Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CONF-870917—3
DE87 014413
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States
Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their
~!1w tOOmtfd manuacnpt ha» baan
employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsi- •uthorad by a contractor of tha VS.
bility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or Covmmtm undar contract No.
process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Refer- OE-ACO5-MOR214O0. Accordingly, th*
U.S. Govtmmant rafaint * norumjuann,
ence herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, loyhy-frm fcanaa <o pubWi or raproduca
manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recom- tha pubHahad form of *m contribution, or
alow othars to do ao. tar U.S. GoMrnmnt
mendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views
and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the
United States Government or any agency thereof.
AN OVERVIEW**
B. C. Wei*
W. L. Cooper, Jr.
A. K. Dhalla0
This section provides a brief description a. The geonetry and loadings are axisynaetric.
of each of the simplified methods successfully
used in the breeder reactor component design, b. The predoainant thermal loading on the
and recommends correct usage by specific structure is through-the-thickness tempera-
application examples. Verification of these ture variation, and the longitudinal
simplified methods by comparison to detailed variation of mechanical and theraal loading
inelastic analysis and/or experimental data is is small.
also included.
c. The longitudinal interaction between
The simplified methods are based upon various portions of the structure is saall, !
numerical integration of classical elastic- and the geometric variation of the simu-
plastic -creep differential equations formulated lated component is gradual.
for an infinitely long thick cylinder and a
finite length thin cylinder. These methods d. The plastic regions are confined by
have been developed to accommodate the compli- surrounding elastic material; that is,
cated mechanical and thermal loading histories gross through-the-wall plasticity is
encountered in breeder reactor plant operation; absent.
hence, they are applicable to LMFBR pressure
vessel components whose geometries could be Conversely, the simplified aethod should ,
idealized as cylinders or cones. Typical not be used when: J
elevated temperature failure modes investigated
are: a) incremental ratchetting strain accumu- a. The longitudinal variation of theraal or '
lation, and b) creep-rupture damage and fatigue mechanical loading is significant. >
damage accumulation due.to cyclic thermal and
mechanical loadings. Only geometric idealiza- b. The structural shape changes .abruptly or
tion of a thick or a thin cylinder is con- ; three dimensional effects are significant;.
sldered in the classical formulation. Examples include flange to shell junctions,,
tubesheets, and nozzle penetrations near 1
flanged supports.
DOCUMENTS REVIEW
PREPARE STRUCTURAL
EVALUATION PLAN
DESIGN REVIEW
MODIFY DESIGN WITH OWNER
PERFORM SIMPLIFIED
INELASTIC ANALYSIS
NO
WILL
^DETAILED IN^>
' ELASTIC ANALYSIS"
PASS CODE
.CRITERIA?^
YES
DETAILED INELASTIC
ANALYSIS IOR TESTING)
3. Load Controlled Criteria. The The specific Code Case N-47 load con-
basic feature of a load controlled stress is trolled prinary stresses for the Design,
that, it is necessary to maintain equilibrium Normal, Upset, Emergency, and Faulted Condi-
of the structure under the applied loads. As a tions are summarized in Figure 2. Code Case N-
result, deformations will not relieve load j 47 has two sets of primary stress allowables,
controlled stresses. These load controlled j one for Design Conditions, and the other for
stresses are denoted as "Primary Stresses" in : Operating Conditions. j
Code Case N-47. ,
To account for varying loads at
The time independent primary stresses variable times and temperatures, a linear '
result from loads which have the capacity to . damage use fraction approach is used by the
cause structural failure in a single load Code. The linear damage use fraction is
application. The Code limits the average defined as follows: l
primary (membrane) stress intensity in any
cross-section to the lower of:
Code Case N-47 also defines load con- 1. RCC-HR, French Code for FBR
trolled stress limits based on the duration or Components. The French Code is called RCC-MR,
time of the applied elevated temperature which means "Design and Construction Rules for
loading event. These are denoted as time Mechanical Components of Fast Breeder Reactor
dependent primary stress limits. The introduc- Nuclear Islands" and the first edition was
tion of time dependent Code Case N-47 prinary published in June 1985. It is edited by
stress limits that depend on both the load Association Francaise pour les Regies de
duration and temperature provide important Conception et de Construction des Materials des
design flexibility for the conditions typical Chaudieres Electro-Nucleaires (AFCEN).
