STRENGTH OF MATERIALS SUBJECT CODE: CE 43

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS SUBJECT CODE: CE 43
EINSTEIN
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Sir.C.V.Raman Nagar, Tirunelveli-12
Department of Civil Engineering

CE 43- STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Lecture notes
Prepared by
V.TAMILARASI
UNIT - I
Stress Terms
Stress is defined as force per unit area. It has the same units as pressure, and in fact
pressure is one special variety of stress. However, stress is a much more complex quantity
than pressure because it varies both with direction and with the surface it acts on.
Compression
Stress that acts to shorten an object. Tension
Stress that acts to lengthen an object.
Normal Stress
Stress that acts perpendicular to a surface. Can be either compressional or
tensional.
Shear
EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG
Stress that acts parallel to a surface. It can cause one object to slide over another.
It also tends to deform originally rectangular objects into parallelograms. The
most general definition is that shear acts to change the angles in an object.
Hydrostatic
Stress (usually compressional) that is uniform in all directions. A scuba diver
experiences hydrostatic stress. Stress in the earth is nearly hydrostatic. The term
for uniform stress in the earth is lithostatic.
Directed Stress
Stress that varies with direction. Stress under a stone slab is directed; there is a
force in one direction but no counteracting forces perpendicular to it. This is why
a person under a thick slab gets squashed but a scuba diver under the same
pressure doesn't. The scuba diver feels the same force in all directions.
In geology we never see stress. We only see the results of stress as it deforms materials.
Even if we were to use a strain gauge to measure in-situ stress in the rocks, we would not
measure the stress itself. We would measure the deformation of the strain gauge (that's
why it's called a "strain gauge") and use that to infer the stress.
Strain Terms
Strain is defined as the amount of deformation an object experiences compared to its

original size and shape. For example, if a block 10 cm on a side is deformed so that it
becomes 9 cm long, the strain is (10-9)/10 or 0.1 (sometimes expressed in percent, in this
case 10 percent.) Note that strain is dimensionless.
Longitudinal or Linear Strain

Strain that changes the length of a line without changing its direction. Can be
either compressional or tensional. Compression
Longitudinal strain that shortens an object.
Tension
Longitudinal strain that lengthens an object.
Shear
Strain that changes the angles of an object. Shear causes lines to rotate.
Infinitesimal Strain
Strain that is tiny, a few percent or less. Allows a number of useful mathematical
simplifications and approximations.
Finite Strain
Strain larger than a few percent. Requires a more complicated mathematical
treatment than infinitesimal strain.
Homogeneous Strain
Uniform strain. Straight lines in the original object remain straight. Parallel lines
remain parallel. Circles deform to ellipses. Note that this definition rules out
folding, since an originally straight layer has to remain straight.
Inhomogeneous Strain

How real geology behaves. Deformation varies from place to place. Lines may
bend and do not necessarily remain parallel.
Terms for Behavior of Materials
Elastic
Material deforms under stress but returns to its original size and shape when the
stress is released. There is no permanent deformation. Some elastic strain, like in
a rubber band, can be large, but in rocks it is usually small enough to be
considered infinitesimal.
Brittle
Material deforms by fracturing. Glass is brittle. Rocks are typically brittle at low
temperatures and pressures.
Ductile
Material deforms without breaking. Metals are ductile. Many materials show both
types of behavior. They may deform in a ductile manner if deformed slowly, but
fracture if deformed too quickly or too much. Rocks are typically ductile at high
temperatures or pressures.
Viscous
Materials that deform steadily under stress. Purely viscous materials like liquids
deform under even the smallest stress. Rocks may behave like viscous materials
under high temperature and pressure.
Plastic
Material does not flow until a threshhold stress has been exceeded.
Viscoelastic
Combines elastic and viscous behavior. Models of glacio-isostasy frequently
assume a viscoelastic earth: the crust flexes elastically and the underlying mantle
flows viscously.
Beams
A beam is a structural member which carries loads. These loads are most often
perpendicular to its longitudinal axis, but they can be of any geometry. A beam
supporting any load develops internal stresses to resist applied loads. These internal
stresses are bending stresses, shearing stresses, and normal stresses.
Beam types are determined by method of support, not by method of loading. Below are
three types of beams that will be investigated in this course:

The first two types are statically determinate, meaning that the reactions, shears and
moments can be found by the laws of statics alone. Continuous beams are statically
indeterminate. The internal forces of these beams cannot be found using the laws of
statics alone. Early structures were designed to be statically determinate because simple
analytical methods for the accurate structural analysis of indeterminate structures were
not developed until the first part of this century. A number of formulas have been derived
to simplify analysis of indeterminate beams.
The three basic beam types can be combined to create larger beam systems. These
complex systems can inevitably be distilled to the simple beam types for analysis. The
beams shown immediately below are combinations of the first two beam types; these
systems are all statically determinate.
The two beam loading conditions that either occur separately, or in some combination,
are:

CONCENTRATED
Either a force or a moment can be applied as a concentrated load. Both are applied at a
single point along the axis of a beam. These loads are shown as a "jump" in the shear or
moment diagrams. The point of application for such a load is indicated in the diagram
above. Note that this is NOT a hinge! It is a point of application. This could be point at
which a railing is attached to a bridge, or a lampost on the same.
DISTRIBUTED
Distributed loads can be uniformly or non-uniformly distributed. Both types are
commonly found on all kinds of structures. Distributed loads are shown as an angle or
curve in the shear or moment diagram. A uniformly distributed load can evolve into a n
on-uniformly distributed load (snow melting to ice at the edge of a roof), but are normally
assumed to act as given. These loads are often replaced by a singular resultant force in
order to simplify the structural analysis.
Introduction
Normally a beam is analysed to obtain the maximum stress and this is

compared to the material strength to determine the design safety margin. It
is also normally required to calculate the deflection on the beam under the
maximum expected load. The determination of the maximum stress results
from producing the shear and bending moment diagrams. To facilitate this
work the first stage is normally to determine all of the external loads.
Nomenclature
e = strain σ =
stress (N/m2)
E = Young's Modulus = σ /e (N/m2) y =
distance of surface from neutral surface (m).
R = Radius of neutral axis (m).
I = Moment of Inertia (m4 - more normally cm4)
Z = section modulus = I/ymax(m3 - more normally cm3)
M = Moment (Nm)
w = Distrubuted load on beam (kg/m) or (N/m as force units)
W = total load on beam (kg ) or (N as force units)
F= Concentrated force on beam (N)
S= Shear Force on Section (N)
L = length of beam (m) x =
distance along beam (m)
Calculation of external forces
To allow determination of all of the external loads a free-body diagram is

construction with all of the loads and supports replaced by their equivalent
forces. A typical free-body diagram is shown below.
The unknown forces (generally the support reactions) are then determined
using the equations for plane static equilibrium.
For example considering the simple beam above the reaction R2 is

determined by Summing the moments about R1 to zero
R2. L - W.a = 0 Therefore R2 = W.a / L
R1 is determined by summing the vertical forces to 0
W - R1 - R2 = 0 Therefore R1 = W - R2
Shear and Bending Moment Diagram
The shear force diagram indicates the shear force withstood by the beam
section along the length of the beam.
The bending moment diagram indicates the bending moment withstood by
the beam section along the length of the beam.
It is normal practice to produce a free body diagram with the shear diagram
and the bending moment diagram position below

For simply supported beams the reactions are generally simple forces. When
the beam is built-in the free body diagram will show the relevant support
point as a reaction force and a reaction moment....
Sign Convention
The sign convention used for shear force diagrams and bending moments
is only important in that it should be used consistently throughout a
project. The sign convention used on this page is as below.
Typical Diagrams
A shear force diagram is simply constructed by moving a section along the
beam from (say)the left origin and summing the forces to the left of the
section. The equilibrium condition states that the forces on either side of a
section balance and therefore the resisting shear force of the section is
obtained by this simple operation
The bending moment diagram is obtained in the same way except that the
moment is the sum of the product of each force and its distance(x) from the
section. Distributed loads are calculated buy summing the product of the
total force (to the left of the section) and the distance(x) of the centroid of
the distributed load.
The sketches below show simply supported beams with on concentrated

force.

