TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement ………………………………….2
Introduction ………………………………...............3
Ecosystems as Dynamic Systems ………………….4-7
The Concept of Biodiversity ……………………….7-9
The Importance of maintaining Biodiversity ……....10-11
Species diversity and the stability of an ecosystem...12-13
How In Situ and Ex Situ conservation methods are
Used in maintaining biodiversity ………………….14

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Mrs.

K. Smith who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project on the topic Ecological Systems, biodiversity and
conservations, which helped me in doing a lot of Research and we
(my group members and I) came to know so much new information,
and for that we are eternally grateful.
Secondly I would also like to thank my group members and friends
who helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time
frame. This project could not have come to fruition without the
contributions made by Rian McKenzie, Shadean Millen, Petrelia
Thompson and Tahjae Gordon.

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 INTRODUCTION

This project is will discuss ecological systems and how biodiverse and
conservative it is. An ecosystem is a relatively self-contained system including
all the living organisms and the environment, interacting with each other. The
word ‘interacting’ is very important. An ecosystem is dynamic – changes are
happening in it all the time, as interactions take place. Energy constantly flows
through it, from one organism to another and between organisms and the non-
living environment. Materials, too, pass between the environment and the
organisms, and between the different organisms in the ecosystem. In this
project, it will look at further examples of interactions within ecosystems, which
explain why ecosystems are so dynamic. Also the concept of biodiversity will
be explained and why it is important to maintain it. Species diversity will be
explained and how it is related to ecosystem stability. In situ and ex situ
conservation method will also be explained in the use of maintaining
biodiversity.

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 ECOSYSTEMS AS A DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

An ecosystem is described as a relatively self-contained system including all

living organism and the environment, interacting with each other, resulting in an
all-time change causing it to be a dynamic ecosystem. The interacting
organisms within a dynamic ecosystem can be affected by other component of
the ecosystem. There are biotic factors and abiotic factors.

BIOTIC FACTORS

These are any factor that results from the activities of another organism of the
same or different species

Example of biotic factors are:

 Predation
 Mutualism
 Competition
 Commensalism
 Parasitism

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 BIOTIC FACTORS & THEIR INTERACTION

Predation
In predation, one organism kills and consumes another. Predation provides
energy to prolong the life and promote the reproduction of the organism that
does the killing, the predator, to the detriment of the organism being consumed,
the prey. Predation influences organisms at two ecological levels. At the level of
the individual, the prey organism has an abrupt decline in fitness, as measured
by its lifetime reproductive success, because it will never reproduce again. At
the level of the community, predation reduces the number of individuals in the
prey population.

The best-known examples of predation involve carnivorous interactions

Predation influences the fitness of both predators and prey. Individuals must
both feed and avoid being eaten to survive and reproduce. Predators exhibit
traits such as sharp teeth, claws, and venom that enhance their ability to catch
food. They also possess extremely acute sensory organs that help them to find
potential prey.

In a similar manner, prey species exhibit traits that help them avoid detection or
capture. Many, such as leaf insects, moths, a variety of frogs and small lizards,
and herbivorous mammals, are cryptically coloured to make them more difficult
to see. Behaviourally, they freeze after detecting the presence of a predator. This
lack of movement helps them better blend in with their background and inhibits
the ability of the predator to find them. But when predators venture too close,
prey will take flight, running or flying to escape.

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Mutualism

This is where, two species have a long-term interaction that is beneficial to both
of them. One example of a mutualistic relationship is that of the oxpecker (a
kind of bird) and the rhinoceros or zebra. Oxpeckers land on rhinos or zebras
and eat ticks and other parasites that live on their skin. The oxpeckers get food
and the beasts get pest control. Organisms in a mutualistic relationship evolved
together.

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Commensalism

This is where two species have a long-term interaction that is beneficial to one
and has no positive or negative effect on the other. For instance, many of the
bacteria that inhabit our bodies seem to have a commensal relationship with us.
They benefit by getting shelter and nutrients and have no obvious helpful or
harmful effect on us.

Parasitism

Parasitism describes a relationship between two organisms where one benefits,

and the other is harmed. The parasite is the organism that benefits from the
relationship, while the host is harmed by the relationship. Parasites can be a
number of things including plants, animals and even viruses and bacteria.

Competition

Competition is an interaction between organisms or species in which both the

organisms and species are harmed. There is competition with other species for
resources, such as space, water, energy, and nutrients. If two species have

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identical niche requirements, the competition between them will be intense.
This rarely means that they will fight each other, but the less successful species
will starve or not find anywhere to reproduce. This means that each niche within
an ecosystem is occupied by one species; other competing species find
themselves excluded.

ABIOTIC FACTORS AND THEIR INTERACTION

Abiotic factors are any aspect of the physical or chemical environment

of a species.

