node can be designated as reference node and it
may be marked as node 0. If so, other nodes are numbered as 1, 2, …. , N-1.
9.2.1 SUB-GRAPH

For a graph G, a sub-graph G1 is a collection of elements and nodes of G, such that

every element and node of G1 is contained in G. The number of elements in a sub-
graph may be just as few as one or as many as all those in G. A sub-graph may be
connected or unconnected.

9.3 TREE AND CO-TREE

TREE of a connected graph is defined as a sub-graph that contains a set of

elements, which together, connects all the nodes of the graph, without forming
any closed loop.

In general, a graph has more than one tree. The elements of a tree are called TREE
BRANCHES.

The set of all the remaining elements of the graph, which are not in the tree, form the
compliment of the tree and is known as CO-TREE. The elements of a co-tree are called
LINKS. Links are also called CHORDS. Co-tree of a graph need not be a connected
graph.
Consider the network graph shown in Fig. 9.4.
2

3
1 2

1 4 5
Fig. 9.4 A sample network
graph.
4 3
6
For this network graph, one of the trees and the corresponding co-tree are shown in
Fig. 9.5. 2

3
1 2 1 2

4 1 5

4 3 4 3
6

Fig. 9.5 A tree and the corresponding co-tree of a network graph.

 2

3
1 2 1 2

4 1 5

4 3 4 3
6

Elements 3, 4 and 6 are the tree branches. Elements 1, 2 and 5 are the links.

Each time we add a link to the tree, a closed loop will be formed.

The following are the characteristics of a tree.

1. Tree contains all the nodes in the graph.

2. It does not have any closed loop.

3. There exists a path from any one node to every other node.
To make our ideas more clear, we may consider another network graph shown.

2
1 3
1 2
3
4 5

Fig. 9.6 A sample network graph.

Three possible trees of the graph are shown in Fig. 9.7 (some more trees are also
possible).
6

1 2 3 1 2 3
2
1 2
1 2 3
3 3
4 5
4

4 4 4

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 9.7 Three possible trees of network graph shown in Fig. 9.6.
Tree branches and the links of the three trees shown in Fig. 9.7, are given in Table 9.1.

TABLE 9.1 Tree branches and the corresponding links.

Fig. Tree branches Links

9.7 (a) 1, 2 and 3 4, 5 and 6
9.7 (b) 2, 4 and 6 1, 3 and 5
9.7 (c) 3, 4 and 5 1, 2 and 6

If there are n elements and N nodes in the network graph, then

Number of tree branches = N - 1.

Hence, number of links = n - (N - 1) = n - N + 1

Each time when a link is added to the tree, one loop is formed. Thus,

Number of independent loops = n - N + 1

A CUT-SET is a set of elements that, if removed, divides a connected graph into two
connected graphs.

Consider the oriented connected graph shown in Fig. 9.8.

7

3 4
2 5
6 5 4

2
1 3

Fig. 9.8 Oriented connected graph.

Elements 1, 2, 5 and 7 constitute a cut-set as removal of these elements will result in

two connected graphs as shown in Fig. 9.9. Elements 1, 6 and elements 2, 3, 6 are
examples of two cut-sets. It is possible to identify more cut-sets.
Elements 1, 2, 5 and 7 constitute a cut-set as removal of these elements will result in
two connected graphs as shown in Fig. 9.9. Elements 1, 6 and elements 2, 3, 6 are
examples of two cut-sets. It is possible to identify more cut-sets.

3 4
2 5
6 5 4

2
1 3

Fig. 9.9 Illustration of a cut-set.

A unique independent group of cut-sets may be chosen if each cut-set contains only
one tree branch. Such independent cut-sets are called BASIC CUT-SETS. The number
of basic cut-sets is equal to the number of tree branches. Orientation of a basic cut-set
is chosen to be the same as that of the corresponding tree branch. Basic cut-sets will
be different for different tree selected.

To explain the basic cut-sets, we need to consider a tree of the graph. Consider the tree
consisting of elements 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in Fig. 9.10.
7

3 4
2 5
6 5 4

2
1 3

Fig. 9.10 Tree of a graph.

Corresponding to one tree branch, there will be one basic cut-set. Orientation of basic
cut-set is the same as the orientation of the corresponding tree branch. Fig. 9.11 shows
the four basic cut-sets A , B, C and D corresponding to the tree marked in Fig. 9.10.

D
3 4
2 5
6 5 4
A B
2 C
1 3

Fig. 9.11 Basic cut-sets.

A TIE-SET is a set of elements that from a closed loop

Consider the oriented graph shown in Fig. 9.13. Set of elements 1, 6, 2 and 2, 5, 4, 3
are examples two tie-sets as each set of elements form a closed loop. It is possible to
identify more number of tie-sets.
7

3 4
2 5
6 5 4

2
1 3

Fig. 9.13 Oriented connected graph.

A unique independent group of tie-sets may be chosen if each tie-set contains only one
link. Such independent tie-sets are called BASIC TIE-SETS. The number of basic tie-
set is equal to the number of links. Orientation of a basic tie-set is chosen to be the
same as that of its link. Basic tie-sets will be different for different tree selected.

Basic tie-sets depend on the tree selected. Let us consider a tree consisting elements
6, 2, 3 and 4. This tree is shown in Fig. 9.14.
7

3 4
2 5
6 5 4

2
1 3

Fig. 9.14 A tree and co-tree of a connected graph.

Example 1
Example 2