The sketches below show Cantilever beams with three different load
combinations.
Note: The force shown if based on loads (weights) would need to be

converted to force units i.e. 50kg = 50x9,81(g) = 490 N.
Shear Force Moment Relationship

Consider a short length of a beam under a distributed load separated by a
distance δx.
The bending moment at section AD is M and the shear force is S. The

bending moment at BC = M + δM and the shear force is S + δS.
The equations for equilibrium in 2 dimensions results in the equations..

Forces.
S - w.δx = S + δS
Therefore making δx infinitely small then.. dS /dx = - w
Moments.. Taking moments about C
M + Sδx - M - δM - w(δx)2 /2 = 0
Therefore making δx infinitely small then.. dM /dx = S Therefore
putting the relationships into integral form.

The integral (Area) of the shear diagram between any limits results in the
change of the shearing force between these limits and the integral of the
Shear Force diagram between limits results in the change in bending
moment...
Torsion (mechanics)
In solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. In

circular sections, the resultant shearing stress is perpendicular to the radius.
For solid or hollow shafts of uniform circular cross-section and constant wall thickness,
the torsion relations are:
where:
• R is the outer radius of the shaft.

• τ is the maximum shear stress at the outer surface.
• φ is the angle of twist in radians.
• T is the torque (N·m or ft·lbf).
• ℓ is the length of the object the torque is being applied to or over.
• G is the shear modulus or more commonly the modulus of rigidity and is usually
given in gigapascals (GPa), lbf/in2 (psi), or lbf/ft2.
• J is the torsion constant for the section . It is identical to the polar moment of
inertia for a round shaft or concentric tube only. For other shapes J must be
determined by other means. For solid shafts the membrane analogy is useful, and
for thin walled tubes of arbitrary shape the shear flow approximation is fairly
good, if the section is not re-entrant. For thick walled tubes of arbitrary shape
there is no simple solution, and FEA may be the best method. the product GJ
is called the torsional rigidity.
The shear stress at a point within a shaft is:
where:
• r is the distance from the center of rotation

Note that the highest shear stress is at the point where the radius is maximum, the surface
of the shaft. High stresses at the surface may be compounded by stress concentrations
such as rough spots. Thus, shafts for use in high torsion are polished to a fine surface
finish to reduce the maximum stress in the shaft and increase its service life.
The angle of twist can be found by using:
Polar moment of inertia
Main article: Polar moment of inertia
The polar moment of inertia for a solid shaft is:
where r is the radius of the object.
The polar moment of inertia for a pipe is:
where the o and i subscripts stand for the outer and inner radius of the pipe.
For a thin cylinder
J = 2π R3 t where R is the average of the outer and inner radius and t is
the wall thickness.
Failure mode
The shear stress in the shaft may be resolved into principal stresses via Mohr's circle. If
the shaft is loaded only in torsion then one of the principal stresses will be in tension and
the other in compression. These stresses are oriented at a 45 degree helical angle around
the shaft. If the shaft is made of brittle material then the shaft will fail by a crack
initiating at the surface and propagating through to the core of the shaft fracturing in a 45
degree angle helical shape. This is often demonstrated by twisting a piece of blackboard
chalk between one's fingers.
Deflection of Beams
The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its deflection from its original
unloaded position. The deflection is measured from the original neutral surface of the

beam to the neutral surface of the deformed beam. The configuration assumed by the
deformed neutral surface is known as the elastic curve of the beam.
Methods of Determining Beam Deflections
Numerous methods are available for the determination of beam deflections. These
methods include:
1. Double-integration method
2. Area-moment method
3. Strain-energy method (Castigliano‟s Theorem)
4. Three-moment equation
5. Conjugate-beam method
6. Method of superposition
7. Virtual work method
Of these methods, the first two are the ones that are commonly used.
Introduction
The stress, strain, dimension, curvature, elasticity, are all related, under
certain assumption, by the theory of simple bending. This theory relates to
beam flexure resulting from couples applied to the beam without
consideration of the shearing forces.
Superposition Principle

The superposition principle is one of the most important tools for solving
beam loading problems allowing simplification of very complicated design
problems..
For beams subjected to several loads of different types the resulting shear
force, bending moment, slope and deflection can be found at any location by
summing the effects due to each load acting separately to the other loads.
Nomenclature
e = strain
E = Young's Modulus = σ /e (N/m2) y =
distance of surface from neutral surface (m).
R = Radius of neutral axis (m).
I = Moment of Inertia (m4 - more normally cm4)
Z = section modulus = I/ymax(m3 - more normally cm3)
F = Force (N) x =
Distance along beam δ
= deflection (m) θ =
Slope (radians) σ =
stress (N/m2)
Simple Bending
A straight bar of homogeneous material is subject to only a moment at one

end and an equal and opposite moment at the other end...
Assumptions
The beam is symmetrical about Y-Y

The traverse plane sections remain plane and normal to the longitudinal
fibres after bending (Beroulli's assumption)

The fixed relationship between stress and strain (Young's Modulus)for the
beam material is the same for tension and compression ( σ= E.e ) Consider
two section very close together (AB and CD).
After bending the sections will be at A'B' and C'D' and are no longer parallel.
AC will have extended to A'C' and BD will have compressed to
B'D'
The line EF will be located such that it will not change in length. This
surface is called neutral surface and its intersection with Z_Z is called the
neutral axis
The development lines of A'B' and C'D' intersect at a point 0 at an angle of θ
radians and the radius of E'F' = R
Let y be the distance(E'G') of any layer H'G' originally parallel to EF..Then
H'G'/E'F' =(R+y)θ /R θ = (R+y)/R
And the strain e at layer H'G' = e = (H'G'- HG) / HG = (H'G'- HG)
/ EF = [(R+y)θ - R θ] /R θ = y /R
The accepted relationship between stress and strain is σ= E.e Therefore
σ = E.e = E. y /R
σ/E=y/R
Therefore, for the illustrated example, the tensile stress is directly related to
the distance above the neutral axis. The compressive stress is also directly
related to the distance below the neutral axis. Assuming E is the same for
compression and tension the relationship is the same.
As the beam is in static equilibrium and is only subject to moments (no

vertical shear forces) the forces across the section (AB) are entirely
longitudinal and the total compressive forces must balance the total tensile
forces. The internal couple resulting from the sum of ( σ.dA .y) over the
whole section must equal the externally applied moment.