These include:

 Temperature, which affects the metabolic reaction in both endothermic

and ectothermic organisms

 Oxygen concentration, which affects organism that respire aerobically

 Light intensity, which affects the rate of photosynthesis in plant and

behaviour in animals
 Carbon dioxide, which affect photosynthesising plants and algae
 Water supply, affecting all terrestrial organism.

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 BIODIVERSITY

What is biodiversity?

Biodiversity is the variety of species on earth or the number of different

individual and life-form in an area Biodiversity can, however be viewed at
much smaller and larger scales.

Biodiversity can be measured by either genetic, species or ecosystem level.

Genetic diversity

Genetic diversity refers to the differences in the genetic make-up of a distinct

species and to the genetic variations within a single species. It concerns DNA
(or RNA in some viruses) sequences. Humans, for example, have different eye
and skin colours, hair textures, propensity for disease, reactions to pollutants,
heights, hormone levels and so on. We are the same species but have genetic
variations which make us diverse. This means that if one individual dies when
stung by a bee, others will not and are able to carry on to ensure the success of
the species. Plants of the same species can diversify to be able to live in
alternative habitats. Mangrove trees (a diverse group of around eighty different
species) have diversified to successfully survive and reproduce in salt water.
This change was due to genetic mutations which allowed them to move from
aquatic into marine ecosystems, and so increase the biodiversity of a different
region and ensure the survival of the species. As with humans, genetic diversity
in other organisms can affect any aspect of that organism’s make up. From size
to colour, to diet, to function, and everything in between.

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Genetic diversity of corn kernel colours

Species diversity

If we count the number of species of all animals, plants and fungi in a

community, the total number of species can be large. For example, the number
of animal species (this includes insects, of course) in a tropical rainforest
community can be in the high hundreds. This will also be the case for plants and
fungi. In habitats further away from the tropics, in general, there is less species
diversity, but in all regions of the world there are ‘hotspots’ for diversity. With
hundreds of species in any one community, it is perhaps not surprising that
much work on species diversity concentrates on a particular category of species
within a community.

Ecosystem diversity

The major habitat types from which all other smaller ecosystems derive are
called terrestrial, marine and aquatic ecosystems. These three examples
of ecosystem diversity. However small or large a particular area of the planet,
the number of ecosystems that can be found within it define its ecosystem

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diversity. Deserts are, on the whole, the least diverse terrestrial ecosystem but
may be split into sand, rock, bush and even oasis with its own group of mini-
ecosystems (aquatic, date palm, a small area of wetland at the water’s edge).
Tropical rainforests are the most diverse of the terrestrial ecosystems, but many
of these are biodiversity hotspots. This means that an ecosystem must contain at
least 1,500 species of plants found nowhere else on earth (endemic” species) but
have also lost at least 70% of its primary native vegetation. Unfortunately, there
are over 36 biodiversity hotspots at this moment in time, some of which have
undergone up to 95% of native vegetation loss. There is an overwhelming need
for conservation in the modern world. Within these diverse ecosystems, one
must also consider trophic levels, how species interact with that specific
ecosystem, climate, pollution or human impact and every other variable that is
part of that particular habitat.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter

how small, all have an important role to play.

For example,

 A larger number of plant species means a greater variety of crops

 Greater species diversity ensures natural sustainability for all life forms
 Healthy ecosystems can better withstand and recover from a variety of
disasters.

 Genetic diversity helps to prevent the chances of extinction in the wild.

Medicine

Loss of biodiversity may have reverberating consequences on ecosystems

because of the complex interrelations among species. For example, the
extinction of one species may cause the extinction of another. Biodiversity is
important to the survival and welfare of human populations because it has
impacts on our health and our ability to feed ourselves through agriculture and
harvesting populations of wild animals. Humans depend on the services
ecosystems provide, such as fresh water, pollination, soil fertility and stability,
food and medicine. Ecosystems weakened by the loss of biodiversity are less
likely to deliver those services, especially given the ever-growing human
population.

Many medications are derived from natural chemicals made by a diverse group
of organisms. For example, many plants produce compounds meant to protect
the plant from insects and other animals that eat them. Some of these

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compounds also work as human medicines. Contemporary societies that live
close to the land often have a broad knowledge of the medicinal uses of plants
growing in their area. For centuries in Europe, older knowledge about the
medical uses of plants was compiled in herbals—books that identified the plants
and their uses. Humans are not the only animals to use plants for medicinal
reasons. The other great apes, orang-utans, chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas
have all been observed self-medicating with plants.