of LHFBR service. The Code time dependent
primary stress allowable is denoted as S c . The
S t values are the least of three quantities: /
Figure 2. Code Case N-47 Elevated Temperature
Analysis Flow Diagram
This code is the result of experience RB 3111.2 Immediate Plastic Instability i
gained through design, manufacturing, erection,
and operation of Rhapsodie, Phenix, and Super When, in the previous case, the loading con-
Fhenix. A part of this experience is the large tinues to increase the behavior of the struc-
R&O program on Structural Mechanics launched as ture depends on any variations in its shape and
a part of the French lilFBR program. the strain hardening increase of the yield
strength of the material. These two effects
Most of- the design sections were written rapidly become counteracting and any change in
by a "tripartite committee" including experts shape tends to weaken the structure whereas an
from manufacturers, research organization, and increase in the yield strength of the material
utility. The publication of the first edition tends, on the contrary, to reinforce it. As
has not stopped this work and many additions long as the first effect is dominated by the
and amendments are in preparation. second, the structure is deformed in a stable
manner, when the first becomes dominant,
2. Direct Reference to Modes of deformation is unstable and fracture is not far
Failure. Prevention of failures of various behind if the loading is maintained.
modes is clearly the aid of the design rules.
For components of class 1, modes of failures RB 3111.3 Time-dependent Excessive
are given in RB 3140. For instance, for level Deformation
A criteria_it._is written as follows:
When a structure is subjected to loadings
RB 3141 Level A Criteria maintained for a sufficiently long tine at high
temperatures, deformations evolve with time and
The aim of level A criteria is to protect the can consequently produce excessive deformation.
equipment against the following damages: This type of damage is called a time-dependent :
excessive deformation. ;
Instantaneous or time-dependent excessive
deformation, RB 3111. A Time-dependent Plastic
- Instantaneous or time-dependent plastic Instability
instability,
- Time dependent fracture, Although inducing no immediate damage when
: applied, a loading can, because of creep,
- Elastic or elastoplastic instability,
immediate or time-dependent, induce plastic instability over a certain
Progressive deformation, period of time. This type of damage is called
- Fatigue time-dependent plastic instability.
Types of damage referred to in this chapter by1 In certain conditions, changes in shape prior
the expression "P type damage" are those which to fracture can be snail. Sometimes consid- j
can result from the application to a structure erable reduction in the elongation at the tine•
of a steadily and regularly increasing loading; of rupture means that this phenomenon oust be
or a constant loading. ] taken into account both globally (under Che
effect of external forces) and locally (frac-
RB 3111.1 Immediate Excessive ture before complete release of internal
Deformation stresses).
o Either, after a few cycles, the overall Buckling is said to be strain controlled only
permanent deformation is stable, if the imposed loads, whatever their intensity,
could not on their own produce it. In all
o or, the permanent overall deformation other cases, buckling is said to be load
continues to increase as every loading controlled.
cycle induces additional deformation and
the structure gradually changes from its RB 3113.3 Time-dependent Buckling
original shape. This behavior is called
progressive deformation. At high temperatures, maintained loadings could
cause time-dependent buckling chiefly because
RB 3112.2 Fatigue (Progressive of the evolution of the properties of the
Cranking) material and the shape of the structures with
time (amplification geometrical defects)
When the loading applied to a structure evolves I
with time, in particular in a cyclic fashion, j RB 3114 Fast Fracture
the material is subjected to deformation
variations. These variations, if sufficiently Fast fracture is any fracture which occurs
numerous and if of large amplitude, are capable without being preceded by an applicable global
of causing cracking. The damage here is deformation. Two types of fast fractures are
defined by the appearance of small macroscopic generally considered, one by ductile tearing,
cracks which do not compromise the strength of : the other by fragile or semi-fragile tearing.
the structure with regard to the other types of
damage to be considered. j Ductile tearing is the result of a small volume
of material being subjected to stresses
when the temperature is sufficiently high, ' inducing its fracture through instability
creep deformation occurs during each cycle thus• whereas the rest of the structure still behaves
accelerating the appearance of cracking. { elastically and is consequently liable to
withstand these stresses.
