Introduction

The advantages of the FIR digital filter:

➢ The phase response can be exactly linear;

➢ They are relatively easy to design since there are no
stability problems;
➢ They are efficient to implement;
➢ The DFT can be used in their implementation.
 The disadvantages of the FIR digital filter:

➢ The frequency response is not as easily defined as it is

with IIR filters.
➢ The number of states required to meet a frequency
specification may be far larger than that required for IIR
filters.
➢ FIR filters sometimes have the disadvantage that they
require more memory and/or calculation to achieve a given
filter response characteristic
➢ Also, certain responses are not practical to implement with
FIR filters.
The advantages of a linear-phase response

➢ Design problem contains only real arithmetic and not

complex arithmetic;
➢ Linear-phase filter provide no delay distortion and only a
fixed amount of delay;
➢ For the filter of length N (or order N-1) the number of
operations are of the order of N/2.
 Properties of Linear-Phase FIR Filters

➢ The system function and frequency response

▪ The system function of FIR filters

Let h(n), n=0,1,…,N-1 be the impulse response of

length N. Then the system function is

N −1
H ( z) =  h (
n =0
n ) z −n

It has (N-1) poles at the origin and N-1

zeros located anywhere in the z-plane.
The frequency response of FIR filters

M −1
H (e ) =  h ( n )e
j − j n

n =0

=  H (e j ) e j ( ) = H ( )e j ( )

H (e j ) Magnitude response function

H ( ) Amplitude response function

 The difference between H (e j ) and H ( )

H (e j ) is always positive and the associated phase

response is a discontinuous function.

H ( ) may be both positive and negative and the

associated phase response is a continuous
function.

M −1
H (e j
)=  h
n =0
( n ) e − j n

=  H (e j ) e j ( ) = H ( )e j ( )
Consider the following example:

h(0) = 1, h(1) = 1, h(2) = 1

2
H (e j
)=  h
n =0
( n ) e j n

= 1 + e − j + e − j 2 = (1 + 2 cos  )e − j

H (e j ) = 1 + 2 cos  , 0 
 − 0    2 / 3
 ( ) 
 −  2 / 3    
Linear-phase conditions

N −1

For H ( z ) =  h( n) z − n
n =0

H (e j ) = H ( )e j ( )
 ( ) = −
 ( ) =  − 

d ( )
 =− A constant group delay
d
 For  ( ) = −

The phase response is through the origin.

h( n) = h( N − 1 − n)
For  ( ) =  − 

The phase response is not through the origin.

h( n) = − h( N − 1 − n)
Frequency response of linear-phase FIR filters
N −1 N −1
H ( z) =  h( n) z
n =0
−n
=  [ h( N − 1 − n)]z
n =0
−n

N −1 N −1
=  [ h(m)]z
m =0
− ( N −1− m )
= z − ( N −1)
 h( m) z
m =0
m

− ( N −1) −1
H ( z) =  z H (z )
− ( N −1) −1
H ( z) =  z H (z )
1
H ( z) = [ H ( z )  z − ( N −1) H ( z −1 )]
2
N −1
1
=
2
 h
n =0
( n )[ z −n
 z − ( N −1)
z n
]
N −1 N −1
N −1 N −1 ( −n) −( −n)
−( z 2
 z 2

 h( n)[
)
= z 2
]
n =0 2
Symmetric impulse response h( n) = h( N − 1 − n)

H ( e j  ) = H ( z ) z = e j
N −1 N −1
N −1 j( −1) − j( −1)
− j( ) N −1 e 2
+e 2
=e 2
 h(n)[
n =0 2
]
N −1
− j( ) N −1 N −1
=e 2

n =0
h( n) cos[(
2
− n) ]

N −1
N −1
H ( ) =  h(n) cos[( − n) ]
n =0 2
N −1
 ( ) = −( ) N −1
2  =
2
Antisymmetric impulse response h( n) = − h( N − 1 − n)

H ( e j  ) = H ( z ) z = e j
N −1 N −1
N −1 j( −1) − j( −1)
− j( ) N −1 e 2
−e 2
=e 2
 h(n)[
n =0 2
]
N −1  N −1
− j( ) + j N −1
=e 2 2

n =0
h( n) sin[(
2
− n) ]

N −1
N −1
H ( ) =  h(n) sin[( − n) ]
n =0 2

N −1  N −1
 ( ) = −( ) +  =
2 2 2
The properties of amplitude function H ( )
Type 1: symmetric impulse response, N is odd
N −1
N −1
H ( ) =  h(n) cos[( − n) ]
n =0 2
( N −3) / 2
N −1 N −1
H ( ) = h( ) +  2h( n) cos[( − n) ]
2 n =0 2
( N −1) / 2
N −1 N −1
= h( ) +  2h( − m) cos( m )
2 m =1 2
( N −1) / 2
=  a (n) cos(n) N −1
−n = m
n =0
2
( N −1) / 2
H ( ) =  a(n) cos(n)
n =0

