Water

1. Water acts as a solvent in which metabolic reaction(the chemical reaction that takes
place in a living organism ) occurs.
2. Water provides a means of transporting molecules and ions from one place to another
because many of them can dissolve in them

STRUCTURE OF WATER

The water molecule is made up of two hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one oxygen atom.
the bonds are single covalent in which the single electron on each hydrogen atom is shared with
the six electrons on the oxygen atom on its outer shell leaving four electrons organized to form
two nonbonding pair. These bond are very strong.

The positively charged hydrogen atom in one molecule is attracted to the negatively charged
oxygen atom in other molecules. This attraction is called Hydrogen bonds (they are weak,
long-distance bonds).

Properties of Water

ice, water, and water vapor

Ice is less dense than liquid water because the orientation of hydrogen bonds causes
molecules to push farther apart,

Because ice float on liquid water is important to aquatic life - when the temperature
decrease water freezes on the surface of the water, forming a layer of ice with liquid
water underneath ...this occurs because the maximum density of water occurs at 4
degrees. When water becomes colder than 4 degrees, it becomes less dense than the
warmer water below it and so it stays on the surface where it forms ice
The layer of ice insulates the water below it from further temperature change

Water has high Specific Heat Capacity and vapouristion

Both are due to the energy requirement to break hydrogen bonds

Specific heat is the amount of energy absorbed or lost from a substance to change its
temperature by 1 degree
This property ensures slow heating of water and maintains a constant
temperature of living organism and environment

VAPORIZATION
The heat required to convert 1 gram of water to gas.
This property:
1. Cause cooling effect in leaves
2. Remove heat by sweating
3. Prevent an organism from thermal shock

Water as a solvent
Water is an excellent solvent.
Water is able to dissolve solute because it has tiny charges on them causing them to
attract other molecules and ion.the molecule tends to spread around in between the
water molecules, this called dissolving.

COHESION AND SURFACE TENSIONS

Water tends to stick together by hydrogen bonds that form between them.
The attractive force produced by the hydrogen bonds is called COHESION
COHESION: This allows a large amount of water to flow in one direction without
breaking.This is important in the flow of blood in animals and the flow of water in
the xylem vessels of plants. This also helps in the formation of waves.

SURFACE TENSION:This forms a strong layer on the surface of the water so that small
organism is able to walk without difficulties.

REACTIVITY
Water takes part in the metabolic reaction such as hydrolysis where it breaks down
large molecules into smaller ones.
Water is also used in PHOTOSYNTHESIS where it provides hydrogen ions to combine
with the carbon dioxide to form sugar.
CARBOHYDRATE
These are substances in which its molecules are made up of sugar units.
It has the formulae CnH2nOn. carbohydrate s includes sugars cellulose and starch.
Sugars are always soluble in water and taste sweet.
Starches and cellulose are polysaccharides and are insoluble in water and do not taste
sweet.

Monosachaccarides
A carbohydrate molecule that contains one sugar unit is called monosaccharides.it has
the general formulae (CH2O)n. It is the simplest form of sugar.
They can be classified according to the number of carbon atoms in each molecule.
Trioses have 3C,Pentoses have 5C and hexoses have 6C.

There are two types of glucose: ALPHA AND BETA

The only difference is the arrangement of the OH and H group on the carbon 1
The alpha position is the -OH IS ON THE OPPOSITE SIDE OF THE RING FROM
CARBON 6
BETA POSITION IS DEFINED AS THE -OH BEING ON THE SAME SIDE ON THE
RING AS THE CARBON 6

DISACCHARIDES
This is formed when two monosaccharide molecules are linked together
For example, two alpha glucose can react together to form maltose.This is a
condensation reaction where water molecules are removed. The linkage between the
two monosaccahrides is called a glycosidic bond.which involves covalent bonds that are
very strong. We can describe the linkage as alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds.
When carbohydrates are digested, glycosidic bonds are broken down by carbohydrase
enzymes . so the enzymes that break down maltose is maltase this is called
HYDROLYSIS.

FORMATION OF SUCROSE
Made by alpha glucose and beta fructose at 1-2 glycosidic bonds.the enzyme sucrase
hydrolyses the sucrose into glucose and fructose. The fructose rearranged its structure
to form glucose. So for every sucrose molecule, two glucose molecule is produced to
aid in respiration.

REDUCING AND NON REDUCING SUGAR

To test to see if a solution contains sugar you can use the benedicts reagents.
Benedicts soluions consist of CUSO4 in alkaline solution.it is blue.when heated with
some sugar,the cu2+ is reduced to cu+ ions.they form a insoluble copper oxide which is
a brick red precipitate.

Glucose fructose and maltose, give positive change therfore they are reducing sugar

Sucrose
POLYSACCHARIDES