This can only be correct if Σ(yδa) or Σ(y.z.δy) is the moment of area of the
section about the neutral axis. This can only be zero if the axis passes
through the centre of gravity (centroid) of the section.
The internal couple resulting from the sum of ( σ.dA .y) over the whole
section must equal the externally applied moment. Therefore the couple of
the force resulting from the stress on each area when totalled over the whole
area will equal the applied moment
From the above the following important simple beam bending relationship
results
It is clear from above that a simple beam subject to bending generates a

maximum stress at the surface furthest away from the neutral axis. For
sections symmetrical about Z-Z the maximum compressive and tensile stress
is equal.
σmax = ymax. M / I
The factor I /ymax is given the name section Modulus (Z) and therefore
σmax = M / Z
Values of Z are provided in the tables showing the properties of standard

steel sections
Deflection of Beams

Below is shown the arc of the neutral axis of a beam subject to bending.
For small angle dy/dx = tan θ = θ

The curvature of a beam is identified as dθ /ds = 1/R
In the figure δθ is small and δx; is practically = δs; i.e ds /dx =1
From this simple approximation the following relationships are derived.
Integrating between selected limits.
The deflection between limits is obtained by further integration.
It has been proved ref Shear - Bending that dM/dx = S and dS/dx = -w =
d2M /dx
Where S = the shear force M is the moment and w is the distributed load
/unit length of beam. therefore
If w is constant or a integratatable function of x then this relationship can be

used to arrive at general expressions for S, M, dy/dx, or y by progressive
integrations with a constant of integration being added at each stage. The
properties of the supports or fixings may be used to determine the constants.
(x= 0 - simply supported, dx/dy = 0 fixed end etc )

In a similar manner if an expression for the bending moment is known then

the slope and deflection can be obtained at any point x by single and double
integration of the relationship and applying suitable constants of integration.
Singularity functions can be used for determining the values when the
loading a not simple ref Singularity Functions
Example - Cantilever beam
Consider a cantilever beam (uniform section) with a single concentrated load

at the end. At the fixed end x = 0, dy = 0 , dy/dx = 0
From the equilibrium balance ..At the support there is a resisting moment FL
and a vertical upward force F.
At any point x along the beam there is a moment F(x - L) = Mx = EI d 2y /dx
2
Example - Simply supported beam
Consider a simply supported uniform section beam with a single load F at

the centre. The beam will be deflect symmetrically about the centre line
with 0 slope (dy/dx) at the centre line. It is convenient to select the origin at
the centre line.

Moment Area Method
This is a method of determining the change in slope or the deflection

between two points on a beam. It is expressed as two theorems...
Theorem 1
If A and B are two points on a beam the change in angle (radians) between
the tangent at A and the tangent at B is equal to the area of the bending
moment diagram between the points divided by the relevant value of EI (the
flexural rigidity constant).
Theorem 2
If A and B are two points on a beam the displacement of B relative to the
tangent of the beam at A is equal to the moment of the area of the bending
moment diagram between A and B about the ordinate through B divided by
the relevant value of EI (the flexural rigidity constant).
Examples ..Two simple examples are provide below to illustrate these theorems
Example 1) Determine the deflection and slope of a cantilever as shown..

The bending moment at A = MA = FL

The area of the bending moment diagram AM = F.L2 /2
The distance to the centroid of the BM diagram from B= xc = 2L/3
The deflection of B = y b = A M.x c /EI = F.L 3 /3EI
The slope at B relative to the tan at A = θ b =AM /EI = FL2 /2EI
Example 2) Determine the central deflection and end slopes of the simply
supported beam as shown..
E = 210 GPa ......I = 834 cm4...... EI = 1,7514. 10 6Nm 2
A1 = 10.1,8.1,8/2 = 16,2kNm
A2 = 10.1,8.2 = 36kNm
A2 = 10.1,8.2 = 36kNm A1 =
10.1,8.1,8/2 = 16,2kNm x1 =
Centroid of A1 = (2/3).1,8 = 1,2 x2
= Centroid of A2 = 1,8 + 1 = 2,8 x3
= Centroid of A3 = 1,8 + 1 = 2,8 x4
= Centroid of A4 = (2/3).1,8 = 1,2
The slope at A is given by the area
of the moment diagram between A

and C divided by EI.
θA = (A1 + A2) /EI = (16,2+36).10 3 / (1,7514. 10 6)

= 0,029rads = 1,7 degrees
The deflection at the centre (C) is equal to the deviation of the point A above
a line that is tangent to C.
Moments must therefore be taken about the deviation line at A.
δC = (AM.xM) /EI = (A1 x1 +A2 x2) / EI = 120,24.10 3/ (1,7514. 10 6)

= 0,0686m = 68,6mm
5.5Three Moment Equation

The continuous beams are very common in the structural design and it is necessary to develop
simplified force method known as three moment equation for the ir analysis. This equation is a
relationship that exists between the moments at three points in continuous beam. The points are
considered as three supports of the indeterminate beams. Consider three points on the beam marked as
1, 2 and 3 as shown in Figu re 5.25(a). Let the bending moment at these points is , and and
the corresponding vertical displacement of these points are , and , respectively. Let and
be the distance between points 1 – 2 and 2 – 3, respectively.
: Force Method - Introduction and applications
: Three Moment Equation

The continuity of deflected shape of the beam at point 2 gives
(5.4)
From the Figure 5.25(d)
and
(5.5)
Where
and
(5.6)

Energy Method
First law of thermodynamics
Adiabatic Process
Work of Gravity << External force change of internal energy of the material resulting from the surface
traction
Then andbody force (no gravity)
elastic material and without hysteresis
body will perform the equal but opposite work in the surrounding during the Unloading
process.
Energy stored in the body as a result of deformation which is equal to the external work
done.

Strain energy due to Normal stress
Strain energy due to shear stress

Similarly by other components of stresses Super

position

Ex.1 Bar in tension
Ex.2 Torsion of circular shaft (r , L)

Ex.3 Bending strain Energy –Normal stress

Strain energy due to shear in Beam
Castigliano Theorem

Castig liano Theorem

at that point
where there is
no Are corresponding deflection,twists load
and rotation due to
Fictitions loads are applied at the point where

there is no load and deflection is songat Ex.1
Ex.2

Ex.3

Ex.4


Ex.5
SHORT COLUMNS
INTRODUCTION: AXIAL COMPRESSION
In this chapter the term column will be used interchangeably with the term
comprerssion member, for brevity and in conformity with general usage.
Three types of reinforced concrete compression members are in use:
Members reinforced with longitudinal bars and lateral ties.
Members reinforced with longitudinal bars and continuous spirals.
Composite compression members reinforced longitudinally with structural
steel shapes, pipe, or tubing, with or without additional longitudinal bars,
and various types of lateral reinforcement.