RB 3113 Buckling
VII. FRACTURE MECHANICS
Buckling is a phenomenon which can occur in
structures with an average centerline or A. Introduction
average surface area. It consists of the The assessment of the structural Integrity
development of deformation different from those of systems and components in elevated tempera-
which manifest themselves at low loading I ture service is one of the most important
levels. They can lead to instability as well recommendations with respect to safety and
as considerable levels of deformation or economics for fast breeder reactors. To ,
exaggeration of variations in local deforma- demonstrate the structural integrity, an
tion. extended evaluation is needed considering the
behavior of flaws which are either accepted to
Buckling is not strictly speaking a type of be left in a structure after fabrication or
damage but its appearance generally induces postulated to be left undetected by final
damage such as elastoplastic instability or inspection.
excessive deformation or fatigue. Geometrical
imperfections resulting from acceptable Taking into account the relevant design,
manufacturing tolerances are likely to accel- operating and loading conditions of LMFBR
erate and aggravate buckling. structures, fracture mechanics methods have to
be extended into the elastic-plastic regime.
RB 3113.1 Load Controlled Buckling The objective of fracture mechanics investiga-
j tions is as follows:
Buckling is said to be load controlled when it
is the result of imposed loads which cannot be o Demonstrate that initial defects far above
reduced by the deformations associated witn sizes which can be detected by Nondestruc-
buckling. tive Examination (NDE) will not grow
significantly during the service life of
the structure.
o If significant crack propagation is , o Decide if flaws which are detected during
postulated to occur - applying the speci- fabrication exceeding specified acceptance
fied design load cycles of the service life levels may be tolerated, provided that they
continuously - it should be shown that are not harmful to the structural
cracks will grow through the wall, its integrity.
length remaining stable with respect to
i'racture mechanics stability criteria. Procedures to evaluate the structural
integrity are somewhat different in various
To be successful in the application of countries.
fracture mechanics methods, the following basic
requirements should be fulfilled: C. Industrial Practice in the United
States.
o Structural materials should be selected to The leak before break rationale has been
be high-qualified. Its ductility should accepted as design basis for FBR's. Sodium
remain sufficiently high throughout the ' systems are considered as Moderate Energy Fluid
service life. j Systems (MEFS) according to the U.S.-NRC
Standard Review Plan. This position was
o Design and structural analysis should be I accepted for the Clinch River Breeder Reactor
performed in accordance with existing codes' Plant (CRBRP), stating that no sodium systems
and standards (e.g. ASME-Code, RCC-MR), [ operate with any significant amount of internal
considering the special features and i fluid-stored energy.
operating conditions of FBR's.
A reference through crack length of about
o A comprehensive quality assurance should 100 mm is recommended based upon fatigue crack
exist throughout fabrication and installa- growth calculations and a leakage area of about
tion. 1 cm has been computed by- crack opening con-
siderations. The design basis leakage area has
Based on these requirements, the following been established to be about 10 cm, using a
failure modes should generally be excluded from safety factor of 10. The decision is also
design: based upon a large amount of experimental
investigations together with crack growth
.o Brittle fracture ; calculations.
o Demonstrate the structural integrity in The results show that crack extension over
case of postulated flaws and define design the lifetime of the plants applying the design
basis leakage areas. basis load cycles is not significant.
D. Industrial Practice in European A joint French-German R&D program on ,
Countries fracture mechanics investigations has been
The state-of-the-art reports are under initiated to validate theoretical methods by
preparation dealing with applications of component tests.
fracture mechanics concepts to LMFBR components
below the creep range and within the creep The position In Germany is characterized
range. The major objectives are as follows: by extended fracture mechanics investigations,
which have partially been accepted for SNR-300.
o Review current methods and available The results are being applied-to propose a
theoretical and experimental work on a consistent concept in structural integrity for
world-wide basis. the demonstration plant SNR-2. The principal
elements of the concept are as follows:
o Show how improved fracture mechanics
methods can be of benefit to design o Initial defects can be evaluated (e.g. 1 mn
engineers. depth x 30 mm length) which are far above
indications from nondestructive examination
o Define materials data requirements. during and after fabrication. They will be
shown to grow not significantly during the
The French approach with respect to service life of the plant.