Modern pharmaceutical science also recognizes the importance of these plant

compounds. Examples of significant medicines derived from plant compounds
include aspirin, codeine, digoxin, atropine, and vincristine. Many medications
were once derived from plant extracts. It is estimated that, at one time, 25
percent of modern drugs contained at least one plant extract. Antibiotics, which
are responsible for extraordinary improvements in health and lifespans in
developed countries, are compounds largely derived from fungi and bacteria.

Catharanthus roseus, the Madagascar periwinkle, has various medicinal

properties. Among other uses, it is a source of vincristine, a drug used in the
treatment of lymphomas.

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Tourism

Biodiversity is vital for tourism. Coasts, mountains, rivers and forests are major
attractions for tourists around the world. Tourism in the Caribbean,
Mediterranean and much of Southeast Asia depends strongly on the recreational
opportunities provided by their coastal environments. In southern and eastern
Africa, tourism based on wildlife safaris is a dominant attraction and source of
income for the tourism sector. Wildlife and landscapes are important attractions
for tourism in mountain areas. All tourism – even in city centres – relies on
natural resources for supplies of food, clean water and other ‘ecosystem
services’ that ultimately depend on biodiversity. For most other types of
tourism, biodiversity contributes significantly to the attractiveness and quality
of destinations, and therefore to their competitiveness: for example, coastal
water quality and natural vegetation are both ecosystem services that contribute
to destination attractiveness. And biodiversity is a direct attraction at the heart
of nature-based tourism products – such as wildlife watching, scuba diving or
tourism in protected areas.

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HOW IS SPECIES DIVERSITY RELATED TO THE
STABILITY OF ECOSYSTEMS?
The diversity-stability hypothesis states that ecosystems with greater species
diversity are more stable. Increased alpha diversity (the number of species
present) generally leads to greater stability, meaning an ecosystem that has a
greater number of species is more likely to withstand a disturbance than an
ecosystem of the same size with a lower number of species.

Stability is defined as the quality of maintaining a constant character in the

presence of forces that threaten to disturb it. It is the resistance to change.
Diversity refers to the number and variety of species present in an area and their
spatial distribution.

Different species do better under different conditions. As the number of species

increases, the range of conditions that at least some species do well in also
increases.

Averaging Effect

Stability is measured as variability relative to community abundance. The

greater the species diversity, the greater will be the stability of the ecosystem.
The fact that each organism at each trophic level will have alternative food
sources to choose from contained in the food web leads to the unreliability on
only one food source. Species-rich communities are able to recover faster from
disturbances than species-poor communities.

The relationship between species diversity and community stability highlights

the need to maintain the greatest richness possible within biological
communities.

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Factors affecting Species diversity

There are many factors which affect species richness. Some of them are external
or abiotic while others are internal or biotic coming from within the community.
ABIOTIC FACTORS
 Size of habitat
The size of the habitat affects the number of species which can live in it. For
e.g., a large forest can support more species than a rockpool of a few meters.

 Spatial patchiness
The spatial patchiness allows organisms with different requirements to live
together. A rock pool with crevices, a sandy floor and stones provide more
microhabitats than a smooth walled rock bottomed pool.
 Harshness of Habitat
The harshness of habitat affects the number of species that are able to survive in
the community. For e.g., rock pool which is frequently scoured by storms has
low species diversity.
 Predictability of change in the habitat
If the changes in a habitat are cyclic, then different species can use the same
habitat at different times in the cycle. For e.g. in oak woods, during winter, light
demanding species dominate the ground flora which are replaced by shade
tolerant species as spring progresses.
 Disturbances in a habitat
Occasional severe or frequent low level disturbances affect population size. For
e.g. In a rock pool a heavy winter storm removes algae from the rocks, this
allows other species to colonize the bare space.

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HOW IN-SITU AND EX-SITU CONSERVATION METHODS ARE USED
TO MAINTAIN BIODIVERSITY

In-situ conservation methods

In-situ conservation, the conservation of species in their natural habitats, is

considered the most appropriate way of conserving biodiversity.

Conserving the areas where populations of species exist naturally is an

underlying condition for the conservation of biodiversity. That is why protected
areas form a central element of any national strategy to conserve biodiversity.

Ex-situ conservation methods

Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity

outside their natural habitats. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as
well as wild and cultivated or species, and draws on a diverse body of
techniques and facilities. Some of these include:

 Gene banks, e.g. seed banks, sperm banks and ova banks, field banks;
 In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture collections;
 Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of plants, with
possible reintroduction into the wild; and
 Collecting living organisms for zoos, aquaria, and botanical gardens for
research and public awareness.

Ex-situ conservation measures can be complementary to in-situ methods as they

provide an “insurance policy” against extinction. These measures also have a
valuable role to play in recovery programmes for endangered species.

In agriculture, ex-situ conservation measures maintain domesticated plants

which cannot survive in nature unaided.

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