The main reinforcement in columns is longitudinal, parallel to the direction
of the load, and consist of bars arranged in a square, rectangular, or circular column.
Columns may be divided into two broad categories: short columns, for
which the strength is governed by the strength of the materials and the geometry
of the cross section, and slender columns, for which the strength may be
significantly reduced by lateral deflections. A number of years ago, an ACI -
ASCE survey indicated that 90 percent of columns braced against sidesway and
40 percent of unbraced columns could be designed as short columns. Only short
columns will be discussed in this chapter.
The behavior of short, axially loaded compression members, for lower
loads for which both materials remain in their elastic range of response, the steel
carries a relatively small portion of the total load. The steel stress fs is equal to
n times the concrete stress:


Pacting parallel to (underformed axis to positive column)
About c :-
About x :-
We know :-

Let EI is conott and q =0.

order DE can be
solved
solution
Case1: Cantilever
Column
B.C
x=0, deflection = 0
slope = 0
x=L, moment = 0
shear force=0 are evaluated from the B.C
Mechanism of membrane energy transfer to bending strain energy gives rise to Phenomenon of instability
(Buckling).
Buckling Of Long slender column's

Then Trival Solution
For Non -Trival Solution
then
eflection Curve

case II:
Substituting in last two equation we get
Examine the ways of

satisfying these equations
Objective = Lowest
critical load
Let c1 = 0 for non trivial solution we get
Both the conditions are simultaneously satisfying

when
then lowest Critical load

Other possibilities
eliminating c2 from equation (A) & (B)
Multiplying by and
expanding in the expression and using the trigonometric identity.
We get
Using trigonometric identity i.e.
Again trigonometric
identity
identical to the privious one

and
Which is larger than therefore

Case III:
x = 0 y = 0 => c2 + c4 = 0 => c2 = 0 => c4 = 0
x=L
Lowest
n
Deflection Shape
=
1
cn - any arbitrary constant which of course is very small does not violate the condition of
linearly i.e. small deflection.
Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition is a central concept in the analysis of structures.
This is applicable when there exists a linear relationship between external forces
and corresponding structural displacements. The principle of superposition may be
stated as the deflection at a given point in a structure produced by several loads
acting simultaneously on the structure can be found by superposing deflections at

the same point produced by loads acting individually. This is illustrated with the
help of a simple beam problem. Now consider a cantilever beam of length L and
having constant flexural rigidity EI subjected to two externally applied forces
and as shown in Fig. 2.1. From moment-area theorem we can evaluate deflection
below , which states that the tangential deviation of point from the tangent at
point
1P 2PCc A is equal to the first moment of the area of the EI
M
diagram between A and C about . Hence, the deflection below due
to loads and acting simultaneously is (by moment-area theorem),
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
Structures undergo deformation when subjected to loads. As a result of this deformation,

deflection and rotation occur in structures. This deformation will disappear when the loads
are removed provided the elastic limit of the material is not exceeded. Deformation in a
structure can also occur due to change in temperature & settlement of supports.
Deflection in any structure should be less than specified limits for satisfactory
performance. Hence computing deflections is an important aspect of analysis of structures.
There are various methods of computing deflections. Two popular methods are
i) Moment area Method, and ii)
Conjugate beam method
In both of these methods, the geometrical concept is used. These methods are ideal
for statically determinate beams. The methods give a very quick solution when the beam
is symmetrical.
Moment Area Method

This method is based on two theorems which are stated through an example. Consider a
beam AB subjected to some arbitrary load as shown in Figure 1.
Let the flexural rigidity of the beam be EI. Due to the load, there would be bending
moment and BMD would be as shown in Figure 2. The deflected shape of the beam which
is the elastic curve is shown in Figure 3. Let C and D be two points arbitrarily chosen on
the beam. On the elastic curve, tangents are drawn at deflected positions of C and D. The
angles made by these tangents with respect to the horizontal are marked as θC and θD . These
angles are nothing but slopes. The change is the angle between these two tangents is
demoted asθ CD . This change in the angel is equal to the
M area of the diagram between the two points C and D. This is the
area of the shaded
EI
portion in figure 2.
M
Hence θCD = θC θD = Area of diagram between C and D EI
θCD = Area BM 1 (a)

EI
It is also expressed in the integration mode as

M
θCD = CD EIdx 1 (b)
Equation 1 is the first moment area theorem which is stated as follows:

Statement of theorem I:
The change in slope between any two points on the elastic curve for a member
M subjected to bending is equal to the
area of diagram between those two points. EI

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
In figure 4, for the elastic curve a tangent is drawn at point C from which the vertical
intercept to elastic curve at D is measured. This is demoted as KCD. This vertical intercept
is given by
KCD = (Area BM X)CD 2 (a)
EI

M
Where X is the distance to the centroid of the shaded portion of
diagram
EI
measured from D. The above equation can be expressed in integration mode as
Mxdx
KCD = CD EI 2 (b)
Equation (2) is the second moment area theorem which is stated as follows.
Statement of theorem II :
The vertical intercept to the elastic curve measured from the tangent drawn to
M the elastic curve at
some other point is equal to the moment of diagram, moment
EI
being taken about that point where vertical intercept is drawn.
Sign Convention:
While computing Bending moment at a section, if free body diagram of Left Hand Portion
(LHP) is considered, clockwise moment is taken as positive. If free body diagram of Right
Hand Portion (RHP) is considered, anticlockwise moment is taken as positive. While
sketching the Bending Moment Diagram (BMD), Sagging moment is taken as positive and
Hogging moment is taken as negative.
Proof of Moment Area Theorems:

Figure 5 shows the elastic curve for the elemental length dx of figure 2 to an enlarged
scale. In this figure, R represents the radius of curvature. Then from equation of bending,
with usual notations,
M E
= (3)
I R
From figure 5,
Rdθ = dx
dx
Hence R =
dθ
Substituting this value of R in equation (3),

M E
= I

dx
dθ
M=E dθ
I dx
M
dθ = dx
EI
dθ is nothing but change in angle over the elemental length dx. Hence to compute change
M
in angle from C to D, θCD = CD dθ = EI dx
CD
Hence the proof.
dθ
dθ
C D
1 2 d
KCD
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Figure 6 shows the elastic curve from C to D. Change in slope from 1 to 2 is dθ.
Distance of elemental length from D is x.
M
dΔ = xdθ = x dx
EI
M
D=
Therefore, Δ from C to EI xdx
CD
Problem 1 : Compute deflections and slopes at C,D and E. Also compute slopes at A
and B.