fracture mechanics application can be sum-
marized as follows: o If crack propagation is postulated to
occur - applying the specific design load
Instability analysis: cycles of the service life continuously -
cracks will be shown to grow through the
Critical crack length are evaluated on flow- wall, its length remaining stable with \
stress type criteria since the phenomenon is respect to fracture mechanics stability \
instability controlled rather than toughness criteria. \
controlled. This approach is being validated
under complex stress situations. Comparison is' o To demonstrate that at areas in vhich leak
made with other criteria like J-integral, ! detection is not possible (e.g. internal
tearing modulus concept and the CEGB R6 assess- structures of the pool vessel) the crack
ment procedure. length of through wall cracks remain stable
during the whole service life.
Fatigue analysis: j
Tn the United Kingdom the structural
Fatigue is analyzed using strain intensity integrity for the Commercial Demonstration Fast
factor approach which results from the applica- Reactor (CDFR) is demonstrated using fracture
tion of Green's function to a pseudo-elastic mechanics methods similar to other countries.
stress field related to total applied deforma- Combined experimental and analytical programs
tions. This approach is being validated for are applied to show that tolerable defect sizes
situations where sharp stress gradients exist j are well above the U n i t s of detection by
like at the base of notches. , ,inspection nethods used in both fabrication and
i service. •
Creep analysts: ;
Analytical approaches were applied includ- j"
Presently, the analysis is conducted using net ing the CEGB R6 nethod which has been shown •
section and C* versus crack rate curves. Creep experimentally to fulfill its ain of providing j
crack initiation and propagation has been realistic failure prediction, and the British •
studied recently on type 316 stainless steel. Standard Crack Opening Displacement Curve,
In general the following approach has been which is a conservative nethod with safety
proposed: factors built in.
o Prevention of defects by careful fabrica- , These nethods have been compared with an
tlon and control. inelastic finite element analysis which shows
that the R6 nethod agrees with the inelastic
o Calculation of the extension of undetected ' analysis but with a degree of conservatism.
defects during the service life.
Three point bend specimen tests were
o Demonstration of non-criticality of defects performed on welds and parent naterial to
under seismic loads. obtain fracture aechanics resistance curves.
The analytical methods are also compared with a
o Design of pool internals in such a way that series of wide plate tests to deteraine the
critical cracks will not cause a influence of residual stress on failure initia-
catastrophic failure by fast fracture. tion. The experimental results are in reason-
able agreement with predictions by fracture
mechanics theory. They strongly support the The buckling problems encountered in pool
leak before break concept for the coolant type LMFBRs are more complex than those
boundary. encountered in loop type LMFBRs. The collapse
load calculations in pool type LMFBRs are
VIII. NONLINEAR COLLAPSE complicated by two principal factors: a)
Imperfection sensitivity of the slender
A. Introduction (150 < r/t < 650) pool type reactor vessel and
The radius-to-thickness (r/t) ratios of internals as compared to relatively thick loop
typical pool type LMFBR reactor vessel and type pressure vessels and piping components
internals components range from 150 to 650. (10 < r/t < 5 0 ) , b) thermally induced progres-
The corresponding r/t ratios for loop type sive ratchetting and flow induced vibrations or
LMFBR Structural Components in the primary and fluid structural interaction in very thin
intermediate Heat Transport System (HTS) range structures (r/t > 100). The prediction of
from 10 to 50. The loop type LMFBR structural buckling or collapse load in such complex thin-
components operate in the creep range of walled slender shell structures is further
the material, whereas the pool type LMFBRs complicated by discrepancies between an i
experience temperatures in creep range only idealized response and the actual failure due
during accident conditions. | to postulated accidental overloads. The
discrepancies originate in the analytical
At elevated temperature operation thin- idealizations which are different from the j
walled structural components may collapse (or following realistic variations encountered in j
due to the reduced yield strength of the as-built structures: a) initial (geonetric) I
material and creep deformation at elevated fabrication imperfections, b ) scatter in !