N −1 N −1 N −1
a ( 0) = h ( ) a ( n) = 2h( − n), n = 1,2,,
2 2 2
Type 2: symmetric impulse response, N is even
N −1
N −1
H ( ) =  h( n) cos[(
n =0 2
− n ) ]

N /2
1
H ( ) =  b( n) cos[ ( n −
n =1 2
)]

N N
b( n) = 2h( − n), n = 1,2,  ,
2 2
Type 3: antisymmetric impulse response, N is odd
N −1
N −1
H ( ) =  h(n) sin[(
n =0 2
− n) ]

( N −1) / 2
H ( ) =  c( n) sin(n)
n =1

N −1 N −1
c ( n) = 2h( − n), n = 1,2,  ,
2 2
Type 4: antisymmetric impulse response, N is even
N −1
N −1
H ( ) =  h(n) sin[(
n =0 2
− n) ]

N /2
1
H ( ) =  d ( n) sin[ ( n − )]
n =1 2
N N
d ( n) = 2h( − n), n = 1,2,  ,
2 2
 Determining Kaiser Window Parameters
• Given filter specifications Kaiser developed empirical equations
– Given the peak approximation error  or in dB as A=-20log10 
– and transition band width  = s − p
• The shape parameter  should be
 0.1102(A − 8.7) A  50

 = 0.5842(A − 21) + 0.07886(A − 21) 21  A  50
0.4

 0 A  21


• The filter order M is determined approximately by

A−8
M=
2.285
 Example: Kaiser Window Design of a Lowpass Filter
• Specifications p = 0.4, p = 0.6, 1 = 0.01, 2 = 0.001
• Window design methods assume 1 = 2 = 0.001
• Determine cut-off frequency
– Due to the symmetry we can choose it to be c = 0.5
• Compute
 = s − p = 0.2 A = −20 log10  = 60
• And Kaiser window parameters
 = 5.653 M = 37
• Then the impulse response is given as
  2
  n − 18.5  
I0 5.653 1 −  
 18 .5
hn =  sin0.5(n − 18.5)    
 0nM
 (n − 18.5) I0 (5.653)

 0 else
Example Cont’d

Approximation Error
 Realization of Digital Filters

Realization is the process of converting the transfer

function into a block diagram or program (software);
this block diagram or software is called the realization

The system function describe the properties of LTI

systems
 Basic operator:
(1)Addition operator

(2)Multiplication operator

(3)Unit delay operator

A signal flow graph is network of directed branches
that connect at nodes, or a signal flow graph are
consist of the directed branches and nodes.
 Network nodes :1,2,3,4,5 be denoted wk(n) , where k=1,2,3,4,5

The types of nodes:

Source nodes: which have no

entering branches;

Sink nodes: which have

only entering branches.
The magnitude of the node is
superimposed every entering
branches.
Basic structures for IIR system

1. The characters of the IIR filters (or systems)

2. Direct Form-I
3. Direct form II (Canonic direct form)

4. The shortcoming of the direct form

5. Cascade Form

6. Parallel Form
1.The characteristics of the IIR filters (or systems)

(1)The impulse response is infinite sequence;

(2)the system function have poles which distributed at z-plane;

(3)there is a back feed in the structures for IIR system
2. Direct Form-I
2. Direct Form-I
3. Direct Form-II(Canonic direct form)
Example: To illustrate the direct form I and direct form II structures,
consider the system function
4. The shortcoming of the direct form

(1) the variation of the coefficients ( ak , bk ) affect

effectively the performance of IIR system;

(2)the performance of IIR system which controlled by

the coefficients ( ak , bk ) is not obviousness;

This is because the poles and zeros of the IIR system

have not direct relation with h, a k .bk
5. Cascade Form
6. Parallel Form
Parallel form realization for this example with a second-order

Since all the poles are real, we can obtain an alternative parallel
form realization by expanding H(z) as

The resulting parallel form with first-order section is shown as

following graph.
 Transposed Forms

The theory of linear signal flow graphs provides a variety

of procedures for transforming signal flow graphs into different
forms while leaving the overall system function between input and
output unchanged. One of these procedures, called flow graph
reversal or transposition, leads to a set of transposed system
structures that provide some useful alternative to the structures
discussed in the previous section.
 Transposed Forms

Transposition of a flow graph is accomplished by

1. reversing the direction of all branches in network while

keeping the branch transmittances as they were;

2. Reversing the roles of the input and output so that source

nodes become sink nodes and vice versa.