To Compute Reactions:
fx 0 A 0
fy 0 VA VB W W 0

VA VB
2W WL
2L
W
+ MB 0 LVA 3 3 0
WL 2WL
LVA WL
3 3
VA = W ; VB =W
Bending Moment Calculations:

Section (1) – (1) (LHP, 0 to L/3)
+ Mx-x = Wx
At x = 0; BM at A = 0
x = L3 ; BM @ C = WL3
Section (2) – (2) (LHP, L3 to2L3 )

+ Mx-x = Wx – W(x - L3 )
At x = L3 , BM @ C = WL3 WL3 WL3
= WL3
2L 2L W 2L L
At x = , BM @ D = W
3 3 3 3
2WL 2WL WL
=
3 3 3
WL
=
3
L
Section (3) – (3) RHP (0 to 3 )
+ Mx-x = Wx
At x = 0; BM @ B = 0
L
, BM @ D = WL
At x =3
This beam is symmetrical. Hence the BMD & elastic curve is also symmetrical.
In such a case, maximum deflection occurs at mid span, marked as δE. Thus, the tangent
drawn at E will be parallel to the beam line and θ E is zero. Also, δc = δD, θA = θB and θC =
θD
To compute θC
From first theorem,
θCE = Area of BMD between E&C
EI
θC~ θE = W L3 L6
EI
2
WL
=
18EI
θE being zero, θC = WL2 ( )
18EI
To compute θΔ
From First theorem,
θΔE = Area of BMD between A&E

EI
12
L WL WL L
θA~ θE = 3 3 3 6
EI
WL2 WL2
= 18 18
EI
WL
θE being zero, θA = ( )
9EI
WL
θB = ( )
9EI
To compute δE
From 2nd theorem
Area of BM X EA
KEA =
EI
1 L WL 2L WL L L L
KEA = 23 3 33 3 6 3 12
EI
WL3 5WL3
= 81 216 EI
1 8WL3 15WL3
=
EI 648
23WL3
=
648EI
From figure, KEA is equal to δE.

3
23WL
Therefore δE =
648EI
To compute θC
From 2nd theorem
Area of BMD X CE
KEC =
EI
W L3
L6
L12
EI
= WL3 1
EI 216
3
WL
=
216EI
δc = δE - KEC
23WL3 WL3
δC
648EI 216EI
23WL3 3WL3
=
648EI

20WL3
=
648EI
5WL3
=
162EI
5WL3
= δD δC
162EI

Problem 2. For the cantilever beam shows in figure, compute deflection and slope at
the free end.
Consider a section x-x at a distance x from the free end. The FBD of RHP is taken into
account.
(RHP +) BM @ X-X = MX-X = -10 (x) (x/2) = -5x2
At x = 0; BM @ B = 0
At x = 4m; BM @ A = -5(16) = -80 kNm
The BMD is sketched as shown in figure. Note that it is Hogging Bending

Moment. The elastic curve is sketched as shown in figure.
To compute θB
For the cantilever beam, at the fixed support, there will be no rotation and hence in this
case θA = 0. This implies that the tangent drawn to the elastic curve at A will be the same
as the beam line.
Mdx
θAB = θA ~ θB = 0 EI
= EI1 04 5X 2 dx
= 5 x3 3 04
EI
5 320
= 64
3EI 3EI
θA being zero,
320
θB = ( )
3EI
To compute δB
From II theorem
4
Mxdx
KAB = 0 EI
5X
1 4 2
= EI 0 xdx
= 5 x4 4 04 5 256
EI 4EI
320
=
EI
From the elastic curve,
320
KAB = δB =
EI

Problem 3: Find deflection and slope at the free end for the beam shown in figure by
using moment area theorems. Take EI = 40000 KNm-2
Calculations of Bending Moment:
Region AC: Taking RHP +

Moment at section = -6x2/2
= -3x2
At x = 0, BM @ A = 0
x = 4m; BM @ C = -3(16) = - 48kNm
Region CB: (x = 4 to x = 8)
Taking RHP +, moment @ section = -24 (x-2)

= -24x+48;
At x = 4m; BM @ C = -24(4) + 48 = -48kNm;

x=8m BM @ B = -144 kNm;
To compute θB:
First moment area theorem is used. For the elastic curve shown in figure. We know that
θA = 0.
Mdx
θAB = θA ~ θB = EI
14 2 18
= EI 3x dx EI 4 24x 48 dx
0
θA 3 x3
3 0
4
1 24 x 2 2 48x 8
4
EI EI
64 1
= 12 64 16 48 8 4
EI EI
= -0.0112 Radians
= 0.0112 Radians ( )
To compute δB
Mxdx
K AB EI
4 8
1
= 1 3x 2 xdx EI 4 24x 48 xdx
EI 0
1
= 3 x4
4 0
4
24 x3
3
8
4 48 x2
2
8
4
EI EI
3 1 24
= 256 512
4EI EI 3 64 24 64 16
192 1
= 3584 1152
EI EI
2624
= 0.0656m 0.0656m
EI
Problem 4: For the cantilever shown in figure, compute deflection and at the points
where they are loaded.

To compute θB :
1 1 1
θBA = θB ~ θA =
2 2.5 37.5 2
1.5 15 EI
58.125
θB = (
) EI

1 1 1
θC =
2 1.5 37.5 15 2 1.5 15

EI
50.625
= ( ) EI
1
2 2.5 37.5 2
3 2.5 11
δB = 2 1.5 45 1
EI EI
100.625
=
EI
100.625
=
EI
1 1 1
δC = EI 2
1.5 37.5 15 0.857 2 1.5 45 1
44.99
δC =
EI
STRAIN ENERGY
Introduction
Under action of gradually increasing external loads, the joints of a structure deflect
and the member deform. The applied load produce work at the joints to which they are
applied and this work is stored in the structure in the form of energy known as Strain

Energy. If the material of structure is elastic, then gradual unloading of the structure
relieves all the stresses and strain energy is recovered.
The slopes and deflections produced in a structure depend upon the strains
developed as a result of external actions. Strains may be axial, shear, flexural or torsion.
Therefore, ther is a relationship can be used to determine the slopes and deflections in a
structure.
4.2 Strain energy and complementary strain energy
When external loads are applied to a skeletal structure, the members develop internal force
„F‟ in the form of axial forces („P‟), shear force („V‟) , bending moment (M) and twisting
moment (T). The internal for „F‟ produce displacements „e‟. While under goint these
displacements, the internal force do internal work called as Strain Energy
Figure 1 shows the force displacement relationship in which Fj is the internal force and ej
is the corresponding displacement for the jth element or member of the structure.
Fj
Fj+ Fj
Fj
)j
ej
Complementry SE(Ui)j Strain
Energy(Ui
ej ej+ ej
Fig.1 FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONSHIP
The element of internal work or strain energy represented by the area the strip with
horizontal shading is expressed as:
Ui Fj ej .....(1)
Strain energy stored in the jth element represted by the are under forcedisplacement curve
computed as :
(Ui)j Fjdej .....(2)
For m members in a structure, the total strain energy is

m m
Ui (Ui )j Fjdej .....(3)

j 1 j 1
The area above the force-displacement curve is called Complementary Energy. For jth
element, the complementary strain energy is represented by the area of the strip with
vertical shading in Fig.1 and expressed as
Ui ej Fj .....(4)
Complementary strain energy of the entire structure is
(Ui)j ejdFj .....(5)

Complementary strain energy of the entire structure is
m
Ui ejdFj .....(6)
j 1
When the force-displacement relationship is linear, then strain energy and
complimentary energies are equal
Ui Ui .....(7)
4.3 Strain energy expressions

Expression for strain energy due to axial force, shear force and bending moment is
provided in this section
4.3.1 Strain energy due to Axial force

A,E L
dL
Fig.2
A straight bar of length „L‟ , having uniform cross sectional area A and E is the Young‟s
modulus of elasticity is subjected to gradually applied load P as shown in Fig. 2. The bar
deforms by dL due to average force 0+(P/2) = P/2. Substituting Fj = P/2 and dej = dl in
equation 2, the strain energy in a member due to axial force is expressed as
P
(Ui ) P dL ....... (8)
2
From Hooke‟s Law, strain is expressed as dL P

where,
dx E A
Hence
PLx
dL .............(9)
AE
Substituting equation 9 in 8, strain energy can be
expressed as
L 2 dx
P

(Ui )P 2AE
....... (10)
0
For uniform cross section strain energy expression in equation 10 can be modified as
P2L
(Ui )P ....... (10 a)
2AE
If P, A or E are not constant along the length of the bar, then equation 10 is used instead
of 10a.
4.3.1 Strain energy due to Shear force
dx dy
dy
dx
Fig.4
Fig.3
A small element shown in Fig.3 of dimension dx and dy is subjected to shear force Vx .