temperature. Thus, failed modes such as material properties at operating temperatures,
plastic and creep collapse and incremental \, c) residual stress introduced during fabrica-
collapse due to plastic or creep ratchetting ' tion, and d) variations in boundary conditions
require verified analysis procedures to assure due to a fabricated connection and interactions
the structural integrity of LMFBR plants for a among different shell structures during
20 to 40 year design life. For simplicity, the operation.
word "collapse" is used here to designate only
the post-buckling stable, gradual instability j In addition to the inaccuracies introduced!
due to the interaction of both material and ; in the calculations of buckling or collapse
geometric nonlinearities; "buckling" is used loads, the evaluation of safety nargins against
generically to identify either gradual or unstable buckling failure is complicated by
catastrophic buckling with or without inelastic interaction between geometrically induced
deformations at incipient geometric critical buckling deformation nodes and
instability. material dependent failure modes such as creep-
fatigue, ratchetting, and plastic instability.
The structural components in LMFBR plants The evaluation of a margin of safety requires
are significantly thinner than those designed investigation of hypothetical behavior rather
for a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) plant. than actual behavior under- postulated normal,
The thickness of PWR pressure vessel and piping, upset, and accident conditions. Buckling is an
components is primarily dictated by the instability phenomenon which sometimes occurs
internal pressure loading. In contrast, LMFBR instantaneously (primarily in the elastic
pressure vessels and piping components operate range) rather than gradually, as in plastic or
at a very low pressure, hence their thickness creep collapse. Consequently, to assure
is not dictated by internal pressure. Predomi- structural integrity with an adequate margin of
nant operating loads on LMFBR components are ' safety during plant operation, it is necessary
due to temperature differentials between j to conservatively evaluate various hypothetical
various portions of the structure. Theoretic- ! combinations and sequences of postulated
ally, it is beneficial to design LMFBR struc- i loadings.
tural components to be as thin as possible, to •
reduce through-the-wall temperature differen- j
B. Recommended Buckling Analysis
tials and the corresponding thermal stresses.
Procedures for Large Pool Type LMFBRs.
However, the relative thinness of LMFBR
In the 1970's, nonlinear general purpose
structures makes them more susceptible to
computer programs were developed to compute the
buckling failure due to compressive seismic
buckling loads of complex structures in
loads. Thus, the wall thickness of LMFBR
pressure vessels is in some cases dictated by inelastic (plastic and creep) regime. However,
the buckling limits specified in the French detailed nonlinear collapse analysis of complex
Construction Code RCC-MR and the U.S. ASME pool type LMFBR structures subjected to dynamic
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. In very thin loading is expensive and tine consuming. The
LMFBR components (r/t > 100), thermally induced calendar time required for detailed analysis
ratchetting, fluid structural interaction and aakes it impractical for use in routine design
flow induced vibrations complicate calculations of structural components. Simplified methods
of collapse load. are needed, especially in the preliminary
stages of design, for scoping the effects of These LMFBR structures experience elevated
design parameters and assessing alternate temperatures well above the creep range of the
design configurations. component material either during accident
conditions or during normal operation. The I
A simplified method is included in the relative thinness of LMFBR structures is mainly '
French Construction Code RCC-MR. The method . due to the small thickness required to contain
requires calculations of classical elastic low normal operating pressures, which are less
bifurcation buckling load \e and the load A y at than 1.4 MPa for loop-type primary heat
:
which a highly stressed location in a structure1 transport system pressure vesssal and piping
experiences plastic deformations. Design system components, or hydrostatic pressures in
charts are provided to calculate the buckling both loop- and pool-type reactor vessels. Thin
load of real structures with a range of initial components are preferable not only for effi-
imperfections and material modifications cient and economical use of material, but also
introduced during fabrication. The method has to reduce secondary stresses in structures due •
been validated by comparing the simplified to severe thermal transients and temperature
predictions to the experimentally observed fluctuations encountered in LMFBRs.
collapse load of scaled models.
Structural design for elevated temperature
IX. CURRENT ISSUES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN service is not a new concept as demonstrated by
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE DESIGN successful and reliable operation of petro-
chemical structures designed to Section VIII oft
A. Key Technological Issues the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. !
During the past ten years, the high Also, very thin-walled shell structures
temperature technology development has been j (200 r/t 2000) have been successfully designed
extensive, and the basic structural criteria ' for aerospace structures in the past. What is
and procedures adopted in the design of LMFBR ; different about the LMFBR structures is the j
components have generally been accepted as \ combination of geometry, loadings, environment,}
adequate during the licensing review process. • and stringent design criteria, which present
new challenges not encountered in conventional .
Based upon the international design nuclear and non-nuclear power and petrochemical
experience, key structural technological issues plants or aerospace structures. Fornalized and
nay be divided Into the following three focused structural development programs in
categories: various countries were pursued to support
design of large-scale LMFBRs. Direct technol-
o Stable and Defensible Design Methods. ;
ogy transfer frcn other Industrial practices
Three areas identified are weldments, was not feasible due to the following design
flawed components and validation of considerations unique to LMFBRs:
inelastic analysis methodology.
1. Design for long-life operation (200,000 to ,
o Improved Guidelines and Procedures for 300,000 hours) sometimes at elevated
Design Application. Both the U.S. perspec- temperature w'.ihout continuous access to j
tive and the European concerns are physical inspection, repair, or replacement
described in detail. j of structural components.
o Cost reduction of future LMFBR's. Four ' 2. Protection of public health and safety
areas are identified and discussed. These i during accident conditions.
include:
3. Assurance of structural integrity during
1. Simplified Analysis Procedures. seisnic and other plant related postulated
excursion events.
2. Application of Advanced Materials.
4. Consideration of dynaaic response charac-
3. Buckling Rules. teristics during fluid structural interac-
tion.
4. Design Criteria for Non-Safety-
Related LMFBR Components. 5. Consideration of material and geoaetric
nonlinearities with excessive deformations
X. SUMMARY and loss of function of critical
components.
When compared to conventional nuclear
power plants, LMFBR primary structures can be 6. Inclusion of naterial property variations
characterized as relatively thin-walled shell during plant operation due to LMFBR
structures (radius-to-thickness ratio ranging specific environment and loading.
from 20 to 500), which contain liquid metal
radioactive coolant as a heat transfer medium.
Although there are some differences in Mr. B. C. Ezra
operating conditions among LMFBRs currently Foster Wheeler Energy Corporation
operating in various nations, the overall USA
similarity of the above mentioned design
considerations have resulted in the selection Dr. I. W. Goodall
of generally similar materials of construction: Central Electricity Generating Board
stainless steel for primary and intermediate Great Britain
heat transport systems and chrome alloys for
secondary systems. Dr. R. L. Roche
i Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique
Similarities among structural design and France
development programs pursued by various nations
also confirm the commonality of purpose and Dr. H. Zeibig
Technische Beratung
consensus on the technology development needs '
Federal Republic of Germany
over the past years. This consensus, although
independently reached, has been fostered by
formal and informal exchanges and contacts j
between various national programs and among
individual participants. However, the design
practice in various countries may differ In the
emphasis placed upon design criteria to
preclude anticipated failure modes, analysis
approach used in ensuring structural integrity
for long-term safe operation, and priority
assigned to resolve structural design problems
through additional testing and detailed
numerical analysis.
Similarities in LMFBR primary beat transp-
ort system material selection and operating
conditions facilitate documentation of current
design practices. Therefore, much of the
report is written from the U.S. viewpoint,
which is consistent with international design
practice. Significant differences in design
practices due to emphasis on loop-or pool-type
LMFBRs are appropriately addressed in the
report. It should be recognized that technical
opinions expressed in the report. It should be
:
recognized that technical opinions
expressed in the report are those of individual
authors based upon individual perception and ,
emphasis. Significant differences may well :
exist among different national practices and '
the recommendations in the report are not to be
construed as universally accepted design
practices for LMFBRs.
XI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS r
The authors wish to express their
gratitude to the Pressure Vessel Research
Council (PVRC) for the permission to publish
this overview. Also, thanks are due to the
following members of the PVRC Task Group on
Recommended Practices who contributed writings
of individual chapters of the complete task.
Mr. A. Angerbaur
Interaton
Federal Republic of Germany