Shear stress condition is shown in Fig. 4. Shear strain in the element is expressed as
V
x
......(11)
ArG
Where, Ar= Reduced cross sectional area and G= shear modulus
Shear deformation of element is expressed as
V dx
x
dev .............(12)
ArG
Substituting Fj = Vx/2, dej = dev in equation (2) strain energy is expressed as

L 2
Vx dx
.......
(13)
(Ui )V 2ArG
0
4.3.2 Strain energy due to Bending Moment

An element of length dx of a beam is subjected to uniform bending moment „M‟.
Application of this moment causes a change in slope d is expressed as
de d dx M x
dx ......(14)
θ
M
R EI
1 Mx
Where , , Substituting Fj = Mx/2, dej= deM in equation (2), Strain energy due to
R EI
bending moment is expressed as
L Mx2dx
....... (15)
(Ui )M
0 2EI
Theorem of minimum Potential Energy
Potential energy is the capacity to do work due to the position of body. A body of weight
„W‟ held at a height „h‟ possess an energy „Wh‟. Theorem of minimum potential energy
states that “ Of all the displacements which satisfy the boundary conditions of a
structural system, those corresponding to stable equilibrium configuration make the
total potential energy a relative minimum”. This theorem can be used to determine the
critical forces causing instability of the structure. Law of Conservation of Energy
From physics this law is stated as “Energy is neither created nor destroyed”. For the
purpose of structural analysis, the law can be stated as “ If a structure and external loads
acting on it are isolated, such that it neither receive nor give out energy, then the total
energy of the system remain constant”. With reference to figure 2, internal energy is
expressed as in equation (9). External work done We = -0.5 P dL. From law of conservation
of energy Ui+We =0. From this it is clear that internal energy is equal to external work
done. Principle of Virtual Work:
Virtual work is the imaginary work done by the true forces moving through imaginary
displacements or vice versa. Real work is due to true forces moving through true
displacements. According to principle of virtual work “ The total virtual work done by a
system of forces during a virtual displacement is zero”.
Theorem of principle of virtual work can be stated as “If a body is in equilibrium under
a Virtual force system and remains in equilibrium while it is subjected to a small
deformation, the virtual work done by the external forces is equal to the virtual work
done by the internal stresses due to these forces”. Use of this theorem for computation
of displacement is explained by considering a simply supported bea AB, of span L,
subjected to concentrated load P at C, as shown in Fig.6a. To compute deflection at D, a
virtual load P‟ is applied at D after removing P at C. Work done is zero a s the load is
virtual. The load P is then applied at C, causing deflection C at C and D at D, as shown
in Fig. 6b. External work do by virtual load P‟ is . If the virtual load P‟
produces bending moment M‟, then the internal strain energy stored by M‟ acting on the
real deformation d in element dx over the beam equation (14)
P'
We ne
WδD e
2
U L
M'dθ L
M'M dx
dUi ;
Ui
0 0 2 0 2 EI
Where, M= bending moment due to real load P. From principle of conservation of energy
We=Wi P'δ L
M'M dx
D
2 0 2 EI
P
A C D B
a
Fig.6a
x
L
P P’
C C D D B
A
a
Fig.6b
x
L
If P‟=1 then L M'M dx

δD
Similarly for (16) deflection in axial n P'P dx δ
loaded trusses it can be
shown that
0 EI (17)
0 AE
Where,
= Deflection in the direction of unit load

P‟ = Force in the ith member of truss due to unit load

P = Force in the ith member of truss due to real external load
n = Number of truss members
L = length of ith truss members.
Use of virtual load P‟ = 1 in virtual work theorem for computing displacement is called
Unit Load Method
Castigliano‟s Theorems:
Castigliano published two theorems in 1879 to determine deflections in structures and
redundant in statically indeterminate structures. These theorems are stated as:
1st Theorem : “If a linearly elastic structure is subjected to a set of loads, the partial
derivatives of total strain energy with respect to the deflection at any point is equal to
the load applied at that point”
2 nd Theorem j δ P “If a linearly elastic structure is subjected to a set of loads,

:
the partial j j 1,2, ..... N (18)

derivatives of total strain energy with respect to a load applied at any point is equal
to the deflection at that point”
U
δj j 1,2,....... N (19)
Pj
The first theorem is useful in determining the forces at certain chosen coordinates. The
conditions of equilibrium of these chosen forces may then be used for the analysis of
statically determinate or indeterminate structures. Second theorem is useful in computing
the displacements in statically determinate or indeterminate structures.
Betti‟s Law:

It states that If a structure is acted upon by two force systems I and II, in equilibrium
separately, the external virtual work done by a system of forces II during the
deformations caused by another system of forces I is equal to external work done by
I system during the deformations caused by the II system
I II
Fig. 7
A body subjected to two system of forces is shown in Fig 7. Wij represents work done by
ith system of force on displacements caused by jth system at the same point. Betti‟s law
can be expressed as Wij = Wji, where Wji represents the work done by jth system on
displacement caused by ith system at the same point.
Numerical Examples
1. Derive an expression for strain energy due to bending of a cantilever beam of
length L, carrying uniformly distributed load „w‟ and EI is constant
1
w
Solution: wx2
Bending moment at section 1-1 is Mx -

2

Strain energy due to bending is (Ui )M L Mx2dx

0 2EI
2
2
-wx
Ui L 2 dx L w2x4 dx w2x5 L
0 2EI 0 8EI 40EI 0 w2L5
Ui Answer
40EI
2. Compare the strain energies due to three types of internal forces in the rectangular
bent shown in Fig. having uniform cross section shown in the same Fig. Take E=2
x 105 MPa, G= 0.8 x 105 MPa, Ar= 2736 mm2
12kN
B C
12 mm 240 mm
5 4m
m
A 120 mm
Solution:
Step 1: Properties
120 * 2403 108 * 2163 6
A=120 * 240 – 108 * 216 = 5472 mm2, I - 47.54 x 10 mm4

12 12
2
E= 2 * 105 MPa ; G= 0.8 * 105 MPa ; Ar = 2736 mm

Step 2: Strain Energy due to Axial Forces

Member AB is subjected to an axial comprn.=-12 kN Strain
Energy due to axial load for the whole str. is
n 2 P2L (-12 * 103)2 * 5000

(Ui )P 2AE 2 * 5472 * 2*105 328.94 N-
mm i 1
Step 3: Strain Energy due to Shear Forces

Shear force in AB = 0; Shear force in BC = 12 kN
Strain Energy due to Shear for the whole str. Is
(U ) ni 122VAx2rLG 2(12 * 2736 * 103 *)

20.8 * 4000 x105 1315.78 N-mm i V
Step 4: Strain Energy due to Bending Moment
Bending Moment in AB = -12 * 4 = -48 kN-m
Bending Moment in BC = -12 x
Strain Energy due to BM for the whole structure is
(U ) ni 12M2EI2xdx 2 *(-48 2x10 * 105 *6

47.54)2 * 5000 *106 40000 2 * (-122*10* 105 * 347.54*x) 2 dx *106 767.34*103 N-mm i
M
Step 5: Comparison
Total Strain Energy = (Ui)p + (Ui)V+ (Ui)M
Total Strain Energy =328.94 +1315.78 +767.34 x 103
= 768.98 x 103 N-mm
Strain Energy due to axial force, shear force and bending moment are 0.043%, 0.17% &
99.78 % of the total strain energy.
3. Show that the flexural strain energy of a prismatic bar of length L bent into a
2πEI
complete circle by means of end couples is
L2

R
M M
Solution:
Circumference = 2 R =L or
From bending theory
EI 2 EI
M where M couple applied
L2π L
2
M2 L 2πEI
(Ui )M L L 2π2EI Answer

2EI 2EI L
4. Calculate the strain energy in a truss shown in Fig. if all members are of same
crosssectional area equal to 0.01m2 and E=200GPa

30 kN 30 kN
B D F
A H
4m C 4m E 4m G 4m
Solution: To calculate strain energy of the truss, first the member forces due to external
force is required to be computed. Method of joint has been used here to compute member
forces. Member forces in the members AB, BC, BD, BE, CE and DE are only computed as
the truss is symmetrical about centre vertical axis.
Step1: Member Forces:
i) Joint A: From triangle ACB, the angle = tan-1(3/4)=36052‟

The forces acting at the joint is shown in Fig. and the forces in members are computed
considering equilibrium condition at joint A
F
AB
F
AC
R = 30 kN
A
Fy=0; FABsin +30=0; FAB=-50kN (Compression)

Fx=0; FABcos + FAC=0; FAC=40kN (Tension) ii) Joint C: The forces acting at the
joint is shown in Fig. and the forces in members are computed considering
equilibrium condition at joint C
F
CB
F
CE
F =40kN
AC
Fy=0; FCB=0;
Fx=0; FCE - 40=0; FCE=40kN(Tension)
iii) Joint B: The forces acting at the joint is shown in Fig. and the forces in
members are computed considering equilibrium condition at joint B
30kN
F
BD
FAB= 50kN F
FCB=0 BE
Fy=0; -30+50 sin -FBEsin =0; FBE=0

Fx=0; 50 cos - FBD=0; FBD=-40kN (Compression) iv) Joint D: The forces acting at
the joint is shown in Fig. and the forces in members are computed considering
equilibrium condition at joint D
FDF
FBD=40 FDE
Fy=0; FDE=0; Fx=0; FDF + 40=0; FDF=-40kN (Comprn.)
Forces in all the members are shown in Fig.

B -40 D -40 F
-50 0 0 0 -50
0 0
A H
40 C 40 E 40 G 40
Step 2: Strain Energy
A= 0.01m2; E=2*105 N/mm2 = 2*108 kN/m2, AE = 2*106 kN (Ui )P
ni 131 2PAE2L 2 * 21*10 4*402 *4 2( 50)25 2*(-40)2
*4
(Ui)p=15.83*10-3 kN-m
5. Determine the maximum slope and maximum deflection in a cantilever beam of span L
subjected to point load W at its free end by using strain energy method. EI is constant
1
W
A B
x
L
1
Solution:
i) Maximum Deflection
BM at 1-1 Mx= -Wx From 2nd theorem of Castigliaino
UL MWx Mx dx δB

M 0 EI
L
M (-x) (-Wx) dx
-x, δB
W 0 EI
δB W L x 2 dx W x3L WL3 Answer

EI 0 EI 3 0 3EI
ii) Maximum Slope

Maximum slope occurs at B, Virtual moment M‟ is applied at B
1
W
B
A M’
x
L
1
Bending moment at 1-1 is Mx = -Wx – M‟ U L MM'x Mx dx
θB
M' 0 EI
From 2nd theorem of Castiglano
Mx -1, θB L (-1) (-Wx - M') dx

M' 0 EI
Substituting M‟=0
θB W L x dx W x 2L WL2 Answer
EI 0 EI 2 0 2EI

6. Calculate max slope and max deflection of a simply supported beam carrying udl of
intensity w per unit length throughout its length by using Castigliano‟s Theorem
L
i) Maximum Slope:
Maximum slope occurs at support. A virtual moment M‟ is applied at A.
1
w
M’
x
L
1
RA RB
wL M' wL M'
Reactions: RA - ; RB 2 L2 L
BM at 1-1 Mx wL - M' x - wx2 M' and Mx 1- x

2 L 2 M' L
U 1 L wL M' wx2 x
θA M' EI 0 (2-L)x-2 M' 1- L dx

Put M‟=0 1 L wL 2wx2 wx3
θA EI 0 (2x- 2 2L dx
w Lx2 x3 x4 L
A 2EI ( 2 x- 3 4L 0
wL3
θA 24EI Answer
ii) Maximum Deflection:
Maximum Deflection occurs at mid span. A virtual downward load W‟ is applied at mid-
span.
1 w
M’
x L/2
1 L
RA RB
Reactions: wL W' wL W'
RA ; RB
2 2 2 2
wL W' wx2 Mx x
BM at 1-1 Mx 2 2 x - 2 and W' 2 for Region AC

C W'U EI2 L/2 (wL2 W'L ) x - wx2 2

x2 dx
0
L/2 w Lx3 x4 L/2
2w
Put W‟=0 δC 4EI 0 (Lx2 - x3 dx 2EI 3-4 0
w L4 L4 L/2
δC 2EI 24 - 64 0
max δC 5wL4 Answer

384EI
CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD
This is another elegant method for computing deflections and slopes in beams.
The principle of the method lies in calculating BM and SF in an imaginary beam called as
Conjugate Beam which is loaded with M/EI diagram obtained for real beam. Conjugate
Beam is nothing but an imaginary beam which is of the same span as the real beam carrying
M/EI diagram of real beam as the load. The SF and BM at any section in the conjugate
beam will represent the rotation and deflection at that section in the real beam. Following
are the concepts to be used while preparing the Conjugate beam.
• It is of the same span as the real beam.

• The support conditions of Conjugate beam are decided as follows:
Some examples of real and conjugate equivalents are shown.

Problem 1 : For the Cantilever beam shown in figure, compute deflection and rotation
at (i) the free end (ii) under the

load
Conjugate Beam:
By taking a section @ C´ and considering FBD of LHP,
SF fx -150EI 3 12 EI225

450
BM @ C´= -150 3 1
2 2 ;
EI EI
Similarly by taking a section at A‟ and considering FBD of LHP;
225
SF @ A‟ =
EI
225 900
BM @ A‟ = 2 2
EI EI
SF @ a section in Conjugate Beam gives rotation at the same section in Real Beam
BM @ a section in Conjugate Beam gives deflection at the same section in Real Beam
225
Therefore, Rotation @ C = ( ) EI
450
Deflection @ C=
EI
225
Rotation @
A = ( )
EI
900
Deflection @ A =
EI

Problem 2: For the beam shown in figure, compute deflections under the loaded points.
Also compute the maximum deflection. Compute, also the slopes at supports.

Note that the given beam is symmetrical. Hence, all the diagrams for this beam should be
symmetrical. Thus the reactions are equal & maximum deflection occurs at the mid span.
The bending moment for the beam is as shown above. The conjugate beam is formed and
it is shown above.
For the conjugate beam:
VA' V B' 1
2 [Total load on Conjugate Beam]
= 12 2 1
2
60
EI 3 4 30
EI
1
180 120 150
=2 EI EI EI
To compute δC :
A section at C‟ is placed on conjugate beam. Then considering FBD of LHP;
150 12 60 1
+ BM @ C‟= 3 3
EI EI
450 90 360 = To compute δE:

EI EI EI
A section @ E‟ is placed on conjugate beam. Then
360 considering FBD of
LHP;
δC ;
EI
+ BM @ E‟= 150 12 60 3 30 2 1
δD = δC (Symmetry)
5 3
EI EI EI
750 270 60 420

i.e δE =
EI EI EI EI
150 150
θA = ( ) θB = ( )
EI EI
Problem 3: Compute deflection and slope at the loaded point for the beam shown in
figure. Given E = 210 Gpa and I = 120 x 106mm4. Also calculate slopes at A and B.

Note that the reactions are equal. The BMD is as shown above.
To Compute reactions in Conjugate Beam:

fy 0 VA' VB' 12 60EI 3 12 120EI 3 0

' ' 90 180
VA VB 0;
EI EI
VA' VB' 270

EI
mB' 0 A' 12 60EI 3 4 12 120EI 3 2 0

V 6
'
360 360 720
6VA
EI EI EI
' 120 ' 150

VA EI ; VB EI
SF and BM at C‟ is obtained by placing a section at C‟ in the conjugate beam.
SF @ C‟ = 120 1 60 3
EI 2 EI
30
EI
+ BM @ C‟ = 120 1 60 3 1
3
EI 2 EI

360 90 270
EI EI EI
Given E = 210 x 109 N/m2

= 210 x 106 kN/m2
I = 120 x 106 mm4
= 120 x 106 (10-3 m)4
= 120 x 106 (10-12)
= 120 x 10-6 m4;
EI = 210 x 106 (120 x 10-6) = 25200 kNm-2
Rotation @ C = = 1.19 x 10-3 Radians ( )
Deflection @ C = = 0.0107 m
= 10.71 mm ( )
θA = 4.76 X 10-3 Radians

θB = 5.95 X 10-3 Radians:

Problem 4: Compute slopes at supports and deflections under loaded points for the
beam shown in figure.

To compute reactions and BM in real beam:
fy 0 VA VB 150
+ MB 0 9VA 50 6 100 3 0
VA 66.67kN VB 83.33kN
BM at (1) – (1) = 66.67 x

At x = 0; BM at A = 0, At x = 3m, BM at C = 200 kNm
BM at (2) – (2) = 66.67 x – 50 (x-3) = 16.67 x + 150

At x = 3m; BM at C = 200 kNm, At x = 6m, BM at D = 250 kNm
BM at (3) – (3) is computed by taking FBD of RHP. Then

BM at (3)-(3) = 83.33 x (x is measured from B)
At x = 0, BM at B = 0, At x = 3m, BM at D = 250 kNm
To compute reactions in conjugate beam:
1 200 100
fy 0 VA' VB' 2 3 EI 3 EI
12 3 25EI 12 3 83.33EI
762.5
EI
+ M'B 0

i.e 9VA' 1 3 200 7 3 100 4.5 1 3
25 4 1 3 83.33 2 0
2 EI EI 2 EI 2 EI
'
3850
9VA
EI
' 427.77
VA
EI
VB' 334.73
EI
427.77
( ) θB 334.73 ( )
θA EI EI
To Compute δC :
A Section at C‟ is chosen in the conjugate beam:
1 200
+ BM at C‟ = 427.77 3 3 1
EI 2 EI
983.31
=
EI
983.31
δC =
EI

To compute δD:
Section at D‟ is chosen and FBD of RHP is considered.
334.73 3 1 3 83.33 1
+ BM at D‟ =
EI 2 EI
879.19
=
EI
879.19
δD
EI
Problem 5: Compute to the slope and deflection at the free end for the beam shown in
figure.


The Bending moment for the real beam is as shown in the figure. The conjugate beam
also is as shown.
Section at A‟ in the conjugate beam gives
4 5x 2
SF @ A‟ = 0 EI dx
5
= 5 x3 3
0
4
64
EI 3EI
320
=
3EI
320
θA = ( )
3EI
14 2
BM @ A‟ = EI 0 5x x dx
-5 x4 4
5
= EI 4 0 4EI 256
320
δA =
EI

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS SUBJECT CODE: CE 43

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS SUBJECT CODE: CE 43

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS SUBJECT CODE: CE 43

Department of Civil Engineering

Strain is defined as the amount of deformation an object experiences compared to its

Longitudinal or Linear Strain

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

Terms for Behavior of Materials

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

Normally a beam is analysed to obtain the maximum stress and this is

Calculation of external forces

To allow determination of all of the external loads a free-body diagram is

For example considering the simple beam above the reaction R2 is

R2. L - W.a = 0 Therefore R2 = W.a / L

R1 is determined by summing the vertical forces to 0

Shear and Bending Moment Diagram

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

The sketches below show simply supported beams with on concentrated

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

Note: The force shown if based on loads (weights) would need to be

Shear Force Moment Relationship

The bending moment at section AD is M and the shear force is S. The

The equations for equilibrium in 2 dimensions results in the equations..

Moments.. Taking moments about C

putting the relationships into integral form.

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

In solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. In

• R is the outer radius of the shaft.

The shear stress at a point within a shaft is:

• r is the distance from the center of rotation

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

The angle of twist can be found by using:

Polar moment of inertia

Main article: Polar moment of inertia

The polar moment of inertia for a solid shaft is:

where r is the radius of the object.

The polar moment of inertia for a pipe is:

For a thin cylinder

J = 2π R3 t where R is the average of the outer and inner radius and t is

the wall thickness.

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

Methods of Determining Beam Deflections

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

A straight bar of homogeneous material is subject to only a moment at one

The beam is symmetrical about Y-Y

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

H'G'/E'F' =(R+y)θ /R θ = (R+y)/R

And the strain e at layer H'G' = e = (H'G'- HG) / HG = (H'G'- HG)

The accepted relationship between stress and strain is σ= E.e Therefore

As the beam is in static equilibrium and is only subject to moments (no

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

It is clear from above that a simple beam subject to bending generates a

Values of Z are provided in the tables showing the properties of standard

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

For small angle dy/dx = tan θ = θ

From this simple approximation the following relationships are derived.

Integrating between selected limits.

The deflection between limits is obtained by further integration.

If w is constant or a integratatable function of x then this relationship can be

EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG

In a similar manner if an expression for the bending moment is known then

Example - Cantilever beam

Consider a cantilever beam (uniform section) with a single concentrated load

Example - Simply supported beam